Associated Contents

Strategic Organizational Strategy

2012-07-10T11:43:00.001+05:00

What steps need to be taken before we implement an organizational strategy?

The steps that need to be taken before the implementation of strategy are;

· The first step is to identify the unique valuable position of the business, differentiated activities and tradeoffs with some ground work.

· The next step is to make analysis of strategic organizational implications

· Then identify the strategy delivery organizational requirements

· After that conduct the gap analysis

· Identify the transition and transformation needs

· Create an organizational strategy plan

· Establish detailed implementation plan

· Then create communication, commitment and implementation strategies

· After that take the key organizational strategy initiatives

· Finally, implement the strategy

Why are time frames so important to the implementation of an organizations strategy?

Implementation is the procedure that changes plans and strategies into actions in so that strategic goals and objectives are accomplish. Strategic plan implementation on time is as significant as the business strategy. For such type of corporations that have a strategic plan in place, wasting energy and time on the process of planning and then non implementation of plan is very disappointing. Even though the implementation of plan may not be the most attracting thing to discuss about, it is an essential business exercise, which is critical for any type of strategy to keep on hold. The time frame is important because strategic plan determines why and what type of activities, but the implementation process addresses the where, who, how and when. The reality is that both things are crucial to success. Truly, business can reap competitive advantage with the help of implementation of strategies on time.

What role does the sequence of execution play?

The sequence of execution in the strategic implementation process plays very important role. However, it is not necessary to follow this proper sequence but for effective decision making and being successful it is necessary to follow the implantation process step by step. Suppose after the planning of strategy we try to control it, it would be a waste of time. Because the best time of controlling is after the implementation of strategy without its implementation it cannot be controlled.

References

Nag, R. (2007). What is strategicmanagement, really? New York: Wiley.

Exercise Triggers Stem Cells in Muscles

2012-07-10T11:42:00.000+05:00

It has been discovered by the researchers that stem cells exist in the muscles of human being are responsive when a men or women exercises. Much of researches in this field has been conducted more researches can direct to new techniques of therapeutic nature by using these stem cells to recover the muscle injured previously and rehabilitate or prevent loss of muscle with age. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in very thin muscles are considered very significant for the repair of muscle in reaction to the injury of non-physiological nature, mainly in the response of injections which have chemical nature that considerably injure the tissue of muscle and cause inflammation. The researchers researched out that whether Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) also reacted to injury while exercising.

Because the exercise can cause some damage as part of the process of remodeling nature after the mechanical strain, it is strange if the accumulation of Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) was a response of natural type to exercise and whether these stem cells add to the valuable growth and rehabilitation process that emerge after the exercise.

The researchers also discovered that Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in the muscles are greatly receptive and reactive to mechanical injury. They witnessed that the accumulation of Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in the mice muscles after energetic and forceful exercise. Then, the researchers concluded that although Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) don't immediately help in making fibers for new muscle, they release factors of growth that encourage other stem cells in muscles to generate and fuse the fresh muscles, creating the cellular basis for healthy muscle health after the proper exercise.

The research has determined that stem cell in muscle of an adult may present the beginning for the health of muscle with the help of exercise and improved the muscle healing with movement/rehabilitation therapy. The reality that MSCs in the human being muscle have the power to discharge great concentrations of development factor into the system that is called circulatory through the exercise and also make us surprised if they present a complex relation among improved health for complete body and contribution in regular activity that is of physical nature.

Although it has been found that exercise is the greatest way for maintaining muscle as we get older, some people are even not adept to efficiently indulge in physical activity. In this way the disabilities can restrict the chances for the growth of muscle. The researchers are working with their full potential to know that how people can best use these stem cells efficiently and effectively to maintain the mass of muscle in the atrophy face.

Provided that the prompt increase in neurodegenerative diseases that are age-related, consisting dementia, it is of much significant to determine strategies to prevent, slow, even reverse such cognitive decline which is age-related. Even though, it is well-recognized that ordinary aging association reduces in cognitive and neurogenesis function, little is presently known concerning the influences of aging on the neural precursor endogenous cell population.

Further, it has been provided that the stem cells in other parts of the body are recognized to turn into a compromise with older age people because they are powerless to replace damaged or lost cells effectively, researchers wanted to identify whether this was also the condition for those stem cells that are neural in nature and whether reversing or slowing the decline system would result in enhanced function. The researches that have been conducted in the past have shown that physical exercise encourages the neuron-genesis in the hippocampus in both aged and young mice, and can slow that memory loss which is age-related.

Depending on these results the researchers are still wanted to identify that whether physical exercise can reverse or slow the decline which age-related in the stem cells that are neural and are in charge for the production of new cell. In addition to this, researchers are exploring the possible mechanisms that are responsible for the physical exercise and based on the endogenous neural stem cells activation and came to know those hormones which are related to the growth may be closely concerned in the process of activation.

Only at present, the neuroscientists understand that the brain protects a pool of neural stem cells, even into adult people, waiting to be hired to establish new connections. This is a significant portion of neural learning and plasticity. At present it has been known that the stem cells are there, researches are in process to conclude maximum things, even involving regulations related to them. Possibly they participate a role in particular diseases, like Alzheimers. Or possibly they could be oppressed to prevent or treat such diseases.

In conclusion, this a core step in gaining knowledge about the neural stem cells, but it is just the start for the long term understanding to hopefully understand the environmental and genetic factors that effect the function of neural stem cell. It is usually complex to extrapolate from this type of basic science to the applications of clinical nature – people never understand what type of applications will emerge.

Works Cited

Thomas M., et.al. (2003). "Myostatin negatively regulates satellite cell activation and self-renewal." Journal of Cell Biol 162 (6): 1135–47.

Sampaolesi M., et al. (2006). "Mesoangioblast stem cells ameliorate muscle function in dystrophic dogs". Nature 444 (7211): 545–9.

"Stem-cell therapy: Promise and reality." Consumer Reports on Health 17.6 (2007): 9–10. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 12 Feb. 2012.

DNA and Molecule

2012-07-10T11:39:00.001+05:00

DNA and Molecule

Section-1

Introduction

The entire world is moving with a robust pace and continuous development in every field is apprising that the current era is the era of globalization. It has been observed that there is a marginal level of research has been conducted in almost every field (Ahmed, pp.25).

The availability of extensive amount of literature and researches make it very easy for the researchers to complete their researches in a well planned and professional manner. Biology is a field, which has been in a critical phase of research and continuous development from last few decades and consequently, lots of things have been derived and tailored accordingly (Ahmed, pp.38).

Theoretically, Biology is a branch of natural sciences related with the study of life and organisms. The study not only includes its details and branches but it also deals with the structure, function, growth and evolution of living things and living organism.

Science has developed numerous things in almost every subject. The concept of older scientists and biologists are now termed as vague in some circumstances because of the arrival of new researches and things in it. Among numerous concepts of Biology, the concept of molecule and DNA has its own significance. It is observed that the molecule can now tangle up with DNA for more than 2 weeks.

The main perspective of this study is to analyze the same broadly. The assignment is categorized in two different sections in which the first section comprises on introduction of the topic along with a short intro of molecule and DNA followed by analysis.

What Molecule is all about?

Molecule can be found in everything. It presents in Physics and atomic power subjects as tiny particles which later on interchange in atomic and hydrogen bombs. While in Biology, the concept of molecule is bit different than the concept underlies in physics (Ahmed, pp.38).

Molecules likewise physics, are small particles that evolves in both a living and non living body (Shaheer & Jameel, pp.78). Molecules are referred as atoms because it divided in tiny and small particles. There are few atoms found in the universe from which the molecules of living things are made from (Shaheer & Jameel, pp.78). They are very small in nature and founds in the entire body of a living likewise the stars in a universe (Shaheer & Jameel, pp.98).

According to biologist, the movement of molecule is extremely important for a living being to live. Each molecule found in the body of a person has a unique shape and factor which allows it to interact that molecule with other substantial molecules found in the body (Shaheer & Jameel, pp.25).

Biologists referred molecules as bacteria found in the body of living being and according to them, a living being cannot live without the movement and interaction of movement with each other because it is one of the reasons of flow of blood in a human body (Shaheer & Jameel, pp.47). Molecules are not only useful for the movement of blood but, it also important for the senses to work and keep all the creatures alive. The next heading which will be mentioned here is DNA.

What DNA is all about?

The acronym of DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid. It is one of the important molecule found in a human body and it is one of the most important ingredient for living a life. DNA is basically a nucleic acid containing the instructions of genetics which merely used in the functioning and development of all known and unknown organism. It is pre-requisite to analyze the involvement of DNA in a body, that no RNA virus would be present (Shaheer & Jameel, 2010).

DNA is basically a thing that carries genetic information called genes. DNA is a valuable part of molecules which are essential for a living being to live; in fact DNA is one of the major macromolecules that are more than important for the forms of life (Shaheer & Jameel, pp.22). The process of DNA had discovered in late of 18^th century and then later one numerous amounts of researches have been devoted on this particular topic.

There are two polymers on which the entire concept of DNA consists which regarded as nucleotides. Both of the polymers move in opposite directions to each other, hence they are called as anti parallel molecules.

The cells of the DNA organized into a long and broad structure called as chromosomes and these are extremely important for doing the DNA test of any living being. People assume that there is possible linkage between chromosomes and genetics but the idea is still under developed because no one has discovered that how chromosomes work (Shaheer & Jameel, pp.22). Medical sciences had has done a lot of researches on this particular thing and have found numerous interesting things and facts acquaintance with the concept of DNA (Samuels, 2010). Due to the research on DNA, it is experimented that whose baby belongs to whose. Medical sciences test the DNA and the molecule of the father and then the baby and then compare it to reach on a conclusion that whether or not the baby belongs to a certain person. After getting the basic idea of biological molecules and DNA, let’s now move towards the predefined theme of the paper.

Section-2

Is molecule can now tangle up with DNA for more than 2 weeks?

Among numerous works had has conducted in the medical sciences, the work on DNA is one of them. Lots of biologists and doctors have come up with different researches and tests said that molecules found in a living body can now tangle up with the DNA for more than 2 weeks. Tangle means twisting or intervening in a body (Samuels, pp.25).

The Universities of United States and Austria have come up with lots of considerable researches on this particular topic (Samuels, pp.27). Chemists working in the University of Texas and Austria have come up with the creation of a molecule which has the propensity to tangle up with the DNA for a long span of time (Shaheer & Jameel, pp.108). Before this research, molecules can hardly tangle up with the DNA for more than 2 days but the creation of new molecule can itself tangle inside the double helix of a DNA for up to 16 days (Samuels, pp.78).

According to the chemist of United States and Austria, it is one of the most imperative steps ever took in the history of medical sciences that step along the path to someday creating drugs that can go with the DNA directly (Wasiq, pp.25).

Brent Iverson, one of the Chemists researched and manufactured that molecule stated in his research published by department of Chemistry of United States, DNA and molecule have bind together in the same way as a snake climb on a ladder and it moves in either directions through the central staircase with the section fit between those steps (Wasiq, pp.31).

According to Brent, there is a strong reason behind taking this particular step of manufacturing a molecule which can tangle up with the DNA for a long span of time (let say two weeks). According to him, the molecules presented in a living body can only live for a day or two when it associates with DNA; hence it is extremely difficult for a doctor to diagnose different diseases in a person like HIV, cancer and other genetic disease (Wasiq, pp.21).

Brent, whose research was published in Nature Chemistry, stated that, there are numerous obstacles surround this concept to overcome on the treatment of above mentioned diseases.

Now a question arise that, if the molecules can tangle up with the DNA then what would be the benefits and outcome? As mentioned earlier that the diagnosis of different diseases like HIV, cancer, retroviruses and other types of genetic diseases is very difficult instantly and it requires time to the doctors or surgeons to have a proper diagnose and recommend a specific medical treatment for it. This delay can prolong the time of recovery of a person or sometimes it may result as a certain death (Wasiq, pp.25).

Now with the help of manufacturing of a new molecule, it is possible to tangle up the molecules with the DNA for more than 2 weeks (Shaheer & Jameel, pp.35). This particular research wills certainly assists the doctors to have a proper diagnose of different diseases resulted from that (Shaheer & Jameel, pp.98). The research and idea of thins thing is still unfamiliar among most of the people even who belongs to medical science subjects as well, hence proper study is required to aware the people at least the medical science professionals and students to get most of the benefit from this research and try to mitigate the vulnerabilities of the consequences resulting from these things.

Conclusion

The concept of biology deals with the medical sciences and it relates to the living things. There are hundreds of thousands of concept come under the ambit of biology and DNA testing and researching is one of them (Wasiq, pp.47). There are certain molecules studied in biology which have a direct contact with the life of a living being and molecules tangling up with DNA are one of them which have its own significance.

Medical Sciences have come up with new researches on this topic and have created a molecule which can tangle up with the DNA for more than two weeks. There are numerous benefits have jotted down in second section of report and this particular research will certainly go for long in near future (Shaheer & Jameel, pp.22). Still the concept is unfamiliar among most of the medical science students because of its very and complex nature, thus it’s a time to reveal the researches among different literature of medical.

Works Cited

Ahmed, Kaleem, what DNA is? Pearson Group Publications (2006)

Shaheer, Massom & Jameel, Massom, DNA Testing and Molecules, McGraw Hill Publications (2010)

Samuels, Jackson, DNA Testing and Molecules, John Wiley & Sons Professional publications (2010)

Wasiq, Khliq, DNA Testing and Molecules, Pearson Group Publications (2011)

Criminal Justice System

2012-07-10T11:35:00.001+05:00

Criminal Justice Systemhttp://dodohelp.com/index.php/recent-papers/31-recent-projects/165-organizational-behaviore

Criminal Justice System is a body, in which local, public and private agencies involve in the process of crime investigation, gathering of relevant evidences, criminal apprehension, pressing charges and conducting trials for passing applicable sentences to criminals (Siegel and Senna, 2005). . The main aim criminal justice system is to reduce crime and increase security of the public. It also focuses at rehabilitation of the victims. Prosecutor, Defense Attorney, Criminals and Victims play a major role in criminal justice system. This paper describes roles and functions of each individual in the criminal justice system and explains how victimization affects each role. This paper also elaborates on goals of alternative sanctions and how these goals help offenders to lead better life when they come out of prison sentence.

Prosecutor

Prosecutor is the chief legal representative of the prosecution in the court. The prosecution is the legal party responsible for presenting a case in the court against a person accused of breaking law.

Defense Attorney

Defense Attorney or defense lawyer is the one specialized in the defense of individuals and companies charged with criminal conduct.

Criminal & Victim

Criminal is an individual who has committed the crime where as a victim is a person, who suffered from the illegal activities of criminal.

What are the goals of sentencing associated with each role?

· Sentencing is the duty of the court, but prosecutor has the role of assisting the courts in making its decision of appropriate sentence by drawing the court’s attention with regard to the following factors:

· Hearing to the victims personal statements

· Any mitigating or aggravating factors disclosed by the prosecution case

· Any statutory provisions, guideline cases which may assist

· Prosecutor can also offer assistance to court by making submissions, in regard of the above factors, to decide the sentencing range in which the offense falls.

· Prosecutor must set out in writing aggravating and mitigating factors when informing court of the case in sentence hearing in complex cases where there is a possibility of misunderstandings.

· The duties such as applying for compensation and ancillary orders such as anti social behavior orders lies with the prosecutor.

· Prosecutor should challenge assertions made by defense in mitigation which is misleading or derogatory.

· Prosecutors must comply with Attorney general’s guidelines in accepting the pleas and prosecutor role in sentencing exercise.

· A defense attorney should protect client’s rights through out the process of criminal prosecution

· To increase the incapacitation to reduce the crime rate. Increased incapacitation on selected offenders to make them lead their normal life after they released from imprisonment.

· Rehabilitation of offenders helps them to recover from the imprisonment life to lead regular life.

· Reformation of offender

· Satisfying the victim to taking steps to reduce the crime rates. In olden days, offenders used to get punishments to pacify victims but the imprisonment, nowadays, is a broad term. Criminal Justice System has been taking steps to train offenders in such a way to reduce the crime rates.

Goals of alternative sanctions

Form Government’s standpoint

· Alternative sanctions should help governmental in-charge to use all community facilities for rehabilitation

· Cost reduction of government resources (Stephan 2001).

From Criminal’s Standpoint

· To help offender to lead his or her regular life as an imprisonment dents an individual’s reputation and moral values. It is very difficult for a person to rebuild his regular lifestyle immediately after he comes back from imprisonment.

· To help offender to get a better change to rehabilitate himself or herself.

· To avoid process of prisonisation (Reid 1976, p. 592)

· To help offender avoiding the shame of prison sentence

· To create Intensive Supervision Probation

· Organizing Boot Camps to create positive environment

· Employment Counseling and Assistance. This will help offender to learn a specific skill set.

· Income maintenance assistance

· Drug and Alcohol Counseling

From Community’s Standpoint

· To reduce the cost. Institutional treatment is much expensive than alternative sanctions

Recommendations regarding Victims Rights

· It is very important to investigate an entity, which has violated victim’s rights.

· Establishing a universally accessible statewide automated victim information notification system will definitely improve victim notifications.

· It is advisable to maintain a website with toll-free number, which might become the sources for information on victim’s rights.

· Creating awareness programs on victim rights would also help people to understand victim’s statutory and constitutional rights

· Create media campaigns to increase the awareness of victims’ rights

· Stop sharing the information of crime victim’s address or any other contact information without approval of victim (Lubitz and Ross2001).

Conclusion

Criminal Justice system is a body, which monitors any task related to crimes. Alternative sanctions will not only help offenders but also governments and communities. Government can save money by releasing criminals after training them to embrace life skills, employment skills and incapacitation. Offenders will learn to lead a good life after the prison sentence with the help of alternative sanctions. Victims’ Rights should be amended to include various awareness programs.

References

Lubitz, R.L., & Ross, T.W. (2001). Sentencing guidelines: Reflections on the Future. National Institute of Justice. Retrieved January 17, 2012, from <http://www.ncjrs.org/txtfiles1/nij/186480.txt>

Reid, S. T. (1976). Crime and Criminology, Dryden Press, Hinsdale, Illinois, p. 623.

Siegel, L.J., & Senna, J.J. (2005). Introduction to criminal justice: Tenth edition. Belmont, California: Thomson Wadsworth.

Stephan, James (2001). State Prison Expenditures, 2001. Ofﬁce of Justice Programs, United States. Dept. of Justice. Retrieved January 17, 2012 from <http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/spe01.pdf>

Christian Counselling

2012-07-10T11:33:00.001+05:00

Work place ethics determines the moral or the ethical soundness of an act or lack of it thereof, on the basis of related consequences. In the strictest sense of utilitarian thought, an act is moral if it results to the greatest good of the greatest number of people (Morrison, 2010). It has a similar perspective to the consequential theory, in that they both judge an act on the basis of the good that comes out of it. For instance, it would be morally right if a bus driver overran a child crossing the road, if avoiding him would have endangered the lives of several passengers. In the corporate world, utilitarianism comes into play when those in leadership like the counselors make economically sound decisions, but in the process overlook or ignore some moral considerations. An example is when a bribe is given to clinch a lucrative contract. Bribery is wrong, but the action is justified since the company makes a profit from the contract and at the same time, creates employment opportunities in terms of the manpower that will be hired (Heather, 25).

Justice violations in the work place have become a subject of discussion in both the public and private sectors. Some of the most common forms of violations include discrimination, harassment and skewed pay patterns. These forms of discrimination have become even more apparent with the advent of globalization which has led to integration of work cultures, people and styles of management (Mittelman, 2002). In an effort to fit in a globalized world, many organizations are putting more emphasis on promoting market integration and growth at the expense of balanced development and social and economic equity. From the Christian counseling perspective, many are still not well informed on whether they are operating under the state regulation or the Christian regulation which may not be party to the state regulations in counseling field.

In the state counseling regulations, the counselors are said to operate from the view that they do work in the support of the politically aligned correct position in determining right and wrong. This is supported by the fact they the state counselors should be in position to support what the appears in the face of the Christian perspective as sin like the support to homosexuality. The state licensed therapists are said to operate based on the law of the country where issues like abortion, homosexuality, and divorce as normal lifestyle in the society. In a Christian set up of counseling, this is contrally to their rules and even to the bible.

Another difference between the two groups is that the state counselors are governed by the government while the Christian counselors are governed by the religious institutions or the body of Christ. For instance in the Canadian set up, their counseling approach is based on the fact that the belief of the counselor is motivated by the care and the virtue basing of the reason that they are quite sure that it is the right thing to do. The virtue ethics therefore focus on the counselor as the agent of ethics having the capacity to make ethical considerations that could be complex. The NCCA mode entirely follows the bible faith based and the examples on the teaching of Jesus Christ (Retnowati, 63).

In the Christian profession of counseling, all the counselors under this category have not been clear on where to place themselves, are they in any way supposed to be held accountable and if so to whom. Counseling licenses from the American states does require a person to follow the regulations that have been set by the country. Christian counselors are ordained and commissioned by the church or the religious institution that they are affiliated to which do in turn hold them accountable in their counseling practice. According to the Christian counseling set up, their counseling centre is said to offer anything possible that makes them viable counselors recognized by the National Association of Christian Counseling commonly referred to as NCCA.

Like the other counselors under the state council, Christian counselors are too entitled to allowances which are a demand for any professional work when it comes to service delivery expectation. The educators in Christian counseling set up are also educated just like those of the state council. When it comes to certification, it is upon an individual’s decision to decide whether he wants to serve as a counselor in church or in state council parastatal. The national Christian counselors association is in this case not a state licensed body which is more different compared to the American counselors association and the Canadian counselors association. The two state governed counselors bodies are under certain laws that govern their psychological practices unlike the Christian one. They differ from the Christian system in that they do offer general counseling and not as that specific as the Christian counseling system. Although the legislation in the national Christian counselors association do vary from state to state, their operation is purely professional for they insist on clear identification of the their credentials which is to keep check on the operations of the counselor to operate within their set legal ethical class with the aim of maintaining the public trust and even confidence (Tan, 18).

The other difference between the state or rather non Christian counseling body and the Christian based counselors is that the Christian based counselors are an NCCA credentialed and are purely running under the management of the church which is clearly defined compared to the state council governed counselors. It is believed that counselors that are held by the state are under ethical standards that are strict that do mandate people a free religious influence. They are also not in any way supposed to introduce anything to do with Christianity in their counseling solutions. According to the state regulations, introducing such activities may be termed as an ethical in the state regulations particularly if the funding is from the government. According to the United States and Canadian state counselors’ regulations, state counselors are not supposed to introduce personal opinions based on the Christian concept during the counseling sessions which include the Christian morals, the Christian activities, and even the Christian instructions. Despite the set regulations, it can happen otherwise only under circumstances that the counselee has requested this particular area. The weakness in this is that the state counselor may not be well versed with the bible verses to aid in the counseling as it would have been with the Christian based counselor. Pastors during the counseling are known to offer prayer and share their faith during the counseling sessions which makes them more distinct from the state governed counselors (Garry, 37).

References

Boyle Heather. Ethical Issues in Prisoner Treatment, Offender Therapy, and Community Reentry: International Perspectives and Policy Considerations . Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice. Routeledge publishers, 1998, pp. 25

Collins Gary. Christian counseling. Word publishers, 1998, pp. 37

Ernest Retnowati. Worked Example Effects in Individual and Group Work Settings. Educational Psychology. SAGE publishers, 2001, pp 63

Syang wu Tan. Lay counseling, equipping Christians for helping ministry. Zondervan publishers. 2003, pp. 18

Cells Cycle and Cancer

2012-07-10T11:27:00.001+05:00

Differences between Normal Cells and Cancer Cells

Normal Cells will be divided in a structured way in order to produce more cells only when the body needs them where as with regards to cancer cells, more cells will be created continuously without any control. Sometimes, a mass of the tissue will be created, which is also called as tumor. Normal cells derive 20 percent of their energy from a system called ‘Glycolysia’ and 70 percent of energy from a system called ‘Kerb Cycle’. Cancer cells derive nearly 99.9 percent of energy from the system called ‘Glycolysia. Oxygen is the main source of energy for normal cells where as cancer cells will derive most of their energy without oxygen. Normal cells will have a built-in blood vessel system where as cancer cells do not. Cancer cells need amino acids to build blood vessel system. The growth of normal cells is very normal and completely in control where as cancer cells will be hyper active in their growth. Enzymes and hormones behave in a balanced manner in normal cells where as enzymes and hormones behave either hyper active or under active in cancer cells (Dingli and Nowak 2006).

Which type of cancer shows the most aggressive growth? Explain.

Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC) shows most aggressive growth when compared to other dangerous cancers. The survival time for the patients who are suffering from the small cell lung cancer is nearly 3 to 4 months after diagnosis when untreated. Most of the small cell lung cancer cases are due to smoking and it is not really common in people who do not smoke. SCLC is more common in men than women and nearly 15 percent lung cancer patients are suffering for small scale lung cancer. SCLC starts at the center of the chest in the breathing tubes. Though, the cells are very small, they are very dangerous and effective in reproduction and growth. If these small cells crate a mass tissue, it will be immediately turned as a tumor. Small cell lung cancer can spread across the body very quickly. The major target areas for this kind of cancer are liver, brain and bone. Chemotherapy will be used to prolong the life of the patient that suffers from SCLC. The combination of chemotherapy and other methods can prolong the life of the patient up to 4 years. When suffering from SCLC, the chances of living for more than 5 years after the diagnosis are only 4 percent (Rosti, Bevilacqua and Bidoli March 2006).

Which type of tissue would have a higher mitotic index, normal tissue or cancerous tissue? Explain.

Mitotic index is used to calculate the ratio between the number of normal cells or total number of cells or between the number of cancer cells and total number of cells in the body. Mitotic index purely depends on the reproduction capability of the cells. If the reproduction capability of a particular cell is high, the mitotic index for that cell will also be very high and vice-versa. The mitotic index for cancer cells is higher than normal cells because cancer cells can reproduce their cells uncontrollably with their hyper active growth nature. The main reason behind large reproduction is high mutation of DNA in cancer cells. As per experts, the percentage normal cells dividing in normal tissue is 5 percent whereas in a cancerous lung tissue the percentage is around 25. Other reasons behind high mitotic index in cancer cells is unstructured way of cell creation, hyper active enzymes and hyper active hormones (Baak et al. (2008).

References

Baak, J. P. A.; Gudlaugsson, E.; Skaland, I.; Guo, L. H. R.; Klos, J.; Lende, T. H.; Søiland, H. V.; Janssen, E. A. M. et al. (2008). "Proliferation is the strongest prognosticator in node-negative breast cancer: Significance, error sources, alternatives and comparison with molecular prognostic markers". Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 115 (2): 241–254.

Dingli D, Nowak MA (September 2006). "Infectious Cancer Cells". Nature 443 (7107): 35–6.

Rosti, G; Bevilacqua G, Bidoli P et al. (March 2006). "Small cell lung cancer". Annals of Oncology 17 (Suppl. 2): 5–10.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of The Sarbanes-Oxley Act On Tax Planning

2012-07-10T11:24:00.002+05:00

Sarbanes-Oxley Act of United States passed in 2002 brought the most important reform in the current public financial reporting of United States. The Act was developed to reinstate the confidence of public in the public companies management after the scandals of WorldCom, Enron and others. Sarbanes-Oxley has directly influenced the liabilities and responsibilities of Board of Directors, Corporate Executives, Auditors, Audit Committees, and Analysts. This paper intends to provide the advantages and disadvantages of Sarbanes Oxley Act particularly in relation to the tax planning.

In respect to the tax planning, Sarbanes-Oxley identify the potential risks of the similar firm conducting both tax services and auditing for a business by changing the association between the Audit Committee of company and external auditors. Where as not limiting auditors from the tax services undertaking, Sarbanes-Oxley provides a new obligation for this type of services to be pre-approved or approved by the audit committee of a company, enforcing new accountabilities on both the audit committee and the corporate tax department.

The retention and appointment of auditors is considered a question for the audit committee of a company. In which situation auditors also render tax services to the company, the Final Rules of Security Exchange Commission specify that the committee must analyze:

Transactions primarily suggested by the accountant of firm,
Transactions for that the only purpose of business is tax evasion, and
The treatment of tax for that may not be assisted by the Internal Revenue Code of United States and associated regulations

These three tests are applicable equally to state, local, foreign, federal taxes.
Another advantage of this act is that the corporate departments of tax can carry out a very helpful function in supporting the committee of audit to meet its responsibilities of Sarbanes-Oxley in relation to tax services. It is particularly advisable that the Vice President of Tax or Director of Tax must attain a copy of the auditing policy of an entity and become familiar with its provisions, in addition to this the procedure for attaining the permission if services are not approved prior to this process.

The basic disadvantage of Sarbanes Oxley Act is that its adherence demands from the businesses to implement number of different internal controls to protect the company’s financial information. Internal controls are particular to each operation of accounting, for instance cash reconciliations, accounts payable, and fixed assets. Numbers of different internal controls needs extra time for the processing of accounting functions, which become the reason of delaying in the timely preparation of financial information. Furthermore, employees should confirm that all the documented work is correct and approved by the seniors. Increasing the functions and amount of internal controls increases the closing time for preparation of tax files and hence delays the preparation of financial statements.

Sarbanes Oxley Act policies demand public corporations to have yearly audit performed an independent accounting firm. These numbers of audits obviously increase the cost of business and hence higher accounting and audit fees demand from companies to fix their budgets in order to compensate for these services.

Finally, the severe fines for accounting and tax are increased in Sarbanes Oxley Act. Few penalties are unfortunately placed even on minor type of violations. Rigorous fines on minor mistakes or violations may restrict the executive type of talent group if the employees of future management are not intended to be liable for minor mistakes.

References
Piotroski, Joseph D. and Srinivasan, Suraj. (2008). Regulation and Bonding: The Sarbanes–Oxley Act and the Flow of International Listings. New York: Wiley.

"The Effect of Corporate Governance Regulation on Transparency: Evidence from the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002". Papers.ssrn.com. Retrieved 2012-02-04.

Farrell, Greg. (2005). America Robbed Blind. Washington: Wizard Academy Press.
Lucas, Nance (2004). "Sarbanes Interview". Findarticles.com. Retrieved 2012-02-04.

Sarbanes–Oxley: Progressive Punishment for Regressive Victimization, 44 Hous. L. Rev. 95 (2007)". Papers.ssrn.com. Retrieved 2012-02-04.

Stephen M. Kohn, Michael D. Kohn, and David K. Colapinto. (2004). Whistleblower Law: A Guide to Legal Protections for Corporate Employees. New York: Praeger Publishers.

Farrell, Greg (2007). "USA Today — SOX Law Has Been a Pretty Clean Sweep". Usatoday.com. Retrieved 2012-02-04.

Canada And The Air Force Wwi And Wwii

2012-06-12T10:11:00.001+05:00

In the 20th-century Canada in support of its closest ally “Great Britain” participated in two world wars. These were wars with new technology, specifically the “fixed wing aircraft” which gave birth to a new battlefield “the sky”. This changed the tactics of previous wars, the airplane was capable of many duties; ranging from aerial reconnaissance to ground attack to the tactical and strategic bombing, both by day and night. Canada did not start with an Air Force, however was a major player in the battle for the sky. This synopsis will discuss the role Canada played in the training of Air Force Personnel from World War One (WWI) through World War Two (WWII). World War I WWI was known as the “Great War” or “the war to end all wars”. WWI engulfed the majority of Europe from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918 and more than 70 million people mobilized for military service. WWI was triggered by the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne on 28 June 1914, in Sarajevo the capital of Bosnia/Herzegovina by Gavilo Princip a Bosnian-Serb student. On 28 July, the conflict opened with the Austro-Hungarian Invasion of Serbia, German invasion of Belgium, Luxemburg and France; and a Russian attack against Germany.1 And due to the invoking of alliances formed over the decades many of the worlds’ powers and their colonies soon joined the conflict. To better appreciate Canada’s role in the war we must understand that Canada was an emerging nation but still held many strong ties with Great Britain. Even though Canada had autonomy with regards to internal issues, Great Britain still held control when it came to international matters and therefore when Great Britain declared war on Germany, so did Canada. World War II WW II was a conflict in which many of the world’s nations participated. WWII took place from 1939 to 1945. It was generally accepted to have begun on 1 September 1939, with the invasion of Poland by Germany, and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and most of the countries of the British Empire and Commonwealth. 2 WWII was not specific to Europe. Other battlefields included Africa and the Asian Pacific.

To fully understand how Canada became involved in WWII, we must remember after WWI Great Britain was winding down control over the colonies. By implementing the Statute of Westminster on 11 December 1931 Canada was granted the freedom to make its own decisions with regards to foreign policy. Because of Canada’s ties with Great Britain, on 10 September 1939 Canada declared war on Germany and on Italy on 11 June 1940 and Japan on 7 December 1941. Analysis During WWI Canada did not have aviation assets; Canadians who chose to fly during the war did so with the British Royal Flying Corps (RFC) or the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAF). However, this did not stop Canada from having a role in the training of Air Force personnel. British flying forces viewed Canada as rich for recruiting. Originally recruitment was aimed towards people with a pilot’s license or those willing to attend a civil aviation school at their own expense. However, due to the low output of these private aviation schools and the increased need for pilots, navigators and ground crews, the RFC established flying schools and training location where recruits could learn all the aspects of aerial warfare. Initially these schools were run by the RFC but by the end of the war the majority of instructors and personnel were Canadian.

It should also be noted, when the United States joined the war, an agreement was signed allowing American squadrons to train in Canada during the summer and fall and the RFC to move its training to Texas for the winter. At the outset of WWII Canada and other commonwealth nations (United Kingdom, New Zealand and Australia) met in Ottawa on 17 December 1939 to sign the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (B.C.A.T.P.). This agreement set in motion one of Canada’s principal roles during the war; to provide Air Force personnel with the training they needed. Canada established training schools for aerial warfare, ranging from flight training to gunnery and bombing to navigation and communications. The first of these schools were scheduled to be opened at the end of spring in 1940, and all were to be operational within two years.3 In order to achieve the B.C.A.T.P.’s aim, sites had to be selected, infrastructure constructed, equipment acquired; and the recruitment of professionals. Canada showed great success in the training of Air Force personnel, as by the end of 1943 the number of trained aircrews exceeded the immediate overseas need. As we have discussed, while Canada had an important role in the training of Air Force personnel in WWI, with its role increasing in WWII. Since Canada did not have an Air Force during WWI, there was a lack of knowledge and resources available to train Air Force personnel, therefore when Canada got involved in the training of Air Force personnel she had to rely on the expertise of the RFC to train Canada in aerial warfare.

As a result of the lessons learned during WWI, Canada took control and was quick to putinplace the requirements of the B.C.A.P.T. for training Air Force personnel in the different facets of aerial warfare. This is clearly indicated by comparing the number of Air Force personnel trained in Canada during both world wars. Canada only able to train 3,135 Canadian pilots and 137 Canadian observers during WWI, whereas during WWII the number of multinational Air Force personnel trained during WWII was 131,553 aircrew, including almost 50,000 pilots, 18,500 wireless operator-air gunners and 15,900 navigators4. excellent Conclusion Canada did not officially establish its own Air Force until after the end of WWI. However in WWI and WWII Canada was instrumental in training of Air Force personnel. Canada was in a position where there were no direct threat to its borders; it was able to provide support in ways that could not have been imagined by other nations. Canada was a steadfast contributor to the training of Air Force Personnel. Without Canada’s willingness to commit resources into the training of pilots and other air crew the wars’ may have ended differently. In the end it can safely be said, Canada trained the world to fly in combat!

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

2011-10-23T15:06:00.008+05:00

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is a condition from which nearly 10% of
Americans suffer. It, unlike other afflictions, is associated with a wide
variety of circumstances. Many war veterans suffer from Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder. However, a new group of people are quickly emerging as common suffers
of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder-sexually abused children. Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder is a prevalent problem associated with children who are victims of
sexual assault.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is classified as an anxiety disorder under
the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Disorders (DSM-III). The diagnoses for
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder was not formally diagnosed as part of DSM-III
until 1980. According to Famolaro, "the diagnoses of Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder requires: (a) experience of a significant traumatic events; (b) re-
experiencing of the trauma in one of several different thought, emotional, or
behavioral forms; (d) persistent symptoms of increased arousal, Particularly
when exposedto stimuli concretely or symbolically reminiscent of the trauma; (e)
symptoms lasting at least one month. (Famolaro, Maternal and Child
Posttraumatic... 28)".
Children are now becoming realized as significant sufferers of
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is particularly
bad for children under the age of 11, because they lack many of the skills
needed to protect themselves. Furthermore, this vulnerability is enhanced when
the child is exposed to any maltreatment. According to recent studies,
"Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is a common sequella of severe or chronic
maltreatment of children, particularly among sexually maltreated children (
Famularo, Symptom Differences... 28)". Posttraumatic Stress Disorder can be
caused if the child is exposed to just one traumatic episode (rape, witnessing a
violent crime, physical abuse); However, the child will become more susceptible
to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder if the maltreatment continues. Moreover, a
child is most likely to suffer from symptoms associated with Posttraumatic
Stress Disorder when sexual assault is involved(28).
Because children have not yet developed cognitively emotionally and are
very immature, they are likely candidates to develop symptoms related to
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. As a child matures he/she becomes better
equipped to deal with and prevent contributing factors to the eventual suffering
from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Up to age two, young children can recreate
stressful events and even imagine such events recurring; However, the mind is
not developed enough to identify, anticipate, or prevent future traumatic
occurrences. At age three, children cannot, "distance themselves, in time,
appreciate roles and differences in behavior, access situation, or adopt
nonegocentric causality (Saigh 189)". This flaw opens them up to the impact of
trauma because the child cannot anticipate and protect themselves. By age four,
children have the ability to protect themselves by avoiding traumatic encounters.
They also have the ability to suppress their anxiety when it becomes difficult
to cope with. Because children do not have this ability any earlier they are
vulnerable to physical and sexual assault. Children continue as such until they
become concrete operational at about age six or seven (190).
Children who have been sexually abused develop many of the syndromes
associated with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, some of which are, the inability
to establish normal relationships with adults and peers, to make a normal
transition from adolescence to adulthood, as well as to develop skills required
to progress in school. However, this was not the case with all sexually
assaulted children. Walder states, "not all those so exposed will develop a
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder reaction; some may have a certain "hardiness" that
helps them cope without any noticeable residual effects while others may have a
severe psychological reaction that renders them unable to function (Walker
130)."
Knowledge of sexual assaults has recently become more common. Random
surveys of adults indicate that approximately 28% of women and 16% of men were
victims of sexual abuse before the age of sixteen (Valentier 455). The nature
of the abuse stretched from fondling to sexual intercourse committed by an adult
that was five years older than the victim (Wolf et al). Women are more often
the victims of child sexual assault then men. According to John B. Murry, women
are the victims of child hood sexual abuse at a ratio of 10:1 over men (Murry
658). Furthermore, children of lower income families are also common victims of
sexual assault. But, as Murry points out, sexual abuse occurs in all types of
families regardless of their income; and, sexual assaults are usually committed
by a member of the family. It is difficult to get an accurate record of the
actual number of children that have been sexually abused. Many cases never come
to light and because of differences in definitions of sexual assault , some
cases are missed.(658).
Researchers have begun to explore the concept of Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder with children and adults that were victims of sexual assault. Many
times people associate particular events with particular stimuli. For example,
certain orders, colors, sounds, and people can trigger a memory of a past event.
This is more true for victims of sexual assault. According to Wolf, Sas, and
Wekerle, "traumatic episodes become associated with particular eliciting stimuli
and can lead to maladaptive or a typical reactions. Such conditioning can play
an important role in the formation of children's adjustment disorders subsequent
to sexual abuse (Wolf et al 38)." Because people do not anticipate an abusive
episode there are usually things the victim can not control. Sexual abuse is
just such a stressful event that will produce a form of a coping reaction.
Because children are impressionable the perpetrator may consult, threaten of
confuse the child to confession. Child victims of child sexual assault are also
tortured by nightmares, recurring images of the event and troubling memories.
"Based on interviews with children who have been exploited by adults through sex
rings and pornography, 65 of 60 children reported intrusive thoughts, flashbacks,
and nightmares. Physical symptoms (eg. Somatic complaints, sleep problems,
excessive crying) and greater social withdraw and distrust of others were also
noted among a sizeable proportion of this sample (Wolf et al 39)."
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder is diagnosed with the Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder Symptom Checklist. The test consists of a list of 43 "adjustment
problems" with 23 items spanning the range of symptoms characterizing
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder as defined in the DSM-III Categories for
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Participants were considered Posttraumatic
Stress Disorder positive if they indicated on the test that they had
reexperienced the traumatic event, became avoident, and had increased arousal.
The test also indicated whether or not the participant had a "moderate problem"
or "partial" Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (Rowan 55)." In one study using the
PTSD symptom checklist on 42 sexually abused children, 64% of the participants
were considered PSD"positive", with another 19% meeting the criteria for
"partial" PTSD(56)."
The sample of nighty children comprised of 21 boys and 69 girls. The
average age was 12.4 years old. Based on the most severe forms of abuse
reported by these children, 52.2% had alleged sexual touching (including
fondling of genitals, masturbation, 34.4% reported oral, anal, or vaginal
intercourse with the offender, 10% reported attempted or simulated intercourse,
and the remaining 3,3% reported being the victim of indecent exposure. Out of
the sample, 44.7% had been abused only once, 32.9% of the sample were abused two
to ten times, 7.1% were abused ten to twenty times, and 15.3% more than twenty
times. Almost all alleged perpetrators were persons known to the child, 54.4%
were non-family members, 25.6% were abused by a parent or stepparent, 20% were
abused by a member of the extended family or a stranger (Findelnor 1406).
The results of the test indicated that of the ninety children tested, 44
showed positive signs of PTSD and 46 did not. Of the 44 children testing
positive, 49.8% self-reported showing total fear, 53.2% indicated fears of abuse,
57.7% showed anxiety ,and 59.3% felt depressed. Guilt and self-blame were also
diagnosed at 25% and 11% respectively. Parents of the 44 children that tested
positive, 64.2% internalized their anxiety while 61.5% externalized (140).
In a separate study done by Famularo, he evaluated a test group for both
acute and chronic PTSD. Sexually abused children which had an onset of symptoms
within six months of the abuse and a duration of symptoms lasting longer than
six months were diagnosed as having acute PTSD. Conversely, sexually abused
children with symptoms lasting longer thatn six months were diagnosed with
chronic PTSD. Twenty-four of the 28 sexually abused children tested showed
evidence of either acute or chronic symptoms of PTSD. Of this group 3.1% had
recurrent intrusive recollections and 3.33% recreated the trauma in their play.
2.61% experienced nightmares, 3.33% of the group acted as if the event were
occurring.
Distress of exposure to symbolic real re-exposure was experienced by
2.1% of the children. 3.49% of the victims avoided thoughts related to the
event and activities that arouse recollections of the event. Furthermore, 1.8%
of the children could not recall aspects of the trauma. 3.2% demonstrated a
diminished interest in games and recreational activities. 16.3% of those tested
suffered regression. Of these victims, 3.14% detached and estranged themselves
from others. Sadly, 2.61% of these traumatized children exhibited and expressed
the belief that their lives would be short. While 2.9% felt that life was going
to be difficult and long(144).
Until recently, sexually abused children were never studied for symptoms
of PTSD. As the aforementioned case studies suggest, it as a problem that
deserves attention. These children do suffer the symptoms of PTSD and should be
diagnosed and treated accordingly. This could be difficult as many instances of
sexual abuse remain unreported; however, their problems are real and deserve the
help that further research could facilitate.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

2011-10-23T15:06:00.005+05:00

Table of Contents

Introduction..3
Risk Factors.3
Pathophysiology...4
Clinical manifestation..5
Diagnostic criteria5
Laboratory and Diagnostic test6
Evaluation & Treatment...6
Prognosis..6
Summary..7

There are hundreds of different kinds of psychiatric disorders listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. (DSM-IV). One of them is called Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Based on the research, post-traumatic disorder usually occurs following the experience or witnessing of life-threatening events such as military combat, natural disasters, terrorist incidents, serious accidents, or violent personal assaults like rape (Harvard Women's Health Watch, 2005). The purpose of this paper is to discuss the risk factors, pathophysiology, clinical manifestation, diagnostic criteria and tests, treatment, prognosis and future research and approaches to treat this psychiatric illness of post-traumatic stress disorder.
Risk Factors
As to all other kinds of disorders, determining the risk factors is a major influential aspect of a person's life in exposing herself to such diseases and illnesses. The factors that put people at risk for post-traumatic disorder are having a history of physical, emotional and sexual abuse. In addition to that, people who have been abused as children or who have had other previous traumatic experiences at a time in their lives are more highly to develop the disorder (Harvard Women's Health Watch, 2005). Other risk factors that contribute to PTSD include motor vehicle crashes, disasters, torture, and comorbid substance abuse (Miller, 2000). The most common precipitating events for PTSD in women were rape and physical assault. For men, physical assault and other traumas were the most prevalent. However, both genders are at heightened risk for PTSD when it comes to motor vehicle accidents. These are the major risk factors people may face that predict the likelihood of post-traumatic stress disorder to occur. Furthermore, according to Harvard Women's Health Watch 2005, people do not necessary have to encounter the traumatic events directly in order for PTSD to develop.

Pathophysiology
Until now, there has not been a definite understanding of how post-traumatic stress disorder occurs in the brain. The exploration into its pathophysiology is fairly recent. However, there is research around it discussing about PTSD's pathophysiology and coming to a complete understanding. In a normal person without the disorder, a stress hormone, adrenaline, releases from the body and prepares it to flee or fight from any stressful, traumatic events. "In the brain, adrenaline and the brain chemical norepinephrine stimulate the amygdala, a deep brain structure that spurs the formation of vivid, emotional memories of the threat," (Harvard Women's Health Watch, 2005, p. 5). In contrast, a post-traumatic stress disorder person's system would seem to be oversensitive. Source says the amygdala may look to be over reactive in PTSD, but it posts a question upon if the amygdala is already over reactive in itself or it could naturally be over reactive responding to trauma (Harvard Women's Health Watch, 2005). With the help of imaging techniques and its imaging studies, it shows that the hippocampus and the anterior cingulated cortex found to be smaller in PTSD. The two areas of the brain which help maintain the amygdala in check seem to have trouble functioning properly in people with PSTD (Harvard Women's Health Watch, 2005). Another thought that involves the pathophysiology of PTSD is the role of basal catecholamines. However, the subject is controversial (Miller, 2000). There has been a hypothesis made that cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) concentrations increase in people with PTSD from a study comparing combat veterans and normal volunteers (Miller, 2000). As with any disorder of the brain, the complexities of PTSD are extensive and require a lot of integrating components. Therefore, the pathophysiology of PTSD is unclear.

Clinical Manifestation
Post-traumatic stress disorder falls into three general categories of symptoms: Intrusion, avoidance, and arousal. Intrusion is repeatedly re-living the ordeal in the form of flashback episodes, memories, nightmares, or frightening thoughts, especially when they are exposed to events or objects reminiscent of the trauma, causing intense emotional and physical distress (Harvard Women's Health Watch, 2005).
Second category of PTSD symptoms, avoidance, involves the numbing of general responsiveness and the avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma. Those include places, thoughts, activities, and many more (Harvard Women's Health Watch, 2005).
Finally, symptoms of arousal include difficulty falling or staying asleep, irritability or outbursts of anger, difficulty concentrating, hypervigilance, and an easy startle response (Harvard Women's Health Watch, 2005). These symptoms are usually experienced after a trauma and are considered chronic PTSD if lasting more than three months.
Having diagnosed with PTSD can also manifest other disorders as symptoms such as depression, anxiety disorder.
Diagnostic Criteria
Four categories of criteria are needed to accurately diagnose PTSD (Table 1).
First, a traumatic event occurred in which the person witnessed or experienced actual or threatened death or serious injury and responded with intense fear, horror or helplessness. Second, on exposure to memory cues, the person has re-experiencing symptoms, such as intrusive recollections, nightmares, flashbacks or psychologic distress. Third, the patient avoids trauma-related stimuli and feels emotionally numb. Fourth, the person has increased arousal, manifested by hypervigilance, irritability or difficulty sleeping. The symptoms persist for at least one month and significantly disturb the patient's social or occupational functioning (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
Laboratory and Diagnostic Tests
There are no tests that can be done to make the diagnosis of PTSD. The diagnosis is made based on a certain set of symptoms that persist after a history of extreme trauma. Doctor does psychiatric and physical examinations to rule out other illnesses. Table 1 is a list of criteria that clinicians use to diagnose PTSD. See Appedix A. A diagnostic screening questionnair screens people to find who is positive for PTSD, but this tool does not necessary diagnosed them with PTSD. Those who are positive for PTSD are referred for consultation with a structured interview (Miller, 2000). See Appendix B for questionnaires.
Evaluation and Treatment
" treatment isn't a bout forgetting a trauma or feeling as if it never happened. The goal is to eliminate or reduce its ability to dirupt your life," (Harvard Women's Health Watch, 2005, p. 5). Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, and exposure therapy, in which the patient repeatedly relives the frightening experience under controlled conditions to help him or her work through the trauma. Medications have also been shown to help ease the symptoms of depression and anxiety and help promote sleep: SSRIs (Harvard Women's Health Watch, 2005). See Appendix C. Treating a disorder whose components are not fully understood is a little bit difficult.
Prognosis
The best outcome of PTSD depends on some factors. The factors include whether it was a simple trauma or a complicated one. A single traumatic event or a short period of a trauma happens later on in life minus the involvement of human violence is considered as simple trauma (Miller, 2000). On the other hand, complicated trauma is the opposite. It involves a series of events over a long duration and usually starts in childhood (Miller, 2000). One would think that receiving treatment early would help with the onset and progress with the disorder. However, it is unfortunate that it does not work that way. "An expert review of studies by the international nonprofit Cochrane Collaboration concluded that it may interfere with natural recovery from trauma and should be compulsory for any trauma victims, (Harvard Women's Health Watch, 2005).
Summary
Overall, if understanding the pathophysiology of post-traumatic stress disorder is unclear, then there is not really a potent treatment to PTSD. However, the future holds a lot of key ideas to potential treatments in PTSD. A relatively new therapy called Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) has shown to be effective, but not all mental health practitioners know the method due to its recency (Miller, 2000). Another new brief treatment called Metacognitive therapy is say to process "the strengthening of a cognitive plan that can guide thinking and behaviour in future potential encounters with trauma," (Wells & Sembi, 2004, p. 308). Future research also includes postmortem brain studies because it is significant in understanding psychiatric disorders to the neurobiology level (Soboslay, Martin, & Kleinman, 2004). Scientists are attempting to determine which treatments work best for which type of trauma.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Reliving And Still Feeling The Fear

2011-10-23T15:06:00.002+05:00

Everyday millions of people in the United States alone deal with anxiety disorders that complicate and impair their life. No defiant numbers are available but it is thought to be in the five to seven million range. The lack of numbers is due mainly to people not realizing that there is something wrong with them, often putting off their disorder as over acting or excessive worrying. Another reason that we do not know the exact amount is due to the social stigma of having a mental condition, and how society often looks down upon those that are not as "strong" as the social norms. Some of the stigma is gone in today's society, yet people still feel they must hide any imperfection in themselves from the world. However, there is an exception, there are people who feel they get the attention that they crave by being "sick" and often claim many diseases.
Anxiety disorders are broken down into five subcategories and many smaller categories. The five main subcategories are panic disorder, phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder and post- traumatic stress disorder. Panic disorder, which are episodes of intense fear along with distressing psychological and physical symptoms. Phobias are fears of certain social situations, or specific things such as flying and spiders. Obsessive-Compulsive disorder is a ritual based disorder in which the sufferer uses the ritualistic behaviors to push away disturbing thoughts in their heads. They believe if they stop the rituals the thoughts would overwhelm them or something bad will happen to them or someone they love, some even believe the world will end if they stop this behavior. Generalized Anxiety disorder is characterized by a constant feeling of nervousness or unease. Finally, Post-Traumatic Stress disorder, which is a condition that develops after a terrifying experience, such as near death or rape. Common in these sufferers and apparent in a significant amount of patients treated for post- traumatic disorder is depression, anxiety along with flashbacks of the traumatic event and nightmares that plague their sleep. The main focus of this paper is a more in-depth look at post- traumatic stress disorder who it effects, why and how to treat and diagnose people suffering from post- traumatic stress disorder.
Post-traumatic stress disorder is the development of symptoms after an emotionally traumatic event. It is easy to determine why a person would suffer from stress after a traumatic event but often people believe that people suffering from this disorder are being overly dramatic. The main reason is that trauma happens and the person's psychological system can not handle the event in the usual ways that most handle trauma, so their mind reacts in an adverse way.
The symptoms of post- traumatic stress often occur right after the even and with in a short time afterwards. Although this disorder can effect anyone regardless of age, it shows differently in younger children than in adults. Children may become mute refusing to talk or refuse to talk about what has happened to them. Though the child is being silent, he or she is still remembering what has happened to them. The younger the child the less likely they are to know that what they are going through is reliving the past, they believe that what has happened is happening again to them. Often they believe they have monsters in the closet or will reenact the event. One of the weirdest occurrences in children is their change in the way they see the future. Often becoming, in their own thoughts, clairvoyant or thinking themselves able to see future events. Believing they can see the future, though they are not seeing a future marriage, children, or career they see tragic events that are yet to come. Some children seem just to be having more physical illness symptoms, which makes it harder for their parents to see anything emotionally wrong with their children. Common bonds in all children suffering from post- traumatic stress are, disinterest in activities that once held the child's attention and heightened arousal (easily excitable).
There is no evidence that this disorder is prevalent in one sex over the other. Nor is there a number count on the amount of people suffering from post- traumatic stress disorder. The lack of people thinking that they have a disorder after a tragic event that put it down to regular stress or grief keeps the ability to get a number amount of sufferers impossible to achieve. The victims or sufferers are from different social-economic backgrounds with varying ranges in education. There is no set person that will get this disorder. Anyone from any background from royalty to poverty are eligible and able to develop post-traumatic stress disorder.
The on-set of this disorder is a traumatic event, though there is no set event that causes this to be worse or more apt to happen in a patient. However, a few events that most patients have experienced are more likely to cause them to develop post- traumatic stress disorder. Trauma for this even can happen alone or within a group of people. There is no set amount of people present at the event that will either encourage or discourage post- traumatic stress from developing. The development comes from a lack of coping skills within the human psyche. Since each person has a different point in which they can cope with certain situations, each person will come out of an event with some different perspective and way of coping. Some of the events that are most likely to cause the development of post- traumatic stress are, rape or assault, war and military combat, natural disasters, terrorist attacks, car accidents and near death experiences. Though these causes are not the sole stimuli to development of post-traumatic stress disorder they are the most likely stressors.
The traumatic event that sets off the development of post- traumatic stress disorder are relived in variety of ways within the sufferer. From memory flashbacks and disturbing nightmares, the sufferers' mind completely invaded by the traumatic event. In some sever cases of post- traumatic stress disorder the sufferer deals with dissociative states, where they do not know where they are and in their mind they are in the event which triggered their disorder. Yet, the most common characteristic is heightened arousal in the sufferer, which can stimulate the flashbacks even more and make them worse then a flashback than a person without post-traumatic stress disorder would have.
Though trauma is what begins the development of post- traumatic stress disorder, there is evidence pointing to previous psychological conditions in some cases. However, not all of the sufferers have to have a predisposed psychological disorder to develop post- traumatic stress disorder. Anyone of any mental capacity is able to get the disorder all depending on the traumatic event and the amount of stress their own psyche could accept at the onset of the disorder.
The complications of post- traumatic stress disorder vary from very mild to the extremity of severe. With a simple discomfort in certain situations with or without mild depression, which is another complication of post- traumatic stress disorder. On the opposite end is the severe total life encompassing side of the complication. The sufferer's life is completely ruined, they can not have relationships with anyone and often shut themselves of from the whole world. Agoraphobia is not uncommon amongst the worst sufferers of post- traumatic stress disorder. Feelings of guilt, self blame on what happened to them and self hatred are also often present in most cases of post- traumatic stress disorder. Some of the extreme cases tend to be suicidal and emotionally a wreak in all parts of their lives. While impairments are present in even the mildest post- traumatic stress sufferer, the amount of impairments and complications in the severe cases are so many that all of the complications and impairments are not yet known to therapist and psychologist. Anxiety, severe depression and heightened arousal also are factors of post-traumatic stress disorder.
Often miss diagnosed, as post- traumatic stress disorder is adjustment disorder, which is less severe and much easier to cure. Adjustment disorder is more within the human psyche to heal itself. Though it presents many of the same criteria of post- traumatic stress disorder and that is why it is often misdiagnosed as post- traumatic stress disorder. However, it lacks the amount of heightened arousal that is the main characteristic of post- traumatic stress disorder. Adjustment disorder also lacks the amount of aggression that post- traumatic stress sufferers seem to have. The length of time Adjustment disorder last is also much shorter then the average post- traumatic stress period, which without therapy could last the whole of a person's life time.

The following information is taken directly from the DSM and is the diagnostic criteria for post- traumatic stress disorder. Therapist and psychologist must uses this criteria to diagnose their patients correctly.

Diagnostic Criteria for Post- Traumatic Stress Disorder
The person has experienced or witnessed an event that is outside the range of usual human experience and that would be markedly distressing to almost anyone, e.g., serious threats to one's life or physical integrity; serious threat or harm to one's children, spouse or other close relatives or friends; sudden destruction of one's home or community; seeing another person who has recently been, or is being, seriously injured or killed as the result of an accident of physical violence.
The traumatic event is persistently re-experienced in at least one of the following ways:
recurrent and intrusive distressing recollections of the event (in young children, repetitive play in which themes or aspects of the trauma are expressed)
recurrent distressing dreams of the event.
sudden acting or feeling as if the traumatic event were recurring (includes a sense of reliving the experience, illusions, hallucinations, and dissociative {flashbacks} episodes, even those that occur upon awakening or when intoxicated)
Intense psychological distress at exposure to events that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event, including anniversaries of the trauma.
Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma or numbing of the general responsiveness (not present before the trauma), as indicated by at least three of the following:
efforts to avoid thoughts or feelings associated with the trauma
efforts to avoid activities or situations that arouse recollections of the trauma
inability to recall an important aspect of the trauma (psychogenic amnesia)
markedly diminished interest in significant activities (in young children loss of recently acquired developmental skills such as toilet training or language skills)
feeling detachment or estrangement from others
restricted range of affect, e.g., unable to have loving feelings
sense of foreshortened future, e.g., does not expect to have a career, marriage, or children, or a long life
Persistent symptoms of increased arousal (not present before the trauma), as indicated by at least two of the following:
difficulty falling or staying asleep
irritability or outburst of anger
difficulty concentrating
hypervigilance
exaggerated or startle response
physiologic reactivity upon exposure to events that symbolize ore resemble an aspect of the traumatic event (e.g., a woman who was raped in an elevator breaks into sweat when entering any elevator)
Duration of the disturbance (symptoms in B,C, and D of at least one month)

Specify delayed onset if the onset of symptoms was at least six months after the trauma.

Treatment for post- traumatic stress disorder has changed a lot in the past five years. One psychologist, Dr. John A. Talbott, who is well read and known in the post-traumatic stress study field, said at a conference at the University of Colorado recently, "The state of therapeutics in post traumatic stress disorder can be described in one word as confusing. Frankly, it's a mess. The literature is not great but it's an intriguing field in many ways. It's ever-evolving. It's so different than it was 20 or 30 years ago. (Jancin)" An Example is, therapist once believed that therapy within seventy-two hours of the traumatic event helped to stop the onset of post-traumatic stress. This therapy known as "one shot approach" once common now found ineffective and may even slow down the recovery processes (Sherman). In the last ten to twenty years the one shot debriefing became customary and then in some cases, such as rape, mandatory. Therapist believed that relieving the events and talking about them soon after the event happened would help to relieve any lingering distress about the event. The one shot debriefing was never really studied until the late nineteen nineties, at which time psychologist found many flaws in this process. As studies on this form of therapy continued, increasingly evidence appeared showing that this therapy causes more harm then good. A control group of motor vehicle accident survivors was done breaking into two groups. One group getting the one shot therapy and the other getting forty five weekly sessions of therapy over a two to five week time period after the accident. The studies at first showed no difference with the newer therapy verses the one shot at three months. Though at thirteen-months into the control groups studies showed that the one shot therapy patients doing much worse then the other groups and fifteen percent meeting the criteria for post- traumatic stress disorder. In more studies done over longer time periods it has been found that the victims that receive the one shot debriefing remain more significantly in post- traumatic stress symptom and diagnose criteria area then their counterparts (Sherman).
A more controversial therapy that happened between the one shot debriefing and today's newer therapy was a mix between cognitive behavioral therapy and exposure therapy. The exposure therapy, a modern version of ventilation and reexperiencing therapy, had the patient relieve over and over the traumatic event (Jancin).
Today's therapy is more main stream with the ideology of the time, more so then past therapies. It used to be very controversial to "vent" out your problems to a psychologist; today it seems most people have at least once seen an analyst or therapist or had a close relative or friend see one. These days people joke about being on or needing the psychiatrist wonder drug Prozac. Post- traumatic stress disorder today is a combination of drugs and psychotherapy. The drugs most often prescribed are selective reuptake inhibitor, Zoloft (sertraline) which is started at a recommended 20 mg a day and increased by 10mg if needed until the patient has leveled off generally around 20 to 50 mg. Paxil has also been found effective as drug therapy for post- traumatic stress sufferers. After a twelve-week study of patients, taking Paxil showed that 62% of the patients on 20mg a day and 54% of those on 40mg a day improved significantly. This is in contrast to the 35% on placebo that showed improvement. Paxil users have also made great improvements on reducing the amount of flashbacks and hyperarousal, yet it does not cause patients to have insomnia like Zoloft can (Mechcatie). Side effects of Paxil are impotence, nausea, abnormal ejaculation, diarrhea, somnolence (drowsiness or sleepiness) and asthenia (loss or lack of bodily strength).
Along with drug therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy is still used. The patient is taught to identify the underlying problem and turn the negative thinking around the problem. The patient develops coping skills and the goal is a more positive behavior adaptation about the problem and the way to deal with it.
With therapy and drug treatment many post-traumatic stress sufferers are able to live fairly normal lives. They can get back to their day to day activities and even learn to deal with the past events. Though little is known about the patients that do not seek treatment, we do know that those who do not seek treatment often get worse, and have a fairly high suicide rate. As Dr. Talbott said the field of study on post-traumatic stress disorder is confusing and intriguing all at the same time. Further efforts need to be made and people surviving traumatic events that the authorities know about should have mandatory referrals and checkups on the survivors and families to check for signs of post-traumatic stress.

Reference
American Psychiatric Association [APA], (2000). DSM -IV-TR, p. 465-468
Cruz, Jessi (1998, January 9) Anxiety disorders separated into 5 categories. Knight Ridder / Tribune News Service p.109 v. K7309
Jancin, Bruce (2001, December) PTSD responds to Mix to Drugs, Psychotherapy.(Consider CBT, SSRI). Clinical Psychiatry News p. 40 v. 29
Sherman, Carl (2002, February) Prolonged exposure therapy works, debriefing does not. (In Trauma's Shadow). Clinical Psychiatry News p. 36 v. 30
Mechcatie, Elizabeth (2002, January 15). Paxil. (New and Approved). Internal Medicine News p.8 v.35 i2

A Discussion Of The Advances Of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (Ptsd) Management And The Lessons Applicable To Future Occupational Stress Management'.

2011-10-23T15:05:00.004+05:00

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
ESSAY II
A discussion of the advances of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) management and the lessons applicable to future Occupational Stress management'.

Health and Safety in the workplace has become more prolific over the past 25 years. The strength of the unions and increased public awareness of corporate responsibility have demanded that organisations accept a greater responsibility for the health and safety of their employees. Whilst progress is being made, the wealth of compensation claims and massive corporate fines for negligence, however, suggests that health and safety has yet to reach the top of the priority list for some organisations. In fact, a 2001 Canadian Human Resource (HR) Reporter's survey of HR professionals indicated that only 30% ranked health and safety and 16% ranked wellness as being very important'. More recently, the Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH) published their Value of Health and Safety Report (2005) highlighting that most health and safety professionals spend less than a quarter of their time tackling occupational health issues; one of which is occupational stress. These reports not only indicate the low commitment from HR practitioners towards health and safety, it also identifies a more worrying position for occupational health.

Organisations with a poor occupational health record face problems associated with absenteeism and the threat of compensation related legal action. The Chartered Institute of Personnel Development Absence Management Survey (2005), indicates sickness absence accounts for 4% of working time, equivalent to 8.4 working days or $1200 per employee per year. In addition, the courts are awarding employees significant damages for work related stress. With both impacting on the bottom line', it is therefore not surprising that absence management and workplace wellness is becoming one of HR professionals' top three agenda items' (Human Resources Canada, 2002). According to the Health and Safety Executive, this progress is crucial as stress is likely to become the most dangerous risk to business in the early part of the 21st Century'.
There is currently no statute specifically covering the issue of stress in the workplace and the law governing stress has evolved mainly from case law rather than legislation. Under existing health and safety legislation, employers have a duty to undertake risk assessments and manage activities to reduce the incidence of stress at work. Examples include the European Union Framework Directive 89/391 and the United Kingdom Health and Safety Executives Management Standards for Work-Related Stress' (2004). Although these standards are still voluntary, the Health and Safety Executive has indicated that they will be used as evidence against employers that continue to ignore their responsibilities in managing stress under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974.

In response to the above as well as the knowledge that both employees and employers have become more cognisant of the effects of work-related stress, HR departments of organisations have begun to implement measures to address occupational health issues. At the strategic level, some organisations have implemented a Stress or Well Being Policy'. This requires organisations to undertake an audit of their policies, procedures and systems to ensure that they provide a working environment that protects the well being of their workforce whilst also being able to identify troubled employees and provide them with the appropriate level of support. At a more tactical level, HR practitioners and supervisors are using approaches that look to identify the occupational health related problem through the risk assessments discussed above whilst also examining sickness absence levels, claims for compensation and performance deficits. Operational level approaches include those that take a more proactive stance and look towards identifying ways of creating a healthy workforce through education, employee counselling and stress management training.

Falling under the occupational health umbrella is the form of occupational stress described as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Being hailed as a phenomenon of the 21st Century' (Meighen, 2005), the term PTSD was introduced in 1980 to describe a pattern of symptoms associated with the reaction to the aftermath of a traumatic event. Whilst it is considered normal for people to show some reaction in the immediate to short term, Hoge et al (2004) suggests that between 10-30% of people exposed to a traumatic event will go on to experience a range of traumatic symptoms in the longer term. Symptoms include persistent flashbacks of the event, avoidance of any of the reminders of the event, feelings of emotional detachment and numbness and an exaggerated startle' response or hyper vigilance. Although concerns about the psychological effects of trauma were initially raised in the aftermath of the Vietnam War, it is only in the last decade that governments and military institutions have begun to take any action.

Initial research into PTSD focused
on employees whose jobs were more likely to put them at risk such as emergency service personnel and members of the armed forces with combat experience. More recent studies have shown that any occupation can be susceptible to traumatic events as a result of workplace accidents and injuries. Since organisations are already adhering to forms of health and safety legislation that seek to reduce workplace accidents, there are two reasons why they should also consider the need for a trauma management strategy. Firstly, workplace trauma may have an effect on the ability of employees to function on both a personal and a professional level and, secondly, the significant legal implications associated, not just with the nature of a workplace accident but also the organisations response and after care, can be financially costly. Since, however, the majority of information and media speculation regarding PTSD focuses primarily on the armed forces, the remainder of this essay will concentrate specifically on this occupational group.

For the United States (US) Military the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have been the most sustained combat operations since Vietnam, while it is possible that they may be as prolonged. It took the Vietnam War for the military community to understand and accept the effects of traumatic experiences on psychological well being; since war veterans began legal proceedings against governments for failing to recognise or treat their stress, PTSD has become a household term. With increasing numbers of western military personnel currently engaged in combat operations there is a fear that cases of PTSD will intensify. The numbers of those affected is already concerning. The most recent public study to evaluate active duty soldier's reports of various war zone experiences and rates of mental health problems estimates that levels of PTSD in the US military was around 18% for Iraq and 11% for Afghanistan (Hoge et al 2004). The United Kingdom government is more guarded of its combat and non-combat casualty statistics, but a study published by the British Journal of Psychiatry estimates that 10% of troops airlifted out of Iraq between January and October 2003 suffered from psychological symptoms. Statistics from 2002 indicate a level of only 2.8% within the Canadian military, probably attributable to Canada not arriving in Afghanistan until 2003 and their non-participation in the Iraq conflict. In all cases there was a positive relationship between the number of combat deployments and incidences of PTSD. This is concerning as the above conflicts are likely to persist, implying the same soldiers will be required to return on second or subsequent deployments. This is reflected in Hoge et al's (2004) statistics that predict that the cases of PTSD in soldiers returning from Iraq are likely to increase to 20%.
The overall situation is even worse as the accuracy of the figures is suspect due to under reporting. Paton, (2004) suggests that half of the servicemen who suffer psychiatric illness as a result of traumatic events do not seek medical help, or do so up to 15 years later when the damage to marriages, careers and mental well being is irreparable. Some under reporting has been attributed to a purely British stiff upper lip' phenomenon where servicemen and women refuse to accept that they have a problem and are reluctant to discuss emotional issues for fears of being considered sick' or weak' in a demanding mental and physical occupational environment. Furthermore, PTSD is still viewed in the United Kingdom with a great deal of suspicion; especially amongst serving soldiers and a generation that lived through the horrors of the Second World War, the Korean War and the daily struggle against terrorism in Northern Ireland.

"Psychological stress is a symptom of political correctness in the 21st Century where everyone has to be stressed or depressed" (Bremer, 2005)

According to Elliott (2005), the stigma attached to mental health problems puts many soldiers off asking for help'. In a culture of mental and physical toughness soldiers remain concerned that admitting to psychological problems will have a negative impact on their career.

"PTSD is seen as a career stopper in the Army" (Skelton, 2005)

Although the research to illustrate the effects of PTSD on a soldier's performance at work is limited, there has been an increase in the litigation against government bodies for negligence. Soldiers in Northern Ireland involved in Bloody Friday, the Omagh bombing and Enniskillen bombing are suing the Ulster Defence Regiment for failure to diagnose and treat their PTSD (BBC News Online). Similarly, in Canada, a former solider who served in Cyprus, Somalia, Bosnia and Haiti has initiated legal proceedings against the federal government seeking $88 million in compensation (Vaidynanath, 2005), while in the United Kingdom, a former soldier was awarded £620,000 damages from the Ministry of Defence for stress suffered while on duty (Greene, 2005). With such high financial consequences for failing to recognise the impact and management of PTSD, it is not surprising that governments and armed forces have begun to implement trauma management strategies that better cater for the needs of their employees.

Even though the military do not have HR managers per se, their HR is done through various branches of the service as well as through the chain of command; it is traditionally the responsibility of the officer in charge to manage their subordinates in terms of both their career and welfare. Although the measures implemented by civilian organisations on occupational stress can be assimilated with those used by the military for PTSD, the latter have a more grand strategic and government level commitment. Within the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), an exploratory team of psychologists and psychiatrists have been tasked to investigate issues of stress and psychological support within the military institutions of its member countries. This grand strategic policy is still in its infancy and has yet to be released but will address areas of psychological stress, the psychological preparation of military personnel, screening, psychological support during and after deployment and methods of support for families. It is anticipated that this policy will provide more formal, regulatory direction for NATO countries on the management of PTSD in their armed forces.
At a more strategic level, Veterans Affairs Canada and the Department for National Defence opened the Saint Anne's National Occupational Stress Injuries Centre in 2002. This joint venture gives the centre sole responsibility for advances in mental health clinical care through program development, research, education and outreach activities. Minister Guarnieri, the Minister for Veterans Affairs commented that,

"It is important that Canada's military whether they are still in uniform or already released have access to mental health care that is comprehensive, integrated and that delivers services consistently to a standard of excellence" (Guarnieri, 2005)

The Department of National Defence also has a Veterans Affairs Centre for the support of injured and retired members and their families. This centre has an operational stress injury social support program that specifically targets those affected by operational stress injuries such as PTSD, and delivers educational and professional development modules for the Canadian Forces. The new Veterans Charter (2005) offers veterans and serving members of the Canadian Forces more access to services like rehabilitation, assistance to overcome economic loss, health services and job placement.

At a more operational level, Canada has established five Operational Trauma and Stress Support Centres (OTSSC's) in military bases across the country that assist Canadian Force members and their families in dealing with the effects of operational stress. There is also a Canadian Forces Member Assistance Program which offers a 24/7 confidential referral service for external, short term counselling for those who prefer to seek help outside of the military health services. Canada has also included in its pre-deployment package for servicemen and women, mandatory courses on stress coping skills, unit cohesion and social support as well as awareness of the potential effects of stress.

The US Department of Defence uses a very employee centred approach that aims to improve psychological resilience among troops. This involves developing tools to measure stress in the field, establishing a suicide surveillance system, identifying factors that lead to high rates of mental disorders and developing psychological screening and debriefing. Further down the line, this programme intends to develop ways of identifying vulnerable soldiers within both training and operational environments. The US Army is also working with German and Austrian armies to develop a protocol to assess voice changes under stress, making it easier to separate the physical from psychological when it comes to measuring stress levels. Unlike other countries, the US has also made a concerted effort to integrate their returning reserve soldiers back into the workplace. Andrews (2004) describes how HR practitioners within organisations have worked towards facilitating the reservist's reintegration back into the workplace through options that include flexible work arrangements or gradual re-entry processes. For example, General Electric Energy have produced individualised reintegration plans for employees that include a full year of extra training if required, whilst The Link Agency have prepared a scrapbook that includes photos of staff and samples of recent work and alerted colleagues so that those who want to can send welcome back cards.

The British Ministry of Defence's strategic level Stress Management policy was published in 2001 and, for the first time, recognised stress as a debilitating condition. This policy has been implemented at the tactical and operational level, like Canada, through a series of annual mandatory health, safety and stress management training programmes for all members of the Armed Forces, as well as including more PTSD specific training for those deploying on operations.

"The measures now in place to combat PTSD have evolved and have been enhanced over a number of years to reflect our improving knowledge of the condition, its effects and the best methods of remediation. Each service runs active programmes aimed at prevention and treatment. Measures include pre-deployment and post-deployment briefing and, when practicable, availability of counselling in theatre" (Moonie, UK Minister for Veterans Affairs, 2005)

Two new defence community psychiatric centres have also been established in England and Scotland and the Army Welfare Service is available to soldier's families.

This essay has described the ongoing progress of health and safety with regard to occupational health and PTSD in particular. The degree of HR uptake in occupational health and safety is improving and HR professionals are beginning to implement a series of occupational stress measures in the workplace. While such improvement is the result of a myriad of factors, the more litigious society we now live in will continue to demand greater efforts by employers or face the inevitable financial penalties issued by the courts. A significant amount of progress has been made in the area of PTSD, some of which sets an excellent example for HR practitioners seeking new ways or methods to cater for occupational stress in their workplace. Although the response of governments has been reactionary, various defence ministries have implemented a number of problem and employee centred initiatives aimed at reducing the impact of PTSD, including policy directives, national centres of PTSD excellence, psychological screening, education, training and support assistance. Furthermore, as in the case of the United States, HR professionals are introducing re-integration and training methods to assist returning reserve servicemen and women in their transition back to work. PTSD prevention and treatment is set to remain at the very forefront of occupational stress management due to the continued commitment of armed forces in Afghanistan and Iraq and research evidence that identifies a positive link between the frequency of exposures to a traumatic event and PTSD. For national governments success is to be measured by a reduction in the number of successful compensation claims from former service personnel, despite their continued commitment in high-risk areas. Such success may well provide a blue print for HR practitioners of the future as they seek to improve occupational health and reduce costly court cases.

REFERENCES

Andrews, L W (2004) Aftershocks of War. Human Resource Management

BBC News Online (2005) Police Officers seek trauma compensation' (Nov 2005) Accessed at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/4413762.stm

BBC News Online (2005) Ex Soldier Wins Stress Damages' (July 2005) Accessed at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/4725455.stm

BBC News Online (2005) Northern Ireland Soldiers face Combat Stress' Accessed at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/4285696.stm

Bremer (2005) UK Troops face trauma after Iraq, Accessed at BBC News Online; http//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4632263.stm

British Journal of Psychiatry, (2003) Cited in Greene, R A (2005) UK Troops face trauma in Iraq'. BBC News Online, UK

Canadian HR Reporter's (2001) Strategic HR Survey. Cited in Schwind, H., Das, H & Wager, T. (2005) Human Resource Management: A Strategic Approach, 7th Edition. McGraw Hill, Ryerson.

Chartered Institute for Personnel Development Absence Management Survey (2005) Accessed at www.cipd.co.uk

Elliott (2005) NI soldiers face combat Stress'. Accessed at BBC News Online, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/4285696.stm

European Framework Directive 89/311. Accessed at: www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/ safework/integrap/docs/english/replies/fra_e.pdf

Hoge C. W., Castro C. A., Messer S. C., McGurk D. Cotting, D. I & Koffman, R L (2004). Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan: mental health problems and barriers to care. New England Journal of Medicine 352, 13-22.

Greene, R A (2005) Combat Stress: As old as War itself'. Accessed at: www.news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4124558.stm

Greene, R A (2005) UK Troops face trauma in Iraq'. BBC News Online, UK

Guarnieri, (2005) IVAC, DND unveil PTSD Support Strategy'. Accessed at VAC Canada Website

Health and Safety at Work Act (1974) Accessed at: www.healthandsafety.co.uk

Health and Safety Executive (2004) Management Standards for Work-Related Stress'. Accessed at: www.hse.gov.uk

HR Development Canada (2002). Occupational Injuries and their cost in Canada' (1993-1997), Cited in Cited in Schwind, H., Das, H & Wager, T. (2005) Human Resource Management: A Strategic Approach, 7th Edition. McGraw Hill, Ryerson.

Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (2005) Health & Safety Professionals say Companies are neglecting Occupational Health. Accessed at: www.iosh.co.uk

Moonie, (2005) Cited in Paton, N (2005) Combating Stress. Occupational Health Magazine.

Skelton, (2005) Wounded in Action'. The Guardian Newspaper, United Kingdom.

The Guardian Newspaper (Feb 2005) Wounded in Action' (Feb 2005) Accessed at: www.guardian.co.uk

Vaidyanath (2005) CF Battle PTSD. Epoch Times, Ottawa Staff.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Canadian Community Health Survey: CF supplement in Mental Health. The Daily, Canada

IVAC, DND Unveil PTSD Support Strategy (Nov 2005) VAC Website, Canada

Litz, B T (2003) The Unique Circumstances and mental health impact of the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. National Centre for PTSD, USA

Occupational Health and Organisational Effectiveness (July 2005). Fact sheet issued by the Institute for Personnel Development, United Kingdom

Paton, N (2004) Combating Stress. Occupational Health Magazine

PTSD in CF Members (Nov 2005) www.forces.gc.ca/site/newsroom

Schwind, H., Das, H & Wager, T. (2005) Human Resource Management: A Strategic Approach, 7th Edition. McGraw Hill, Ryerson.

Whealin, J, Morgan, C & Hawlett, G (2004) The Role of Military Studies in Enhancing our Understanding of PTSD. PTSD Research Quarterly, Vol 12, No 1.

Work Related Stress (Aug 2005) Fact sheet issued by the Institute for Personnel Development, United Kingdom

10 Most Haunted Places On Earth

2011-10-23T15:05:00.001+05:00

10 Most Haunted Places on Earth
Written by tonyleather
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Photo: austinevan
Have you ever visited a place where you found yourself shivering with goosebumps for no apparent reason? Déjà Vu, some call it, while others attribute such feelings to ghosts. In the ten places collected here, the ghosts sometimes really do seem out to get you. Let the haunting commence...
1. Borley Rectory, England
Photo: sconosciutio
The derelict building in the photo above is not a place to enter lightly. Though the small village of Borley, near Sudbury, UK, is not the sort of place one would associate with ghosts, it has a dreadful reputation because it was the site of the infamous Borley Rectory, reputedly the ‘Most Haunted House in England’.
Built in 1863 for the Reverend Henry Bull, it sits on the site of an ancient monastery. The ghost of a mournful nun who patrolled the so-called 'Nun's Walk' had often been seen there. An old story claimed that she had fallen in love with a monk from the Borley Monastery – to much outrage – and the two had tried to elope together but had been quickly tracked down. The monk was executed and the nun bricked up in the cellars of the monastic buildings!
2. The Stanley Hotel, Colorado
Photo: Hustvedt
There are countless tales of ghosts from all over the world, but some are more skin-crawling than most. Many of us remember the superb horror film The Shining, based on the novel by Stephen King. The book was inspired by a stay at the Stanley in Estes Park, Colorado. Assigned Room 217, King reportedly heard ghost children playing in the hallway. Many have experienced paranormal activity here, but these real-life ghosts seem harmless. Many spirits are said to haunt the place, while guests and employees claim to have heard faint music coming from the ballroom and seen the piano keys moving.
3. The Tower of London
Photo: spendtimeinlondon
The picture below is of one of the most famous spirits to haunt the Tower of London: one of the wives of Henry VIII, beheaded in the Tower in 1536. Her ghost has been seen on many occasions, sometimes carrying her head, on Tower Green and in the Tower Chapel Royal.
Photo: unknown artistPortrait by unknown artist of Lady Jane Grey
Other ghosts include those of Henry VI, Thomas Becket and Sir Walter Raleigh. One of the most gruesome ghost stories describes the death of the Countess of Salisbury. According to one account, “the Countess was sentenced to death in 1541 following her alleged involvement in criminal activities (although it is now widely believed that she was probably innocent). After being sent struggling to the scaffold, she ran from the block and was pursued until she was hacked to death by the axe man.” Her execution ceremony has been seen re-enacted by spirits on Tower Green.
4. Woodchester Mansion, England
Photo: Matthew Lister Ttamhew
Woodchester Mansion in Gloucestershire, England, is another building with a ghostly reputation. Building work has never been completed here, and in the last 200 years workers have repeatedly run from the place and seven builders are rumoured to have died in inexplicable accidents.
Strange noises are often heard, like the sounds of crashing masonry or voices wailing, and many ghosts, including those of Roman soldiers and young girls, have reportedly been seen. Regular ghost hunts
are held here.
5. The Paris Catacombs
Photo: Einsamer Schuzter
The Paris Catacombs are a maze of tunnels and crypts underneath the city streets where Parisians placed the bones of their dead for almost 30 years. Prior to the creation of the Catacombs in the mid-1700s, residents buried their dead in cemeteries, but as the city grew, they quickly ran out of space.
The decision was made to use an underground section of quarries in Paris, and the bones from Paris’ city cemeteries were moved underground between 1786 and 1788. The process was conducted with reverence and discretion – the quarry space was blessed before any bones were moved there, bones were always moved in a quiet parade of carts accompanied by priests, and these movements always took place at night. The quarries continued to be used as the collection point for the bones from Paris’ cemeteries through 1814 and now contain the bodies of roughly 6-7 million Parisians. Watching the video above will give you some idea of what a scary place this is.
6. The Skirrid Mountain Inn, Wales
Photo: tripadvisor
One of the most notorious haunted sites in England is the Skirrid Mountain Inn in Llanfihangel Crucorney, Wales. According to folklore, in its 900-year history over 180 people have been hanged from a beam on the staircase, which is still in place today, with rope marks, apparently. The first floor of the inn is thought to have been a courtroom in the past.
Glasses often suddenly fly across the room of their own accord, faces are seen at windows and people feel nooses around their necks. Guests who stay there often report waking to icy room temperatures – even when the heating is on – and the feeling of being watched. 17th-century barmaid Fanny Price is thought to be the most active spirit among many, but everyone agrees that this really is one scary place to stay.
7. Rose Hall, Jamaica
Photo: Urban Walnut
You might not think that Jamaica would be the site of an infamous haunted house, but Rose Hall in Montego Bay is exactly that. This huge house is inhabited by the ghost of voodoo priestess's daughter, Annie Palmer, who reportedly causes bloodstains to appear and disappear randomly. She was murdered in her bed after an 11-year reign of death, torture and nymphomania.
Annie murdered three husbands and a succession of slave lovers by poisoning, strangulation and witchcraft, before forcing other slaves to carry bodies through a tunnel to be buried on a beach. According to legend, it is not just the tormented Annie who roams the house, but also ghosts of the slave babies she sacrificed in rituals. Reports have it that her male victims have actually been not only heard but also captured on camera. Not a pleasant place to spend the night.
8. The Bell Farmhouse, Tennessee
Photo: coutesy of paranormalvideos
The Bell Farm haunting is recognized throughout the paranormal community as the only known account of a ghost that caused the death of a living person. During the years of 1817 and 1821 a woman entity terrorized the Bell family. She became known as the Bell Witch or 'Kate'. She had tortured John Bell so much that it led to his death. He did suffer from a nervous system disorder, and Kate’s antics made his condition worse. Beside John’s deathbed was found a vial of black liquid. When paranormal experts asked Kate what it was, she claimed she gave it to him. It was thought that the liquid Kate gave to John is what killed him. To test the validity of the liquid, they placed a drop of it on the family cat’s tongue which immediately killed it. Current residents near the Bell Farm believe Kate is still up to no good.
9. Edinburgh Castle
Photo: Jordan S Hatcher
Edinburgh Castle is reputed to be one of the most haunted spots in Scotland. And Edinburgh itself has been called the most haunted city in all of Europe. On various occasions, visitors to the castle have reported a phantom piper, a headless drummer, the spirits of French prisoners from the Seven Years War, colonial prisoners from the American Revolutionary War – and even the ghost of a dog wandering in the grounds' dog cemetery.
Photo: Klaus HermsenEdinburgh Castle
This is a historical fortress, parts of which are more than 900 years old. The cells of its ancient dungeon, the site of uncounted deaths, could very well be an eternal place of unrest for numerous spirits.
10. Bhangarh Town and Fort, India
Photo: Saad Ahktar
People in India know all about ghosts. Locals give the Bhangarh fort, and the area around it, a wide berth, due to some popular spooky stories associated with the fort and town. Authorities have told visitors not to enter the ruined city after dusk. It is said that a wicked sorcerer cursed the city after being spurned by a princess. The 17th-century city was soon destroyed by an advancing army, leaving only its temples intact, and has been uninhabited ever since. Visitors say that birds and wildlife fall silent as the spirit of the sorcerer approaches at night, and nobody has ever tried to spend the night there. Just too spooky to take that chance.
Whether or not you give credence to the idea of ghosts, it is difficult to deny that places like this have a certain ‘feel’ to them which makes you want to get out as soon as possible. Overactive imagination, or subconscious warning? You be the judge.

The Church Adorned With the Bones of 40,000 Corpses
Written by Matt Forde
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Photo: Diether
The soil beneath the Cemetery Church of All Saints in Sedlec, Czech Republic embraces a macabre sight. In the shadow of the Baroque church that looms above it a flight of steps descends into the earth and leads to a small, cruciform chamber where vaulted ceilings, candelabras and even large pyramids are richly decorated in what would normally be considered a charming and bijou little locale. But it is most definitely not charming, as upon entering, it quickly becomes apparent that the interior designer was going for a rather ‘gruesome’ look. Housed within the chapel are the bones of 40,000 human corpses, and it is these skeletal remains that make up the chapel’s decorations.
Photo: SoulStealer
Photo: Daniel Wabyick
Photo: Diether
Photo: Ciamabue
A large and elaborate chandelier dominates the central space. Like the other ornamentations it is entirely made up of human remains; femurs, skulls, scapulas and vertebrae combine intricately in an elaborately grisly, nightmarish centrepiece that would not be out of place in Jeffrey Dahmer’s apartment 213. In a nod to macabre completionists, the chandelier uses at least one of every single bone in the human body.
Photo: Todd Huffman
Photo: Todd Huffman
Photo: BrokenSphere
Around the chapel, thousands of skulls stare out at the visitor with blank orbits, their pale features long parted from their mandibles. Pelvic sections make up the petals of skeletal flowers while bony chalices inhabit shallow niches. Festively looping chains of bone are draped from the vaulted ceiling like bunting at a village fete. Arcing lines of skulls accomplish a similar effect over the gateways to the ‘pyramids’, each of which occupies a side of the chapel’s transepts. Essentially huge mounds of bones and skulls, the pyramids would be gruesome reminders of mortality anywhere else on the planet, yet here, surrounded by similar deathly objects, they seem curiously normal.
Photo: CxOxS
Photo: Curry Bet
Photo: Lyng883
The infamous Black Death and the later Hussite Wars (many of the skulls not used in the ossuary for decorative purposes show evidence of battle wounds) caused many thousands of people to be interred in the church’s grounds and eventually meant the cemetery had to be greatly enlarged. Some time around 1400 a lower chapel was excavated to be used as an ossuary for the bones unearthed from the mass graves that were uncovered during building work. Centuries later, in 1870, a local artisan named František Rint was employed by the Schwarzenberg family to establish some order to the piles of skeletal remains. Rint chose to go one step further and he created this bizarre work, even recreating the Schwarzenberg coat-of-arms and his own signature using the bones.
Photo: BrokenSphere
Photo: BrokenSphere
Photo: Marcin Szala

Haunted

2011-10-23T15:04:00.004+05:00

Ever been to anywhere in Malaysia and experienced paranormal hauntings? Curious to know where are the places that you can visit to experience one yourself? The below are lists of Malaysia’s top haunted places that you can, may or even experience ghosts.

1.Georgetown, Penang – A T-junction better known as The Deadly Junction is located beside the Union High School. It is said that if you ever drive through this lonely road late at night, your care will go out of control and crash due to the too many accidents that happened there. It is also said that there is a tiny unknown tree beside the road which looks like a lady carrying a child. The story was known by some old folks saying that this lady was once a bomoh (witch doctor) who kidnapped her sister’s son. Somehow, they never again appeared anywhere except other than being seen beside this road2.St Michael’s Institution, Ipoh – A group of Catholics missionaries arrived here in 1912 and began building a school next to the famous Kinta River. It did not take long for the missionary brothers who ran the school to have enough funds to erect a huge school building with unique French structural design. When the WW2 broke out, the school was used bu Japanese secret police as their headquarters. Needless to say, there were lots of torturing carried out. The buidling itself had many tunnels which had been sealed off and the tunnels were said to be used by the Japanese to torture prisoners and to store food. Most of the sightings occurs in the Chapel on the fourth floor of the bluiding where a Brother was seen dressed in a black robe holding praying beands in a sitting position facing towards the door (which leads to the brothers quarters) in the very early morning without a head. Those who had witnessed it were asked to keep it a secret
3.Malay College Kuala Kangsar, Kuala Kangsar, Perak – This school is said to be a former site of Japanese occupation camp during WW2. Students would sometimes be awakened by something that stares down directly at them. A marching platoon can be heard in the field and sounds of dragging chains can be heard through the campus corridors. A tree on the campus, which is located right beside a lampost where the light shines down on it, reflects a shadow of a man hanging from the tree! A few other old colonial admin buildings that were used by the Japanese during the Occupation in the 1940s where executions are taken place are buildings like Victoria Institution and Bukit Bintang Girls School
4.MARA Junior Science College, Kuala Kubu Bharu, Selangor – A white flying apparition can be seen in various parts of the building
5.Victoria Institution, Kuala Lumpur – A boys school was tured into a Japanese base during the Occupation. Many British soldiers and locals were brutally tortured to death in the basement and some older buildings on the campus. It is said that not only are apparitions common in the day as well as in the night, there had also been many cases of spirits possessing students. The possessed boys would behave strangely and even violently harming other students and teachers, forcing the stronger teachers and students to restrain him. The possesed boy would only snap out of it a few hours later and remembering nothing
6.Tambun, Ipoh, Perak – Singtings of an old lady on the roadside while driving
7.Tambun Inn, Ipoh, Perak – Lights were reported to turn on and off by itself and sounds of whispering could be heard where no one was around
8.Bukit Tunku, Kuala Lumpur – A spooky place to be even when it is actually one of the most elite residential areas in Kuala Lumpur. This place with its many big and tall trees and very winding roads, has an eerie feeling about it even at broad daylight. It is said that a few years ago two youth embarked on a high speed motorcycle chase around the curvy roads of the area. One of the youth crashed at a dark stretch of the road, which is actually a very sharp corner. There have been claims about sightings of a young man riding a motorcycle at high speed, who mysteriously vanished in the dark
9.Poliklinik Cheras, Kuala Lumpur – Used to be a government hospital but it is being abandoned with no reason. There were rumors that say there are still some dead patients that loiters around the area
10.Genting Highlands Resort, Pahang – A famous hill top resort and casino, many people incurred gambling debts and committed suicide there. Some visitors leaving the hotel lobby reported seeing a man in red jump from the rooftop, just to disappear before he hits the ground. Certain rooms are not available for rent no matter how full the hotel was. Those who have seen the inside reported that it was filled with old Chinese ghost wards. They would subsequently fall sick for days afterwards
11.Highland Towers, Kuala Lumpur – A tragic event where one of the 3 blocks of apartment at this place fell apart due to landslide and heavy downpour prior to that fateful day. Since then, the Highland Towers have become famous for claims of being a very haunted place. Voices of the dead can be heard at night and ghostly figures are said to have appeared at the scene. There are also a story about a taxi driver who picked up a woman passenger at the middle of the night and being asked to drop her at the place.She left a bag and the poor taxi driver found it to be full of blood!
12.Police Station in Tras, Pahang – During the 1950’s, a police corporal and his wife were found in a state of shock and terror after opening their door to an unknown figure. Many police personnel were terrorized by this entity that other policemen would rather resign than being transferred to this remote station
13.Kellies Castle, Perak -Sometimes door are opened themselves and lots of scary screaming voices can be heard.
14.Puchong House, Kuala Lumpur – Evil drawings on the walls. Some say the ghost of a woman who used to stay there haunts the place. Other than that, just stepping into the house is enough to keep you awake for months.
15.S.K (1) Kuala Ampang, Selangor – Could hear taps in the toilet running by itself and sightings of a lady in white walking behind the school compound.

Tourism Of Haunted Houses

2011-10-23T15:04:00.002+05:00

Joshua White

Haunted Houses

This paper is taking a look at the haunted houses of America. The three Haunted places I have picked are the Island prison of Alcatraz, The Winchester Mystery House, and the Amityville Horror House. These are places you might have heard of before but until you experience them for yourself you will not be able to form your opinion on whether ghosts actually do exist.

Of all the websites that I visited the website for the Winchester Mystery House was the best. The website offered ticket purchases online and shows that this House has definitely become known for its haunted nature. The house in its design is quite eccentric actually. There are staircases that go down 7 steps before going up 11 steps, another set of staircases has 7 flights of steps with 42 steps but only goes up 9 feet. This mansion itself is a very interesting place and it is said that Mrs. Winchester built it full of secret passages because she was trying to trick any ghosts that might be following her. ““When Mrs. Winchester set out for her Séance Room, it might well have discouraged the ghost of the Indian or even of a bloodhound, to follow her. After traversing an interminable labyrinth of rooms and hallways, suddenly she would push a button, a panel would fly back and she would step quickly from one apartment into another, and unless the pursuing ghost was watchful and quick, he would lose her. Then she opened a window in that apartment and climbed out, not into the open air, but onto the top of a flight of steps that took her down one story only to meet another flight that brought her right back up to the same level again, all inside the house. This was supposed to be very discomforting to evil spirits who are said to be naturally suspicious of traps.”” This quote was taken from the American Weekly published in 1928 and gives you some idea of just how crazy the inside of this house really is. This is definitely one of the oddest houses ever built and it is said that Mrs. Winchester built it to hide from the ghost of every person killed by a Winchester rifle. The tourist attraction is evident in the fact that they offer midnight flashlight tours to scare people though they did have to put a pause in that after someone strayed from the tour group and was not found until the next day. Now people come from all over the world to see this odd and fascinating house.

The Amityville Horror House has quickly become one of New York’s most famous tourist attractions. This was brought on by the book and movie that have been made telling the gruesome story that accompanies this house. The story is that a kid brutally killed his entire family consisting of his parents and 4 siblings, when arrested the child simply said that there were ghosts and voices in his head that told him to do it. The house was sold shortly after this tragedy and the new owners reported doors being torn from their hinges, and strange voices interrupting their phone calls. These owners moved out within 28 days of living there. Though many people feel these people were over exaggerating their experience because the next owners had no such trouble.

The prison of Alcatraz, a cold, dank hellhole, saw many murders, riots, and suicides during its 29 years of service. Along the way it spawned tales of inexplicable sounds, cell doors closing on their own, disembodied screams, and scary apparitions. The island, believed to be an evil place by Native Americans, has seen centuries of death from accidents, murders, and suicides. With this dark history, it's no wonder Alcatraz is said to be one of the most haunted places in the nation. If ghosts return to haunt the places where they suffered traumatic experiences when they were alive, then Alcatraz must be bursting at the seams with spirits. Though the prison is no longer used as a prison it has become somewhat of a tourist trap due to the idea of it being haunted. Alcatraz also known as “The Rock” is responsible for bringing in nearly a million visitors per year. The future development of Alcatraz is somewhat unknown. A few years back there was a push by some people to remove the prison and put something friendlier and less menacing on the island. This idea was opposed greatly by people saying that Alcatraz was a very important part of the city historically and from a tourist standpoint. There has also been talk of fixing up the island because the weather has not been friendly to the prison and many of the buildings are rubble or falling apart, but the state and city did not feel like that was a good investment. So it looks like The Rock will remain a tourist attraction until there are no more buildings to visit. Though people visit this island prison for many different reasons tourist numbers estimate that around 1/3 of the tourists that visit each year are hoping to experience something other worldly. Through my research on this topic I have found many websites devoted to proving that The Rock is really a haunted place, some of these articles are incredibly interesting and convincing, but you will never know for yourself until you visit the island.

The Importance Of Business Ethics In Ireland

2011-10-23T15:03:00.003+05:00

The Importance of Business Ethics in Ireland

Sonia Lorena Richards

Cross cultural Human Relations and Negotiations

April 27, 2010

Globalization has created opportunities for countries like Ireland to flourish. “Ireland is now classed as a high income economy by the World Bank on the basis of gross national income (Chhokar 365).” The importance of business ethics is fairly new in Ireland. Explanations for this might be sought in the country’s colonial history and late economic development, its size, the homogeneity of Irish society, and religion (Keating 9). These things need to be considered while doing business in Ireland. There are many opportunities for other countries to do business with Ireland because it is dependent on trade (Chhokar 365). The United States and Ireland’s business ethics are very similar, but do have some differences. The culture of each country determines how business ethics are understood. Due to past corporate and political scandals in the 1990s, Irish corporations emphasize the importance of ethical standards in the place of business (Keating 9). Irish ethical standards start with leadership and its components, as well as the attitudes towards ethics in business.

It wasn’t until the 1990s that people realized the importance of business ethics because it caused them a great of social and economic costs.

“The spate of unethical practices which unfolded in Irish businesses in the summer of 1991 aroused widespread public criticism and anger with senior government and business people. I firmly believe that the revelations and investigations into these events will have restraining effects (Regional Manager, Utility) (Alderson 434).”

While the rest of the world for some years has been addressing issues such as business ethics, Ireland for the most part was focused on its own economic and political problems (Wiley 135). Since the events occurred in the 1990s, Irish attitudes towards business ethics had to change to decrease the social and economic costs. It got to a point that it was affecting the whole country. There have been studies conducted on the new Irish attitudes toward ethics in business which needs to be known by managers of other countries who want to do business with Irish companies.

According to Siobhan Alderson there are four keys that changed: attitudes towards implementing ethics in business, influences of top management, attitudes towards ethical issues in business, and the perceptions of responsibility towards key stakeholders in business. Some of the implementations that Alderson discovered were that Irish managers believe that business schools need to include more ethics training to make sure what occurred in the 1990s does not occur again (APPENDIX A). A management consultant was interviewed by Alderson on the matter and believes strongly on education in the schools systems. “Although business ethics is given its best start in the home, some enhancement could be effected through training at school, college, and business school. (Management Consultant) (Alderson 435).” Most managers believe this as well. I interviewed Ann Hinds who works at the law firm Matheson Ormsby Prentice in Dublin, Ireland. Since the 1990s, business ethics have been incorporated in the school systems. She explained to me at her firm it is an absolute essential to have learned or taken a business ethics course before working in the firm. She not only explained about the importance of her firm, but for all businesses in Ireland. “Corporations are more focused on business ethics due to the financial crisis we are going through right now (Ann Hinds).” With this said, It will be important for foreign managers who want to work in Ireland to be educated in their code of ethics before arriving to work because of how they believe their top management’s behaviors influence their peers. It will give them a better advantage over the competition. The Irish believe that the behavior of management or leaders influence ethical and unethical behaviors within an organization (Alderson435) (Appendix B). There has been a comparative study done on the effects of ethical leadership in Ireland and the United states. Even though they are very similar and from the same cluster, they differ in some aspects (Keating 10). Keating explains that “ethical leadership focuses on how leaders use their social power in the decision they make, actions they engage in and ways they influence others (Keating 7).” According to Keating, there are 6 attributes of ethical leadership: character/integrity, ethical awareness, community/people orientation, motivational, encouraging/empowering and ethical accountability. It is important for managers to know that leadership varies from country to country because of different cultural norms and values. History can also tie in differences of leadership. The only difference between the United States and Ireland was the character/integrity attribute.

“In Ireland, leadership is characterized by a strong charismatic, team-oriented approach coupled with a participative and human orientation. In Irish society, character and integrity are rooted more strongly in relationships within one’s social network than in a set of obligations to outsiders (Keating 17).”

The United States is the opposite where it is more individualistic and focuses on individuals then the society. They are required to just know the code of ethics and circulate it to all the employees and stressed upon induction (Alderson 435). Alderson’s study pointed out that Irish managers believe that top management’s behaviors influence the peer’s ethical and unethical behavior. It has to come from the leaders to make a difference with the followers.

“While legislation provides a framework, it is largely up to senior management to effect ethics, based on reasoned judgment and situational feedback. A senior manager, (ideally the CEO), should be custodian of ethical standards for the company. (Senior Manager, Financial Institution)(Alderson 435).”

The Government in Ireland did have to make changes because of the scandals, but if it wasn’t for the businesses that were not corrupt during the 1990s, the country would still be considered behind in the study and practice of good business ethics. They had to take the good with the bad. Some companies saw this from the start and took action. Wiley pointed out some examples of some companies during that time that did something to change the ethical standards in Ireland were Bord na Mona (the TurflPeat Board) which operated an audit committee which reports any conflicts directly to the Chairman and by-passes the board.

“Radio Telefis Eireann (RTE) and the Electricity Supply Board (ESB) had sections in their establishing statutes requiring directors to disclose any conflicts. Telecom Eireann, the semi-state company responsible for the telephone system, is considered to be exceptional among semi-state companies in having a written code of conduct dating from 1987. Activities which constitute an actual or potential conflict of interest, and activities which hinder or may hinder an employee’s ability to discharge his/her obligations to the company may be precluded by the code. An employee who breaches the requirements could be faced with dismissal (Wiley 137).”

Going through those scandals actually helped Ireland in the long run. They became aware of business ethics. The government and businesses in Ireland responded in time before the social and economic costs were devastating.

The Irish strongly believe in motivation and encouragement. Due to the economic and social growth that followed after the scandals of the 1990s and with the rising competition from globalization, performance management type systems introduced by the United States have contributed to the growth of a performance ethic (Keating 21). Ireland is characterized by team orientation. They work together because they want to use everyone’s skills to their full potential to achieve their goal. They are effective because of how they trust each other and how honest the group members are (Keating 17). Although Keating describes that relying on honesty characterizes the Irish society to have strong relationships within one’s social network instead of outsiders. With this said, it will be hard to earn a way into one’s network in Ireland. It is important to build a relationship first so the deal can go smoothly. Many countries vary when dealing with relationships with business partners. When people do business in other countries, they need to know this type of information in order to succeed. In Ireland, teams succeed because everyone is looked upon equally. According to GLOBE data, power distance is revealed to be high (Chhokar 370). “Power distance is the degree to which members of a society expect power to be distributed equally (Keating 11).” The Irish can be considered an informal society because they treat everyone equal and do not have title, but they do know their place. (Chhokar 370). With all the honest, trust, and encouragement comes a high humane orientation. “Humane orientation refers to how much a society rewards its members for being fair, altruistic and caring to others (Keating 20).” They believe in rewards to motivate their employees. Everything ties in together and that is why their power distance works in their culture. Even though they view everyone equally, that is completely not the case when it comes to gender.

A study on masculinity done by Hofstede in the workforce in 1980 revealed that woman just did not work in the labor force and it didn’t change for years. Although education did try to reinforce gender equality, but it wasn’t until 1991-2000 that women in the labor force increased from 35.9% to 47% and keeps on rising (Chhokar 371).

It is important for foreign managers to know that Ireland looks at gender slightly different, but it is changing slowly. Even though there is evidence of a breakthrough in females in the workforce, few will reach the top floor (Chhokar 378). During my interview with Ann Hinds I asked how women are viewed in the workforce. Ann Hinds pointed out that women are not excluded from top managerial positions, but there is still less than 50 % in those positions. Although, she said there are a few companies like her firm that have a 50/50 male to female ratio in top managerial positions. Matheson Ormsby Prentice is one of the # 1 practices in Dublin. With all this said by Ann Hinds, if foreign companies what to send women into top managerial positions in Ireland, they would have to find a company that has a good amount of women in the board room. Research is vital when doing business in other countries because each country is different in many aspects. Companies sending people to work in other countries need to know this information. Women are not looked down upon in Ireland, but it is unusual to see a female in top management.

There are many opportunities in Ireland. It is important to know their code of ethics and how they view ethical behavior when doing business within the country. It is vital to do Business ethics training before working in Ireland. They strongly believe in business ethics since the scandals in the 1990s cost them a great deal of money and issues. Once they concentrated on the study of business ethics and changed their ways of running companies, the issues declined greatly. In Ireland, employees rely on top management to set the bar for the code of ethics within a company. Since their attitude toward business ethics changed, Ireland has thrived and became a high income economy (Chhokar 365). Their business ethics is very similar to the United States which has thrived in the past for many years.

Appendix

Appendix A

Table 2 Cross-cultural Differences in Attitudes to the Implementation of Ethics in Business
Mean scores *
Attitude UK Irish US Sig T
Every company should have a code of ethics 5.0787 5.5758 5.7266 0.0001
Every industry should have a code of ethics 4.3244 5.0990 5.2400 0.0000
Business schools should include more ethics training for their students 4.9828 5.6500 6.3549 0.0011
Business school education has raised manager’s ethical standards 3.3078 3.6200 3.8007 0.0409
Outside intervention or consultancy would help managers in dealing with
Ethical issues 4.2792 4.2673 4.7216 0.0124
Ethical beliefs and standpoints should be a consideration in the selection
of managers 5.4751 5.9192 5.6724 0.0169
A major influence on business persons to behave ethically is increasing
public concern about ethical standards in business 4.5723 5.0808 5.1111 0.0010
λ 1 = strongly disagree
7 = strongly agree
434 EUROPEAN MANAGEMENT JOURNAL Vol 12 No 4 December 1994 (ALDERSON 434)

Appendix B

Table 3 Percentage of largish Managers Identifying
People-related Influences on Ethical and Unethical
Behavior in Organizations as Important
-
Attitude %
A culture of ethical behavior must come from
Top management in an organization 96
An implant contribution to ethical behavior
among business persons is ethical behavior
among top management 95
An important contribution to ethical behavior
among business persons is ethical behavior
among their peers 91
An important contribution to unethical behavior
among business persons is unethical behavior
among top management 88
An important contribution to unethical behavior
among business persons is unethical behavior
among their peers 84

435 EUROPEAN MANAGEMENT JOURNAL Vol 12 No 4 December 1994 (ALDERSON 435)

Work Cited

ALDERSON, S, & KAKABADSE, A. (1994). Business ethics and Irish management: a cross-cultural study. European Management Journal vol 12; 4 pg 432-441, 1994. Retrieved from

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6V9T-45MGSG7-B-1&_cdi=5907&_user=2139755&_pii=0263237394900299&_orig=search&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1994&_sk=999879995&view=c&wchp=dGLzVzb-zSkzk&_valck=1&md5=17d452acba62bbe690ede80acbfc9a5e&ie=/sdarticle.pdf

Ann Hinds
Matheson Ormsby Prentice
70 Sir John Rogerson's Quay
Dublin 2
Ireland
T: +353 1 232 2000
F: +353 1 232 3333
E: ann.hinds@mop.ie

Chhokar, J. S., Brodbeck, F. C., & House, R. J. (2007). Culture and leadership across the world The GLOBE

Book of in-depth studies of 25 societies. Lea's organization and management series. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. http://www.netlibrary.com/urlapi.asp?action=summary&v=1&bookid=212077.

Clarke, Peter, and Elizabeth Tierney. "Business Troubles in the Republic of Ireland." Business Ethics: A

European Review 1.2 (1992): 134-138. Web. 11 Apr 2010. < http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119335003/abstract

Keating, M., Martin, G., Resick, C., & Dickson, M. (2007). A Comparative Study of the Endorsement of

Endorsement of Ethical Leadership in Ireland and the United States. Irish Journal of Management, 28(1), 5-30. Retrieved April 6, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 1429543051). http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=1429543051&SrchMode=1&sid=1&Fmt=6&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1272311814&clientId=3326

Witches, Boogers, And Haints

2011-10-23T15:03:00.000+05:00

Southern Culture
Booger, Witches, And Haints
I have always been interested in paranormal activity, and who isn’t curious by the ways of the witch. So, in saying that, it was very easy for me to pick such a topic as booger, witches, and haints. To be perfectly honest, I’ve always wanted to be haunted. I figured as bad as I wanted it, it would have happened by now, but no such luck. In that case you will usually find me fulfilling my inner need for paranormal activity by watching related topics on T.V., such as Sylvia Brown, John Edwards, or Paranormal State. All of which I highly recommended, especially if you are a doubting person. I can remember as a child every time my cousins and I would always have to break out the scary tells as soon as it was bed time. Little did we know we were caring out a long standing southern tradition of ghostlore and folklore.
One might ask, why so much ghostlore in the south? There are several reasons.
” The Civil War left a tragic spirit hanging over the region and gave birth to tales of ghost armies and haunting belles. The Voodoo religion and trying to understand the unknown has lead to the creation of many tales. Folklorists and storytellers preserve the heritage of supernatural tales in the region.” (Dixon)
The isolation of the mountain communities helped to protect the traditions and stories from alteration and persecution from outside. Even though the mountains are being modernized, the folklore and magic are still apart of the culture of the mountain community. As far as witches go, the history is very old, and it’s been carried on in the mountains since they were first settled by pioneers.
“The pioneers brought their magical ways with them from Ireland and incorporated them with Cherokee beliefs when marriages between to races started. People believed the magic was good and natural. Because of certain practices and sayings, researchers were able to prove the magic came from Europe. Many practices suggest European influence, but the belief in the three goddesses and the Christian devil eliminate any doubt of the origin.” (Irvin)
My people believe that the supernatural arts of the mountain folk are very useful. I would agree that the magic is useful, good, and natural.
I would like to first talk about the boogers, and the haints. The foxfire book was very interesting. It took me on a front porch journey of ghost tales. What I mean by that is the whole section was very southern people telling their own run in, or run outs with ghost and such. The language was the most interesting. I consider my self a very country talking person, and many strangers upon hearing my voice will instantly say, “Where are you from?” Even still it was kind of difficult to read. Overall, most of the people interviewed had a very scary story to tell, and they believed in it whole heartingly. There were a few that had a scary story, but had explained it away to natural occurrences. Those same people were the ones who referred to the Bible. One woman said the Bible destroyed the foundation of such things. I understand were she is coming from if referring to boogers, or strange beings, but I believe a haunting is a haunting. I think a lot of ghost tales come from something called an imprint. An imprint is stamped into time when something very tragic happens, like a murder in a home, and then the persons moving into that home, experiences that imprint. Not actually a haunting, but an imprint. Imprints can be layered. Meaning you can experience more that one at a time. But they can be just as scary as an actual haunting. A haunting is were some spirit is actually bothering you, doing things to get at you. I think areas where people died during battles of the civil war, are probably some of the most haunted places, because the people died so tragically. In saying that, while researching online, I quickly noticed most southern states have web pages that contain a list of haunted places, and famous ghost tales special to their state, lots of interesting stuff.
Now I would like to expand on the witchy side of things. There are two categories of witches in the mountains, granny women and water witches. The granny women, also referred to as witches, practice something commonly referred to as Appalachian granny magic. These women are usually Christian elders of the community, and not from a certain class. They are the ones that people go to with their problems. “A cauldron displayed in a granny witch’s front yard lets people know that her services are available.” (Irvin) They are never paid for their help, and are expected to be ethical, and never to harm to another human being. The traditions are handed down orally, and are considered the most sacred. If written down they are considered to lose power. There is no exact source of sacred scripture, most were taught by their parents. The biggest witch rule is to keep silent about their magical art. If a witch starts top teach her magic she will begin to lose her power. Although they do teach people, that want to learn, potions and herbs, but not the magic that lies behind them. They do not hold control over people, because they don’t practice harmful magic. They are often looked at for their wisdom. Some of the simplest things they do are, remove warts and take the sting out of a burn. There are three ways to receive powers: 1) to be given them by someone else, 2) for a less powerful magic, one can learn it through a type of apprenticeship, 3) being struck by lightening. The water witch can only be male. This is something passed down to the men in the family and not in public view.(Irvin) A water witch is supposed to have the ability to find underground water through the uses of two pieces of wood or metal. This witch would find underground springs, that would supply homes with water. After all this, I learnt I really didn’t know much about witches and their usefulness. I had always associated witches with causing people harm, now I know that in the mountains we have good witches.
This subject reflects southern culture in many ways. In twinned with all of these things I’ve discussed are religion, poverty, hospitality, tradition, and storytelling, and these things are deeply rooted in the south. Religion plays a huge part in what people allow them selves to believe when it comes to supernatural occurrences. Tradition lies underneath it all, and it’s all wrapped up by storytelling. Poverty affects everything it touches. I believe a lot of this subject solely boils down to poverty. The people had very little entertainment and word of mouth is real cheap. So they like to tell ghost tales to keep them selves amused. Can’t say I didn’t do that same thing as a child. This is were modernization is changing this part of southern culture. With advances in technology and such, less time is spent talking on the front porch about tall tales, and today’s generation is really missing out on such thought provoking traditions of the past. Instead they are buried up to their ears in games, television, and cell phones.etc.

Work Cited

Dixon, Joyce. “Southern Ghostlore, Celebrating Our Culture.” Southern Scribe. 13 June
2008. http://www.southernscribe.com/zine/culture/ghostlore.htm

Irvin, Johnny. “Appalachia Magic.” 13 June 2008.
http://lhome.wlu.edu/~lubint/Touchstone/AppalachiaMagick-Irvin.htm

Zenith Technologies Strategic Planning

2011-10-23T15:02:00.002+05:00

Zenith Technologies Strategic Planning
The purpose of this paper is to summarize the results of the marketing audit carried out at Zenith Limited technologies an industrial automation service company established in the Republic of Ireland 10 years ago. Zenith Technologies employs more than 250 professionals working in projects and supporting many companies' industrial operations. The marketing audit includes the finding on three environmental aspects that affect the company marketing strategy. The paper also contains the marketing situation of the company, an executive summary, and the conclusions of the audit. The environmental aspects studied in this paper are the following: economics, market, and technology. The marketing situation for the company encompasses the objectives, strategies, tactics, 4Ps, and sales for the year 2006.
Executive summary
During times of market growth client needs are easily identifiable because they shout for products or services require. This was the case for the automation market in Ireland 15 years ago when multinational pharmaceuticals started to establish facilities in the country. In 1998 the engineering automation market in Ireland was just about to absorb all the resources in the island. The scarcely resources gave way to a rapid and unexpected demand for automation engineers. Supply was not enough in for the market. Zenith Technologies CEO's great visionary could see the immense business behind the situation. The companies were looking for those resources and they were ready to pay good money for it.
Zenith establishment is an example of hard work and different vision of the business world. Even though the market was small, the business was 100% profitable from the beginning, low risk, and little investment required. The trends and forecast showed a great deal of investment coming to the country from those multinational companies. The integration of the country to the European markets was a key event to start that invasion of foreign corporations. That was the perfect time to start a company like Zenith because of the high demand for automation job will follow. An early start would ensure recognition at some time in the near future and the company would be positioned in the Irish market sooner than later.
However, almost 10 year after those smart thoughts, the situation is totally different. The company' objectives have changed; it is now time to look for foreign markets to keep the business profitable. The organization has acquired the expertise to move beyond the border of the island and offer its services to the same brands in other locations. This aspiration puts zenith Technologies in the position of commence to revise the entire organization and make big moves in hiring people with experience in multinational corporations to plan, coordinate, and implement sophisticated marketing strategies to achieve such a elevated goal of been one of the top competitors in the automation world for Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology manufacturers.
Although Zenith Technology is a small and young company, the goals are very high. To achieve those goals some recommendations are now presented herein. The rationale of every one of these recommendations is extensively treated in the next sections.
The marketing department of Zenith Technologies requires a structural transformation. The organization must start, a soon as possible this process with an integral diagnostic must be hired. It is recommended to find an independent consultant to execute this task on the global situation of the company.
The scaling up to the salaries in Ireland due to the scarcely of resource for such dynamic economic has risen the costs of the company. The company must be careful to avoid passing its high cost to the clients. Zenith Tech. must not contribute to the over-heating of the sector prices. Many clients may decide to withdraw Zenith as a service provider and start looking to the competition.
Although the strategy to attract quality workers with high salaries is good, the company must start to train their own people. The new beginners can be mixed with the senior engineers and supplied to clients at low cost. In the long term these young engineers will be accepted world wide with the same confidence as the experience engineers. The advantage of this strategy is that the company can stop the need to hire expensive engineers in the future every time a new customer is gained.
Zenith is in the position to open offices in other location in the world where pharmaceutical and biotech companies have businesses. India, for example is an excellent candidate for the next office. The company has achieved great recognition in the Irish market and extended that recognition through the internal channels of its customers. This is a competency advantage that the company must implement very quickly before other local firms become stronger in those countries.
The company must work hard to diversify its products. The products and services offer at the moment is too narrow. Many engineers have potential to understand and configure more than one control system. This should become a specific objective for the next year.
There are many independent institution dedicated to studied the different markets in the industry and in this particular case, the pharmaceutical industry. The company must establish a minimum level of marketing research using those independent agencies to redirect and create new products.
The organization must reinforce the marketing department and establish a program of competitive intelligence. It is true that a programs like this for Ireland are not required because the size of the market. However, if the mission of the organization is to trespass frontiers the competition has already business where Zenith Tech. is just starting to offer its services.
The organization must establish a marketing strategy in order to achieve the goals for the short and long term. A complete plan must be developed using the marketing mix tool and the marketing research recommended before.
The target market is so far happy with the DCS on which Zenith Technologies engineers best know. However, the maker of that DCS can start losing preference as their prices go up and up. As stated by Blois, "In accordance with the nature of marketing itself, the underlying idea is that demand is neither certain nor decided upon by the marketer" (2000).
An audit system of the organization has to integrate a section for the marketing department. There will be not benefit to implement a marketing strategy without an evaluation system that helps the department to improve performance and correct deviations. Marketing audit is vital part of a marketing strategy. "Firms need to evaluate their marketing ability and performance. Environmental changes and the need to ensure that the firm's competitive advantage is sustained and developed imply a need for an objective assessment" (Rogan, 2003, p.441).
The effecting of a marketing audit should not be tied to the implementation of a marketing strategy or plan. It could be better to start the process of the marketing department reorganization with a good marketing audit. "Regardless of whether an internal marketing audit has ever been produced in the past, it is a good idea for the directors of sales or general managers (in cases where a sales department doesn't exist) to complete a marketing audit as part of their preparation for the writing of their next annual marketing plans" (McCarthy, 2005).
Table of contents
Executive summary 2
Economic 8
Market 11
Technology 13
Marketing aspects 14
Objectives 14
Strategies 15
4 Ps 16
Sales 18
Conclusions 18
Reference 21
Environmental aspects
Economic
The Irish economic has enjoyed an incredible injection of foreign capitals during the last 3 decades. More than 30 years ago the government decided to open to oversees investments by lowering the corporation tax rate to 12% (Euromonitor, 2007). Since then the economic has been steadily growing at rate higher than 6%(see Figure 1) - well above the European average.
Figure 1: Irish GDP(ESRI, 2007)
The rate of unemployment has been around 4% in the last decade (ESRI, 2007). According to Euromonitor (2006), the low unemployment rate is the result of the great deal of jobs gained in the construction and service sectors. The giant multinational companies' investment in the country is the main driver of the service sector expansion. These companies not only hire many of the non-critical activities but also some very specialized jobs required on temporarily basis.
Salaries in Ireland have increased more than 300% in the last 10 years. The high rate of economic growth has brought to the country thousands of job opportunities. The Irish labor force was not enough to cope with the vacancies created. As a result, companies have been competing to attract the most experience and educated people. One of the main forms of attracting people is by offering higher salaries to move into a new job.
The Irish economic has been tied to the United States since the policies from the Government to attract foreign capital started 30 years ago. However, the European Union (E.U.) is the biggest market for Ireland products and services. Around 60% of the total trade of Ireland is with members of the E.U. Computer technologies, pharmaceutical, and services companies are the bigger players of the trading between Ireland and the members of the union. (The Economics, 2006)
Finally, the price index has been increasing during the last years. The cost of living went up 28% from 1995 to 2005. The main factor influencing this increase is the housing which cost has gone up more than 90% in the same period of time. (Euromonitor, 2006).
The economic situation of the country in the last years gave Zenith owner the opportunity to start his own business. As explained above, the establishment of multinational facilities opened a big market for services companies like Zenith Tech. Before 1998, multinationals had to find resources and hire the service from The United Kingdom due to the low demand for automation engineers. Between 1994 and 2000, just before the introduction of the Euro currently and the full integration of Ireland into the European Union, many multinationals selected Ireland to establish operation because of the low tax policy, low salaries, and well educated labor force.
Mr. Bredan O'Regan decided to offer the service in highly skill field of industrial automation after analyzing the trends in the pharmaceutical sector and initiating a incredible survey in the automation sector. Mr. O'Regan started the company with less than 10 workers back in 1998. The main jobs given were mainly subcontracts to the foreign automation companies requiring permanent personnel on client facilities. Throughout these ten years Mr. O'Regan has attracted the best of the Irish workers by offering stable jobs and high remuneration. The strategy of Zenith technology is to offer a high quality service to its client, with experienced engineers who had worked in the sector and are widely recognized by clients.
Zenith Technologies is today the larger automation service provided in Ireland. Clients have signed agreement of automation support and given the company big projects in the country and abroad. The key of the company to succeed has been keeping the remuneration for employees above the average, low profit per individual engineers, and charging clients higher rates when they ask for specific engineers. The main proved strategy here is to tell clients that these are the best people for their needs; as the requirements of pharmaceuticals are very strict and quality for these companies is above anything else. Zenith has achieved its purpose.
Market
After 10 year of existence, Zenith management is expecting a soft landing of the economic growth and the foreign investment in Ireland. For this reason, the company is looking to the market of automation around the world. The company has established offices in Singapore, The United States, and The United Kingdom. In these countries and Ireland the main clients of the organization have facilities and projects. According to Datamonitor (2007), the market in Asia will grow almost 5% a year until 2011. For example, Novartis, one of the companies which have signed an agreement with Zenith Technologies for global automation services will invest $5 billion in a new facility. Decision on the facility location is still to be made between Ireland, India or Singapore (Zenith, 2007).
Zenith is also assessing the possibility of opening new offices in India and China. The company has been invited to bid for a project in India. "The company has put together a quotation for the project and the Indian office will go ahead if the project is awarded", said Zenith Technologies chief project manager Jim Lehane.
The reality of the Irish market for the automation industry to provide service to the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry is not very promising. Companies are not looking with good eyes the high salaries paid to Irish workers nowadays. As a result, it is expected that many pharmaceutical and biotech projects go to other locations with cheaper labor. Zenith Technologies has to be ready for that challenge.
The marketing department of the company is based in Ireland. There is not marketing office in other countries to research and analyze the market in those other markets. Normally, if a project is going to take place outside Ireland, the office in the country' project has to coordinate the marketing strategy with head office in Cork. This approach may bring some lack of accuracy as the environment and economic indicators are different from country to country. The organization must look to create autonomous offices that can lead and make their own businesses, including the marketing strategies and planning.
Technology
Technology in the automation area keeps advancing at giant steps. As the computers and information system make revolutionary discoveries and developments, the same happens with the automation technology. Automation uses the same computers and processors used to build system of information.
One of the quality objectives of the company is to achieve excellence in automation technology (Zenith, 207). The company has developed software standards to guarantee a solid work and make sure that any software is completed in the same manner, so any engineer can understand, continue, test, and put in service work that some body else has written. This is one of the strongest elements of the company's technology.
The company has also set up extranet communications software to link the five offices that the company runs around the world. This technology allows engineers in any location to work in any of the company's projects. For example, engineers in The United States are able to develop software for the same project as an engineer working from Singapore or Dublin. They will be connected online, which means they can talk and see each others work on their computers.
On the other hand automation technology is a very ample field. Nonetheless, according to marketing records of the company, in the last three years the main source of income has been the implementation of work in only one sector of automation, the Distribute Control System (DCS) configuration. Worse yet, the company only works with one of the five most prestigious DCS' in the world. Although the managers are aware of this weakness, there is very little done to introduce new platforms to develop industrial automation software for pharmaceutical and biotech facilities with other DCS'.
Marketing aspects
Objectives
The company mission is to be a world wide class organization in the field of automation solution by understanding and exceeding clients' expectations with the highest quality on the work delivered (Zenith, 2007). Zenith vision is to be main competitor in the market of automation services for Pharmaceutical and Biotech industry by 2011. The company is planning to open offices in strategy location from where several countries can be served. Exception to this are Ireland, and The United States where the company intention is to have more than one office to offer quick respond and confident to customers.
Strategies
When collecting information about the marketing department the findings were not very good. The company is restructuring the department because the CEO found out that the objectives of the companies needed a strong marketing department. So far, the marketing department role was limited to (1) price calculation for the services offered, (2) quotation preparation upon client request for project bidding, (3) send out small gifts to key people in the market, (4) call contacts in the different companies to find out what was coming for the company and make deduction from there.
The marketing strategy of the company was limited to make sure the proposal prices were competitive to bid the competition and still make good profit. This objective was achieved many times when competing for a local project. However, recently the company lost 2 big projects with foreign companies as a result of a too high proposal. As mentioned before in the paper, when the quotation does not take into account local competition in other countries, it is very likely to lose the bids.
Needless to say that if the organization does not have a marketing strategy neither planning will be. The organization must introduce the marketing strategies and tactics necessary in order to achieve the company's sale objectives. The introduction of the marketing strategies and planning must be accompanied by a modification to the company's audit system to evaluate marketing progress, processes, and results. To do this the company should have in place a good auditing system. According to Karapetrovic & Willborn (2001), "The dynamic and adaptive features of a well-planned and implemented audit system will facilitate and simplify suitable and effective integration of audit programmes and individual audits (p. 19). Auditing process is a key element to support the idea of continuous improvement by verifying performance, providing feedback, and producing recommendations to the structures and strategies in organizations.
4 Ps
Zenith Technologies is a services provider in the automation integration field. The company is in the position to take the needs and requirements of its clients to implement solutions in different distribution control systems. Currently the company expertise is in DeltaV DCS. This is the favorite control system for pharmaceutical because the maker of this DCS designed it specifically for that industry. However, the prices of the systems are very high and pharmaceutical are starting to look at other options as well.
From Zenith Technologies prospective, the prices for an hour engineer are calculated based on his/her experience, last payment received in another job, number of engineer with the same profile in the country, and position in the company. This research is not very complicated for the marketing head because the number of companies and engineer in the sector are all countable. Ireland has had shortage of Automation engineers in the last ten years and the number of foreign engineers is also of everybody knowledge. For instance, the price for Mr. Sean O'Connor - overall lead engineer in the company - is the highest in the company ( an probably in the country) with $130 per hour. Mr. O'Connor is 10 years experienced and has participated on the largest projects in the country in recent years. For example, He worked for Wyeth Biotechnical campus in Dublin where he was technical lead Automation engineer for a project of $ 4 million. On the other hand, the rate hour for a junior engineer with 3 years experience is around $60.
The channel of distribution of Zenith' product is direct. The company always negotiates with clients without intermediaries. The company promotion campaign is limited to make individual presentations to potential customers or in times of new projects. The presentation is a 30 minutes power point file containing the history, locations, organization structure, clients, certifications, and a brief summary of the main engineers.
Sales
In term of sales, last year has been the best for the company. According to Mr. Brendan O'Regan, the total revenue 2006 was $14 million. The company won five big project and 3 medium projects. Clients like GSK in The United States and Ireland, Novartis, Wyeth, and the German Pharmaceutical Schwartz. The company employed more than 100 people to complete all these projects within budget and on schedule. However, there were also some project lost with the competition and some others that were too big for a company like Zenith to take.
There is no doubt that the company is well recognized in Ireland but to achieve what is written in the mission statement there is still much to do. Although, almost all the big players of the pharmaceutical and biotech world are present in Ireland, many of these companies do not consider Zenith as a company that could go outside to service other countries. That is why the offices in other countries most be given more independence and budget for marketing.
Conclusions
The boom economic situation of the country was the driver of Zenith Technologies creation back in 1998. The high rates of economic growth sustained for more than 20 years allowed the company to expand their businesses in a remarkable speed. It has been a great achievement of the company's CEO to put Zenith Technologies in the place where it is at the moment, after starting with a hand full of engineers, and having today the biggest automation team force in the island about 150 engineers distributed on client sites and around 100 project engineers strategically located in the five offices in four countries.
However, with the increase in work force, it is also required that changes to the organization are implemented. For example, in the marketing department the company must seek for sustainability of the business in the long term. The conditions today are not the same as those 15 years ago when the automation engineers where really scarce and the work of Zenith Technologies was more kind of a recruitment agency, looking for people and offer them to manufacturing companies or foreign automation integrators working in the country.
Today the economic is starting to slow down in the country. The only way for the company to achieve the goals set is to go out to offer the know-how and quality of the engineers and managers that have worked in the biggest project in the pharmaceutical and Biotechnological world in recent years.
The company' managers have understood that these changes are required. They are working toward a more solid company and have started by changing the objectives of the organization. Zenith Technologies is not more a local Irish company trying to open its way in the local market. There are new goals in the global market of automation. The next step must point out to design and implement the marketing strategy and planning in order to achieve what is proposed in the vision and mission statement of the company.

Reference
Blois, K. (2000). The marketing mix as a creator of differentiation. Waterschoot, Walter Van, Oxford Textbook of Marketing p181 31p. Retrieved May 22, 2007, from EBSCOhost database.
ESRI. (2007). Irish Economy. The Irish Economic and Social Research Institute. Retrieved Jun 26, 2007, from http://www.esri.ie/irish_economy/.
Euromonitor (2005). Consumer lifestyle Ireland. Euromonitor International: Country profile. Retrieved Jun 12, 2007, from Euromonitor Global Market Information Database.
Euromonitor (2006). Has the Celtic Tiger been tamed? Euromonitor International: Country profile. Retrieved Jun 12, 2007, from Euromonitor Global Market Information Database.
Euromonitor (2007). Ireland: Country Profile. Euromonitor International: Country profile. Retrieved Jun 12, 2007, from Euromonitor Global Market Information Database.
Datamonitor (2007) Global Pharmceuticals (2007). Datamonitor Reference code:0199-0372. Retrieved Jun 27, 2007, from MarketLine Database.
Karapetrovic, S. & Willborn, W. (2001). Audit system: Concepts and practices. Total quality management 12(1) 16. Retrieved Jun 2, 2007, from EBSCOhost database.
Kerin, R., Hartley, S., Berkowitz, E., & Rudelius, W. (2005). Marketing: Initiating the Marketing Process. [University of Phoenix Custom Edition e-text]. The McGraw-Hill Companies, New York. Retrieved May 22, 2007, from University of Phoenix, Resource, MKT551 Marketing Management.
McCarthy, T. (2005). Internal marketing audit pays for itself. Lodging Hospitality 61(11) 2. Retrieved May 31, 2007, from EBSCOhost database.
Rogan, D. (2003). Marketing: an introduction for Irish students. Gill & Mcmillan, Dublin (IE).
The Economist. (2007). Country Briefings: Ireland, Economic structure. The economics.com. Retrieved Jun 20, 2007 from http://www.economist.com/countries/Ireland/profile.cfm?folder=Profile%2DEconomic%20Structure
University of Phoenix (UOP). (2007). Marketing Audit Overview. Retrieved May 31, 2007, from University of Phoenix, Resource, MKT551 Marketing Management.
Zenith. (2007). Zenith Tech. Quality system. Zenith Technologies, Cork. Retrieve Jun 22, 2007 from Zenith Intranet Information System.

Global Warming

2011-10-23T14:57:00.002+05:00

Global Warming

Mission Plan

a. Analysis of the Problem

1. History of the Problem

Some scientist's have been concerned since 1896 about what might happen
if there were 5.5 billion tons carbon dioxide in our atmosphere. In 1961 a
British scientist did an experiment showing that the carbon in the air was
absorbing some of the sun's radiation. Afterward a Swedish scientist, Suante
Arrhenius, found out if the radiation of the sun was trapped in the carbon
dioxide the temperature of the earth would increase by 1-2 degrees. In 1988
James Hanson, a respected scientist, told the U.S. Congress "the greenhouse
effect is occurring now and it's changing global climate."(1989 Koral). After
the 1900's people started making factories and started using fossil fuels like
coal, oil, and aluminum. It was the industrial revolution and overpopulation of
humans that was the cause of the environmental problems that we have today.

2. Human Activity Causing the Problem

The reason our Earth is getting hotter is that human activities are
emitting too much carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The radiation from the
sun gets trapped in the bag of carbon dioxide that surrounds our earth.
One main reason for the problem of global warming is the burning of
fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are coal, oil and natural gases. We use these fuels
to run factories, power plants, cars, trucks, buses, air conditioning and etc.
The people of the earth are putting 5.5 billion tons of carbon, in the form of
carbon dioxide in the air every year! Seventy five percent of this is fossil
fuels.

3. Impact Causing Global Change

For many years, scientists have been predicting that our disregard for
Mother Nature would make the climatic temperature of this Earth to increase
greatly. There have been arguments that the whole idea of Global Warming is a
hoax, that the temperature cycle is just experiencing an upward trend and will
eventually come back down. Now, however, we are starting to see the evidence of
our behavior.
Remember the great heat wave in Chicago? That could have been a
consequence of global warming. Nearly a hundred people died, and the city's
economy came to a standstill. A much more tragic but less known heat wave
smashed into India, causing upward of 600 deaths.
Global Warming doesn't only increase temperatures in hot areas. It also
decreases temperatures in cold areas. An example of this has been the cold
spell that struck the midwest. In Montana, temperatures plummeted to 30 degrees
below and stayed there. The coldest weather ever recorded plagued our country's
heart for over three weeks, and still hasn't returned to normal. A related
incident has been the blizzards of the east coast. Some places in New York
State got over twenty feet of snow.
On a Native Island, where native tribes live, if the sea level rises
three fourths of a meter then half of the island will sink. This will happen in
many different islands around the world and if the water keeps on rising as it
is, then farming land near the seashores will be flooded and the crops will be
destroyed.
Like California and other states, we are adding CO2 and changing the
earth's weather. Some places are getting too little water which causes a
drought and other places get too much water which causes a flood.
In California, there was an almost permanent drought during the
eighties. This was gone in the nick of time by the great rainstorms of 1995.
We also experienced a frightening cold spell in 1992.

The Road Ahead
With all these obvious scourges plaguing us now, it seems that things
cannot get any worse. However, the current droughts, floods, and storms are just
the tip of the iceberg. If the greenhouse effect continues unabated, then the
inhabitants of Planet Earth have some surprises in store.
Scientists estimate that the global temperature will rise between 5 and
9 degrees by the middle of the 21st century, accompanied by a sea-level rise of
one to four feet. Five degrees may not seem like a drastic change, but in the
last ice age at the beginning of the Quaternary period, the average temperature
was only five degrees colder than it is now. Thus, our actions our warming the
earth enough to break out of an ice age.
Once the temperature reaches a certain threshold, the polar ice caps
will began to melt. While those living in the Arctic may find that a welcome
surprise, the implications for the rest of the world are serious. Even a partial
melting of the polar ice caps will cause sea levels to rise so much as to
completely wipe out most coastal cities. This includes such cultural centers as
San Francisco and New York. Those cities that survive will be battered down by
hurricanes much more severe than anything seen in history. Of course, inland
cities are not immune either. Rather than floods, they will face drought. So
while half the world is swimming to work, the other half will be crawling on
their knees with a scorching sun beating against their backs.
When drinkable water is a scarcity, it will become a commodity that
represents political power. The countries with water will be the countries with
power. This means there will be a political upheaval of global proportions. Life
as our children know it will be completely different, and not necessarily for
the better. With most of America's lakes dried up and its major trading ports
under several feet of salt water, perhaps we won't be the economical leader.
If we don't start trying to stop global warming from happening now,
there will be many more consequences. Another consequence will be that there
will be high raises in temperature, affecting human life by causing skin cancer,
damaging the human immune, and causing cataracts. Raises in temperature will
also affect agricultural and aquatic life. Also, many species will die off. And
in the forests or maybe animals, there could be medicines to cure some kind of
disease. The way these cancers and diseases come to be is because the sun
deadly rays like UV rays, which mutate human cells.

b. Experimental Design

1. Restate Problem

Natural occurrences are not the only caused and influences of our
atmosphere changing. Human activities also cause the atmosphere to change.
Fossil fuels burning is producing a worldwide increase in the atmosphere
concentration of carbon dioxide. If atmospheric carbon dioxide continues to
increase at the present rate, studies estimate that the average surface
temperature will rise 2 degrees Celsius by the middle of the next century. This
will be a climate change greater than any other ever experienced in history,
that we know of. The four main greenhouse gases are Carbon Dioxide (CO2),
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Methane (CH4), and Nitrous Oxide (N2O). With the
exception of CFCs, all these gases are found in nature. It is the recent
explosion of the human population that has caused an exponential increase in
their atmospheric presence.
Although nature has provisions for removing carbon dioxide, it does not
take into account the human factor. The long, complicated carbon cycle can only
keep up with increasing human activity if the tree population increases
proportionately. Due to modern medicine and increased awareness of nutrition and
health, the human race has managed to extend its lifespan considerably, thereby
releasing more CO2 into the atmosphere. This, combined with an alarming rate of
rainforest depletion and air pollution, leads to an unmanageable amount of CO2
in the atmosphere. Since its sources are both natural and human, carbon dioxide
is the largest contributor to the greenhouse effect, at 50%.
As far as CFCs, our only excuse is that "it seemed a good idea at the
time." When they were first invented, they seemed to be the miracle chemical of
the century. Because of their low boiling point, CFCs could act as coolers in
refrigerators, freezers, and air conditioners. Also, they were used to make
Styrofoam and as aerosol propellants. As it turns out, they are as skilled at
destruction as they are at refrigerating. Scientists discovered in the 1970's
that CFCs destroy ozone, starting an international ban on their usage. Later, it
was determined that CFCs contribute to global warming as well, making them a
dangerous double whammy. CFCs are no longer used in aerosol and Styrofoam,
however most refrigerators still contain freon, a CFC. Fortunately, the freon
can be recycled. Contributing to 25% of global warming, CFCs are still a major
problem, but at least the U.S. and the other powers have recognized it as such.
Methane, also known as a natural gas, contributes 15% to the greenhouse effect.
It is caused by cows and rice paddies. The major American demand for so much
beef urges foreign farmers to clear forests for pastures. This also causes an
increase in carbon dioxide, as well as a cow population so high that the
methane-rich burps of the complex digestive system are a major contributing
factor to the greenhouse effect. Add to that the methane released from natural
sources, and you have a very large problem. The ten percent that is left comes
from nitrous oxide, a common pollutant. It, along with carbon dioxide, forms the
major part of car exhaust. Half a billion cars drive the streets of the world
today, a number expected to double by 2030. N2O is also released by the burning
of fossil fuels. Finally, it finds its way into the atmosphere from nitrogen
fertilizers, which are used heavily by today's modern farmers. Overall there
are many pollutants in our atmosphere, influenced by humans, and by natural
effects. In our opinion if any member of this country wants to live in a good
environment then they have to take charge and to make a difference even if you
have to become a vegetarian so there will not be CO2 from the animals.

2. Hypothesis

If we continue to pollute the air with methane gases and don't do
anything about it, then the average global temperature will rise and there will
be many consequences. Warming expands ocean water and may melt some glaciers.
The sea level could rise one foot in the next 35 years and two in the next 100.
Hurricanes, tornadoes and other extreme storms may become more frequent.
Centers of large continents, such as the U.S. Great Plains, may be drier even if
the overall world rainfall increases somewhat. Heat waves may be more common.
Movement of just 1 percent of a future population of 6 billion people due to
higher sea level, drought, or other climate change would produce 60 million
migrants, many times the number of all refugees today. Impact mixed. Carbon
dioxide stimulates plant growth. However, heat increases demand for water.
Growing zones will shift if weather patterns change. Warming that expands the
tropics will also expand the range of tropical diseases such as malaria and
other insect borne maladies. Possible mass extinction may occur as conditions
change faster than species can move or adapt. Urban and agriculture development
leaves few wilderness corridors for migration.

3. EOS Satellite

The Earth Observing System (EOS) Data and Information System (EOSDIS) is
NASA's Mission to Planet Earth's (MTPE) project to provide access to Earth
Science data. EOSDIS manages data from NASA's past and current Earth science
research satellites and field measurement programs, providing data archiving,
distribution, and information management services. During the EOS era--
beginning with the launch of the TRMM satellite in 1997 EOSDIS will command and
control satellites and instruments, and will generate useful products from
orbital observations. EOSDIS will also generate data sets made by assimilation
of satellite and in situ observations into global climate models.
The instrument that we chose that monitors the impact of human activity
is HIRDLS. HIRDLS is an infrared limb-scanning radiometer designed to sound the
upper troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere to determine temperature; the
concentrations of O3, H2O, CH4, N2O, NO2, HNO3, N2O5, CFC11, CFC12, and
aerosols; and the locations of polar stratospheric clouds and cloud tops. The
goals are to provide sounding observations with horizontal and vertical
resolution superior to that previously obtained; to observe the lower
stratosphere with improved sensitivity and accuracy; and to improve
understanding of atmospheric processes through data analysis, diagnostics, and
use of two- and three-dimensional models.
HIRDLS performs limb scans in the vertical at multiple azimuth angles,
measuring infrared emissions in 21 channels ranging from 6.12 to 17.76 um. Four
channels measure the emission by CO2. Taking advantage of the known mixing ratio
of CO2, the transmittance is calculated, and the equation of radiative transfer
is inverted to determine the vertical distribution of the Planck black body
function, from which the temperature is derived as a function of pressure. Once
the temperature profile has been established, it is used to determine the Planck
function profile for the trace gas channels. The measured radiance and the
Planck function profile are then used to determine the transmittance of each
trace species and its mixing ratio distribution.
Winds and threatening tornados are determined from spacial variations of
the height of geopotential surfaces. These are determined at upper levels by
integrating the temperature profiles vertically from a known reference base.
HIRDLS will improve knowledge of data-sparse regions by measuring the height
variations of the reference surface provided by customary sources with the aid
of a gyro package. This level, which is near the base of the stratosphere can
also be blended downward using nadir temperature soundings to improve
tropospheric analyses.

Bibliography

"Climate Change Brings Trouble". The Earth Care Annual 1993. Emmaus:
Rodale Press, 1993

"EOS" http://eos.nasa.gov/ Logon November 3, 1996

"Global Warming" http://users.aimnet.com/~hyatt/gw/gw.html Logon October 25,
1996

"Global Warming". Microsoft Encarta 95, Microsoft, 1994.

"HIRDL" http://eos.acd.ucar.edu/hirdls/home.html Logon November 1, 1996

Newton, David. Global Warming A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara:
ABC-CLIO, 1993

Silver, Cheryl. One Earth, One Future, Our Changing Global Environment.
Washington D.C., National Academy Press, 1990

Woodwell, George. The Rising Tide Global Warming and World Sea Levels.
Washington D.C., Island Press, 1991

Global Warming

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Global Warming

The relationship between humans and the state of the ecosystem is not only
dependent upon how many people there are, but also upon what they do. When there
were few people, the dominant factors controlling ecosystem state were the
natural ones that have operated for millions of years. The human population has
now grown so large that there are concerns that they have become a significant
element in ecosystem dynamics. One of these concerns is the relationship between
human activities and climate, particularly the recent observations and the
predictions of global warming, beginning with the alarm sounded by W. Broecker
(1975).

The relationships among humans, their activities and global temperature can be
assessed by making the appropriate measurements and analyzing the data in a way
that shows the connections and their magnitudes. Human population can be closely
estimated and the consequences of their activities can be measured. For example,
the volume of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide emissions is an
indicator of human's energy and resource consumption. An examination of
population size, atmospheric concentrations of these gases and global
temperature relative to time and with respect to each other is presented here to
demonstrate the relations among these factors.

POPULATION GROWTH

Many of us have seen linear graphs of human population showing the enormous
growth in the last two centuries. However, significant changes in population
dynamics are lost in the exponential growth and long time scales. If the data
are replotted on a log-population by log-time scale, significant population
dynamics emerge. First, it is apparent that population growth has occurred in
three surges and second, that the time between surges has dramatically shortened
(Deevey, 1960).

Figure 1. Population (Log-population verses log-time since 1 million
years ago). Time values on x-axis, ignoring minus sign, are powers of 10 years
before and after 1975 (at 0). Vertical dashed-line at 1995. Filled circles for
known values are to left of 1995 and open circles on and to right of 1995 are
for projected values. (Data updated from Deevey, 1960). ----------

Deevey's 1960 graph has been brought up to date in Figure 1 to reflect what has
been learned since then. The data have been plotted relative to 1975 with
negative values before 1975 and positive values thereafter. The reason for this
will become clear below. The values of the time scale, ignoring the minus signs,
represent powers of 10 years.

It has been argued that a population crash occurred about 65,000 years ago (-4.8,
Fig. 1), presumably due to the prolonged ice-ages during the preceding 120,000
years (Gibbons, 1993). Humans came close to perishing and Neanderthal became
extinct. However, by 50,000 years ago (-4.6, Fig. 1), humans had generated
population mini-explosions all around the planet. Deevey's data for population
size since 500 years ago have been replaced with more recent estimates taken
from The World Almanac, (1992 - 1995) including population projections out to
2025. A vertical dashed-line has been placed at 1995. Filled symbols for the
known values are to the left of it and open symbols on and to the right of it
are for values projected into the short-term future.

The first surge coincides with the beginning of the cultural revolution about
600,000 years ago, interrupted by the population crash 65,000 years ago.
Population size rebounded 50,000 years ago and then growth slowed considerably.
The second surge began with the agricultural revolution about 10,000 years ago
and was followed by slow growth. Deevey argued that moving down the food chain
was the underlying cause of this large and rapid spurt. The timing of the
present surge matches the rise of the industrial-medical revolution 200 years
ago.

A relation between innovation and population growth is embedded in the log-log
plot. There was rapid growth at the start of each surge. Then, growth rate
slowed as people adapted to the precipitating innovations. Each surge increased
the population more than 10-fold. It appears that we are nearing the end of the
present surge as recent growth rates have declined. After the initial spurt,
subsequent innovations did not perpetuate growth rates. The only significant
innovations were those that produced the next surge. However, accumulated
innovations during the surges may have played a role in the eventual decline in
population growth rates. Starting with high birth and death rates, death rate
declines and longevity increases, but birth rates stay high. Some time later,
birth rates decline so that eventually, net births minus deaths produces slow
growth. The result is a spurt in population size. When referring to the
industrial revolution, this phenomenon has been called the "demographic
transition". It appears that this dynamic may have occurred twice before.

The decreases in time between surges suggests that, if past behavior is the best
predictor of future behavior, we are due for another surge. It may have already
begun, as indicated by the upturn in the projections at the right end of the
curve in Figure 1. What might the basis for another surge be? One can think of
several possibilities, including the "green revolution" and the "global economy".
A dominant element in past surges has been innovations in energy use (e.g., fire,
descending the food-chain, beasts of burden, fossil fuels, high-energy
agriculture). Thus, the development of an abundant and cheap energy source would
have a profound effect. Another 10-fold (or more) surge would produce a
population of 60 to 125 billion.

GLOBAL TEMPERATURE AND GREENHOUSE GASES

Figure 2. Greenhouse Gases and Mean Global Temperature (Greenhouse gas
concentrations and mean global temperature verses time). Time scale same as in
Fig. 1. Gas-concentration data have been normalized to the 0 to 1 scale on left:
CO2 (squares) - 190 to 430 ppm; CH4 (triangles) - 600 to 2400 ppb; N2O
(diamonds) - 280 to 340 ppb. Mean global temperature (circles) plotted relative
to oC on right. Vertical dashed-line at 1995, horizontal dotted line at maximum
CO2 concentration and global temperature over human history before 1990. Filled
and open symbols same as in Fig. 1. Projections in short-term future are based
upon continuation at current growth rates. (Data measured from graphs in Gribbin,
1990 and Khalil and Rasmussen, 1992). ----------

Mean-global-temperature (MGT) is related to the concentration of greenhouse
gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor and other trace
gases) in the atmosphere. The most prevalent greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide
(CO2). It has been shown that there is a strong relation between the atmospheric
concentration of CO2 and MGT over the last 160,000 years (Gribbin, 1990). It has
been suspected that the burning of fossil fuels and the clearing of land has
reached such proportions that these activities have precipitated a significant
increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration. The concentrations of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere have been directly measured since about 1960 and have
been determined over the more distant past from air-bubbles trapped in old
Antarctic, Greenland and Siberian ice and from deep-sea sediments. Mean-global-
temperature has also been measured directly over the last few decades. Estimates
of global temperature in the distant past have been deduced from a variety of
sources. From these data, the relation among atmospheric greenhouse-gas
concentrations, MGT and time is illustrated in Figure 2.

The time scale in Figure 2 is the same as that in Figure 1. Because CO2, methane
(CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) concentrations have different scales, the data
have been normalized on a 0 to 1 scale on the left. For CO2 (squares; Gribbin,
1990), 0 is equivalent to 190 parts per million (ppm) and 1 is equivalent to 430
ppm. For CH4 (triangles; R. Cicerone in Gribbin, 1990), the range is 600 to 2400
parts per billion (ppb). For N2O (diamonds; Khalil and Rasmussen, 1992), the
scale is 280 to 340 ppb. Mean global temperature (circles; Gribbin, 1990) has
been graphed relative to the degrees-centigrade scale on the right. The vertical
dashed-line is the same as that in Figure 1. The horizontal dotted-line is the
highest CO2 concentration and temperature in human history before 1990.
Greenhouse-gas concentrations and MGT in the short-term future are based upon
continuation at the current growth rates. This will be justified in another
context below.

Figure 3. Population and Global Warming (CO2 concentration and mean
global temperature verses log-population) CO2 concentration (circles) and mean
global temperature (squares) plotted relative to their absolute scales, ppm on
the left and oC on the right, respectively. Vertical dashed line at 1995. (Data
from Figs. 1 and 2) ----------

It is clear that the concentrations of all three gases have increased
exponentially since 1950 (-1.4, Fig. 2) and that MGT has done so since 1975.
Carbon dioxide concentration began to rise in conjunction with the use of fossil
fuels after 1850. Although methane comes from a variety of sources, including
plant decay, termites and bovine flatulence, CH4 concentration rises at the same
time as CO2. This is probably due to its association with fossil-fuel production.
Nitrous oxide concentration does not begin to rise until 1950. At this time, the
use of human-made fertilizers and internal-combustion-engine exhaust increased
dramatically. Ten thousand years ago (-4, Fig. 2), MGT increased substantially
just as the agricultural revolution got started. Over the previous 200,000 years,
the ecosystem was dominated by ice-ages. Projected MGT in 2025 (1.7, Fig. 2) is
about 17oC, 1.5oC higher than in human history prior to 1990.

POPULATION AND GLOBAL TEMPERATURE

We have seen in Figures 1 and 2 that recent population, atmospheric greenhouse-
gas concentrations and MGT have grown exponentially over about the same time-
course. The relation of CO2 and MGT relative to population size can be observed
by graphing these variables as above. Figure 3 shows this graph, where the log
of population replaces log-time and CO2 concentration (circles) and MGT
(squares) are plotted relative to their absolute scales, ppm on the left and oC
on the right, respectively. The vertical dashed-line denotes 1995, as in Figures
1 and 2. When the population reached 4 billion in 1975, the converging relation
between population and the other two variables becomes apparent.

The magnitude of the relations in Figures 2 and 3 can be determined by
calculating the correlation coefficient between pairs of variables. Table 1
lists these coefficients for the population, greenhouse-gas concentration and
MGT variables that we have been examining. The coefficients for the relations
during the industrial revolution, 1800 through 1994, are above the diagonal of
the table. The coefficients since 2000 years ago through 1994 are below the
diagonal. Over the past 2000 years, there is a nearly perfect correlation
between the concentration of greenhouse gases and population and between the
greenhouse gases themselves. However, the correlations between both population
and greenhouse-gas concentrations and MGT (bottom row) are not as strong. After
1800, the latter correlations increase to near perfection (rightmost column).
The conclusion from the graphs and table is that there is a strong relationship
among population size since 1800, greenhouse-gas concentrations and MGT.

TABLE 1. Correlation coefficients among population size, atmospheric greenhouse-
gas concentrations and mean global temperature (1800 through 1994 above the top-
left to bottom-right diagonal, n=10; 2000 years ago through 1994 below the
diagonal, n=15).

Pop CO2 CH4 N2O Temp

----------

Pop .996 .984 .977 .916 CO2 .990
.994 .974 .942 CH4 .991 .992 .949 .945 N2O
.959 .943 .942 .932 Temp .718 .716 .728
.829

GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE

Determining that there is a strong relation between population size and global
warming does not tell us what the underlying mechanisms are. However,
documentation of the relationship between human activities and the release of
greenhouse gases produces a strong inference that population size and global
warming are closely related (Gribbin, 1990).

Forecasting the future is risky business. Growth rates for greenhouse-gas
concentrations and MGT could decline from those at present due to unanticipated
innovations or natural events. For example, volcanoes can spew enough ash into
the atmosphere to block sunlight and temporarily reduce MGT slightly. However,
short-term continued growth at current rates is probably an underestimate.
Although population growth rate has slowed, the population is still growing. The
dominating factor is that per-capita energy and resource consumption rates are
increasing much faster than the population. This is not only due to anticipated
increases in standards of living in underdeveloped countries, but also to future
increases in the demand for energy in the developed countries (e.g., air
conditioning) as summer temperatures rise. Since most of the energy will come
from fossil fuels, at least for the next few decades, we can expect the
atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and MGT to rise in the short-term
future at a faster rate than they have recently. As MGT rises, water vapor,
another greenhouse component, will become a more and more significant factor due
to increased evaporation.

Although a 1.5oC increase in MGT above where we were in 1990 (1990 to 2025 in
Fig. 2) does not seem like much of a change, it is enough to precipitate major
changes in climate. A 1.5oC drop in MGT from where we were in 1990, for example,
would put the ecosystem on the verge of an ice-age. Already, there is a
suspicion that, since 1975, the persistent El Nino is the first sign of the
relation between global warming and climate (Kerr, 1994). As MGT increases
further, we can expect more frequent and severe hurricanes and perpetual
summertime droughts in many places, particularly in the US Midwest.
Paradoxically, more intense winter storms will occur in some places and climatic
conditions for agriculture will improve in some areas, such as in Russia
(Gribbin, 1990; Bernard, 1993).

There has been considerable debate over the ecosystem's carrying capacity for
humans. If we define that carrying capacity as the level that the ecosystem can
support without changing state more than it has over the duration of human
history, then Figures 2 and 3 indicate that we exceeded that capacity in 1975.
This is the point in time where exponential growth began to push MGT along a
path which has taken it outside the previous range. This does not necessarily
mean that humans could not survive if MGT is about 2oC higher than it has ever
been in their history. However, we will have to adapt to a radically different
climate pattern and, if MGT goes any higher than that, there could be disastrous
problems.

If MGT continues to increase beyond 2025 to 4oC above that in 1990, high-
northern-latitude temperatures could be as much as 10oC higher than at the
equator. The Arctic ice-cap would begin to melt and the permafrost under the
tundra would start thawing out. As a consequence, a thick layer of rotting peat
would contribute further to atmospheric CO2 and CH4 concentrations (Gribbin,
1990). With a number of human-made and natural positive-feedback elements in
operation simultaneously, a threshold could be crossed (Meyers, 1995; Overpeck,
1996). Are these risks that we should be willing to take for the sake of short-
term gains?

REFERENCES

Bernard, H. W. Jr., "Global Warming Unchecked", Indiana Univ. Press, Bloomington,
1993

Broecker, W., Science, 189:460, 1975

Deevey, E. S., Scientific American, 203:195, 1960

Gibbons, A. , Science, 262:27, 1993

Gribbin, J. , "Hothouse Earth", Grove Weidenfeld, New York, 1990

Kerr, R. A., Science, 266:544, 1994

Khalil, M. A. K. and R. A. Rasmussen, J. Geophys. Res., 97:4651, 1992

"The World Almanac", Pharos, New York, 1992 - 1995

Meyers, N. Science 269:358, 1995

Overpeck, J. T. Science, 271:1820, 1996

Post Script

After this document was written (about a 2 years ago), two books came out which
provide much more detail relevant to some of these issues:

HOW MANY PEOPLE CAN THE EARTH SUPPORT? by Joel E. Cohen; Norton, 1995.

DIVIDED PLANET: THE ECOLOGY OF RICH AND POOR by Tom Athanasiou; Little Brown,
1996.

Both are superbly done and provide a much more comprehensive and up to date
treatment of the population and economic topics included here.

Recent evidence (Mora et al.; SCIENCE 271:1105, 1996) indicates that the
possibility of a "greenhouse runaway" on Earth is much more remote than
indicated at the end of the previous version of this document. Therefore, the
former apocalyptic ending has been changed. Although the data presented points
to a catastrophic conclusion, this was (perhaps) an overstatement of the case.

Global Warming

2011-10-23T14:56:00.002+05:00

Global Warming

The greenhouse effect, in environmental science, is a popular term for
the effect that certain variable constituents of the Earth's lower atmosphere
have on surface temperatures. It has been known since 1896 that Earth has been
warmed by a blanket of gasses (This is called the "greenhouse effect."). The
gases--water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4)--keep ground
temperatures at a global average of about 15 degrees C (60 degrees F). Without
them the average would be below the freezing point of water. The gases have
this effect because as incoming solar radiation strikes the surface, the surface
gives off infrared radiation, or heat, that the gases trap and keep near ground
level. The effect is comparable to the way in which a greenhouse traps heat,
hence the term. Environmental scientists are concerned that changes in the
variable contents of the atmosphere--particularly changes caused by human
activities--could cause the Earth's surface to warm up to a dangerous degree.
Since 1850 there has been a mean rise in global temperature of approximately 1°
C (approximately 1.8° F). Even a limited rise in average surface temperature
might lead to at least partial melting of the polar icecaps and hence a major
rise in sea level, along with other severe environmental disturbances. An
example of a runaway greenhouse effect is Earth's near-twin planetary neighbor
Venus. Because of Venus's thick CO2 atmosphere, the planet's cloud-covered
surface is hot enough to melt lead.
Water vapor is an important "greenhouse" gas. It is a major reason why
humid regions experience less cooling at night than do dry regions,. However,
variations in the atmosphere's CO2 content are what have played a major role in
past climatic changes. In recent decades there has been a global increase in
atmospheric CO2, largely as a result of the burning of fossil fuels. If the
many other determinants of the Earth's present global climate remain more or
less constant, the CO2 increase should raise the average temperature at the
Earth's surface. As the atmosphere warmed, the amount of H2O would probably
also increase, because warm air can contain more H2O than can cooler air. This
process might go on indefinitely. On the other hand, reverse processes could
develop such as increased cloud cover and increased absorption of CO2 by
phytoplankton in the ocean. These would act as natural feedbacks, lowering
temperatures.8 In fact, a great deal remains unknown about the cycling of carbon
through the environment, and in particular about the role of oceans in this
atmospheric carbon cycle. Many further uncertainties exist in greenhouse-effect
studies because the temperature records being used tend to represent the warmer
urban areas rather than the global environment. Beyond that, the effects of
CH4, natural trace gases, and industrial pollutants--indeed, the complex
interactions of all of these climate controls working together--are only
beginning to be understood by workers in the environmental sciences.2 Despite
such uncertainties, numerous scientists have maintained that the rise in global
temperatures in the 1980s and early 1990s is a result of the greenhouse effect.
A report issued in 1990 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
prepared by 170 scientists worldwide, further warned that the effect could
continue to increase markedly. Most major Western industrial nations have
pledged to stabilize or reduce their CO2 emissions during the 1990s. The U.S.
pledge thus far concerns only chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs attack the Ozone
Layer and contribute thereby to the greenhouse effect, because the ozone layer
protects the growth of ocean phytoplankton.

Bibliography

Bilger, B., Global Warming (1992)

Bolin, Bert, et al., The Greenhouse Effect, Climatic Change and Ecosystems
(1986)

Bright, M., The Greenhouse Effect (1991)

Fisher, David E., Fire and Ice: The Greenhouse Effect, Ozone Depletion, and
Nuclear Winter (1990)

Houghton, J., et al., eds., Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment
(1990)

Monastersky, Richard, "Time for Action," Science News, Mar. 30, 1991

Moss, M., and Rahman, S., Climate and Man's Environment (1986)

Schneider, S. H., Global Warming (1989)

Seitz, F., Scientific Perspectives on the Greenhouse Problem (1990)

Shands, W. E., and Hoffmann, J. S., The Greenhouse Effect, Climatic Change, and
U. S. Forests (1987)

Stone, P., "Forecast Cloudy," Technology Review, Feb./Mar. 1992

Weiner, Jonathan, The Next One Hundred Years: Shaping the Fate of Our Living
Earth (1990)

Wuebbles, D., Primer on Greenhouse Gases (1991).

The Problem Of Global Warming

2011-10-23T14:55:00.005+05:00

The Problem of Global Warming

The problem of global warming, an increase in the average temperature on
Earth, is getting worse. The Earth has warmed 0.3 to 0.6 degrees Celsius since
the late 1800s. Scientists believe that the cause is the greenhouse effect, the
process of trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere because of the presence of
large amounts of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane, and nitrogen
oxides. Less oxygen is being produced and cleaning the atmosphere allowing more
of these gases to do its work on the environment.

Automobiles exhausts are just one of the contributors to this problem.
The burning of fossil fuels is another major influence to the increase in global
temperature as well. The destruction of the rainforests and all forests and
trees in general, is another. Every car produces enough gases from its exhaust
into the atmosphere that takes a mature tree to clean in about five years.
Trees keep the air clean for the environment by taking the gases in and produces
oxygen out of it. By cutting down the trees we are allowing for more of the
carbon to be exposed into the atmosphere.

Another factor that most people would not consider in the raising of
global warming is the excrement of cows. Cows produces tons of carbon that does
not all get treated for, and is in the top five for highest amounts of carbon
produced per year. This is another factor that somehow has to be dealt with.

All of these causes of global warming have been know by scientists, it's
the effects we are seeing in today's climate now they had no idea of. Arctic
glaciers are melting and causing the ocean's water level to rise. It has be
proven that if the water level were to rise anymore then we won't be able to see
the state of Louisiana anymore or any coastal areas anywhere. Louisiana is
already having there wetlands filled by the floods. The polar bear is another
example of the effects of global warming. Its habitat is decreasing and so are
it's numbers. Global warming affects the polar bear by melting the arctic snow
and allowing it to starve longer then it usually does. The polar bear leaves
off it's fat for about 2-3 months and global warming will increase this time.
Other effects will be increased weather storms both in summer and winter as a
hot summer produces a lot of precipitation in the air and thus gives extreme
winters and storms.

The worst is yet to come in this problem of global warming. If the
carbon gases are not somehow stopped the greenhouse effect will get worse and
global warming will increase. The scary thing about this all is that we are not
yet trying to stop them.

Global Warming 3

2011-10-23T14:55:00.002+05:00

Global Warming is a big problem in today¡¦s society. Global Warming also known as the Greenhouse effect is a problem everyone will soon have to face. The people of the younger generations should be educated about what Global Warming is and that it is caused due to the way people are treating the environment.

We are now entering the Greenhouse century as we know it. Planet Earth is estimated to be 4.5 billion years old, and life on earth has existed for more than 3.5 billion years. Humans have been on earth for 2 to 3 million years. It is only been in the past 200 years people have been affected by global warming. The last 40 years have been the most damaging.

As the impacts of human influences have grown, so have the risks associated with those impacts. New technologies carry increasing risks, and the scale, frequency, and impacts of disaster caused or influenced by human activity are growing tremendously. The risks to the Earth¡¦s natural systems are becoming significantly concerning.

The world¡¦s population, currently 5.2 billion has grown from about 3 billion in 1960, and around 2 billion in 1925. Today it increased by almost 90 million each year, and is likely to reach 10 billion by 2025(Corson 4).
The reason we currently have an atmosphere crisis is because of human impact on the gases which make up our atmosphere. Our atmosphere, which is made up of four distinct layers blankets our planet and protects up in many way. One way it protects us if from the harmful rays the sun radiates on our planet. Each layer differs from the others in temperature, density, composition and in the way it absorbs radiation from the sun. The atmosphere itself is some 300 miles thick. The first layer is the Troposphere. It is the lowest layer and extends higher than any airplane can travel, about 6.8 miles. Air in this layer is heated by the earth itself and for every 1000 feet the temperature drops 3.5 „a F. When it reaches the top of this layer the temperature is about - 70„a f. The next layer extends to about 30 miles. It is less dense than the underlying layer. Unlike the troposphere, temperature increases with altitude. This warming is caused by a layer of ozone.

Ozone is a form of oxygen. The ozone absorbs most of the sun¡¦s ultraviolet radiation. This has two important effects, First, it warms the air in the stratosphere. Second, it prevents much of the harmful rays from reaching the earth surface. Temperature in the layer reaches 29„a f.
The next few layer have almost no ozone or any water vapors. Air is less dense here and not even sound travels well here.

Carbon Dioxide comprises only a small portion of the atmosphere. A little more than 0.03%.
It is colorless, odorless gas yet vitally important to life on earth. Actually too much Carbon Dioxide can be just as dangerous as too little. Carbon Dioxide molecules have the ability to absorb heat energy. The greater amount of carbon dioxide, the greater amount of heat absorbed. The heat absorbed remains in the atmosphere rather than being radiated back into space. The result is higher temperatures on earth¡¦s surface. There are many signs that the levels of Carbon Dioxide in our atmosphere is increasing. This threatens the balance between the amount of solar energy reaching the earth.

Breathing for humans consists of taking in oxygen and getting rid of waste gases such as Carbon Dioxide. Carbon Dioxide is a byproduct of many industrial processes, including the fermentation of sugars to produce alcohol, the decomposition of limestone to make quicklime and the manufacture of cement. But the main sources are the burning of fossil fuels and the destruction of forests.
Because plants themselves need Carbon Dioxide Through photosynthesis plants absorb Carbon Dioxide and act as a natural defense against global warming. But there is a problem...people are destroying forests at an alarming rate. This deforestation increases Carbon Dioxide in the atmosphere in two ways. One with out the forests, Carbon Dioxide that would have been absorbed for photosynthesis remains in the air. The other is when the forest is burned or if trees decay after cutting them down, they release the carbon they have absorbed over their entire lifetime.

Burning fossil fuels pours huge amount of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases into the atmosphere. About 5.6 Billion tons a year! The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere allows solar energy to pass through and prevents heat given off the earth form escaping into space. Other gasses affect the atmosphere come from many sources including CFCs from aerosol cans, refrigerants and cleaning solvents. This damaging cycle is called The Greenhouse Effect.

The growth of human numbers and their impacts on the earth¡¦s resources have greatly accelerated since World War II. The production of food, energy, and industrial commodities is associated with much of the deterioration of the Earth¡¦s life-support systems.

Some of the ways that Earth may respond to global warming could be gradual or could be rapid. By continuing to add greenhouse gases to the air we may be surprised by some climate changes. As an example when the Arctic warms, huge amounts of methane now trapped under ice could escape into the air. Methane is a Greenhouse gas that traps heat in the atmosphere, these added emissions could cause the Earth to warm even faster than now expected.

Part of the West Antarctic ice sheet precariously rest on the sea floor. As the sea warms, the ice might become destabilized, break up and melt. As a result over the next 300 years sea level would rise faster than currently predicted. Warmer water temperatures might lead to changes in the course of major ocean currents. Their paths determine the distribution of ocean temperatures and nutrients that sustain marine life. If the currents were to change direction, entire marine ecosystems could be disrupted.

It is known that plants and animals are being pushed to extinction. Also it is known about the role in raising the Earth¡¦s temperature. However no one knows how the two are connected. Global Warming may be proved to be the single threat to fellow species.

Vast quantities of pollutants are pouring into the atmosphere , posing health threat to humans, damaging the environment and changing the Earth¡¦s climate. Historically, the air has renewed itself through interaction with vegetation and the oceans. Today, however, this process is threatened by increasing use of fossil fuels, expanding industrial production, and growing use of motor vehicles.(Corson 220)

The most common and widespread pollutants currently emitted by human activities are sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, volatile organic compounds particulate. Dozens of toxic chemicals are commonly found in the air surrounding urban areas.

In recent years, many industrial nations have controlled air pollution with some success. Europe and North America are now suffering serious damage from acid deposition. Increasing pollution from the growing use of motor vehicles plagues many nations. Car sales in Western industrialized nations rose 71 percent from 1970 to 1986.

Global Warming 4

2011-10-23T14:54:00.006+05:00

Global Warming

Human kind has entered a brand new relationship with the earth. The constant and increasing pressures we are exerting threaten our planets ability to sustain life itself. Change-in the way we think , and in the way we live-is needed now.Global warming is the most urgent environmental problem the world will face in the next decade and the next century. Few, if any, trends are more important to our future than climate change caused by human activities. Scientist around the world are warning us that global warming poses a major threat to our future quality of life, previously there has been little information on this problem. Right now, the rate of global warming may be 100 times faster than it has ever been. Very soon the earth may become hotter then
at any time in human history. In the last decades the problems of atmospheric change have been gravely advanced by pollution resulting from human activities. These environmental changes pose a real threat to the lives of people and wild life.It is vital to all of us that we fully understand the complex relationship between the atmosphere and the earth. The earth is getting warmer. the changes are small, so far, but they are expected to grow and speed up. Within the next 50 to 100 years, the earth will continue to heat up hotter than it has been in the past
million years. As oceans warm and glaciers melt, land and cities along coasts may be flooded. Heat and drought may cause forests to die and food crops to fail. Global warming will effect weather everywhere, plants and animals everywhere and people everywhere. Humans are warming the earth¹s atmosphere by burning fuels, cutting down forests, and by taking part in other activities that release certain heat- trapping gasses into the air. Humans all over the world need to get together and solve these problems.In the southern hemisphere, the warming is the greatest over Australia, southern south Africa, the southern tip of south America, and the area of Antarctica near Australia. In the northern hemisphere, warming is strongest in Alaska, northwest and eastern Canada, most of the Soviet Union, and parts of Southern Asia, North Africa and south west Europe. Climate has cooled in Great Britain and northern and
eastern Europe. In the USA scientists found no overall warming trend in weather records kept since the nineteenth century, however keep in mind the United States covers only 1.5 percent of the earth¹s surface. As warming continues, every place on the earth will be effected.In the frozen heart of the last ice age, 18,000 years ago, the temperature was only about nine degrees Fahrenheit colder then today. So a change of a few degrees can have a dramatic effects. Today's most sophisticated climatic models estimate the global temperature will rise between 3 and 9 degrees Fahrenheit in the next century.This could occur as early as the year 2050. Here are the large scale changes the rise might bring: As water warms it expands, taking up more space. So warmer ocean water, with added melt-water from glaciers, will rise by twenty inches to five feet in the next 50 to 100 years.Just a 1 foot rise in sea level can cause shorelines to recede a hundred feet, and in flat terrain, a thousand feet. If ocean waters rise several feet, whole beaches could wash away. Many homes, hotels, other
buildings, and entire cities will be threatened. Salt water will pollute freshwater wells that millions of people use for drinking water. Coastal marshes, which are vital nurseries for fish and other ocean life will be endangered. Along undeveloped coast, marshes may survive because they can move inland with the rising waters. In many places seawalls and other human structures will prevent this process and the marshes will be destroyed. In the United States ocean water may cover the Florida Keys and large parts of southern Florida and Louisiana.Two kinds of action are called for. One is to take steps to prepare for the the effects of warming that already have begun. Agricultural scientist must develop varieties of wheat and other crops that can grow in a longer but drier growing season. Ways must be fond to use irrigation water more effectively. Conservation will also be important for drinking water supplies.Governments that control building and other development along coasts must begin to plan for rising sea levels. In the United States, billions of dollars have been spent to replace send eroded from beaches, and to help owners of beach front homes rebuild after storm damage. The states of Maine and North Carolina now prohibit permanent buildings on threatened beaches.

Global Warming And The Greenhouse Effect

2011-10-23T14:54:00.003+05:00

The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

Recently, global warming has moved to a serious scientific issue. Because sunlight is constantly falling on the earth, the law of physics say that the planet has to radiate the same amount of energy back into space. Infrared radiation is sent out by the earth through the atmosphere, where molecules (carbon dioxide) hold outgoing radiation for a while, warming the surface.1 The molecules are kind of like glass in a greenhouse which is why this process of warming is called the greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse effect has been operating since the beginning of time. Without the effect, the surface of the earth would be -20 degrees Celsius, oceans would have frozen, and there would be no life on earth. The Washington Post has reported that the earth is warmer than it has been in 1,200 years.2 Recently, the summer of 1999 set records for heat in much of the United States. The average world temperature has increased one degree Fahrenheit over the last 120 years, making the world hotter than it has been in 100,000 years. From the beginning of the industrial revolution, concentrations of carbon dioxide have increased by 30%, concentrations of methane have doubled, and nitrous oxide has risen by 15%. The increases of these chemicals have enhanced the heat trapping capability of the atmosphere of the earth. Sulfate aerosols, cool the atmosphere because they reflect light back into space, but sulfates do not live long in the atmosphere.
Scientists still do not know what exactly is heating up the earth. Some say the earth is going through a natural cycle because the earth has gone through cold periods as well as hot periods. Mounting evidence is saying that humans are to blame for the rise in temperatures over the past 120 years. When we burn fossil fuel, oil, gasoline, and natural gas to run power plants, cars, and heat homes, we produce carbon dioxide. An increase in carbon dioxide magnifies the greenhouse effect. All this energy accounts for 80% of society’s carbon dioxide emissions, 25% of methane emissions, and 20% of nitrous oxide emissions. In 1994, the U.S. emitted one fifth of all the greenhouse gases in the earth. Carbon dioxide amounts are now 360 parts per million today, verses 315 per million parts in 1958, when modern technology started, and 270 per million parts in pre-industrial times. Scientists cannot actually predict what the climate will be like in the future, though. James E. Hansen, a director of NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies, says that scientists know too little about the climate to make accurate predictions. "The forcings that drive long-term climate change are not known with an accuracy sufficient to define future climate change," Hansen wrote in a journal, The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Many people believe that carbon dioxide is nothing to worry about. And many scientists are turning away from the debate about whether human-induced global warming is taking place. It is true that Earth’s ocean, plants, soil, and animals naturally release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. And other gases such as methane and water vapor trap solar radiation like the way a greenhouse traps the sun’s warmth. Human activities are adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere than are being naturally recycled. This is what scientist believe is causing global warming.
And what are the effects of global warming? Rising temperatures are expected to raise the sea level and change local climate conditions. By changing these conditions, the climate could alter forests, water supplies, and crop yields. This could also threaten human health, and harm many ecosystems of animals. Deserts could expand into range lands and many National Parks could be altered. And many of the most important impacts depend upon whether rainfall will increase or decrease. The rate of climate change is also much more important than how much the change will be because the rate will determine whether humans and ecosystems can adapt to survive. A decreased day and night temperature and night warming may happen when an increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases takes place.
Emissions are a major problem contributing to the greenhouse effect. These gases are called volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) and consist mostly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These gases react in sunlight with nitrogen oxides to form photochemical smog. A lab experiment was done to simulate typical outside conditions. Stems of fescue grass and white clover were cut and tested for VOC content and researchers found that emissions of certain VOC’s spiked immediately after cutting, while others continued at a high rate for the next two days. Uncut grass also gives off VOC’s and cutting grass makes it worse. In a city like Los Angeles, mowing accounts for 10% of the VOC’s in the atmosphere, say researchers.
President Bill Clinton and Vice President Al Gore have different stands on the global warming issue. Al Gore is pushing for a radical stand and wants to cut back on emissions to ten percent below the levels of 1990 and this would require a 20% cut in the fossil fuel usage. Al Gore even called for a White House conference with weather forecasters saying that the U.S. should fund more abortions in order to cut down on the number of people populating our world. Gore believes that Americans will be thankful in the long run for him saving the world from ecological disaster. Many others believe that Americans will be mad at Gore if Clinton takes Gore’s stand on the issue because energy costs will rise and the economy will slump. Not many people seem to be in favor of a rise in taxes on energy so we can cut usage and stop the warming trend. Steve Forbes is also speaking out on the global warming issue. Forbes believes that practically all of the global warming that has occurred in the past one hundred years took place before green house gas emissions took off.
During the 1990’s, many people thought that there was a connection between economic growth and carbon dioxide emissions because emissions have risen and fallen with the nation’s economic output.3 Ever since 1991, emissions have grown nearly 2% each year because the economy demanded a greater use of fossil fuels. But now research shows that there is not a link between the economy and emissions. Changes in economy such as the growth of the Internet are allowing economic growth without fuel consumption. And the Energy Information Administration says that the consumption of coal, oil, and natural gas went down last year. Now environmentalists have recommended emissions be cut to prevent the effects of a temperature rise. But many industry advocates disagree because they are afraid that doing so will lessen their economic growth.
One problem in global warming is that in August, Vice President Al Gore released photos of the Arctic ice sheet taken by satellites. These photos show that the ice is melting at a very rapid pace.4 Researchers from the University of Colorado and the British Antarctic Survey reported that 1,100 square miles of ice off Antarctica had broken off in the last year. The researchers say that the ice shelves "are in full retreat." Last year a giant iceberg the size of Rhode Island broke off from the Ross Ice Shelf in Antarctica and poses a great danger to ships traveling through the South Atlantic Ocean. If the polar ice caps continue to melt for the next 100 years at the rate they are melting at now, all the world’s coastal cities could possibly be submerged in the sea before the end of the 21st century. And even before that happens, the temperature rise would disrupt the Earth’s climate.
Scientists have observed other warning signals about the greenhouse effect. 1998 was the warmest year recorded in history in the northeast U.S. Scientists from the University of Munich reported that spring has started to arrive earlier in Europe and autumn has arrived later. The highest temperatures ever recorded in the Pacific caused the largest die-off of corals in history. This warm weather destroyed up to 70 % of the corals.5 A Hemisphere-wide climate cycle called "Arctic oscillation" is stuck in one of its two alternating phasing, which is causing surface winds to sweep larger quantities of ocean air across the northern continents. Many scientists until now even believed in the "Medieval Warm Period" where temperatures supposedly rose through Europe and sea ice retreated in the Northern Atlantic ocean, which allowed Vikings to colonize England.6 Global warming skeptics cite the area where this happened very frequently as an example of climate variation. These skeptics say that the climate changes without the aid of people and they believe that warming would be beneficial. But now new research says that the "Medieval Warm Period" never even happened. By studying ancient tree rings, glaciers and other measurements of past climate, the thaw seems to be limited to northern latitudes in Europe and North America.
One thing being done to fight global warming is when officials from 150 nations met in Kyoto, Japan, to figure out a way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.7 A treaty was agreed on called the Kyoto Protocol, in which the industrial nations pledged to lower their emissions by 2012. The U.S. Senate still has to ratify the treaty and other nations such as China, which produces vast amount of carbon dioxide, has refused to sign it. Other action is being taken at every level to reduce, avoid, and better understand the risks associated with climate change. Some cities and states have prepared greenhouse gas inventories and others are pursuing programs and policies that will result in the greenhouse gas emission reductions. The U.S. Global Change Research Program coordinates the world’s most extensive research effort on climate change. The Clinton Administration is aiming at addressing the challenge of global warming and at the same time strengthening the economy. Martin Parry, a geographer at University College in London proposes these measures in the reducing of global warming: Breeding food crops that can better withstand drought; discouraging people from living in flood plains; making irrigation and use of water more efficient.8 In the United States, some scientists are forming partnerships with public officials, business people, and the public to make their research known. They are going to assess what climate change means at a local and regional level.
Deforestation is another issue that is often discussed as a problem contributing to global warming that can easily be stopped. Deforestation has many negative effects such as ecological imbalance, bio-diversity loss, and climate change. Most areas in which deforestation is a problem are located in 3rd world countries. Deforestation leads to a massive extinction of species as well as vascular plant species, such as trees. When this happens, atmospheric carbon dioxide is increased because the carbon in forests is higher than in the agricultural areas which replace them.
In conclusion, global warming is an increase of the Earth’s surface temperature and the Earth’s lower atmosphere. Atmospheric greenhouse gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases) trap outgoing energy, and retain heat like the glass panels in a greenhouse. Many people believe that humans are causing the problem with emissions from things such as cars and trucks. Others say that the warming is just part of a trend and that the world goes through warm and cold periods. If the planet continues to warm, there could be many harmful side effects.