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MICROBIOLOGY -HONOURS 2023 Paper: CC-14 (Medical Microbiology) Full Marks : 50 CC-14

2024-06-21T19:12:00.003+05:30

MICROBIOLOGY -HONOURS

Paper: CC-14 (Medical Microbiology)

Full Marks : 50

CC-14

1 Question

(a) Why are some parts of the respiratory tract difficult to colonize by bacteria?

(a) Some parts of the respiratory tract are challenging for bacteria to colonize due to several reasons. The upper respiratory tract, including the nasal passages and throat, has mechanisms like mucociliary clearance, which helps trap and remove bacteria. Additionally, the respiratory tract has a lining of mucus and antimicrobial substances that can inhibit bacterial growth. Moreover, the presence of immune cells like macrophages and antibodies helps to defend against bacterial invasion, making it difficult for bacteria to establish colonies in these areas.

b) What is the cause of dental caries? Name the causative agent?

(b) Dental caries, commonly known as tooth decay, is primarily caused by the interaction of bacteria with sugars from the diet, leading to the production of acids that demineralize the tooth enamel. The primary causative agent of dental caries is Streptococcus mutans, a bacteria commonly found in the oral cavity. When sugars are consumed, S. mutans metabolizes them, producing acids that erode the tooth enamel, eventually leading to cavities if left untreated.

c) What are anti-microbial peptides?

(c) Antimicrobial peptides are small proteins produced by various cells in the body, including immune cells and epithelial cells. These peptides play a crucial role in the innate immune system's defense against pathogens. Antimicrobial peptides have broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, meaning they can target a wide range of bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They disrupt microbial cell membranes, leading to cell death and helping to control infections.

(d) Mention how do enveloped and non-enveloped human viruses adhere to the host cell membrane receptors.

(d) When it comes to how enveloped and non-enveloped human viruses adhere to host cell membrane receptors, there are differences in their mechanisms. Enveloped viruses, like the influenza virus, typically use viral envelope proteins to bind to specific receptors on the host cell membrane. These envelope proteins facilitate the fusion of the viral envelope with the host cell membrane, allowing the virus to enter the cell.

On the other hand, non-enveloped viruses, such as the adenovirus, often use specific proteins on their capsid (outer shell) to interact with receptors on the host cell surface. This interaction can trigger processes that lead to the entry of the virus into the host cell, usually through endocytosis.

e) How antibiotic resistance is related to the normal microflora of our body? Differentiate between pathogenicity and virulence.

(e) antibiotic resistance and our body's normal microflora. Antibiotic resistance can develop in normal microflora when antibiotics are used inappropriately or excessively. When antibiotics are taken, they not only target harmful bacteria but can also affect the beneficial bacteria in our normal microflora. This disruption can create an environment where antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria within the normal microflora can thrive, leading to potential infections that are challenging to treat.

Pathogenicity and virulence are related but have distinct meanings. Pathogenicity refers to the ability of a microorganism to cause disease in a host, while virulence specifically describes the severity or harmfulness of the disease caused by the microorganism. In simpler terms, pathogenicity is the capacity to cause disease, while virulence is the degree of harm caused by the disease.

f) Describe Widal test?

(f) The Widal test is a diagnostic test used to detect specific antibodies in the blood of individuals infected with certain types of bacteria that cause typhoid fever or other enteric fevers. It helps in the diagnosis of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers caused by Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi, respectively.

During the Widal test, the patient's blood serum is mixed with a solution containing antigens derived from the Salmonella bacteria. If the patient has been exposed to these bacteria and has developed specific antibodies against them, a visible reaction will occur, indicating a positive result for the presence of these antibodies.

The test measures the levels of antibodies, including anti-O and anti-H antibodies, which are specific to the Salmonella bacteria. The results are interpreted based on the levels of these antibodies present in the patient's blood serum. The Widal test is an essential tool in diagnosing and monitoring typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, especially in regions where these diseases are prevalent. It is crucial to interpret the results accurately and in conjunction with other clinical findings to ensure an accurate diagnosis.

h) How docs bacterial LPS contribute to pathogenicity?

(h) Bacterial LPS (lipopolysaccharides) contributes to pathogenicity by acting as an endotoxin. When bacteria containing LPS are destroyed or shed, the LPS can trigger a strong immune response in the host, leading to inflammation and potentially harmful effects. LPS can activate the immune system, causing the release of inflammatory mediators that can lead to symptoms of infection and contribute to the virulence of the bacteria.

i) Distinguish between Sabin and Salk Polio Vaccine.

(i) The Sabin and Salk polio vaccines are both used to prevent polio, but they differ in their composition and administration. The Sabin vaccine is an oral polio vaccine that contains weakened (attenuated) live poliovirus strains and is administered orally. In contrast, the Salk vaccine is an inactivated polio vaccine that contains killed poliovirus strains and is administered via injection.

j) Define an opportunistic pathogen. Give one example.

(j) An opportunistic pathogen is a microorganism that normally does not cause disease in healthy individuals but can become pathogenic under certain conditions, such as a weakened immune system or changes in the host's environment. An example of an opportunistic pathogen is Pneumocystis jirovecii, which can cause pneumonia in individuals with compromised immune systems.

k) Which part of the human body can be affected by Candida infection?

(k) Candida infections can affect various parts of the human body, with the most common being mucous membranes and moist areas such as the mouth (oral thrush), skin, and genital areas (vaginal yeast infections). Candida can also cause systemic infections in immunocompromised individuals.

l) Write down two examples of normal flora found in urogenital tract.

(l) Two examples of normal flora found in the urogenital tract are:

1. Lactobacillus species: These bacteria are commonly found in the vagina and help maintain a healthy acidic environment, preventing the overgrowth of harmful microorganisms.

2. Escherichia coli: While some strains of E. coli can be pathogenic, certain strains are part of the normal flora in the urogenital tract and play a role in maintaining the microbial balance in the gut and urinary tract.

m) Name the pathogen responsible for causing Chikungunia.

m) The pathogen responsible for causing Chikungunya is the Chikungunya virus, which is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected Aedes mosquitoes.

n) Why antibiotics have no effect on viruses?

(n) Antibiotics have no effect on viruses because antibiotics specifically target bacterial cells' structures or processes that are different from those of viruses. Viruses are not considered living organisms; they are essentially genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat. Since viruses replicate inside host cells using the host's cellular machinery, antibiotics, which target bacterial cell structures like cell walls or protein synthesis, are ineffective against viruses.

o) Why does poliomyelitis virus attack motor neurons but not sensory neurons?

(o) The poliomyelitis virus attacks motor neurons but not sensory neurons because the virus has a preference for certain types of cells. In the case of poliovirus, it has a tropism (affinity) for motor neurons in the spinal cord. When the virus infects motor neurons, it disrupts the signals sent from the brain to the muscles, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis. Sensory neurons, which transmit sensory information like touch and pain, are not the primary target of the poliovirus, explaining why it mainly affects motor function.

2. Question

(a) How does the influenza virus cause the symptoms associated with flu?

(a) The influenza virus causes the symptoms associated with flu by infecting the respiratory tract, specifically the nose, throat, and sometimes the lungs. The virus enters the body through the respiratory route, usually via droplets from coughs or sneezes of an infected person. Once inside the body, the virus replicates rapidly, leading to inflammation and damage to the respiratory epithelium. This process triggers the body's immune response, resulting in symptoms such as fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, fatigue, and sometimes respiratory issues. (b) What are the main routes of transmission of poliovirus? What are the symptoms?

(b) The main routes of transmission of the poliovirus are through the fecal-oral route and respiratory droplets. The symptoms of poliovirus infection can vary from asymptomatic or mild flu-like symptoms to more severe cases where the virus attacks the nervous system, leading to paralysis, particularly in the legs.

(c) Japanese Encephalitis is caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), which is transmitted through mosquito bites, particularly the Culex species. Symptoms of Japanese Encephalitis include fever, headache, neck stiffness, stupor, disorientation, coma, tremors, and paralysis. Treatment for Japanese Encephalitis mainly involves supportive care to manage symptoms. There is also a vaccine available for Japanese Encephalitis, which is recommended for travellers to areas where the disease is endemic.

3. Question

(a) Treatment of fungal infections generally has been less successful than the bacteria Why?

(a) Treatment of fungal infections generally has been less successful than bacterial infections because fungi are eukaryotic organisms like humans, making it challenging to find antifungal drugs that target the fungi without harming human cells. This similarity in cellular structure makes it harder to develop medications that specifically target fungal cells without causing significant side effects in the patient.

(b) Name two antifungal drugs.

(b) Two antifungal drugs are Fluconazole and Amphotericin B.

(c) The mechanism of action of Amantadine involves blocking the action of the M2 protein of the influenza A virus. By inhibiting this protein, Amantadine prevents the virus from uncoating and releasing its genetic material into the host cell, thereby stopping viral replication.

(d) What is meant by oral thrush infection?

(d) Oral thrush infection, also known as oral candidiasis, is a fungal infection caused by the overgrowth of Candida yeast in the mouth and throat. It appears as white patches on the tongue, inner cheeks, roof of the mouth, and sometimes the throat. Oral thrush is common in infants, older adults, and individuals with weakened immune systems. Treatment usually involves antifungal medications in the form of oral rinses or lozenges to eliminate the fungal infection.

4. Question

(a) Compare and contrast between amoebic dysentery and giardiasis.

(a) Amoebic dysentery and giardiasis are both gastrointestinal infections caused by different organisms and exhibit some differences:

- Amoebic dysentery is caused by the parasite Entamoeba histolytica, while giardiasis is caused by the parasite Giardia lamblia.

- Symptoms of amoebic dysentery include bloody diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever, whereas giardiasis typically presents with diarrhea, gas, greasy stools, and abdominal cramps.

- Both infections are transmitted through contaminated food or water, but amoebic dysentery can also be transmitted through direct contact with feces.

- Treatment for amoebic dysentery usually involves medications like metronidazole, while giardiasis can be treated with drugs like metronidazole or tinidazole.

(b) Discuss the mechanism of resistance for the following antibiotics :

(i) Penicillin

(ii) Streptomycin.

(b) The mechanisms of resistance for Penicillin and Streptomycin are as follows:

(i) Penicillin: Bacteria can develop resistance to penicillin through several mechanisms, with the most common being the production of beta-lactamase enzymes. These enzymes inactivate penicillin by breaking down its beta-lactam ring structure, rendering the antibiotic ineffective. Bacteria can also develop resistance by modifying the target site of penicillin, such as penicillin-binding proteins, making it harder for the antibiotic to bind and inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis.

(ii) Streptomycin: Resistance to streptomycin can occur through different mechanisms, including the modification of the bacterial ribosomal target site. Bacteria can alter the ribosomal binding site for streptomycin, reducing the antibiotic's ability to bind and inhibit protein synthesis. Additionally, some bacteria can produce enzymes that modify streptomycin, rendering it inactive. Resistance can also develop through decreased uptake of the antibiotic into the bacterial cell or increased efflux of the drug out of the cell, reducing its concentration and effectiveness.

5. Question 5

(a) Name two antibacterial drugs of each of the following :

(i) Cell wall synthesis inhibition.

(ii) Protein synthesis inhibition.

(iii) Nucleic acid synthesis inhibition.

(iv) Inhibitor of Metabolism.

a) Here are two antibacterial drugs for each of the following mechanisms of action:

(i) Cell wall synthesis inhibition:

1. Penicillin

2. Vancomycin

(ii) Protein synthesis inhibition:

1. Erythromycin

2. Tetracycline

(iii) Nucleic acid synthesis inhibition:

1. Ciprofloxacin

2. Rifampin

(iv) Inhibitor of Metabolism:

1. Trimethoprim

2. Sulfamethoxazole

(b) Write down the symptoms and prophylaxis of Kala-azar.

(b.) Kala-azar, also known as visceral leishmaniasis, is a serious parasitic disease caused by the protozoan parasite Leishmania donovani. The symptoms of Kala-azar include prolonged fever, weight loss, fatigue, anemia, and enlargement of the spleen and liver, which can lead to a potbelly appearance.

Prophylaxis for Kala-azar involves preventive measures to reduce the risk of infection, such as:

1. Avoiding travel to areas where Kala-azar is endemic.

2. Using insect repellents and wearing protective clothing to prevent sandfly bites.

3. Sleeping under insecticide-treated bed nets.

4. Early diagnosis and treatment of cases to prevent the spread of the disease within communities.

6. Question

(a) State the mode of action of:

(i) Quinolone

(ii) Streptomycin.

(b) How docs Hepatitis A and 8 virus differ from each other?

(a) Here are the modes of action of the antibiotics you mentioned:

(i) Quinolone: Quinolones act by inhibiting the enzymes DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, which are essential for bacterial DNA replication and repair. By interfering with these enzymes, quinolones prevent DNA synthesis and ultimately lead to bacterial cell death.

(ii) Streptomycin: Streptomycin works by binding to the bacterial ribosome and inhibiting protein synthesis. It specifically targets the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, disrupting the translation process and causing the production of faulty proteins, which leads to bacterial cell death.

(b) Hepatitis A virus (HAV) and Hepatitis B virus (HBV) differ in several ways:

- Transmission: HAV is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often due to contaminated food or water, while HBV is transmitted through exposure to infected blood or body fluids.

- Chronicity: HAV infection is typically acute and does not lead to chronic infection, whereas HBV can result in chronic hepatitis, which may lead to long-term liver complications.

- Vaccine Availability: There is a vaccine available for HAV, providing immunity against the virus, while there is also a vaccine for HBV.

- Treatment: The treatment approaches for HAV and HBV differ, with HBV having specific antiviral medications available for management.

(c) PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) is a molecular biology technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA. Here is a schematic representation of the PCR technique for the detection of a pathogen:

1. Denaturation: The DNA sample containing the pathogen's DNA is heated to separate the double-stranded DNA into single strands.

2. Annealing: Primers (short DNA sequences that are complementary to the target pathogen DNA) are added. These primers bind to the specific sequences flanking the target DNA region.

3. Extension: DNA polymerase extends the primers by adding nucleotides to create a new DNA strand complementary to the target pathogen DNA.

4. Amplification: The process is repeated through multiple cycles (usually around 30 cycles), resulting in exponential amplification of the target DNA region.

5. Detection: The amplified DNA can be visualized using gel electrophoresis or other detection methods to confirm the presence of the pathogen's DNA.

7. Write short notes on following :

(a) Erythrocytic cycle of Plasmodi11m

(b) Polymyxin antibiotics

(d) Cholera toxin

(e) Nosocomial infection

(f). Sandwich ELISA.

(a) Erythrocytic cycle of Plasmodium:

- The erythrocytic cycle of Plasmodium refers to the stage of the malaria parasite's life cycle where it infects and replicates within red blood cells.

- During this cycle, the parasite undergoes several stages, including invasion of red blood cells, replication, and eventual bursting of the infected cells, releasing more parasites into the bloodstream.

- The cycle is responsible for the recurring fevers and symptoms associated with malaria and plays a crucial role in the spread of the disease.

(b) Polymyxin antibiotics:

- Polymyxin antibiotics are a group of antibiotics that are effective against certain Gram-negative bacteria.

- They work by disrupting the bacterial cell membrane, leading to leakage of cellular contents and ultimately bacterial cell death.

- Polymyxins are often used as a last resort for treating multidrug-resistant infections but can have significant side effects, especially on the kidneys and nervous system.

- Viremia refers to the presence of a virus in the bloodstream. In the context of paralytic polio, viremia indicates the spread of the poliovirus through the blood, allowing it to reach and infect the central nervous system.

- The presence of the virus in the blood during viremia can lead to the development of paralytic polio, where the virus affects the motor neurons in the spinal cord, causing paralysis.

(d) Cholera toxin:

- Cholera toxin is a protein complex produced by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, responsible for the severe watery diarrhea characteristic of cholera infections.

- The toxin binds to cells in the intestines, leading to the activation of adenylate cyclase and subsequent increase in cyclic AMP levels within the cells.

- This elevation of cyclic AMP disrupts ion transport in the intestines, causing the secretion of large amounts of fluid into the gut, resulting in the profuse watery diarrhea seen in cholera.

(e) Nosocomial infection:

- Nosocomial infections are infections acquired in a healthcare setting, such as hospitals or clinics, by patients receiving medical treatment.

- These infections can be caused by a variety of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, and are often associated with invasive procedures, contaminated medical equipment, or poor infection control practices.

- Preventing nosocomial infections requires strict adherence to infection control protocols, proper hygiene practices, and surveillance to identify and manage outbreaks.

(f) Sandwich ELISA:

- Sandwich ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) is a type of ELISA used to detect and quantify the presence of an antigen in a sample.

- In this assay, the antigen is sandwiched between two antibodies: a capture antibody immobilized on the surface and a detection antibody linked to an enzyme.

- The enzyme-linked antibody produces a signal when it binds to the antigen, allowing for the detection and quantification of the antigen in the sample.

B.Sc (HONOURS) MICROBIOLOGY (CBCS STRUCTURE) CC-14: MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY (THEORY) SEMESTER –6 MCB-A-CC-6-14-TH Unit 7 Antimicrobial agents: General characteristics and mode of action

2024-04-29T18:26:00.003+05:30

Unit 7 Antimicrobial agents: General characteristics and mode of action

Amphotericin B is a polyene antifungal drug. It binds to ergosterol, a key component of fungal cell membranes, and forms channels or pores. These pores disrupt the integrity of the cell membrane, leading to leakage of cellular contents and ultimately causing cell death.

Griseofulvin, on the other hand, is an antifungal medication that belongs to the class of drugs known as antifungal antibiotics. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of fungal cell walls. Specifically, it interferes with the assembly of microtubules, which are essential for the growth and replication of fungal cells. By disrupting this process, griseofulvin prevents the fungus from spreading and helps to eliminate the infection.

Amphotericin B can have some side effects. The most common ones include fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, and headache. It can also cause kidney damage, so it's important to monitor kidney function during treatment. Some people may experience allergic reactions or have issues with their blood cells. It's always best to talk to a healthcare professional if you have any concerns or questions about specific side effects.

Amantadine is primarily used to treat influenza A virus infections. It works by blocking a protein called M2 ion channel in the viral envelope. By inhibiting this protein, Amantadine prevents the release of viral genetic material into the host cell, ultimately stopping the replication of the virus.

Acyclovir, on the other hand, is commonly used to treat herpes virus infections, including genital herpes, cold sores, and shingles. It is a nucleoside analogue that gets incorporated into the viral DNA during replication. Once incorporated, Acyclovir disrupts the viral DNA synthesis, preventing the virus from replicating and spreading.

Amantadine blocks the M2 ion channel by binding to it and preventing the flow of ions, like protons, into the viral particle. This disruption of ion flow inhibits the release of viral genetic material into the host cell, which is necessary for the virus to replicate. By blocking the M2 ion channel, Amantadine helps to stop the spread of the influenza A virus.

Amantadine typically starts working within a few hours to a couple of days after starting treatment. However, it's important to note that the exact timeframe can vary depending on the individual and the specific condition being treated. It's always best to follow the instructions provided by your healthcare professional and give the medication some time to take effect.

Amantadine can interact with certain medications, so it's important to let your healthcare provider know about all the medications you're taking. Some medications that may interact with Amantadine include anticholinergic drugs, such as certain medications for Parkinson's disease or certain antihistamines. Additionally, Amantadine may enhance the effects of certain medications that affect the central nervous system, like sedatives or alcohol.

Different terms related to antibiotic resistance. Let's break them down:

1. Azidothymidine (AZT): While AZT is not an antibiotic, it is an antiviral medication used to treat HIV/AIDS. It works by inhibiting the reverse transcriptase enzyme, which is crucial for the replication of the virus. By blocking this enzyme, AZT helps to slow down the progression of HIV infection.

2. Antibiotic resistance: This refers to the ability of bacteria or other microorganisms to resist the effects of antibiotics. Over time, bacteria can develop mechanisms to survive and grow in the presence of antibiotics, making the medications less effective in treating infections.

3. MDR (Multi-Drug Resistant): MDR bacteria are those that have become resistant to multiple antibiotics, making them more challenging to treat. These bacteria have developed mechanisms to withstand the effects of multiple drugs, limiting treatment options.

4. XDR (Extensively Drug Resistant): XDR bacteria are even more concerning as they are resistant to a wide range of antibiotics, including those considered to be the last line of defense. This makes infections caused by XDR bacteria extremely difficult to treat.

5. MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus): MRSA is a type of bacteria that has developed resistance to many antibiotics, including methicillin and other penicillin-related antibiotics. It can cause difficult-to-treat infections, particularly in healthcare settings.

6. NDM-1 (New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase-1): NDM-1 is an enzyme produced by certain bacteria that confers resistance to a broad range of antibiotics, including carbapenems, which are often considered the last resort for treating severe infections.

1. Azidothymidine (AZT): While AZT is not an antibiotic, it is an antiviral medication used to treat HIV/AIDS. It works by inhibiting the reverse transcriptase enzyme, which is crucial for the replication of the virus. By blocking this enzyme, AZT helps to slow down the progression of HIV infection.

AZT, also known as zidovudine, is an antiretroviral drug used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS. It belongs to a class of medications called nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). AZT works by inhibiting the reverse transcriptase enzyme, which is necessary for the replication of the HIV virus.

When HIV infects a person, it enters their immune cells and uses the reverse transcriptase enzyme to convert its RNA into DNA. This DNA is then integrated into the host cell's DNA, allowing the virus to reproduce. AZT works by blocking the reverse transcriptase enzyme, preventing the virus from replicating and slowing down the progression of the disease.

AZT is typically used in combination with other antiretroviral drugs to form a highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) regimen. This combination approach helps to reduce the viral load in the body, improve the immune system, and prolong the lifespan of individuals living with HIV/AIDS.

It's important to note that AZT, like any medication, can have side effects. Common side effects may include nausea, vomiting, headache, fatigue, and anemia. However, the benefits of AZT in managing HIV/AIDS often outweigh the potential side effects.

They can develop antibiotic resistance through a few different ways:

1. Mutation: Bacteria can undergo genetic mutations that give them the ability to withstand the effects of certain antibiotics. These mutations can occur naturally over time or be acquired from other resistant bacteria.

2. Horizontal gene transfer: Bacteria can share their genetic material with other bacteria through processes like conjugation, transformation, or transduction. This means that a bacterium that is already resistant to an antibiotic can pass on its resistance genes to other bacteria, allowing them to become resistant as well.

3. Overuse and misuse of antibiotics: When antibiotics are used too often or not used properly, it can create an environment where bacteria are exposed to the drugs frequently. This selective pressure can favor the survival and growth of resistant bacteria, leading to the development of antibiotic resistance.

4. Evolutionary pressure: Bacteria have a remarkable ability to adapt and evolve. When exposed to antibiotics, the bacteria that are naturally resistant or acquire resistance genes have a survival advantage. Over time, these resistant bacteria become more prevalent in a population.

There are a few key factors that contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance:

1. Natural selection: Bacteria reproduce rapidly, and with each generation, there is a chance for genetic mutations to occur. Sometimes, these mutations can provide bacteria with the ability to resist the effects of antibiotics. When antibiotics are used, they kill the susceptible bacteria, but the resistant ones survive and multiply, passing on their resistance genes to future generations.

2. Overuse and misuse of antibiotics: When antibiotics are used too frequently or inappropriately, it puts selective pressure on bacteria. This means that the bacteria that have natural or acquired resistance to antibiotics have a survival advantage. Over time, these resistant bacteria become more prevalent in a population, making the antibiotics less effective.

3. Transmission of resistance genes: Bacteria can also acquire resistance genes from other bacteria through a process called horizontal gene transfer. This can happen through mechanisms like conjugation, where genetic material is exchanged between bacteria, or through the uptake of DNA from the environment. This transfer of resistance genes allows bacteria to quickly develop resistance to multiple antibiotics.

Multi-Drug Resistant, refers to bacteria or other microorganisms that have developed resistance to multiple types of antibiotics. This means that they are not affected by the usual medications that would normally be used to treat infections caused by those bacteria.

MDR can occur due to several reasons:

1. Overuse and misuse of antibiotics: Similar to antibiotic resistance, the inappropriate use of antibiotics can contribute to the development of MDR. When antibiotics are used excessively or not taken as prescribed, it provides an opportunity for bacteria to adapt and become resistant to multiple drugs.

2. Poor infection control: In settings such as hospitals, clinics, or long-term care facilities, the spread of MDR organisms can occur if proper infection control practices are not followed. This can lead to the transmission of resistant bacteria between patients, making it more challenging to treat infections effectively.

3. Global travel and migration: With increased global travel and migration, MDR organisms can spread across different regions and countries. This can result in the introduction of resistant strains into new populations, making it difficult to control their spread.

XDR stands for Extensively Drug Resistant, and it's even more serious than MDR. When bacteria or other microorganisms are classified as XDR, it means they are resistant to a wide range of antibiotics, including those considered as last-resort treatments.

XDR bacteria have developed resistance not only to multiple classes of antibiotics but also to some of the most potent ones available. This makes them extremely difficult to treat and can lead to severe infections that are challenging to control.

Similar to MDR, the causes of XDR include overuse and misuse of antibiotics, poor infection control practices, and global spread. However, XDR organisms have acquired additional resistance mechanisms, making them even more formidable.

The consequences of XDR infections can be devastating, as they limit treatment options and increase the risk of complications and mortality. In some cases, infections caused by XDR bacteria may require specialized antibiotics or combination therapies that have more potential side effects or are less effective.

MRSA stands for Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Staphylococcus aureus is a type of bacteria commonly found on the skin or in the nose of healthy individuals. However, when it becomes resistant to methicillin and other antibiotics, it can cause serious infections that are difficult to treat.

MRSA infections can occur in both healthcare settings (HA-MRSA) and in the community (CA-MRSA). In healthcare settings, MRSA can spread through contact with contaminated surfaces, medical equipment, or from person to person. In the community, MRSA can be transmitted through close skin-to-skin contact or by sharing personal items like towels or razors.

Symptoms of MRSA infections can vary depending on the site of infection, but they often include skin infections such as boils, abscesses, or cellulitis. In more severe cases, MRSA can cause bloodstream infections, pneumonia, or surgical site infections.

Treating MRSA can be challenging because it is resistant to many commonly used antibiotics. However, there are still effective treatment options available, such as certain antibiotics or a combination of medications. In some cases, drainage of abscesses or surgical intervention may be necessary.

Preventing MRSA infections involves practicing good hygiene, such as regular handwashing, keeping wounds clean and covered, and avoiding sharing personal items. In healthcare settings, infection control measures like proper hand hygiene, isolation precautions, and environmental cleaning are crucial in preventing the spread of MRSA.

B.Sc (HONOURS) MICROBIOLOGY (CBCS STRUCTURE) CC-14: MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY (THEORY) SEMESTER –6 MCB-A-CC-6-14-TH (Viral diseases)

2024-04-22T18:35:00.004+05:30

list of some viral diseases categorized by organ systems and their causative agents. Here are a few examples:

Respiratory System:

- Influenza (Flu) - Influenza virus

- Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) - RSV

- Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) - SARS-CoV

Digestive System:

- Hepatitis A - Hepatitis A virus

- Norovirus infection - Norovirus

- Rotavirus infection - Rotavirus

Nervous System:

- Herpes simplex encephalitis - Herpes simplex virus

- Meningitis - Various viruses, including enteroviruses and herpesviruses

- Rabies - Rabies virus

Skin and Mucous Membranes:

- Herpes simplex - Herpes simplex virus

- Chickenpox and Shingles - Varicella-zoster virus

- Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection - HPV

Cardiovascular System:

- Viral myocarditis - Various viruses, including enteroviruses and adenoviruses

- Viral pericarditis - Various viruses, including enteroviruses and coxsackieviruses

POLIOMYELITIS, is a viral disease that primarily affects the nervous system. Here are some details about polio:

Symptoms:

- Most people infected with the poliovirus don't show any symptoms and recover without any lasting effects. This is known as asymptomatic polio.

- For those who do develop symptoms, they can range from mild to severe. Common symptoms include fever, fatigue, headache, vomiting, stiffness in the neck, and pain in the limbs.

- In severe cases, polio can cause muscle weakness or paralysis, particularly in the legs. This is known as paralytic polio.

Mode of transmission:

- Polio is mainly spread through the fecal-oral route, meaning it is transmitted through contact with infected feces.

- It can also be spread through contaminated food, water, or surfaces.

- The virus can enter the body through the mouth and then travel to the digestive system, where it can multiply and potentially spread to the nervous system.

Prophylaxis and control:

- The best way to prevent polio is through vaccination. The oral polio vaccine (OPV) and the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) are both effective in preventing the disease.

- Vaccination campaigns have been instrumental in reducing the global burden of polio. It is recommended to follow the immunization schedule provided by healthcare professionals.

- Maintaining good hygiene practices, such as regular handwashing and proper sanitation, can also help prevent the spread of the virus.

Control efforts:

- The Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) is a partnership between various organizations, including the World Health Organization (WHO), to eradicate polio worldwide.

- Control efforts involve surveillance to detect and respond to polio outbreaks, mass vaccination campaigns, and routine immunization programs.

- Through these efforts, the number of polio cases has significantly decreased globally, but continued vigilance is required to achieve complete eradication.

Herpes:

Symptoms: Herpes can cause painful sores or blisters on the genitals or mouth. Some people may also experience flu-like symptoms during an outbreak.

Mode of Transmission: Herpes is primarily transmitted through direct contact with the infected area during sexual activity or through oral-to-oral contact. It can also be transmitted from a mother to her baby during childbirth.

Prophylaxis and Control: While there is no cure for herpes, there are ways to manage and reduce the risk of transmission. Using barrier methods like condoms or dental dams during sexual activity can help lower the risk. It's also important to avoid sexual contact during outbreaks and to communicate openly with sexual partners about the infection. Antiviral medications can be prescribed to manage symptoms and reduce the frequency of outbreaks.

HEPATITIS is an inflammation of the liver, and there are different types of Hepatitis, including Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. Each type has its own mode of transmission, symptoms, and preventive measures. Let's start with Hepatitis A.

Hepatitis A:

- Mode of Transmission: Hepatitis A is usually spread through contaminated food or water, or by close contact with an infected person.

- Symptoms: Symptoms may include fatigue, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, dark urine, and yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice).

- Prophylaxis: The best way to prevent Hepatitis A is through vaccination. Practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands thoroughly, can also help reduce the risk of infection.

- Control: Control measures for Hepatitis A include promoting vaccination programs, improving sanitation and hygiene practices, and ensuring safe food and water sources.

Now, let's move on to Hepatitis B.

Hepatitis B:

- Mode of Transmission: Hepatitis B is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood or other body fluids, such as semen or vaginal fluids. It can be spread through sexual contact, sharing needles, or from an infected mother to her baby during childbirth.

- Symptoms: Some people with Hepatitis B may not experience any symptoms, while others may have fatigue, abdominal pain, dark urine, jaundice, and joint pain.

- Prophylaxis: The Hepatitis B vaccine is highly effective in preventing infection. It's important to practice safe sex, avoid sharing needles, and use proper infection control measures in healthcare settings.

- Control: Control measures for Hepatitis B include routine vaccination, screening of blood donations, and promoting safe injection practices.

Rabies is a viral disease that affects the central nervous system and is usually transmitted through the bite or scratch of an infected animal. Here are some details about rabies:

- Symptoms: The initial symptoms of rabies can be similar to flu-like symptoms, including fever, headache, and fatigue. As the disease progresses, symptoms may include anxiety, confusion, hallucinations, difficulty swallowing, and paralysis. Once symptoms appear, rabies is almost always fatal.

- Mode of Transmission: Rabies is primarily transmitted through the bite or scratch of an infected animal, most commonly dogs, bats, raccoons, and foxes. The virus is present in the saliva of infected animals and can enter the body through broken skin or mucous membranes.

- Prophylaxis: If someone is bitten by an animal suspected of having rabies, immediate medical attention is crucial. Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) involves a series of injections of the rabies vaccine and sometimes a dose of rabies immunoglobulin to prevent the virus from spreading in the body.

- Control: Rabies can be controlled through various measures, including:

- Vaccination of domestic animals: Vaccinating pets, such as dogs and cats, helps prevent the transmission of rabies to humans.

- Stray animal control: Managing stray animal populations and implementing programs to vaccinate and sterilize them can help reduce the risk of rabies transmission.

- Public education: Raising awareness about rabies, its transmission, and preventive measures can help people take necessary precautions.

Dengue is a viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes. Here are some details about dengue:

- Symptoms: The symptoms of dengue can vary from mild to severe. They typically include high fever, severe headache, joint and muscle pain, rash, and mild bleeding from the nose or gums. In severe cases, dengue can lead to dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome, which can be life-threatening.

- Mode of Transmission: Dengue is primarily transmitted through the bite of infected female Aedes mosquitoes, especially Aedes aegypti. These mosquitoes are commonly found in tropical and subtropical regions. The virus cannot be spread directly from person to person.

- Prophylaxis: There is no specific prophylaxis or medication available to prevent dengue. The best way to prevent dengue is to avoid mosquito bites. This can be done by using mosquito repellents, wearing long-sleeved clothing and pants, and staying in air-conditioned or screened-in areas. Eliminating mosquito breeding sites, such as stagnant water sources, also helps reduce the mosquito population.

- Control: Dengue control measures focus on reducing mosquito populations and preventing mosquito bites. Some strategies include:

- Removing standing water: Emptying containers that can collect water, such as flower pots, buckets, and discarded tires, helps eliminate mosquito breeding sites.

- Mosquito control: Using insecticides and larvicides to kill mosquitoes and their larvae in areas where they breed.

- Community involvement: Encouraging community participation in mosquito control efforts, such as cleaning up neighborhoods and raising awareness about dengue prevention.

Dengue is a viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes. Here are some details about dengue:

- Control: Dengue control measures focus on reducing mosquito populations and preventing mosquito bites. Some strategies include:

- Removing standing water: Emptying containers that can collect water, such as flower pots, buckets, and discarded tires, helps eliminate mosquito breeding sites.

- Mosquito control: Using insecticides and larvicides to kill mosquitoes and their larvae in areas where they breed.

- Community involvement: Encouraging community participation in mosquito control efforts, such as cleaning up neighbourhoods and raising awareness about dengue prevention.

AIDS, which stands for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, is a chronic and potentially life-threatening condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Here are some details about AIDS:

- Symptoms: The symptoms of AIDS can vary, but they generally include persistent fever, fatigue, weight loss, recurring infections, and swollen lymph nodes. As the disease progresses, it can lead to more severe symptoms and complications.

- Mode of Transmission: HIV can be transmitted through certain body fluids, including blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk. The most common modes of transmission are through unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing needles or syringes contaminated with HIV-infected blood, and from mother to child during childbirth or breastfeeding. It's important to note that HIV cannot be transmitted through casual contact, such as hugging or shaking hands.

- Prophylaxis: There is no cure for AIDS, but there are preventive measures that can reduce the risk of HIV transmission. These include practicing safe sex by using condoms consistently and correctly, avoiding sharing needles or other drug paraphernalia, and opting for medical procedures that adhere to proper infection control practices.

- Control: HIV/AIDS control measures focus on various aspects. Some strategies include:

- HIV testing and counseling: Encouraging individuals to get tested for HIV and providing counseling and support for those who test positive.

- Antiretroviral therapy (ART): Administering antiretroviral drugs to people living with HIV to suppress the virus, improve their health, and reduce the risk of transmitting HIV to others.

- Prevention of mother-to-child transmission: Providing antiretroviral drugs to pregnant women living with HIV and ensuring safe delivery practices to prevent transmission to their infants.

- Education and awareness: Promoting HIV/AIDS education and awareness to reduce stigma, increase understanding, and encourage safer behaviors.

Influenza, also known as the flu, is a contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses. It can cause mild to severe illness, and sometimes it can even lead to death. Symptoms of influenza include fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, body aches, headache, and fatigue. It spreads mainly through droplets when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks.

Now, let's talk about Swine Flu, which is a type of influenza caused by the H1N1 influenza virus. It is called Swine Flu because it originally infected pigs but has since spread to humans. The symptoms of Swine Flu are similar to those of regular flu, including fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, headache, and fatigue. It can spread from person to person through respiratory droplets, just like regular influenza. To prevent Swine Flu, you can get vaccinated against the virus, practice good hygiene by washing your hands frequently, and avoid close contact with sick individuals.

Ebola, it is a severe and often fatal illness caused by the Ebola virus. Symptoms include fever, headache, muscle pain, weakness, fatigue, diarrhea, vomiting, and in some cases, internal and external bleeding. Ebola spreads through direct contact with the blood, body fluids, or tissues of infected animals or people. Strict infection control measures, such as isolating infected individuals and using personal protective equipment, are crucial to prevent the spread of Ebola. There is currently no specific treatment for Ebola, but supportive care can help improve the chances of survival.

Chikungunya is a viral disease transmitted to humans by infected mosquitoes. Symptoms include fever, joint pain, muscle pain, headache, nausea, fatigue, and rash. The primary mode of transmission is through the bite of infected mosquitoes, particularly the Aedes species. To prevent Chikungunya, it is important to protect yourself from mosquito bites by using insect repellents, wearing protective clothing, and eliminating mosquito breeding sites around your living area.

Japanese Encephalitis is a viral infection that affects the brain. Symptoms can range from mild flu-like symptoms to severe neurological complications. It is transmitted through the bite of infected mosquitoes, particularly the Culex species. Encephalitis is caused by a virus spread through mosquito bites. It mainly affects the brain and can cause symptoms like fever, headache, neck stiffness, and even neurological complications. It's important to take precautions against mosquito bites, especially if you're in areas where the disease is prevalent. Vaccination is available for prevention.

Influenza, also known as the flu, is a contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses. It spreads through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks. The symptoms of influenza include fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, fatigue, and sometimes vomiting and diarrhea.

swine flu, which is a type of influenza caused by the H1N1 virus. It originally infected pigs but can spread to humans. The symptoms of swine flu are similar to regular flu, including fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, fatigue, and sometimes vomiting and diarrhea.

To prevent the spread of both influenza and swine flu, it's important to practice good hygiene, such as washing your hands frequently, covering your mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and avoiding close contact with sick individuals. Vaccination is also available for both influenza and swine flu, and it's recommended to get vaccinated annually to protect yourself and others.

B.Sc (HONOURS) MICROBIOLOGY (CBCS STRUCTURE) CC-14: MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY (THEORY) SEMESTER –6 MCB-A-CC-6-14-TH

2024-04-18T18:20:00.000+05:30

Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori is a bacterium that infects the stomach lining and can cause various gastrointestinal conditions. Here's some information for you:

Symptoms: Helicobacter pylori infection can lead to several symptoms, including stomach pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and in some cases, peptic ulcers or gastritis. However, not everyone infected with H. pylori will experience symptoms.

Mode of Transmission: The exact mode of transmission is not fully understood, but it is believed that H. pylori is primarily transmitted through oral-oral or fecal-oral routes. It can spread through close contact with an infected person, consuming contaminated food or water, or poor hygiene practices.

Prophylaxis: Preventing H. pylori infection involves adopting good hygiene practices and taking certain precautions. Here are some measures to consider:

- Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and clean water, especially before eating or preparing food.

- Avoid consuming food or water that may be contaminated.

- Cook food thoroughly, especially meat and seafood.

- Practice safe food handling and storage.

- Avoid sharing utensils, cups, or other personal items with someone who may be infected.

Treatment for H. pylori infection usually involves a combination of antibiotics and acid-suppressing medications. It's essential to follow the prescribed treatment regimen and complete the full course of antibiotics to effectively eliminate the infection.

B.Sc (HONOURS) MICROBIOLOGY (CBCS STRUCTURE) CC-14: MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY (THEORY) SEMESTER –6 MCB-A-CC-6-14-TH

2024-04-18T18:13:00.000+05:30

BACTERIAL DISEASES

Streptococcus pyogenes,

Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as Group A Streptococcus, is a bacterium that can cause a range of respiratory infections. One of the most common infections it causes is strep throat, which is characterized by a sore throat, difficulty swallowing, and swollen tonsils. Other respiratory infections caused by this bacterium include tonsillitis, sinusitis, and ear infections.

The mode of transmission for Streptococcus pyogenes is primarily through respiratory droplets. When an infected person coughs or sneezes, tiny droplets containing the bacteria can be released into the air. If these droplets are inhaled by others, they can become infected. Additionally, direct contact with infected saliva or nasal secretions can also spread the bacteria.

To prevent the spread of Streptococcus pyogenes, practicing good hygiene is key. This includes washing your hands regularly with soap and water, especially before eating or touching your face. Covering your mouth and nose with a tissue or your elbow when coughing or sneezing can help prevent the release of respiratory droplets. Avoiding close contact with individuals who are known to have a streptococcal infection is also important.

Haemophilus influenzae

Haemophilus influenzae is a bacterium that can cause respiratory infections. Here's some more info:

Symptoms: When infected with Haemophilus influenzae, you might experience symptoms like cough, fever, difficulty breathing, chest pain, and sometimes a sore throat. These symptoms can vary depending on the specific respiratory infection caused by the bacterium.

Mode of Transmission: Haemophilus influenzae is mainly spread through respiratory droplets. So, when someone who's infected coughs or sneezes, tiny droplets containing the bacterium can be released into the air. If you breathe in those droplets or come into direct contact with infected respiratory secretions, you can get infected too.

Prophylaxis: To prevent the spread of Haemophilus influenzae, it's important to practice good hygiene. Wash your hands frequently with soap and water, especially before eating or touching your face. When you cough or sneeze, cover your mouth and nose with a tissue or your elbow. And try to avoid close contact with people who are known to have a Haemophilus influenzae infection.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis:

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, also known as TB, is a respiratory disease caused by a bacteria. Here's some more info:

Symptoms: TB can cause symptoms like a persistent cough, chest pain, coughing up blood, fatigue, weight loss, and night sweats. It can affect the lungs (pulmonary TB) or other parts of the body (extrapulmonary TB).

Mode of Transmission: TB is usually spread through the air when someone with active TB coughs or sneezes, releasing tiny droplets containing the bacteria. Breathing in these droplets can lead to infection. Close and prolonged contact with an infected person increases the risk of transmission.

Prophylaxis: Taking preventive measures is important to reduce the risk of TB. If you've been in close contact with someone who has active TB, your healthcare provider might recommend prophylactic treatment with antibiotics to prevent infection. Vaccination with the BCG vaccine is also available in some countries and can provide partial protection against severe forms of TB, especially in children.

Escherichia coli, a gastrointestinal disease commonly known as E. coli:

E. coli is a type of bacteria that can cause various gastrointestinal illnesses. Here are some more details:

Symptoms: The symptoms of E. coli infection can vary depending on the strain and severity of the infection. Common symptoms include diarrhea (often bloody), abdominal pain or cramping, nausea, and vomiting. Some individuals may also experience fever and fatigue.

Mode of Transmission: E. coli is usually transmitted through contaminated food or water. Consuming undercooked or raw meat, unpasteurized dairy products, contaminated produce, or contaminated water can lead to infection. Person-to-person transmission can also occur, especially in settings with poor hygiene, such as daycare centers or nursing homes.

Prophylaxis: Prevention is key when it comes to E. coli infections. Here are some preventive measures you can take:

1. Practice good hygiene: Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water before handling food, after using the bathroom, and after changing diapers. Encourage others to do the same.

2. Cook food properly: Cook meat, especially ground beef, to a safe internal temperature. Avoid consuming raw or undercooked foods, including eggs and unpasteurized dairy products.

3. Practice safe food handling: Wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly before eating or cooking. Avoid cross-contamination by keeping raw meat separate from other foods and using separate cutting boards and utensils.

4. Drink safe water: Ensure that your drinking water comes from a safe source. If you're unsure about the water quality, consider using bottled water or boiling tap water before consumption.

Salmonella typhi, a gastrointestinal disease commonly known as typhoid fever:

Symptoms: The symptoms of typhoid fever can be quite severe. They typically include high fever, headache, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, and a rash. Some individuals may also experience constipation or diarrhea.

Mode of Transmission: Typhoid fever is primarily transmitted through the ingestion of food or water contaminated with the Salmonella typhi bacteria. This can happen when food is handled by someone who carries the bacteria or when water sources are contaminated with sewage containing the bacteria.

Prophylaxis: Preventing typhoid fever involves taking certain precautions:

1. Practice good hygiene: Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water before eating, after using the bathroom, and when handling food. Encourage others to do the same.

2. Drink safe water: Ensure that your drinking water comes from a safe source. If you're unsure about the water quality, consider using bottled water or boiling tap water before consumption.

3. Eat safe food: Be cautious about the food you consume, especially when traveling to areas with a higher risk of typhoid fever. Avoid raw or undercooked foods, particularly meat, seafood, and eggs. Opt for fruits and vegetables that you can peel yourself.

4. Get vaccinated: Consider getting vaccinated against typhoid fever, especially if you're traveling to regions where the disease is prevalent or if you work in a high-risk environment.

Vibrio cholerae and gastrointestinal diseases.

Vibrio cholerae is a bacterium that causes the infectious disease known as cholera. Here's some information for you:

Symptoms: Cholera typically presents with severe watery diarrhea, vomiting, and dehydration. The diarrhea can be so profuse that it leads to rapid fluid loss, which can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.

Mode of Transmission: Vibrio cholerae is primarily transmitted through contaminated food and water. Consuming food or water contaminated with the bacterium can lead to infection. It can also spread through poor sanitation practices, such as improper disposal of feces or sewage.

Prophylaxis: Preventing cholera involves practicing good hygiene and taking precautions when it comes to food and water. Here are some measures to consider:

- Drink clean and safe water, such as boiled or treated water.

- Avoid consuming raw or undercooked seafood, as it can be a source of Vibrio cholerae.

- Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and clean water, especially before eating or preparing food.

- Maintain proper sanitation and hygiene practices, including proper sewage disposal.

2023-10-21T20:46:00.003+05:30

Dr. Aamarpali Roy Phd. Chemistry notes Derivation of Lagrangial equation in terms of polar coordinates (r, theta and phi) Contact for Tuition All Boards (English Medium) MOBILE Number :9051345485 For Class 8th -10th:- Science (Physics/chemistry/biology/maths) Class 11th and 12th :- Chemistry/Physics/Biology) B.sc. Part-I/II/III: - Chemistry (Organic/inorganic/physical chemistry) M.sc Part-I & II:-Chemistry (Organic/inorganic/physical chemistry/ spectroscopy)) MOBILE Number :9051345485

2022-05-02T14:17:00.002+05:30

Narration

2020-04-03T19:55:00.000+05:30

Sentences are given in the direct speech. Change them into the indirect speech.

1. The captain said, ‘This is an occasion to celebrate.’

2. The mother said to her daughter, ‘I’m proud of your achievements.’

3. ‘I’ve spoken nothing but the truth,’ the prisoner said.

4. The mother said to her son, ‘I will lend you the money but you have to listen to me.’

5. ‘Is your father at home?’ the stranger asked me.

6. ‘Get out of the class,’ the teacher yelled at the boy.

7. Sarika said, ‘Let’s get something to eat.’

8. Karan said, ‘Alas, how foolish I have been.’

9. The traveler said, ‘I’ve lost all my money.’

10. They said to her this morning, ‘We will meet you tomorrow evening.’

Sentences are given in indirect speech. Change them into direct speech.

1   Avi told Savi that he needed some time.
2.      The shopkeeper said that it was the latest model.
3.      The customer told him that he would go to his shop the next day.
4.      Snehal told her friend that she had not met her the previous day.
5.      The mother told her daughter that she had prepared sandwich for her.
6.      My father told me that we don’t have to work today.
7.      Kamak said to her teacher that she could not do her homework last night.
8.      The man told him that he does not listen to him carefully and makes many mistakes.
9.      Param told Vicky that he may not return his suit.
10. Bhakti told Sunil that he is his friend and will remain forever.

ACCOUNTANCY/ECONOMICS/MANAGEMENT Contact 9903063097/9051345485

2020-01-23T12:07:00.002+05:30

Subject: ACCOUNTANCY/ECONOMICS/MANAGEMENT Contact 9903063097/9051345485

For: IX/X/XI/XII/ ‘O’ Levels/ ‘A’ Levels

ENGLISH/ACCOUNTANCY/ECONOMICS/MANAGEMENT

Mr. Anamitra Roy (M: 9903063097/9051345485)

Teaching students of Loreto, St. Xavier’s, St. Lawrence, Frank Anthony, Pratt Memorial, Don Bosco, DPS, South Point, Mahadevi Birla, Calcutta Boys, Heritage, Calcutta Girls, Cambridge International, Calcutta International and many others.

Location: Salt Lake City near Water Tank Number 3

Tuitions for Graduate & post graduate students:

Management : BBA and MBA students

Learn English: Spoken/Written/Grammar/Communicative English contact 9903063097at salt lake kolkata

2020-01-23T12:04:00.002+05:30

Concept Tutorial offers programs in English training for IELTS/TOEFL aspirants, professionals, call centre employees etc. There is also a special course for women. These courses are available at affordable rates and have been proved effective.

Types of Courses

Communicative English – Foundation Level (for beginners)
Communicative English - PRO (for advance learners)
Soft skills and personality development (specifically for corporate learners)
English training for IELTS/ TOEFL aspirants

Also give coaching for

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

For classes: VI/VII/VIII/IX/X/XI/XII/ ‘O’ Levels & ‘A’ Levels (All Boards)

Regular tests/Mock Tests/Online Tests taken brain teasers

For Admission contact:
Mr Anamitra Roy (M: 9903063097)

Place: Salt lake , Sector-1

CONCEPT TUTORIAL ICSE ISC CBSE WB IGCSE International baccalaureates CHEMISTRY TUTORS COACHING CLASSES PRIVATE TUTORS TUITION TEACHING AT KOLKATA Contact :9051345485

2020-01-23T11:58:00.004+05:30

CONCEPT TUTORIAL ICSE ISC CBSE WB IGCSE International baccalaureates CHEMISTRY TUTORS COACHING CLASSES PRIVATE TUTORS TUITION TEACHING AT KOLKATA Contact :9051345485

Chemistry coaching by experienced teacher
For: VI/VII/VIII/IX/X/ O Levels
Subject : CHEMISTRY
Board (ICSE/ ISC/ CBSE/ WB Boards)
For: XI/XII/ A Levels/ JEE/ AIEEE/ AIPMT/ AIIMS/ AFMC/CET
Subject : CHEMISTRY

Also coaching given to BSC & MSc University students (Organic/Inorganic/Physical/ spectroscopy chemistry)

Board (ICSE/ ISC/ CBSE/ WB Boards)
ADVANTAGES OF CHEMISTRY TUITION WITH PROFESSOR ROY:
1. VERY SMALL GROUP OF STUDENTS.
2. INDIVIDUAL CARE ON EACH STUDENT.
3. HIS STUDY MATERIALS ARE EASY TO UNDERSTAND.
4. HIS LECTURES CLARIFY ALL DOUBTS; ENHANCE THE DEPTH ON THE SUBJECT.
5. SUITABLE FOR STUDENTS FROM BENGALI / HINDI / OTHER VERNACULAR MEDIUM.
6. UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS ARE SOLVED AND PRACTICED.
7. STUDENTS GET COMMON QUESTIONS.

Teachers are subject expert with experience of teaching students of International Board.
Regular tests/Mock test/ Interactive sessions with guardians and teachers.
For Admission contact:
Dr. Aamarpali Puri (M: 9051220005, 9051345485)
Students’ profile includes the following schools:

CALCUTTA INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, CALCUTTA PUBLIC SCHOOL, CAMBRIDGE SCHOOL, ST. XAVIERS, ST. JOSEPH, GARDEN HIGH, FRANK ANTHONY, ST. JAMES, PRATT MEMORIAL, CALCUTTA GIRLS/BOYS, ST. AUGASTIN, HERITAGE, DON BOSCO, LORETO HOUSE, ST. PAULS, DPS KOSBA, DPS NEWTOWN, DPS MEGACITY, SALT LAKE (CA) SCHOOL, SRI AUROBINDO INSTITUTION, ST. FRANCIS XAVIERS, SALT LAKE POINT SCHOOL, KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA I & II, BHARTIYA VIDYA BHAVAN, ST. STEPHENS, ASSEMBLY OF GOD CHURCH, HARYANA VIDYA MANDIR, ST. JOANS, OUR LADY QUEEN OF THE MISSION, MOTHER INTERNATIONAL, JULIEN DAY, LA MARTINIERS, NATIONAL ENGLISH SCHOOL ETC.

Dr. Aamarpali Roy Phd. Chemistry Contact for Tuition All Boards (English Medium) MOBILE Number :9051345485 For Class 8th -10th:- Science (Physics/chemistry/biology/maths) Class 11th and 12th :- Chemistry/Physics/Biology) B.sc. Part-I/II/III: - Chemistry (Organic/inorganic/physical chemistry) M.sc Part-I & II:-Chemistry (Organic/inorganic/physical chemistry/ spectroscopy)) MOBILE Number :9051345485

2019-11-04T17:54:00.003+05:30

In Kolkata I Dr Aamarpali give guidance for Post Doctoral/Doctoral Thesis. Master project work. Candidates from reputed universities (India and Abroad) can enroll. Online and offline tuitions {All Boards (English Medium)} For Class VIII-X:- Science (Physics/chemistry/biology/maths) Class XI & XII, Under graduate, post graduate, O Level and A / AS Level chemistry subject are provided.
Contact number 9051220005/9051345485
Details are as follows
For: IV/V/VI/VII/VIII/ O Levels
ENGLISH/ MATHEMATICS/ CHEMISTRY/ PHYSICS/ BIOLOGY
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Training for: NEET/ WBJEE/ AIIMS/ AFMC
For all universities: B.Sc. & M.Sc. (Chemistry)
For seat booking contact: Dr. Aamarpali (Puri) Roy (Ph.D., Gold Medalist)

I teach according to level of the students level to make him/her understand better.
I have experience of teaching students of India, UAE, Singapore, United Kingdom, Japan, United States of America and many more. I teach various curriculum like CBSE/ICSE/ISC/International Baccalaurate and state boards too. I prepare students for IIT-JEE, NEET, JEE MAIN and Advanced, WB JEE and all other engineering and medical entrance exams.
I provide guidance for ICSE /CBSE /ISC/WB /IB /GCSE/IGCSE boards.
I focus on
. (i) Doubt clear or recapitulation of last classes topic.
(ii) Thoroughly teach every topic in a chapter with simple and interesting way.
(iii) Solve various numerical problem
then test to understand final results

MATH TUTOR/TEACHER IN KOLKATA

2019-08-01T20:33:00.000+05:30

Dr Puri

Contact if you need teacher/tutor for mathmatics. class VI to X (All Boards)
English medium.
9051220005

2019-08-01T20:30:00.000+05:30

CLASS - XI CHEMISTRY (Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties) Contact:+91-9051345485 drpuri@yahoo.com

2018-07-27T19:42:00.000+05:30

CLASS - XI CHEMISTRY (Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties)

1. How many elements are known at present? [1]

2. Who was the first scientist to classify elements according to their properties? [1]

3. What is the basis of triad formation of elements? [1]

4. Stale the modern ‘Periodic law’? [1]

5. Define and state Mendeleev’s periodic law. [1]

6. How did Mendeleev arrange the elements? [2]

7. Name the two elements whose existence and properties were predicted by Mendeleev though they did not exist then. [2]

8. Describe the main features of Mendeleev’s periodic table? [3]

9. Give the general characteristics of the long form of Modern periodic table? [1]

10. In short give the features of the seven periods. [1]

11. Define electronic configuration. [1]

12. What is the electronic configuration when elements are classified group wise? [1]

13. Give the main features of s-block elements. [2]

14. Give the main features of p-block elements. [2]

15. Give the main features of d-block elements. [2]

16. Give the main features of f-block elements. [2]

Contact:+91-9051345485 drpuri@yahoo.com