Ad Imaginem Dei

“The Eve of St. Agnes”: A Poet, Some Painters, a Roman Princess and a Saint, January 20-21

2012-01-20T15:45:00.016-05:00

“ST. AGNES’ Eve—Ah, bitter chill it was!
The owl, for all his feathers, was a-cold;
The hare limp’d trembling through the frozen grass,
And silent was the flock in woolly fold”

William Holman Hunt, The Escape of Madeline and Porphyro
English, 1848
Private Collection

This is the opening stanza of “The Eve of St. Agnes” by the English Romantic poet, John Keats. The complete poem tells the tale of the elopement of a young girl and young man from her home.1 The poem begins with this evocation of a freezing January night and with references to the old superstition that on the night of January 20/21, if certain rules were fulfilled, a girl would dream of the man she would marry. The remainder of the poem tells a story (reminiscent of Romeo and Juliet) of a young man from an “enemy” family, who secretes himself in the girl’s room, spies on her as she prepares for bed and goes to sleep. After a time he wakes her and urges her to elope with him, which she does. Their escape is made easier because everyone in her family home had caroused late into the night and was in no condition to challenge them.

John Everett Millais, The Eve of St. Agnes
English, 1863
Windsor, Royal Collection

Keats’ poem was the inspiration for the work of several of the Pre-Raphaelite painters, among them John Everett Millais and William Holman Hunt. The poem’s mélange of sub textual sexuality, detailed observation of the natural world and romanticized Medievalism exactly matched the guiding philosophy of the Pre-Raphaelites. 2

However, all this is very far from the Catholic view of St. Agnes. Hers is one of the best known saint’s names in Catholicism. She is one of the early martyrs of the city of Rome, those who are memorialized in the intercession prayer of the traditional “Roman” canon of the Mass (Eucharistic Prayer #1), along with other female saints like Cecilia, Agatha, Felicity, Perpetua and Anastasia, as well as the early Popes and male martyrs like St. Lawrence.3 According to the traditional belief, she was a young teenage Christian girl, tortured for her refusal to sacrifice to the Roman gods and for her desire to remain a virgin because of her commitment to Christ. Eventually, she was murdered for her faith and her refusal to capitulate. Her body was buried in a catacomb outside the walls of Rome, on the via Nomentana. 4

Hieronymous Bosch,
St. Agnes with Donor,
Wing of Triptych of the Magi
Netherlandish, ca. 1510
Madrid, Prado Museum

Dominichino, St. Agnes
Italian, ca. 1620
Windsor, Royal Collection

Because of the close relationship between her name, “Agnes”, and the Latin word for lamb; “agnus”, her symbol has traditionally been a lamb. A popular saint in medieval and Renaissance art, she is easily identified by the proximity of the lamb (which, of course, is also a symbol for Christ, the Lamb of God.)

More concretely, on her feast day two lambs are presented to the Pope during Mass. When they are shorn, several months later, their wool is sent to the cloistered convent attached to the church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. There it is woven into the strips of woolen cloth from which are made the pallia (symbolic collars) that are presented by the Pope to newly elevated archbishops.

In the 4th century (shortly after the issue of the Edict of Milan and contemporary with the construction of the major basilicas of St. John Lateran and St. Peter’s, the first purpose-built Christian churches) several extremely large basilican type buildings were constructed in the outskirts of Rome, beyond the walls. These basilica-like buildings were intended not as churches, like St. John’s or St. Peter’s, but as covered cemeteries. 5 They were constructed near the graves of martyrs who were remembered by Roman Christians as having been important. Excavations have found that their floors were literally paved with graves and their walls also bore stacked rows of sarcophagi. One was built on the via Nomentana, near the grave of Agnes.

Plan showing the layout of the site off via Nomentana.
The Constantinian era cemetery basilica (parts of which still exist) is the largest structure.
The circular structure is S. Costanza, the still existing mausoleum of Constantine's daughter.
The small basilica at the right (down a flight of steps) is the 7th century
church of S. Agnese fuori le mura, which still exists.

Interior, S. Agnese fuori le mura
Roman, 7th century
Rome

Above the nearby catacomb a smaller basilican church was also built on top of her grave in the 7th century. Called S. Agnese fuori le mura (St. Agnes outside-the-walls), it still stands.

One feature of these large basilican cemeteries was that they were often the locations at which wealthy Christians chose to build their own tombs. Helena, Constantine’s mother, built her tomb adjacent to the cemetery basilica which adjoined the catacomb containing the graves of the martyrs Marcellinus and Peter off the via Labicana.6

Exterior view of S. Costanza showing
remains of the 4th century cemetery
basilica walls
Roman, 4th century
Rome

Her granddaughter, Constantine’s daughter Constantina, built her mausoleum next to the cemetery basilica of Agnes (coemeterium Agnetis).7 It still stands next to the via Nomentana, although the adjoining cemetery basilica is now in ruins. Now called Sta. Constanza (and converted into a church), it preserves some of the earliest mosaic decorations which incorporate Christianized classical images.

Vault mosaics, S. Costanza
Roman, 4th century
Rome

The vaulting famously includes images of classical putti (what today we would call “cherubs”) cavorting amid entwining grape vines during a grape harvest, a possible Eucharistic reference.

In the two small apses are mosaics depicting the Tradito Legis and Christ as Pantocrator. The nearby cemetery basilica of St. Agnes is still partially standing as well.

Traditio Legis mosaic
Roman, 4th century
Rome, S. Costanza

Christ Pantocrator mosaic
Roman, 4th century
Rome, S. Costanza

All this for a young, but tenacious, teenager who could neither be dissuaded nor bullied into abandoning her faith.

_________________________________________

1. Published in 1819. The full text can be read at http://www.bartleby.com/126/39.html

2. For the Pre-Raphaelites see, http://www.victorianweb.org/painting/prb/1.html

3. The text of Eucharistic Prayer #1 can be accessed at http://old.usccb.org/romanmissal/samples-priest-prayer1.shtml

4. Butler, Rev. Alban. Lives of the Saints, New York, Benziger Brothers, 1894, pp. 43-44.

5. Krautheimer, Richard. “Mensa-Coemeterium-Martyrium” in Studies in Early Christian, Medieval and Renaissance Art, New York, New York University Press, 1969, pages 35-58. and Rome, Profile of a City, 312-1308, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 24-25. In ancient Rome (from pagan times onwards) no burials were allowed inside the walls.

6. Krautheimer, op cit.

7. Krautheimer, op cit.

Circumcision of Jesus

2012-01-01T00:18:00.001-05:00

Fra Angelico, Circumcision of Jesus
Italian, 1451-1452
Florence, Museum of San Marco
Angelico's picture of the Circumcision leaves no doubt
about what's happening!

"When eight days were completed for his circumcision,

he was named Jesus, the name given him by the angel

before he was conceived in the womb."

(Luke 2:21) Gospel for January 1, 2012, Solemnity of Mary, the Holy Mother of God

Before the revision of the calendar that followed Vatican II, January 1st was the feast of the Circumcision of the Lord. This is still the text of the Gospel for January 1, even though the feast is now that of the Theotokos, the Holy Mother of God.

The event of the Circumcision makes manifest that Jesus is a real human being, a real little Jewish boy baby. It marks him as a Jew according to the law of Moses. It is also His first experience of human pain and the first shedding of His Blood.

So, while the secular world celebrates the beginning of a new year, full of new possibilities and new hopes for the future, the Church also marks the beginning of something new -- by commemorating the first experience of human suffering by the Incarnate Word.

Hodie Christus Natus Est!

2011-12-24T20:01:00.002-05:00

Giotto, Nativity
Italian, 1304-1306
Padua, Arena Chapel

"While they were there, the time came for her to have her child, and she gave birth to her firstborn son.

She wrapped him in swaddling clothes and laid him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn." (Luke 2:6-7)

These are the words of St. Luke, as he describes the birth of Jesus, His Nativiity.

The subject of the Nativity of Jesus has been a popular subject for artists in the nearly two milennia of Christian life. There are so many works of art illustrating the scene that it is difficult to make a choice of which to talk about.

Giotto, Nativity (detail)

But here is a favorite of mine (among many) -- Giotto's Nativity from the Arena Chapel in Padua. I love the exchange of glances between Mother and Child. Their regard for each other is serious, grave even. Is Mary wondering what this miraculous Child will grow up to be? Is Jesus wondering what this human life will be like?

Meanwhile, the shepherds hear the words of the exhuberant angels and Joseph, according to legends popular in the Middle Ages, sleeps outside the stable. In Giotto's image all is calm, quiet and bright.

A Blessed Christmas to all! And, as my gift to you, here is a performance of Palestrina's motet, Hodie Christus natus est, by the English group, the Sixteen. Filmed in Rome, the video gives glimpses of Christmas there, including the shrine of the Holy Crib at Santa Maria Maggiore.

O Emmanuel! Savior of all people, come and set us free!

2011-12-23T00:18:00.000-05:00

The seventh and final "O Antiphon", for December 23rd, reads "O Emmanuel, king and lawgiver, desire of the nations, Savior of all people, come and set us free, Lord our God". The title, Savior of all people, applies to Christ in His Passion and Death.

There are many works of art that show the Crucifixion, most often in a narrative sense. However, the text of this antiphon suggests contemplation and adoration of Christ as Crucified Savior. Three works of art come to mind as an interpretation of the subject.

Hubert and Jan Van Eyck, Adoration of the Lamb
The Ghent Altarpiece
Netherlandish, 1425-1432
Ghent, Cathedral of St. Bavo

The first is the Adoration of the Lamb by Hubert and Jan van Eyck, painted for the chapel of the Vidjt family in the Cathedral of St. Bavo in Ghent between 1425 and 1432. It represents a scene from the book of Revelation (Rev. 7:9-10). The blessed in heaven "from every nation, race, people, and tongue" adore the Lamb that was slain. The Lamb is, of course, Christ and His placement on the altar reminds us of the Sacrifice of the Mass, which is a daily participation in His Passion, Death and Resurrection.

Albrecht Durer, Adoration of the Holy Trinity
German, 1511
Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum

The second is the Landauer Altarpiece by Albrecht Durer, dated to 1511. It is an image of the Adoration of the Holy Trinity by all the saints. Here, the Crucified Christ is displayed by God the Father for the adoration of all, the ultimate revelation of the God of Mercy and Love.

Gianlorenzo Bernini, Blood of Christ
Engraved by F. Spierre for frontispiece of
F. Marchese, Unica speranza del peccatore
Italian, 1670
Vatican, Vatican Library

The final image is an engraving after a drawing by Gianlorenzo Bernini of the Blood of Christ. It was engraved as the frontispiece of the book Unica speranza del peccatore (The Only Hope of the Sinner) by F. Marchese, published in Rome in 1670. In this work, the Crucified Christ, on the cross, is held high by angels in adoring postures. His blood pours down, forming an endless ocean of grace for sinners to draw upon.

These pictures remind us of the reason for which the anticipated Emmanuel came to us. As the carol "Hark the Herald Angels Sing" tells us, to make "God and sinners reconciled".

O King of All the Nations!

2011-12-21T12:17:00.109-05:00

Michelangelo, Creation of Adam
Italian, 1508-1513
Vatican, Sistine Chapel

The sixth of the "O Antiphons", for December 22 reads: "O King of all the nations, the only joy of every human heart; O Keystone of the mighty arch of man, come and save the creature you fashioned from the dust". It asks for Christ, King of the nations, to "save the creature you fashioned from the dust" which raises images of the creation of the first humans, Adam and Eve.

Probably the most famous image of the Creation of Adam is that by Michelangelo on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo's conception of the subject both embraces the iconographic tradition and departs from it.

Michelangelo, Detail of Creation of Adam
showing figure of Eve

The most traditional element is found in Adam's reclining posture. The departures from the tradition are found, first of all, in the dynamism of the figure of God, who zooms in from the side on a cloud, surrounded by angels, and bestows life through that dramatic synapse between His extended

finger and that of Adam.

And, most non-traditional of all is the figure of Eve. She appears, tucked under God's left arm, which she clutches as she looks with curiosity (and perhaps some apprehension) toward her soon-to-be spouse.1

Earlier images were more static, depicting God, generally unaccompanied, standing over the reclining figure of Adam as He calls life into it.

Andrea Pisano, Creation of Adam
Italian, 1334-1337
Florence, Museo dell'Opera del Duomo

Eve did not make her appearance in creation images, except for those images that shows her creation from Adam's rib.

Huntingfield Psalter, Creation of Eve
English, 1210-1220
New York, Morgan Library
MS M43, fol. 7r (detail)
Here Eve emerges from Adam's side, as the
previously created beasts and birds look on.

Michelangelo also painted a far more conventional image of the creation of Eve, also on the Sistine ceiling. It is far more static and traditional than the amazingly dynamic Creation of Adam.

Michelangelo, Creation of Eve
Italian, 1308-1512
Vatican, Sistine Chapel

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1. Steinberg, Leo. "Who's Who in Michelangelo's Creation of Adam: A Chronology of the Picture's Reluctant Self-Revelation", Art Bulletin, Vol. 74, Number 4, December 1992, pp. 552-566. This article explores the chronology of attempts to identify the figures surrounding God the Father.

O Radiant Dawn! O Sun of Justice!

2011-12-21T03:10:00.000-05:00

Mosaic of Christ-Helios, Mausoleum of the Julii
Roman, mid-late 3rd century
Vatican, St. Peter's Basilica, Necropolis

For December 21st, the fifth "O Antiphon" reads: "O Radiant Dawn, splendor of eternal light, sun of justice: come, shine on those who dwell in darkness and the shadow of death".

Images of light are common metaphors for the divine and the image of the sun, especially of the sun at dawn dispelling the darkness of night, is frequently associated with Jesus. One thinks particularly of the imagery implicit in the entry of the Paschal Candle into the darkened church at Easter Vigil, accompanied by the proclamation "Christ our Light" and the response "Thanks be to God".

This particular "O Antiphon" of Advent brings to mind a distinct image, from the earliest period of Christian art.

Thia early image appears in the second half of the third century (ca. 250-300) in a tomb that has been excavated down on the lowest level of St. Peter's Basilica (see my article on St. Peter's for a description of this level). It is a mosaic on the roof of the mausoleum of a family known as the Julii (the men would have the name Julius as the second of their three names and the women would have Julia as one of their two names).

Relief of Helios from temple of Athena at Troy
Hellenistic, 300-280 BC
Berlin, Pergamon Museum

At first glance the mosaic looks not very different from numerous pagan images showing the Greco-Roman sun god, Helios (sometimes identified with Apollo) driving his chariot through the heavens. However, comparison with pagan images of Helios suggests a different meaning.

In the pagan images the head of Helios is surrounded by projecting sun rays that are evenly distributed and of one (or occasionally two) lengths. No ray is specially singled out in any way.

However, on this tomb ceiling under St. Peter's, the rays look different. There is an emphasis on several of them that makes them heavier and longer than the others. This emphasis seems to create a cross pattern, similar to the later haloes with the cross that became standard for Christ.

Fra Angelico, Christ Crowned with Thorns
Italian, ca. 1440
Livorno, Santa Maria del Soccorso

It would, therefore, appear that the equation of Jesus with Helios that may have resulted in the decision to attach the celebration of his birth to the already existing festival of Sol Invictus (the unconquered sun) near the time of the winter solstice was already in operation in the mid-third century.

O, Key of David! Come, break down the walls of death!

2011-12-20T23:00:00.000-05:00

Harrowing of Hell
Petites Heures of Jean de Berri (Paris use)
French (Bourges), 1385-1390
Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale de France
MS Latin 18014, fol. 166

The fourth of the "O Antiphons", for the 20th of December is: "O Key of David, O royal Power of Israel, controlling at your will the gate of heaven: Come, break down the prison walls of death for those who dwell in darkness and the shadow of death; and lead your captive people into freedom." This addresses Christ, the descendent of David and Lord of Life and begs Him to set His people free from death. It also brings to mind the words from the Apostles Creed "He descended into hell".

The fact that this subject is found in the Apostles Creed testifies to its early appearance in Christian belief, as does the Ancient Homily for Holy Saturday, which is a reading from the Divine Office for Holy Saturday. This belief is that during the time between His death on the Cross and the Resurrection, Jesus descended to limbo to free the souls of the previously deceased just who were confined in waiting there. Limbo is a place of darkness and peace, but not of the Presence of God, which had been lost through Original Sin. Their souls were confined to limbo because had been barred from entering heaven by Adam's sin, but they were set free by Christ's saving death. For them He truly became the Key of David, breaking down the walls of death and leading the captives to freedom and joy.

Anastasis (Harrowing of Hell)
Byzantine, 1316-1321
Istanbul, Church of Saint Saviour in Chora

There is a long tradition of images in art illustrating this subject.

In the East the tradition culminates in the dramatic and dynamic Anastasis of the church of Saint Saviour in Chora in Istanbul, in which Christ seems to drag Adam and Eve from their graves.

Nicholas of Verdun, Harrowing of Hell
Mosan (Meuse region), 1181
Klosterneuberg Austria, Klosterneuberg Priory

In the West the image appears in the Klosterneuberg Altarpiece by Nicholas of Verdun, as well as in many paintings.

There are two distinct types of iconography that apply to most of these images. In one, Christ breaks down actual gates, which are often shown thrown to the ground or hanging off their hinges.

In the other Christ leads or sometimes drags the souls of the dead from the 'mouth of hell', shown as the jaws of a whale-like monster or from a cave that resembles an open mouth.

In both He carries the staff, topped with a cross or with a pennant bearing a cross, that is His banner of victory over death.

Among the first type are:

Harrowing of Hell
Psalter
German (Swabia), 1230-1255
New York, Morgan Library
MS M280, fol. 10r

Fra Angelico, Harrowing of Hell
Italian, 1437-1445
Florence, San Marco

Among the second type are:

Harrowing of Hell
Miniatures of the Life of Christ
French (Northern), 1170-1180
New York, Morgan Library
MS M44, fol. 11v

Andrea da Firenze, Harrowing of Hell
Italian, 1365-1368
Florence, Santa Maria Novella, Capella Spagnuolo

Later images show Christ dragging the souls of just from a more generalized image of a limbo jammed with just souls in waiting. In these images the iconography of the gates or the mouth of hell is not as emphasized as in the earlier images.

Andrea Mantegna, Harrowing of Hell
Italian, 1468
Private Collection

Agnolo Bronzino, Harrowing of Hell
Italian, 1552
Florence, Santa Croce

Tintoretto, Harrowing of Hell
Italian, 1568
Venice, San Cassiano

Behold, the Handmaid of the Lord -- The Annunciation

2011-12-20T15:39:00.000-05:00

Fra Angelico, Annunciation
Italian, 1424-1426
Madrid, Prado Museum

"In the sixth month,
the angel Gabriel was sent from God
to a town of Galilee called Nazareth,
to a virgin betrothed to a man named Joseph,
of the house of David,
and the virgin's name was Mary.
And coming to her, he said,
"Hail, full of grace! The Lord is with you."
But she was greatly troubled at what was said
and pondered what sort of greeting this might be.
Then the angel said to her,
"Do not be afraid, Mary,
for you have found favor with God.
Behold, you will conceive in your womb and bear a son,
and you shall name him Jesus.
He will be great and will be called Son of the Most High,
and the Lord God will give him the throne of David his father,
and he will rule over the house of Jacob forever,
and of his Kingdom there will be no end."
But Mary said to the angel,
"How can this be,
since I have no relations with a man?"
And the angel said to her in reply,
"The Holy Spirit will come upon you,
and the power of the Most High will overshadow you.
Therefore the child to be born
will be called holy, the Son of God.
And behold, Elizabeth, your relative,
has also conceived a son in her old age,
and this is the sixth month for her who was called barren;
for nothing will be impossible for God."
Mary said, "Behold, I am the handmaid of the Lord.
May it be done to me according to your word."
Then the angel departed from her.
(Luke 1: 26-38)

Today (and on the Fourth Sunday of Advent) the Church reads, as the Gospel of the Mass, St. Luke's description of the point at which time divides. From this moment, there is time before and time after, whether you call the periods on either side Before Christ (BC) or Before the Common Era (BCE) or Anno Domini (AD) or Common Era (CE), the point is the same -- Christ has come into the world. With Mary's statement of acceptance "May it be done to me according to your word" we enter a new place, with new possibilities.

There are countless images of the Annunciation throughout history. Too many, in fact, to write a history of the subject in the brief confines of this blog. Such a note would go on forever! So, I have decided to write about only one image, the panel painting by Fra Angelico now in the Prado. It was painted sometime between 1424 and 1426, possibly for the church of San Lorenzo in Florence, possibly for the Dominican church in Fiesole, where it was historically placed.1

The 1420s were a time when Guido di Pietro (his Baptismal name), known as Fra Giovanni (the name Angelico was given to him posthumously on account of his paintings and life) was still a fairly young painter with a developing style. At this point he stands on the cusp, as it were, of finding his final style. This painting represents a point at which his earlier, delicately Gothic style was being influenced by the work of another Florentine painter, Masaccio, toward a slightly more monumental direction. This painting is an almost perfect example of the early fusion of these two influences. It is also a beautiful exposition of the implications of the Annunciation.

In this painting we see Mary, seated on a bench draped in fabric which also drapes the wall behind her, forming a kind of cloth of state. She sits in an open, groin-vaulted loggia, an open prayer book on her knee, and responds gently to the approach of Gabriel, her gesture mirroring his. Gabriel appears to have just landed, his wings still half open, his knees just beginning to bend. From the upper left corner of the picture, the hands of God send streams of golden light toward her and, on those beams, the Holy Spirit is seen as a dove descending (just above Gabriel's head). Above the column that divides Gabriel and Mary is an image of Jesus, presented as a bust in relief. So all Persons of the Trinity appear in some way within the picture. On Mary's side of the space, seated on the iron cross bar between the pillars, is a swallow, symbolic of the Incarnation.2

The entire left side of the painting is occupied by a garden filled with highly detailed representations of plant life. And, in this garden appears the scene from Genesis of Adam and Eve being driven out of the Garden of Eden by an angel. We see here the tipping point of salvation history. Mary is being invited to participate in righting the wrong done by Adam and Eve. Her obedient fiat (Be it done to me) will cancel their disobedience in eating the forbidden fruit.

The painting represents the moment just before the world begins anew. Mary's yes will begin it again, with Jesus as the new Adam and Mary herself as the new Eve in a new Garden of Eden of the spirit.
______________________________________
1. Kanter, Laurence. "Fra Angelico: A Decade of Transition (1422-32)" in Fra Angelico, New York, New Haven and London, The Metropolitan Museum of Art and Yale University Press, 2005, pp. 80-83. This is the catalogue of an exhibition of the work of Fra Angelico held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, October 26, 2005 - January 29, 2006.

2. Ferguson, George. Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, New York, Oxford University Press, 1966, pp. 25-26.

O Flower of Jesse's stem!

2011-12-20T00:28:00.000-05:00

Jesse Tree
Stained Glass
French, 1140-1144
St. Denis, Abbey of St. Denis

The third of the "O Antiphons", for December 19th reads: "O Flower of Jesse’s stem, you have been raised up as a sign for all peoples; kings stand silent in your presence; the nations bow down in worship before you. Come, let nothing keep you from coming to our aid." This title "Flower of Jesse's stem" derives from the lineage of Jesus. He is a descendant of Jesse, father of King David and the presumed subject of the prophecy of Isaiah (read on the Second Sunday of Advent in Year A), which reads:

"But a shoot shall sprout from the stump of Jesse,

and from his roots a bud shall blossom.

The spirit of the LORD shall rest upon him:

a spirit of wisdom and of understanding,

A spirit of counsel and of strength,

a spirit of knowledge and of fear of the LORD,

and his delight shall be the fear of the LORD.
Not by appearance shall he judge,
nor by hearsay shall he decide,
But he shall judge the poor with justice,
and decide fairly for the land’s afflicted.
He shall strike the ruthless with the rod of his mouth,
and with the breath of his lips he shall slay the wicked.
Justice shall be the band around his waist,
and faithfulness a belt upon his hips.
Then the wolf shall be a guest of the lamb,
and the leopard shall lie down with the young goat;
The calf and the young lion shall browse together,
with a little child to guide them.
The cow and the bear shall graze,

together their young shall lie down;

the lion shall eat hay like the ox.

The baby shall play by the viper’s den,

and the child lay his hand on the adder’s lair.

They shall not harm or destroy on all my holy mountain;

for the earth shall be filled with knowledge of the LORD,
as water covers the sea.

Jesse Tree
Stained Glass
French, 1150-1170
Chartres, Cathedral

On that day,
The root of Jesse,

set up as a signal for the peoples—

Him the nations will seek out;

his dwelling shall be glorious.

(Isaiah 11:1-10)

This image, of Jesse as the root and Jesus as the flower (sometimes also translated as rod), resulted in one of the best known of medieval images, the Tree of Jesse. This is not to be confused with the modern "Jesse tree" with is a sometimes charming Advent decoration, a kind of Advent calendar, especially in use in homes with children. Instead, this is a serious didactic image, making visual the human ancestry of Jesus.

In most of the Jesse Tree images, we see Jesse, asleep, either lying down or sitting up. Out of his body (generally, but not always from his mid-section, the location of his "loins") grows a tree or a vine, which branches as it grows. The branches are occupied by his descendents, often shown in chronological order. Most of the images choose to illustrate only a few of the descendents, although David is usually prominent. Very rarely all the generations named in the beginning of Matthew's Gospel are shown.

Among the best known of the medieval Jesse trees is two famous stained glass windows, dated to the middle decades of the 12th century, at the abbey of St. Denis outside Paris and at Chartres cathedral in Ile-de-France. These two immensely important churches were the hatching grounds for the Gothic style in architecture and embellishment that would dominate most of Europe for the following 300 years. Their influence was widespread.

Therefore, it is not surprising that the image of the tree of Jesse would appear in other forms of art during the remainder of the Gothic period. It appears in particular in manuscripts painted all over Europe during these centuries, but also in other forms:

from France:

Jesse Tree
Psalter of St. Louis and Blance of Castille
French (Paris), ca. 1225
Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale de France
MS Arsenal 1186, fol. 15v

Jesse Tree
Book of Hours
French (Rouen). 1475-1500
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliothek
MS 133 D 17, fol. 24r

and nearby England:

Jesse Tree
Windmill Psalter
English (London), 1280-1299
New York, Morgan Library
MS M102, fol.1v

Master of Queen Mary's Psalter, Jesse Tree
English (Canterbury), 1310-1330
New York, Morgan Library
MS G53, fol. 6r

to the northern territories of the Low Countries and Germany

Jesse Tree
Stained Glass
German (Swabian)
ca. 1280
New York
Metropolitan Museum

Master of Cornelis Croesinck, Jesse Tree
Croesinck Hours
Dutch, 1489-1499
New York, Morgan Library
MS M1078, fol. 112v

south to Spain, where the lower section of the central pillar of the famed Portico de la Gloria at the great shrine of Santiago de Compostela is decorated with a Jesse tree:

Santiago de Compostela, Portico de la Gloria
Spanish, 12th century
Santiago de Compostela, Cathedral

and to Italy, where the influence of the still existing classical style, plus the ethereal style of the nearby Byzantine Empire, resulted in such beautiful works as the Bible of Pope Clement VII.

Bible of Clement VII
Italian (Bologna), ca. 1267
Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale de France
MS Latin 22, fol. 346

Bible of Clement VII, Jesse Tree
detail view

Bible
Northern French, 1229
New York, Morgan Library
MS M163, fol. 326r

Often the image of the branching vine or tree makes ingenious use of the shape of the page and takes advantage of the letter L, which is the initial letter of the opening of the Gospel of Matthew in the Latin Vulgate, "Liber generationis". Jesse is shown lying in sleep as the horizontal bar of the letter, while his descendents occupy the vertical bar.

Nearly all the images include Mary independently, in the level just below that of Jesus or she is shown holding the Infant Jesus. However, there are some variations.

For example, the image at the left, from the 15th century, focuses on Mary herself. She is shown at the center of the composition, as the Virgin of the Annunciation because just above her hear is the dove symbol for the Holy Spirit.

Finally, in the years bracketing 1500, at the very end of the Middle Ages are images that directly link the Tree of Jesse with the Annunciation, as for example, this image attributed to the Master of the Older Prayer Book of Maximilian I.

Master of the Old Prayer Book of Maximilian I
Breviary of Eleanor of Portugal
Flemish, 1495-1515
New York, Morgan Library
MS M52, fol. 388v

Finally, one image combines many themes. In similar fashion to the Breviary of Eleanor of Portugal, it combines the image of the Annunciation with the Tree of Jesse. But, it also includes an image of Adam and Eve, also ancestors of Jesus, as they are of all humans, but also the means through which sin and death entered the world. It is their Fall that was healed by Christ, beginning at the Annunciation.

Hours of the Virgin
French (Rouen), 1495-1505
New York, Morgan Library
MS M174, fol. 21r

O Sacred Lord of Ancient Israel!

2011-12-19T00:27:00.000-05:00

Finding of Moses and Moses and the Burning Bush
Psalter of St. Louis
French (Paris), ca. 1270
Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale de France
MS Latin 10525, fol. 29v

Yesterday, we began examining images that reflect the text of the so-called "O Antiphons" from Evening Prayer in the Liturgy of the Hours (also called the Divine Office) on the week preceding Christmas.

The text for December 18th is "O sacred Lord of ancient Israel, who showed yourself to Moses in the burning bush, who gave him the holy law on Sinai mountain: come, stretch out your mighty hand to set us free".

The text refers to the apparition of God to Moses in the bush that burned but was not consumed by the flames (Exodus 3 and 4). While nowadays we tend to imagine that the Presence which spoke to Moses out of the burning bush equates to God the Father, the term "God" actually includes all the Persons of the Trinity: Father, Son and Holy Spirit. And this is certainly what has been in the minds of the artists of the medieval period in their images of the burning bush.

Moses and the Burning Bush
Huntingfield Psalter
English, 1210-1220
New York, Morgan Library
MS M 43, fol.13r
(The "horns" shown on Moses' head are the result of a misreading of the text of Exodus which refers to rays of light shining from Moses following his encounter with God.)

Nearly every image of Moses and the Burning Bush that I have seen from the medieval period shows a figure easily identifiable as Christ appearing inside the bush. The crossed nimbus (halo) is a giveaway.

Workshop of the Boucicaut Master
Moses and the Burning Bush
French (Ile-de-France), 1400 - 1424
New York, Morgan Library
MS M 394, fol. 41v

Annunciation with Moses and the Burning Bush
Tres Belles Heures de Notre Dame de Jean de Berri
Netherlandish, ca. 1400
Turin, Museo Civico d'Arte Antica

And, interestingly (considering the Advent context of the O Antiphon quoted above), several images present the episode of the Burning Bush in direct apposition with the Annunciation or the Nativity. The apparition to Moses is here being equated with the visit of the angel Gabriel to Mary or the birth of Jesus.

Nativity with Moses and the Burning Bush
Hours of the Virgin
French (Rouen), 1495-1505
New York, Morgan Library
MS M 129, fol. 35r

In a sense, each of these events signals the beginning of a new phase in the relationship between God and humanity. For Moses and the people of Israel, the Burning Bush signals the beginning of their release from bondage and the giving of the Law of the Ten Commandments. For Christians, the new Israel, the Annunciation signals the entrance of Christ, the very Word of God, into our human condition and the beginning of a new Law of Love.

In addition, the bush itself, which burns but is not consumed by the flames, was seen as a reference to Mary who, while remaining a virgin, gives birth to Son of God.

Nicolas Froment, The Burning Bush
French, 1476
Aix-en-Provence, Cathedral

One of the most astonishing images in this iconography is the central panel of an altarpiece painted by the French master, Nicolas Froment in 1476. It shows Moses, surrounded by his sheep and with his dog at his side, in the process of removing his shoes, as he was commanded. Beside him stands an angel, to whose presence Moses reacts with astonishment. This angel is dressed much as Gabriel is dressed in numerous 15th-century Netherlandish paintings, in a cope worn over an alb.

Even more astonishing is that the apparition in the burning bush is not of the adult Christ (as it is in other images) but is an apparition of the Madonna and Child. In this picture, the allusion to the Annunciation and Nativity so long paired with the Burning Bush, have become one image.

O Wisdom, O Holy Word of God!

2011-12-18T01:32:00.001-05:00

Christ Pantocrator
Byzantine, 1145-1160
Cefalu, Cathedral

In the week before Christmas, the Liturgy of the Hours (the official daily prayer of the Church) includes a series of special antiphons preceeding the recitation of the Magnificat (Luke 1: 46-55), collectively called the O Antiphons. In the English-speaking world we are most familiar with them as they are paraphrased in the well-known Advent hymn "O Come, O Come Emmanuel".

The antiphon for December 17th is "O Wisdom, O holy Word of God, you govern all creation with your strong yet tender care. Come and show your people the way to salvation."

The image which this antiphon brings to mind is the image of Christ Pantocrator. This is an image most common in the Byzantine tradition, although it is known in the West, especially in the great medieval cathedrals of Sicily. Traditionally, Christ is shown in this image as the Divine Lawgiver and Ruler, one hand raised in blessing, the other holding a book, whether open or shut. The book alludes to the Word of God, which He Is.

John, the Baptizer, Third Sunday of Advent, Year B

2011-12-13T02:02:00.001-05:00

St. John Baptist Preaching
Book of Hours
French, 1480-1495
New York, Morgan Libaray
MS M 25, fol. 234r

"And this is the testimony of John.

When the Jews from Jerusalem sent priests

and Levites to him

to ask him, "Who are you?"

He admitted and did not deny it,
but admitted, "I am not the Christ."
So they asked him,
"What are you then? Are you Elijah?"
And he said, "I am not."
"Are you the Prophet?"
He answered, "No."
So they said to him,
"Who are you, so we can give an answer to those who sent us?
What do you have to say for yourself?"
He said:
"I am the voice of one crying out in the desert,
'make straight the way of the Lord,'"
as Isaiah the prophet said."
Some Pharisees were also sent.
They asked him,
"Why then do you baptize
if you are not the Christ or Elijah or the Prophet?"
John answered them,
"I baptize with water;
but there is one among you whom you do not recognize,
the one who is coming after me,
whose sandal strap I am not worthy to untie."
This happened in Bethany across the Jordan,
where John was baptizing."
(John 1:19-28) Excerpt from Gospel for Third Sunday of Advent, Year B

Last week the Gospel reading suggested the iconographic topic of St. John the Baptist as the “wild man of the desert” and we looked at images of that subject. Today’s Gospel, a segment from the Gospel of John, which is the reading for the Third Sunday of Advent in Year B, refers to John’s testimony about his role as baptizer, from which he receives his descriptive name, the Baptist. And, it is John’s role as baptizer that we will look at today.

While images of John as the “Wild Man” focus directly on him, images of John in the role of baptizer frequently focus on the crowds and the landscape surrounding him as much as upon him. Occasionally, they refer to his proclamation about “the one who is coming after me”. In this essay I will be looking at some images of John preaching and baptizing individuals other than Jesus. (Images of the Baptism of Jesus form a separate subject, with its own iconography.)

Early scenes of John preaching show him with just a few listeners. John often is shown holding a lamb or with a lamb in the background, a reference to John's cry of recognition on seeing Jesus.

St. John Baptist Preaching
Taymouth Hours
English, 1325-1350
London, British Library
MS Yates Thompson 13, fol. 104v

Jean Fouquet, St. John Baptist Preaching
Addition to Hours of Simon de Varie
French (Tours), ca. 1455
The Hague, Koninklijk Bibliothek
MS KB 74 G 37a, fol. 4v

Later images show a larger crowd.

Pieter Brueghel the Elder, St. John Baptist Preaching
Flemish, 1566
Budapest, Museum of Fine Arts

Francesco Bassano, St. John Baptist Preaching
Italian, 1570
Venice, San Giacomo dall'Oro

Bacciccio, St. John the Baptist
Italian, ca. 1690
Paris, Louvre

Tiepolo, St. John Baptist Preaching
Italian, 1732-1733
Bergamo, Cappella Colleoni

Occasionally, Jesus is shown,approaching in the background.

Domenico Ghirlandaio, St. John the Baptist Preaching
Italian, 1486-1490
Florence, Santa Maria Novella, Tornabuoni Chapel

John is sometimes shown in the act of baptising others than Jesus.

St. John Baptising, Bible historiale
French (Paris), Beginning of 15th century
Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale de France
MS Francais 4, fol. 172v

Nicolas Poussin, St. John Baptising
French, ca. 1635
Paris, Louvre

Sometimes he is no more than a minor background figure, a mere excuse for the presentation of multiple figures or of a landscape.

Joachim Patinir, St. John the Baptist Preaching
Flemish, ca. 1515
Brussels, Musees Royaux des Beaux-Arts

Abraham Bloemart, St. John the Baptist Preaching
Dutch, 1580-1600
Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum

Other images illustrate the incident of the interrogation of John the Baptist by the representatives of the Jewish authorities, described by John the Evangelist in this Sunday's Gospel.

Veronese, St. John the Baptist
Italian, ca. 1562
Rome, Galleria Borghese

Most imagery related to John as the Baptist is actually the image of the Baptism of Jesus which, as I said above, is a separate subject with its own iconography.

And I will close with this famous anthem by the Jacobean composer, Orlando Gibbons, sung by a choir of men and boys.

Immaculate Conception – December 8

2011-12-08T01:53:00.002-05:00

Bartolome Murillo, Immaculate Conception
Spanish, 1678
Madrid, Prado Museum
One of the best-known images of the subject.

The feast of the Immaculate Conception celebrates the Church’s belief that Mary, mother of Jesus, was given the only exemption from Original Sin (the attraction to and inclination toward disobedience to God's will) that has ever been given to a human being.

It is, however, frequently confused with other things. So, let us define what it is not. First of all, it is not the Incarnation (the special, miraculous conception of Jesus through the intervention of the Holy Spirit) nor is it the Virgin Birth (the actual birth of Jesus). Second, it does not refer to the means of Mary’s conception or to her birth. She was conceived by her parents, Joachim and Anne, and delivered in the usual manner of humans.

Although not specifically mentioned in the Bible, which actually says little about Mary, it is the result of the Church’s reflection on the words of Scripture and on the implications of the Incarnation in the life of Mary. The Biblical basis of the Immaculate Conception can be found in the words of Gabriel at the Annunciation, “Hail, full of grace! The Lord is with you. Blessed are you among women.” (Luke 1:28)

Over many centuries belief grew that Mary was not just any-girl but that she was specifically chosen and specially prepared for her role as mother of God-become-human. Thrashed out in debates that extended for centuries, a consensus was reached that, from the very first moment of her conception Mary had been given the grace of freedom from any of the residue of the Original Sin, which has been the burden of mankind since the sin of Adam and Eve.1 Thus she had no inclination toward evil, but was in the same state of innocence as Adam and Eve were before their disobedience.

Carol Crivelli, Immaculate Conception
Italian, 1492
London, National Gallery of Art

Although the consensus seems to have been reached by the 15th century, when the feast day began to be celebrated widely, it was not until 1854 that Pope Pius IX declared the Immaculate Conception to be a dogma of the Church.

Visually, the specific subject of the Immaculate Conception had its development following the formation of the 15th-century consensus. The National Gallery in London says of a painting of the subject by the 15th-century Venetian Carlo Crivelli “This may be the earliest dated picture of the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception”.2 The painting shows Mary, standing in a sort of marble niche that, with its cornice, reaches to her waist. Behind her is a cloth of state, suspended from a pole. Fruits and vegetables, symbols of fertility, hang from the pole, while on the arms of the niche are vases, one with roses and another with lilies, symbolic of her purity. Two angels hold a scroll above her head and above them God the Father and the Holy Spirit, symbolized as a Dove, lean down from heaven.

This painting seems to establish a specifically Italian vocabulary for the Immaculate Conception. It can be traced in Italy for several centuries.

Piero di Cosimo, Immaculate Conception with Saints
Italian, 1510-1520
Fiesole, San Francesco
The saints in the lower section were contributors
to the debates about the Immaculate Conception
and hold scrolls and tablets with their contribution.

Francesco Signorelli, Immaculate Conception with Saints
Italian, ca.1523
Cortona, Museo Diocesano
Here, Mary stands above a tree (reduced in size), upheld by
cherubs. Underneath the tree Adam and Eve accept the
fatal fruit from Satan. Again, the saints are depicted with
their writings.

Domenico Piola, Immaculate Conception
Italian, 1683
Genoa, Santissima Annunziata del Vastato
Here, Mary stands with her foot on top of the head of a dragon, while a small child, presumably Jesus,
attacks the dragon with the cross he is carrying. At the bottom right are Adam and Eve. Eve is shown
accepting an apple (the fruit usually identified with the Tree of Life) from the claw of the dragon.

Woman of the Apocalypse, Speciulum humanae salvationis
France (Alsace), 1370-1380
Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale de France
MS Latin 511, detail

However, outside of Italy, another type of imagery came to dominate the iconography of the Immaculate Conception. This imagery derives from another Biblical source, the Book of Revelations. Chapter 12 of Revelations describes a figure usually called “the Woman of the Apocalypse”. It reads:

“A great sign appeared in the sky, a woman clothed with the sun, with the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars.
She was with child and wailed aloud in pain as she labored to give birth.

Then another sign appeared in the sky; it was a huge red dragon, with seven heads and ten horns, and on its heads were seven diadems.

Its tail swept away a third of the stars in the sky and hurled them down to the earth. Then the dragon stood before the woman about to give birth, to devour her child when she gave birth.

She gave birth to a son, a male child, destined to rule all the nations with an iron rod. Her child was caught up to God and his throne.”
(Revelation 12:1-5)

Because the description of the “male child, destined to rule all the nations with an iron rod” seems to refer clearly to Christ this figure came to be associated with Jesus and the woman with Mary during the Middle Ages. It appears frequently in manuscripts and other forms of art.

Woman of the Apocalypse, Berry Apocsalypse
France (Paris), ca. 1415
New York, Morgan Library
MS M 133, fol. 36v, detail

Master of Mary of Burgundy
Woman of the Apocalypse, Apocalypse of Margaret of York
Belgium (Ghent), 1475-1490
New York, Morgan Library
MS M 484, fol. 59 v. detail

Master of the Amsterdam Cabinet,
Madonna and Child as the Woman of the Apocalypse
Glass, Germany (Middle Rhine), ca. 1480-1490
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Cloisters

During the 16th and 17th centuries, especially in Spain, the elements of this image (sun, moon, crown of stars, robe of light) came to be associated with the concept of the Immaculate Conception and became THE image of the subject.

El Greco, Immaculate Conception
Spanish, 1585
Toledo, Museo de Santa Cruz

Velazquez, Immaculate Conception
Spanish, 1618
London, National Gallery of Art

Valdes Leal, Immaculate Conception
with Saints Andrew and John the Baptist
Spanish, 1650-1652
Paris, Louvre Museum

Murillo, Immaculate Conception
Spanish, 1680
St. Petersburg, Hermitage Museum

This image eventually became so dominant that by the 18th century even Italian artists conformed to it.

Guido Reni, Immaculate Conception
Italian, 1627
New York, Metropolitan Museum

Domenico Tiepolo, Immaculate Conception
Italian, 1767-1789
Madrid, Museo del Prado

It became the standard image of the subject until the 19th century. During that century, in two series of apparitions accepted as authentic by the Church, Mary herself appeared as the Immaculate Conception to two women in France.

Francois Carbonnier, Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal
French, 1843

The first series of apparitions, to St. Catherine Labouré, took place in Paris in 1830. During these apparitions Mary requested that a medal recording her appearance should be made. It has become known as the Miraculous Medal. On it Mary stands on the globe, rays of light stream from her hands. She is surrounded by words which in English say “O Mary Conceived Without Sin, Pray For Us Who Have Recourse To Thee”. Twelve stars appear on the reverse of the medal, surrounding the hearts of Jesus and Mary. This occurred 24 years before the dogma of the Immaculate Conception was proclaimed by Pope Pius IX in the Constitution “Ineffabilis Deus” (“Ineffable God”).3

Our Lady of Lourdes

Four years after the proclamation, in 1858, the second series of apparitions took place outside the Pyrenees town of Lourdes to a girl named Bernadette Soubirous, now St. Bernadette. Bernadette saw a “lady” very similar to that seen by Catherine Labouré. When, at the request of the clergy, Bernadette asked for her name, the “lady” replied “I am the Immaculate Conception”.

In popular Catholic culture these two images, of the Miraculous Medal and of Lourdes, have replaced the earlier images of the Immaculate Conception to which they are obviously related.
___________________________________
1. The background of these debates is described Holweck, Frederick. "Immaculate Conception." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 7 Dec. 2011 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07674d.htm>.

2. http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/carlo-crivelli-the-immaculate-conception

3. http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Pius09/p9ineff.htm

A Voice Crying In the Wilderness, Second Sunday of Advent

2011-12-05T03:52:00.001-05:00

El Greco, St. John the Baptist
Greco-Spanish, c.1600
San Francisco, Fine Arts Museum

“John the Baptist appeared in the desert
proclaiming a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins.
People of the whole Judean countryside
and all the inhabitants of Jerusalem
were going out to him
and were being baptized by him in the Jordan River
as they acknowledged their sins.
John was clothed in camel’s hair,
with a leather belt around his waist.
He fed on locusts and wild honey.”
(Mark 1:4-6)
Excerpt from Gospel for Second Sunday of Advent, Year B

Apart from his very necessary appearance in images of the Baptism of Christ, St. John the Baptist often appears in several other roles in the history of western art. Among them are:
• the slightly older baby cousin of Jesus,
• the goatskin clad “wild man” of the Judean desert,
• the preacher and teacher described in the Gospels,

Some years ago we looked at some of the paintings of the baby cousin of Jesus (here). Earlier this year I looked at some of the iconography of his most famous utterance “Behold the Lamb of God” on his recognition of the adult Jesus (here). Today I will be looking at John as the desert wild man.

Andrea del Castagno, St. John the Baptist
Italian, 1442
Venice, San Zaccarie

The image of St. John dressed in a camel skin and leather belt is certainly one that has offered a spur to the imagination of artists. There is a long tradition of images, both in Italy and in the north, that show St. John the Baptist in the desert. The emphasis in these works is often on St. John’s appearance and odd attire. He is shown as thin and haggard (locusts and wild honey sounds like a somewhat inadequate diet). The camel hair garment is usually shown as nothing more than a hairy skin tied by a belt. Most often he is shown alone either in a landscape or in an indeterminate space. Occasionally he is shown in relation to a lamb (a reference to his statement on recognizing Jesus “Behold the Lamb of God”). Among his attributes is usually a cross made of straight sticks, possibly reeds, tied together at their intersection. He often seems to point, either at the Lamb or at some more distant point, possibly at an image of Christ or of the Lamb that was located nearby when the picture was in its original location.

Donatello, St. John the Baptist
Italian, 1457
Siena, Cathedral

Among the images showing John on his own are those by Andrea del Castagno, in which he holds a scroll with the words “Ecce Agnus Ecce Qui Tollis Peccata Mundi” (“Behold the Lamb who takes away the sins of the world”), and a famous bronze statue by Donatello.

Most images of the “wild man” type show John in proximity with a lamb, symbol of the Lamb of God. Among them are:

Dieric Bouts the Younger,
St. John the Baptist
Netherlandish, ca. 1470
Munich, Alte Pinakothek

A painting by the Netherlandish painter Dirk Bouts the Younger of ca. 1470. Here John points to a miniature lamb, seated on the Scriptures, an image referring both back to John's statement at Jesus' Baptism and forward to the book of Revelation. At his side is a lily plant, the traditional symbol of purity.

Geertgen tot sint Jans,
St. John the Baptist
Dutch, ca. 1490
Berlin, Staatliche Museen

Another by the Dutch painter, Geertgen tot sint Jans from 1490-95 shows a pensive St. John seated in the wilderness landscape with the Lamb at this side.

In yet another, by the painter Hieronymus Bosch from around 1500, St. John is shown reclining on a rock in a landscape that is alive with some curiously sinister looking plant life. Nonetheless, John covertly points to the Lamb that sits on the other side of the rock.

Hieronymus Bosch, St. John the Baptist
Dutch, undated
Madrid, Museo Lazaro Galdiano

The two paintings are clearly related to each other compositionally.

Finally, a painting by Titian from about 1542.

Titian, St. John the Baptist
Italian, ca. 1542
Venice, Accademia

A few images of St. John the Baptist as the “wild man” are interesting in that they present him as a child or youth, instead of an adult.

Master of the Life of St. John the Baptist
Italian, 1330-1340
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art

Among them is a panel by the Master of the Life of St. John the Baptist, which shows two scenes. In the first the very young St. John, already dressed in camel hair, is being led into the desert by an angel and in he second, just to the right of the first, we see the older St. John praying on his knees.

Ghirlandaio
Italian, 1486-1490
Florence, Santa Maria Novella,
Tornabuoni Chapel

In another painting, by Domenico Ghirlandaio, part of the cycle of the life of St. John the Baptist in the Tornabuoni Chapel at Santa Maria Novella in Florence, the youthful St. John is seen striding out into the wilderness and leaving the settled townscape behind.

Another Florentine artist, Andrea del Sarto, painted a youthful St. John, posed in a moment of thought.

Andrea del Sarto, St. John Baptist
Italian, ca. 1523
Florence, Pitti Palace Museum

Jusepe Ribera, St. John Baptist
Spanish, 1644-1647
Madrid, Prado Museum

More than a century later, the Spanish-Italian painter Jusepe Ribera, adopted the same youthful figure in a more relaxed, even playful, posture for his St. John.

The close relationship between St. John the Baptist and the city of Florence, of which he is the patron saint, is underlined by the rather unusual image in the somewhat awkward picture made of Jacopo del Sallaio around 1480.

Jacop del Sellaio, St. John the Baptist
Italian, ca. 1480
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art

In this painting, St. John is seen in the foreground, while the city of Florence is seen very clearly in the background. It is as if St. John is standing on one of the hills overlooking Florence from the other bank of the Arno. His right hand is raised in what could be interpreted as either a blessing or a protective gesture.

© M. Duffy, 2011

Saint Andrew and Bernini

2011-11-30T01:22:00.002-05:00

Duccio, Calling of Sts. Peter and Andrew
Italian, 1308-1311
Washington, D.C., National Gallery of Art

"As Jesus was walking by the Sea of Galilee, he saw two brothers,
Simon who is called Peter, and his brother Andrew,
casting a net into the sea; they were fishermen.
He said to them,
"Come after me, and I will make you fishers of men."
At once they left their nets and followed him.
(Matthew 4:18-22)

Thus the New Testament describes the calling of the Bar Jonah brothers, Simon and Andrew. Simon, as we know, went on to acquire a new name, Peter, the leading Apostle and the “Rock” of the Church. Andrew is less well known, at least in the West. It appears from what evidence we have that Andrew’s mission, following the dispersal of the Apostles after Pentecost, was to the regions surrounding the Black Sea, including what is today northern Turkey, southern Russia , the Balkans and Greece. According to tradition, Andrew was martyred in 60 AD in Greece by being tied to a cross. Like his brother, Peter, who suffered his martyrdom in Rome a few years later, Andrew insisted on his own unworthiness to share the same method of execution as Jesus and, therefore, was crucified on a “cross” in the form of the letter X. 1

Jean Fouquet, Martyrdom of St. Andrew
French, ca. 1450
Chantilly, Musee Conde

Andrew, as Apostle to the Black Sea area, is considered to be the founder of the Church in Byzantium, which later became the capital of the eastern Roman Empire after its refoundation in 325 by the Emperor Constantine, who renamed it after himself. Consequently, St. Andrew is the patron of the Eastern Orthodox Church. In the modern period, since the pontificate of John Paul II, the Popes, as successors of St. Peter, and the Ecumenical Patriarchs of Constantinople, as successors of St. Andrew, have exchanged high-level missions to celebrate their feast days of June 29 and November 30 in brotherly fashion.

Camillo Rusconi, St. Andrew
Italian, 1708-1709
Rome, St. John Lateran

St. Andrew’s unique crucifixion, on the X-shaped cross, set him apart and also became his most recognizable attribute. It appears in almost every representation of St. Andrew (with the exception, of course, of those that depict Jesus calling both brothers).

It is the work of one artist/architect in relation to St. Andrew that I would like to focus on today. The artist is Gianlorenzo Bernini. Bernini is probably best known as an architect and as the designer of the interior of St. Peter’s basilica.

In 1658 Bernini was commissioned by the Jesuits to design a new church, dedicated to St. Andrew, for their new novitiate on the Quirinal hill.2 Work continued on the building until 1670. Bernini had personal ties to the Society of Jesus, known as the Jesuits, the religious order of men, founded in 1534 by St. Ignatius Loyola. Bernini attended Mass every day in the Gesù, the mother church of the Jesuits. One of his sons was, for a time, a Jesuit novice.

Bernini, Sant' Andrea al Quirinale (exterior)
Italian, 1658-1670
Rome

Bernini, Floorplan
Sant' Andrea al Quirinale

In conception this building, like his work in the Cornaro Chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria, is imagined on a cosmic scale, bringing together in one space both earth and heaven. The design of the church may be modeled on the Pantheon, that amazing survivor from the 2nd century, originally a temple to all the gods of Rome, but converted in 609 into the church dedicated to Our Lady and All Martyrs, knwn as Santa Maria Rotonda. Bernini, however, plays with the form and designed S. Andrea as an oval. The fabric of the building is conceived in such a plastic, organic manner that it almost seems to breathe, as he manipulates its solids and voids, scooping chapels from its substance.

Bernini, Interior, Sant'Andrea al Quirinale

The interior is sheathed in marble in greys and pinks, making it one of the prettiest churches in Rome. This, plus its small size, makes it a favorite venue for weddings.3

Guillaume Courtois, Martyrdom of St. Andrew
French (Burgundian), ca. 1660

The painted altarpiece shows St. Andrew in his final agony on the X-shaped cross.4 But, where most artists and designers would have stopped at that point, Bernini goes further. The altarpiece is lit by light from a hidden window and carried by gilded stucco angels.

The whole altar area is framed in a classically inspired aedicule with a broken pediment. Through the break we see St. Andrew again, bursting, as it were, through the divide between life and eternal glory in heaven.

Bernini, St. Andrew Ascending to Heaven
Italian, ca. 1660s

Borne aloft on clouds, all his attention is bent on reaching toward heaven.

Bernini, Dome of St. Andrea al Quirinale

Heaven, is the dome, divided by rays of gold and filled with figures of angels, including a threshold at the top, from which more small angels peep down.

All leads to the golden dove symbol of the Holy Spirit, which is lit by a circle of windows.

Bernini, Holy Spirit at the top of the dome
Sant'Andrea al Quirinale

Through the work of Bernini we, the living who stand or sit on the ground level of the church, become witnesses to the martyrdom of St. Andrew and to the flight of his soul into the realm of heaven, events which are happening right before our eyes. "While praying in the oval space of the church, the congregation participates in the miracle of the Saint's salvation." 5 We also become time travelers, witnessing in our own time, events which took place in the 1st century, presented to us by a man of the 17th century. Cosmic indeed!

____________________________

1. MacRory, Joseph. "St. Andrew." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 30 Nov. 2011 http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01471a.htm.

2. People are sometimes confused between the words "novitiate" and "novice". The novitiate is the period of time in which an aspirant to membership in a religious order spends in "formation" (the study of the origin, charism and rule of life of the organization which he or she wishes to join). A novice is the term used for the candidate him or her self. Novitiate also refers to the building in which novices live, if it happens to be different from the building in which the "professed" or full members live.

3. You can take a virtual tour of the church at http://web.williams.edu/art/architectureVR/santAndreaAlQuirinale/

4. The painting itself is the work of the French painter, Guillaume Courtois, known as "Il Borgonone" (the Burgundian). The stucco work is by the specialist stucco worker, Antonio Raggi. Bernini employed many assistants, especially those with specialties to assit in executing his conceptions.

5. Wittkower, Rudolf. Gian Lorenzo Bernini, the Sculptor of the Roman Baroque, London, The Phaidon Press, Second Edition, 1968, p. 27.

First Sunday of Advent, Year B

2011-11-27T02:01:00.073-05:00

"Jesus said to his disciples:
"Be watchful! Be alert!
You do not know when the time will come.
It is like a man traveling abroad.
He leaves home and places his servants in charge,
each with his own work,
and orders the gatekeeper to be on the watch.
Watch, therefore;
you do not know when the Lord of the house is coming,
whether in the evening, or at midnight,
or at cockcrow, or in the morning.
May he not come suddenly and find you sleeping.
What I say to you, I say to all: 'Watch!'" (Mark 13:33-37)

Welcome to the season of Advent, that annually repeating time of preparation for each Christmas that also reminds us of our position in time. We look backward to the long wait of Israel for the Messiah at the same time as we look forward to the day on which He will come again.

Gislebertus, Last Judgment
Romanesque (French), 1130-1135
Autun, Cathedral of St. Lazare

The readings for these weeks strike many notes, working backwards through time, as it were. We begin today with a warning about the final Judgment, for the next two weekends we will hear about John the Baptist and, on the final Sunday of Advent, we will hear about the moment of the Incarnation.

Advent images that come to mind focus on the Annunciation and Visitation, the specific advent of the Child Jesus. And we will look at them when we get there. But, for this first week of Advent let’s look at images of the Last Judgment.

The Last Judgment has been a favorite topic for much of the history of western art. It was the image of choice for the tympanum (space between the top of the door and the top of an archway) in many Romanesque and Gothic churches during the Middle Ages. One of the most famous and well-known examples is the tympanum from the Cathedral of St. Lazare at Autun, made between 1130 and 1135. Most unusually for a work of medieval sculpture, the tympanum is signed by the sculptor “Gislebertus hoc fecit” (Gilbert made this). Gislebertus must have been highly respected to be allowed to name himself.

The lively figures surrounding the large figure of Christ in glory tell the story of the last day, when the dead are raised and divided into those who are saved and those who are damned.

Gislebertus, Last Judgment
Detail: Weighing of Souls

Among the scenes are those of the interaction between the Archangel Michael and the Devil, as Michael weighs souls in a balance.

Gislebertus, Last Judgment
Detail: Soul Dragged to Hell

The Devil tries hard to cheat, and gain more souls for himself.

He pulls down on the balance, even as the claws on his feet horrifically grab a frightened soul in the lintel below by the head and begin to drag it toward hell.

Some of these same details appear three hundred years later in the great Last Judgment polyptych (multi-paneled painting) painted by Rogier van der Weyden for the Hotel-Dieu at Baune in Burgundy.

Rogier van der Weyden, Last Judgment
Netherlandish, 1446-1452
Beaune, Hotel Dieu

The Hotel-Dieu was built from 1443-1452 by Nicolas Rolin, Chancellor of the Duchy of Burgundy under Duke Philip the Fair, as a refuge for the sick poor (more like what we would today call a hopice than a modern hospital) during the unsettled century that saw the Hundred Years War and continuing outbreaks of the Black Death. Here Michael’s weighing of souls takes center stage, directly beneath Christ. As the heavenly court hover above them, the souls of the dead emerge from their graves to face either an angelic welcome into heaven (at the left) or a horrifying descent into hell (at the right).

Michelangelo Buonarotti, Last Judgment
Italian, 1536-1541
Vatican, Sistine Chapel

Interesting as these images are, however, they can be said to represent the Judgment already in progress. For an image that can illustrate this Sunday’s warning to ‘Watch!” is the great image of the Last Judgment that Michelangelo produced for the end wall of the Sistine Chapel (1536 - 1541), thirty years after his work on the Sistine ceiling. In its dynamic image we see, as it were, the Last Judgment at the moment “when the lord of the house is coming” (Mark 13:35). There is an immediacy and an urgency as Christ breaks once more into the terrestrial world, the dead rise from their graves and the judgment takes place. Those who are to be saved are assisted by angels and the blessed to reach heaven, while angels and the blessed resist those who are damned but are trying to escape their punishment.

Michelangelo, Last Judgment
Detail

To the right of center is a figure whose horror at being pulled down to hell is reminiscent of the little soul from Autun whose head was gripped by the Devil’s claws.

Images of the Last Judgment seem to have tapered off after about 1600, perhaps replaced by a greater emphasis on the particular judgment that follows each individual death than with the general judgment of the final days. But, at Advent each year, the Church reminds us of that still-to-come last act in salvation history and of its byword “Watch!”

"Hail Bright Cecilia!" -- November 22

2011-11-21T23:53:00.004-05:00

Carlo Saraceni, St. Cecilia and the Angel
Italian, ca. 1610
Rome, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica

Although we have few concrete details about her life and martyrdom, Cecilia of Rome has been one of the most popular saints of the Church in all the centuries since the 4th. The date of her martyrdom is uncertain. It may be as early as the time of Marcus Aurelius in the mid-2nd century or as late as the time of Diocletian in the early 4th, only about 10 years before the Edict of Milan gave recognition to the Christian Church.

What we do know is that, as early as the years immediately after the Edict of Milan, she was one of the most respected of the Roman martyrs. What was probably her home was one of the early Roman “house churches”, called tituli. And, by the 5th century her name is among the list of martyrs cited in the Roman Canon, the principal Eucharistic Prayer of the Mass, along with other male and female saints, such as Lawrence, Clement, Sixtus, Cornelius, Agnes, Anastasia, Felicity and Perpetua. 1

Her name, Cecilia, derives (as the names of Roman women always did) from her family name, in this case the Caecilii (for a male family member the form would be Caecilius, which survives in the English given name, Cecil). Presumably, St. Cecilia was a member of this prominent, noble, old Roman family. She undoubtedly also had another, personal name, which is now lost.

Legends surround her life and death, although it is entirely possible that some of them may, in fact, be true. We simply don’t have the documentation to know for sure. The best-known tale is that as a young bride, vowed to perpetual virginity, she converted both her husband and brother-in-law, themselves prominent Romans, to the Christian faith and that, for this reason, both they and she suffered martyrdom. By tradition the first attempt at killing her was to suffocate her in a hot bath. I had always thought this was a weird way to kill someone until I learned that the Empress Fausta, Constantine’s second wife, was reported to have been killed by this technique. Perhaps it was a Roman way to execute high born women. However, while it may have succeeded with Fausta, in Cecilia’s case it failed. Instead, she was killed by a more conventional manner, by beheading.

Carlo Saraceni, Execution of St. Cecilia
Italian, ca. 1610
Los Angeles, Los Angeles County Museum of Art

The chosen executioner must have been incompetent because, according to tradition, he hacked at her neck three times, wounding her, but leaving her still alive. Such an incomplete beheading might well have left her alive and conscious, though probably at least partly paralyzed, for some time. According to the story, she lived for three days, giving her enough time to make gifts to the poor of Rome and to donate her residence to the Church. It is certainly possible that this event may actually have happened, although the three days may be more a reference to the Passion and Resurrection of Christ than to a real time span. However, a slow death lasting from several hours to one or two days could be reasonable. Legend has it that she also sang hymns during this time, which, while remotely possible, is unlikely. 2

Her body was buried in a place of honor in the catacomb of St. Callistus. In the 4th century a church was constructed above what probably had been her home, the titulus Caeciliae, now known as Santa Cecilia in Trastevere. Remains of the original Roman buildings have been found under the church foundations and can be visited.

Facade, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere
Italian, 5th through 19th centuries
Rome, Piazza Santa Cecilia

In the 9th century, coinciding with the renovation of the church, her body was removed from the catacomb and placed in the church. The church has been renovated several times, most recently in the 19th century. In connection with one of these renovations, in 1599, her remains were examined and found to be intact. The sculptor Stefano Maderno was commissioned to carve a statue recording how it looked. He engraved a marble plaque testifying that he had reproduced exactly what he had seen. In translation it reads:

Stefano Maderno, St. Cecilia
Italian, 1600
Rome, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere

"Behold the body of the most holy virgin Cecilia, whom I myself saw lying incorrupt in the tomb. I have in this marble expressed for you the same saint in the very same posture".

Maderno’s white marble figure lies in front of the main altar of the church (which is crowned with a beautiful baldachino by Arnolfo da Cambio, which dates to around 1290). It gives dramatic testimony to Cecilia’s death. She lies, face down, on her right side. Her hair is thrown forward, revealing the deep cuts in her neck. Her fingers have been arranged to deliver a message. Three fingers of her right hand are extended, as is one finger of her left. She is signaling belief in the mystery of the Trinity, of the Three in One.

Stefano Maderno, St. Cecilia (detail)

This elegant and moving white sculpture is strikingly set into a stone framework that is a brilliant blue, like lapis lazuli, with gilded decorations of angels and the figures of other, related, saints. It stands at the beginning of the Baroque period, with its emphasis on presenting the reality of the suffering of the martyrs. 3

Stefano Maderno, St. Cecilia
Rome, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere

However, it is her association with singing and, by extension with all music, for which she is chiefly remembered. It has made her the patron saint of music and musicians and one of the best known subjects in the history of art.
Numerous paintings honor her, depicting her with a variety of instruments. But, unlike Maderno’s simply clad figure, most of these turn her into a fantasy figure. She appears in various headgear and dress, often very elaborate and exotic. Occasionally her husband and fellow martyr, Valerianus, and his brother, Tiburtius, also martyred, appear with her. An angel or angels may be in attendance as well.

Artemisia Gentileschi, St. Cecilia
Italian, ca. 1616
Rome, Galleria Spada

Guido Reni, St. Cecilia
Italian, 1606
Pasadena, Norton Simon Museum

Domenichino, St. Cecilia
Italian, 1617-1619
Paris, Musee du Louvre

Jacques Blanchard, St. Cecilia
French, 1630s
St. Petersburg, Hermitage Museum

Edward Burne-Jones, St. Cecilia
English, 1880s
Private Collection

Orazio Gentileschi, Sts. Cecilia, Valerianus and Tiburtius
Italian, ca. 1620
Milan, Brera Gallery

In addition, she has been honored in many musical compositions, such as the 1692 “Ode to St. Cecilia” by Henry Purcell (closing chorus below). Her name appears in the names of not only churches, but in the Academia di S. Cecilia in Rome, organized in 1585 as a musicians guild, as well as in numerous contemporary choral groups, orchestras, concert series. She is commemorated on November 22nd.

Hail! Bright Cecilia, Hail to thee!

Great Patroness of Us and Harmony!

Who, whilst among the Choir above

Thou dost thy former Skill improve,

With Rapture of Delight dost see

Thy Favourite Art

Make up a Part

Of infinite Felicity.

Hail! Bright Cecilia, Hail to thee!

Great Patroness of Us and Harmony!

_______________________________________

1. Kirsch, Johann Peter. "St. Cecilia." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03471b.htm

2. The Golden Legend or Lives of the Saints. Compiled by Jacobus de Voragine, Archbishop of Genoa, 1275. First Edition Published 1470. Englished by William Caxton, First Edition 1483, Edited by F.S. Ellis, Temple Classics, 1900 (Reprinted 1922, 1931.) http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/basis/goldenlegend/GoldenLegend-Volume6.asp#Cecilia

3. Wittkower, Rudolf. Art and Architecture in Italy, 1600 to 1750, Pelican History of Art, Baltimore, Penguin Books, 1965, p. 84.

© M. Duffy, 2011

Presentation of Mary

2011-11-20T23:44:00.000-05:00

Il Sodoma, Presentation of Mary
Italian, 1518
Siena, Oratory of San Bernardino

November 21 is the memorial of the presentation of the Virgin Mary in the Temple. I've written about it in relation to its place in the story of St. Anne here Presentation of Mary in the Temple.

“Jesus Christ is Lord” – Solemnity of Our Lord Jesus Christ, King of the Universe

2011-11-20T02:21:00.005-05:00

Christ in Majesty, Codex Aureus of Lorsch
German, 778-830, folio 72v
Vatican City, Biblioteca Vaticana

Jesus said to his disciples:
"When the Son of Man comes in his glory,
and all the angels with him,
he will sit upon his glorious throne,
and all the nations will be assembled before him.
And he will separate them one from another,
as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats."
(Matthew 25:31-32, portion of Gospel for the Solemnity of Christ the King, Year A, November 20, 2011)

The idea of Jesus as king of the universe goes back to the earliest decades of Christian life. In Philippians 2:9-11, written sometime between 55 and 63 AD, St. Paul quotes what is believed to be one of the earliest Christian hymns which proclaims “Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father” at whose name “every knee should bend, of those in heaven and on earth and under the earth” (Philippians 2:11 and 10).

In Christian art, however, the visual representation of Christ as King and Lord of the universe took a while to develop. It was not until the 4th century, when Christianity had become a tolerated religion and was free to construct buildings specifically for Christian worship, that this image began to appear. Earlier, images of Christ, made during the days of persecution and a need for concealment, had been symbolic (such as the well-known sign of the fish) or had been disguised (as for instance, the image of the Good Shepherd or the Philosopher). 1 With the easing of these pressures, and the accompanying sudden acquisition of Imperial favor and Imperial involvement; as well as in the course of thrashing out the Church’s understanding of the nature of Jesus as both human and divine, these images were superseded by others which reflected the kingly understanding already apparent in the hymn quoted by St. Paul.

Augustus Primaporta,
Roman, 1at century
Vatican, Vatican Museums

Colossal Statue of Constantine
(Computer reconstruction)
Rome, 4th century
The marble parts are today in the
Vatican Museum

The obvious place to which 4th century Christians looked for ideas in how to portray the human-divine person of Jesus as King was to already existing images of the Emperor. These images went back as far as the time of Augustus in the early 1st century (as for instance in the Augusta Primaporta) and were as recent as Constantine’s own colossal statue of around 315. This gigantic statue, parts of which can be seen today in the Vatican Museum, was placed around 315 in the secular basilica, now known as the Basilica of Constantine, close to the Coliseum. Modeled on the famous colossal statue of the god, Zeus, at Olympus, it showed Constantine seated, holding a scepter in his upraised right hand. Reconstructions suggest that he held an orb in his now missing left hand.

Christ in Majesty
Mosaic, Roman, ca. 350
Rome, Santa Costanza

It is, therefore, not surprising that the earliest images of Christ as King portray Him in a similar way. In one of the two apse mosaics from the tomb of Constantine’s daughter, Constantina, dated to around 350, Christ appears as if an Emperor. As described by Prof. Johannes Deckers “Christ is portrayed as Pantocrator, enthroned atop a transparent blue sphere symbolizing the cosmos. Although he still wears the traditional costume of a philosopher, consisting of tunic, cloak and sandals, now his garments are either gold or purple adorned with wide gold stripes like those of the emperor. His bearded head is surrounded by a nimbus, a device employed in earlier Roman art to distinguish gods, personifications, and deified emperors. Christ hands Peter a pair of keys symbolic of the powers entrusted to him. Peter receives the keys in humility, his hands draped in his cloak. …. it is as though we are witnessing a ceremony at the court of the emperor of heaven. Peter approaches Christ in the way etiquette demanded that an official approach the emperor on receiving an appointment. .. Christ appears like the lord of heaven between fiery clouds, enthroned above the spherical cosmos. To see how explicitly Christ is cast in the role of n emperor, one need only glance at a traditional formula adapted for various rulers in Roman times.”2 However, there are also significant differences between the image of Christ and the image of the Emperor for Christ holds, not a scepter and an orb, but keys and a scroll, very much as He had in the image of the Traditio Legis. He is not the worldly ruler, but a ruler whose kingdom is one of heavenly power, based on the Scriptures.

Christ in Majesty,
Mosaic, Roman, ca. 400
Rome, Santa Pudenziana

A few decades later, in the last decade of the 4th century, the Roman church of Santa Pudenziana was decorated with an apse mosaic in which the theme of Christ as ruler is still close to that of the Emperor. This image shows Christ, seated on a throne and surrounded by the Apostles, as well as by two female figures that may represent the Old and New Testaments.

Silver Plate known as the Missorium of Theodosius I
Roman, ca. 388
Madrid, Academia Real de Historia

Compositionally, it is not unlike the silver plate, called the Missorium of Theodosius I, which is almost exactly contemporary. However, again there are points of departure between the images. In Santa Pudenziana, Christ once again holds a document which now begins to resemble a codex (a bound book, instead of a scroll) and His right hand begins to assume a blessing gesture.

From this point on the image of Christ as King, also called Christ Pantocrator or Christ in Majesty, seems to have become fairly well set.

We can trace it in many different media through the remainder of the early Christian period,

Christ in Majesty
Mosaic, Byzantine, ca. 526-47
Ravenna, San Vitale

into the Byzantine,

Medieval

Christ in Majesty
Ivory, German, 11th century
New York, Metropolitan Museum

Christ in Majesty
Enamel book cover plaque
French, Limoges, early 13th century
New York, Metropolitan Museum

Christ in Majesty, Psalter of St. Louis and Blanche of Castille
French, ca. 1225
MS Arsenal 1186, fol. 28
Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale de France

and Renaissance periods, where it sometimes fused with the image of Christ the Judge at the Last Judgment.

Fra Angelico, Christ in Majesty
Italian, 1447
Orvieto, Cathedral, Chapel of San Brizio

Hans Memling, Christ Surrounded by Angels
Center of triptych
Netherlandish, 1480s
Antwerp, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten

Raphael, Disputà
Italian, 1510-1511
Vatican, Stanza della Segnatura

Michelangelo, Last Judgment (detail)
Italian, 1537-1541
Vatican, Sistine Chapel

This visual tradition leads right up to the 20th century, with the huge mosaic of Christ in Majesty in the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D. C., executed by Jan Henryk de Rosen, completed in 1959.

Jan Henryk de Rosen, Christ in Majesty
Polish, 1959
Washington, D.C., National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception

On December 11, 1925, at the conclusion of the 1925 Holy Year, Pope Pius XI established the feast of the Kingship of Our Lord Jesus Christ, with his encyclical, Quas Primas (The first (encyclical) which). In the encyclical Pius XI traced the roots of the title in the Bible and in Sacred Tradition and its meaning for the entire world. He fixed the date of the feast “on the last Sunday of the month of October - the Sunday, that is, which immediately precedes the Feast of All Saints”.3

On February 14, 1969, following Vatican Council II, Pope Paul VI in his motu proprio, Mysterii paschalis (The Paschal Mystery), promulgated a revised calendar of liturgical celebrations for the universal Church.4 Among the revisions the Solemnity of Christ the King was moved to its present location of the last Sunday in Ordinary Time, as a fitting way to mark the close of the Church’s liturgical year. This move gave to the feast a slightly different, more cosmic, emphasis, an emphasis that had, in fact, been latent in the image of Christ in Majesty for centuries. For, at this time of the year, that is in the weeks leading up to and including the first Sunday of Advent (the Sunday which begins the new liturgical year), we are presented with readings that deal with the end of time and the final judgment of the world when, at His second coming, Christ will return to judge the world. Therefore, the image of Christ as King of the Universe and Lord of Time, with its undertones of relationship to scenes of the Last Judgment has found a match in the liturgical feast.

Christus vincit, Christus regnat, Christus imperat!

___________________________________________
1. Spier, Jeffrey; Fine, Steven; Charles-Murray, Mary; Jensen, Robin M.; Deckers, Johannes G. and Kessler, Herbert L. Picturing the Bible: the Earliest Christian Art, Catalog of the exhibition held at the Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, TX, November 28, 2007-March 30, 2008, New Haven, Yale University Press, 2007, pp. 13, 51-64. For information on this past exhibition see https://www.kimbellart.org/Exhibitions/Exhibition-Details.aspx?eid=47

2. Spier, et al., p. 95.

3. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_11121925_quas-primas_en.html

4. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/motu_proprio/documents/hf_p-vi_motu-proprio_19690214_mysterii-paschalis_en.html

© M. Duffy, 2011

Basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul – November 18

2011-11-18T02:54:00.000-05:00

St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican

During this month of November the Church commemorates the construction and dedication to Christian worship of some of the earliest structures specifically built for that purpose. In her first three centuries Christians had been meeting in whatever location they could find that was suitable for the purpose of performing the developing liturgy. This might be in a private house, in a meeting hall or in buildings such as apartment houses, owned by members and renovated to provide space for the congregation and the priest. (In Rome, these were the tituli, some of which still survive through the churches constructed later on top of them.) There were also gathering places in association with the graves of the deceased, especially of the highly venerated martyrs, in locations such as the catacombs of Rome on in other, open air cemeteries in Rome and elsewhere. But none of these were on anything like a par with the temples of the Greek, Roman or other religious cults of the time.

It was not until Constantine, the Augustus of the West and his co-Augustus, Licinius, issued the Edict of Milan in October of 312 that the Christian Church could contemplate creating large, purpose built structures for the liturgy. As we have seen, one of the earliest of these structures, the Church of St. John Lateran, was begun almost immediately after the issue of the Edict, with the active involvement of Constantine himself. Similarly, at about the same time (319-324), another huge basilica was under construction across the Tiber River. In this location there was an open air cemetery on a hill a short distance from the banks of the river. It overlooked a road and a circus (racecourse) built by Caligula, but then known as the Circus of Nero. Nearby was the large circular tomb of the Emperor Hadrian.

Model of the "Trophy of Gaius" over the
burial place of St. Peter in the
necropolis underneath the basilica
St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican

This cemetery was not very different from our own contemporary American cemeteries. There were numerous mausoleums, owned by rich families, and there were humble graves, set directly into the earth.

One of these common graves was special to the Christians of Rome and to Christian visitors, as indicated by the inscriptions found all around it. In it was buried Peter, leader of the first Apostles, and first bishop of Rome, who had died in the persecution of Nero. He had been crucified (upside down according to tradition) in the circus just across the road, and his body had been carried into the cemetery where he was buried. Within a short time after his death a small marble monument, resembling a miniature temple façade, was erected over the grave (see model above).

As Richard Krautheimer, the great historian of early Christian architecture points out, it was only the graffiti that surrounded the location that makes this resting place different from hundreds of others in the cemeteries surrounding Rome.1 For, the inscriptions indicate that the man buried in this commonplace grave was Peter, leader of the Apostles and first bishop of Rome, the “Rock” on whom Jesus said that He would build the Church.2

This cross section of St. Peter's shows the three layers
we see today: at the top is the current basilica, below that
are the remains of the Constantinian basilica (now called
the grottoes and open to the public), at the lowest layer
is the necropolis, where the tomb of the Apostle lies. It
may be visited by appointment. Below the cross-section is
the plan of the excavated parts of the necropolis.

The importance of the grave to Christians can be clearly seen in the way in which Constantine’s architects planned the new building. With Imperial power behind them, they leveled the hill, removing the roofs of the private mausoleums and filling the shells with the dirt and debris of their excavation. Above the grave of Peter they constructed the altar, the focal point of the huge new basilica. This basilica stood for over a thousand years, until in the late 15th century the decision was made to replace it with a new church.

Another look at the relation of the layers of
St. Peter's through a comparison of floor plans.
In red we can see the layout of the necropolis,
on top of this is the straight lines of the basilica
of Constantine, and finally we can see the huge
outline of the current church.

While Constantine’s building rose in less than 10 years, it took nearly a century to build the new one, which we see today. The “new” St. Peter’s was built over the Constantinian basilica and there is one constant point of reference. The altar of today still stands directly over the grave in the Roman cemetery. The “Rock” still lies in the deepest layer. 3

Cross section of old St. Peter's

Maerten van Heemskerck, St. Peter's Basilica
Dutch, c.1535
Berlin, Staatliche Museen

The original St. Peter’s was destroyed in the process of building the current structure, but we can get some idea of how it looked from old drawings.

In addition we can gain an idea of what it was like by looking at the second building that the Church commemorates today – the Basilica of St. Paul-outside-the –walls.

Basilica of St. Paul-outside-the-walls
Rome

This basilica was constructed about 70 years after St. Peter’s and appears to have been based on it. 4 Built over the resting place of St. Paul, the great missionary to the Gentiles, it stood for 1,500 years before partially succumbing to a fire in 1823. The nave was badly damaged, but the apse was barely touched.

Engraving of the aftermath of the 1823 fire

It is fortunate that its destruction came so late in time. Had it occurred in an earlier era the building would doubtless have been rebuilt in a contemporary style, just as had happened to the other great early Christian churches of Rome. But, the damage came after a full century of archaeological exploration had placed a high value on the style of past ages. Hence, it was reconstructed to look exactly as it had before the fire and reconsecrated in 1854. The bones of Saint Paul lie underneath the main altar. In 2006 the sarcophagus containing them was uncovered for the first time in centuries and can be seen through an opening below the altar.5

St. Paul-outside-the-walls, Interior
Rome

In St. Paul’s we can gain a good idea of what the Constantinian churches looked like. These were simple structures with long naves (central part of the church), side aisles and a semi-circular apse at the end opposite the entrance. The interior space is vast and clear, obviously intended to handle large crowds of worshippers. It was also richly decorated. In front of the building there is an open space called the atrium, surrounded by colonnades. These were significant structures, intended by their Imperial sponsors to make a statement about the importance of Christianity and of the persons buried underneath them. 6
_______________________________________
1. Krautheimer, Richard. Rome, Profile of a City, 312-1308, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 20.

2. Some relevant texts: Matthew 16:18-19, John 20:1-10, Acts 1:15-22, 2:14-40, 3:12-26, 4:8-12, Chapters 10 and 11.

3. It is possible to visit this subterranean world by applying to join a tour group through the Vatican Office of Excavations (the Ufficio di Scavi). Information at http://www.vaticanstate.va/EN/Monuments/Saint_Peters_Basilica/Pre_Constantinian_Necropolis.htm.

4. Krautheimer, op cit., pp. 42-45.

5. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/12/061211-saint-paul.html

6. You can participate in virtual visits to these two churches, plus other papal basilicas and chapels at http://www.vatican.va/various/basiliche/index_en.html The speed of the servers seem to vary greatly by location.

© M. Duffy, 2011

Drawings from the Revolution

2011-11-14T00:20:00.002-05:00

Jacques-Louis David, Sketch for
Intervention of the Sabine Women in the Fight
Between the Sabines and the Romans
French, 1798-1799
Drawing (graphite, pen and black ink on paper)
Paris, Louvre

Currently, the Morgan Library in New York is offering two special and complementary exhibitions. The largest is an exhibition of 80 drawings on loan from the Louvre Museum in Paris, called David, Delacroix and Revolutionary France: Drawings from the Louvre.* The smaller, Ingres at the Morgan, focuses on 16 drawings taken from the Morgan’s own collection. Both exhibitions are a reminder of a revolutionary time in history, i.e., the years of the French Revolution, and the revolution in art that accompanied it. They focus on the artists who were the witnesses of the former and the actors in the latter.

In these two exhibitions we can chart the threads of artistic expression that carried art in France from the end of the Rococo era, just prior to the French Revolution, through the Neo-Classical phase, which ran concurrently with the Revolution and the First French Empire (Napoleon), and into the Romantic era, with its focus on the exotic, the emotional and the natural world. Indeed, it can be argued that the Neo-Classical style is simply another form of the predominant Romanticism of the period, a different mode of the exotic.

Viewing the drawings from the Louvre is like taking a walk through the history of early 19th century French art. All the important artists, and many of the lesser known, are included: David, Gerard, Gericault, Girodet, Granet, Gros, Ingres. But the most revealing are the many drawings by Delacroix that are included.

Eugene Delacroix, Study for
Liberty Leading the People,
French, 1830
Drawing, Graphite with chalk on paper
Paris, Louvre

Eugene Delacroix is, par excellence, the artist of the Romantic era. His paintings of exotic scenes, based on his travels in North Africa, his portrayal of scenes charged with violence and strong emotions made him the acknowledged leader of the Romantic painters and one of the most influential painters in Europe.

His amazing versatility is strongly apparent in this exhibition. Where the drawings of other artists are mainly finished sketches for compositions or drawings of details, Delacroix’ drawings run through an astonishing range. There are carefully detailed drawings of nearly finished scenes. Others are quick sketches of landscape and architecture. Still others are studies for details of figures.

But the really astonishing drawings are of pure motion, the first such drawings I have ever seen outside of the studies of whirlpools and clouds by Leonardo da Vinci. But, whereas the Leonardo drawings examine natural forces, Delacroix’ are focused on human activity.

Delacroix, Study for The Death of Sardanapalus
French, 1826-1827
Drawing, Pen, brown ink, brown wash on paper
Paris, Louvre

Through these drawings Delacroix appears to be working his way toward the highly active scenes for which he is famous. The variety of moods in his drawings reveals much about how his mind worked and they are fascinating to observe. I gained a whole new outlook on and respect for Delacroix from this exhibition.

If Delacroix was the leader of those Romantic whose mode was centered on the “sublime”, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres was the leader of the other wing, the Neo-Classicists. Characterized by calm, clear-edged lines and compositions, the Neo-Classicists took their subjects from both contemporary life and the distant past. Thus, the accompanying exhibition of Ingres’ drawings, taken from the Morgan’s own collection is an interesting supplement to the main exhibition.

Jean-Dominique Ingres,
Frau Reinhold and Her Daughters
French, 1815
Drawing, Graphite on paper
New York, Morgan Library

In it, one can see fine examples of Ingres work, especially of his works recording contemporary life, i.e., as a portraitist. This exhibition can be viewed online at http://www.themorgan.org/collections/works/ingres/default.asp

The Ingres exhibition will run until November 27th. The exhibition from the Louvre runs throughout the Christmas season, ending on New Year’s Eve. If you’re in the New York area during the season, I urge you to take a break from the shopping or sightseeing and visit them.

* For more information about this exhibition see: http://www.themorgan.org/exhibitions/exhibition.asp?id=49

© M. Duffy, 2011

Dedication of the Lateran – November 9

2011-11-09T00:27:00.002-05:00

Basilica of St. John Lateran
4th - 19th Centuries, Rome

Because of its immense size and prominence in the life of the Catholic Church most people probably think that St. Peter’s Basilica is the principal church of Rome. But they are wrong. If you look around St. Peter’s you might notice that one important feature is missing. There is no permanent chair for the bishop, no cathedra. Where the bishop’s chair would normally be is a feature called the “Cathedra Petri” or Throne of Peter by Gianlorenzo Bernini, but this is not a chair for living human habitation.

The chair for the currently living human who is the bishop of Rome is not in St. Peter’s. It is across the river Tiber in the church of St. John Lateran (San Giovanni in Laterano), the church that is the cathedral of the Diocese of Rome. It is St. John Lateran that is described as Sacrosancta Lateranensis ecclesia omnium urbis et orbis ecclesiarum mater et caput (Most holy church of the Lateran, mother and head of all churches in the city and the world – my translation).

This is the first large building set aside for Christian worship, the first official “church” of Rome. It is located on property once belonging to the noble Roman family of the Laterani, which came into the possession of the Emperor Constantine through his second marriage to Flavia Maxima Fausta, the sister of his rival, Maxentius. In 312, shortly after his famous victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge (north of Rome) he gave this property to the pope. It was, in effect, Constantine’s first gift to his newly acquired faith. By 324, still well within Constantine’s lifetime (he died in 337), the church had been built and dedicated. It is the dedication of its “mother and head” to Christ the Savior that the universal Church celebrates on November 9. (However, it is more commonly known from the later, additional, dedications to Saints John the Baptist and John the Evangelist as St. John Lateran.) Nearby, the palace of the Lateran family became the palace of the popes, where they lived for 1,000 years.

Interior, showing part of the nave plus the confessio (sunken area in front of the altar,
giving access to the crypt beneath the church, common in Roman churches), the
baldachino over the altar (dating to 1369) and the apse beyond
Basilica of St. John Lateran, Rome

Over the passage of the almost 1,700 years since the Lateran became the mother church of Christianity the building has passed through much wear and tear. It was nearly 100 years old when Alaric brought his Goths to sack Rome in 410. It was plundered by the Vandals in 455. It has suffered damage from earthquakes (896) and fires (1307 and 1361) and been reconstructed many times, but still retains its original form as a Roman basilica. Some of the most recent reconstructions were the work of famous architects of the late Renaissance, Baroque and Rococo: Domenico Fontana, Francesco Borromini and Alessandro Galilei respectively. The last architectural interference was the extension of the apse in 1880.

Apse Mosaic, 4th, 9th and 13th Centuries
Basilica of St. John Lateran, Rome

Little of its original interior has survived although there are notable exceptions. When the apse was extended in the late 19th century the original 4th century mosaics were removed, stored and replaced in the new work, along with some of the later additions, which date from the 9th and the 13th centuries. So, parts of what we see today were seen by those who were present at the dedication.

Also, the floor, decorated in what is known as cosmati work (from the name of the Roman family of artisans who did it) dates from the 14th century.

Cosmati work floor
Basilica of
St. John Lateran,
Rome

The adjoining palace was the home of all the popes from Sylvester I (314-335) to Clement V (1305-1314). Clement V, a Frenchman, found himself in a problematical political position when he was elected as pope. In the early 14th century, political conflict, between the Holy Roman Emperor and the King of France and between the King of France and the King of England, had serious repercussions for the Church which, while it models the Kingdom of God in this world, is not immune to the troubles of that world. Not long before his election, the French King, Philip IV, had attacked and imprisoned Pope Boniface VIII. Clement remained in France, establishing a court at Avignon. He was followed by six other French popes, all of whom remained in Avignon. During this time, the Lateran suffered two devastating fires, and although the church was repaired, the papal palace was not.

When Pope Martin V returned the seat of the papacy to Rome in 1420 the old palace was uninhabitable, so the seat of papal administration was moved to the smaller residence next to St. Peter’s Basilica and there it has remained ever since. But the cathedral of Rome remains in its original location --- at the Lateran.

You can take a virtual tour of the Lateran basilica and its surroundings here: http://www.vatican.va/various/basiliche/san_giovanni/vr_tour/index-en.html

© M. Duffy, 2011

November 2 – All Souls

2011-11-02T04:37:00.003-04:00

Goswin van der Weyden
The Blood of Christ Freeing Souls in Purgatory
Netherlands, 1480-1520
Unknown Location
In this image by the grandson of the great
Rogier van der Weyden we see God the Father and the
dove of the Holy Spirit above a fountain filled with
the Blood of Christ, which two angels draw into
chalices and pour on the souls in Purgatory.
The Risen Jesus and Mary stand on either
side of the fountain. The painting is last known
in a sale in London in 1946.
(photo & info: http://www.iconclass.org/)

Catholics believe in the Communion of Saints. This is the belief that all the faithful, living and dead, form part of a Body of which the Head is Christ. Since there is no “now” and no “then” in God all members of the Communion are alive in Christ, “death no longer has power” (Romans 6:9).

On the first of November the Church honored those who have attained the final glory of heaven with the feast of All Saints. The day after the Church turns our attention to another part of the Communion of Saints, those who, while no longer among the living, have not yet attained the goal of heaven. They form the second group described in the article on the three states of the Church found in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.

"When the Lord comes in glory, and all his angels with him, death will be no more and all things will be subject to him. But at the present time some of his disciples are pilgrims on earth. Others have died and are being purified, while still others are in glory, contemplating 'in full light, God himself triune and one, exactly as he is". 1

Those that “have died and are being purified” are the Souls for whom the Church prays on November 2nd. Their purification is occurring in a state called Purgatory. Purgatory is not hell. It is a temporary state, through which souls pass on their journey after death, where the residue of sin is purged away. The exact nature of the purgation through which they pass cannot be known on this side of the grave. Strong tradition suggests that it is a purgation by fire, but this is only supposition. The duration of the purgation is also unknown, for our concept of the passage of time has no meaning in eternity.

All the souls in Purgatory are saved. Their destination is heaven, once their purgation is completed, but they can do nothing to assist themselves. That is up to us. Prayers, especially the supreme prayer of the Mass, offered on their behalf can assist them and lift some of the burden of their expiation. As the Catechism of the Catholic Church explains: “Since all the faithful form one body, the good of each is communicated to the others”. 2 Most people do this by offering prayers and Masses for the deceased of their own family, while others offer their prayers for those that may be in most need of assistance and have no one in this world who can or will pray for them. On November 2nd the Church encourages us all to remember in our prayers all those who have died but have not yet realized the Beatific Vision in heaven.

Once the Last Judgment has taken place (sometime in the future) Purgatory will cease to exist.

Hugo van Woerden, Office of the Dead
Netherlands, 1475-1500
The Hague, Koninkllijk Bibliothek,
MS 76 G13, fol. 85v and 86r

Visions of Purgatory are not among the most common of images in the history of art. There are many more images of the Last Judgment, with its stark alternatives of heaven and hell. However, there is a history of purgatorial images to draw on.

Masters of Dirc van Delf, Tafel van den Kersten Ghelove
Purgatory
Netherlands (perhaps Utrecht), 1405-1410
New York, Morgan Library
MS M 691, fol.207r, detail

Among the most common in the Middle Ages were images in Books of Hours, especially if the individual book of Hours included the Office for the Dead. From a limited search for these images I was struck by how similar many of the images were.

In many cases the small, naked figures of a man and a woman are shown, kneeling or standing, amidst flames while they fold their hands in prayer.

In at least one other manuscript, multiple souls of men and women standing in a river of fire are assisted by angels who hold rosaries and aspirgils (instruments used to sprinkle holy water), representing the prayers and good works offered on their behalf by the living.

Ludovico Carracci, Freeing the Souls in Purgatory
Italian, ca. 1610
Vatican City, Vatican Pinacoteca

Another popular image, especially in the 17th century was the release of the souls in Purgatory through the intercession of the Virgin Mary and the saints in heaven.

Other images, such as that at the top of this page, show the effects of Christ’s sacrifice in releasing souls.

But what is surely the most interesting image of Purgatory appears in the background of a fresco “portrait” of Dante painted by Domenico di Michelino.

Domenico di Michelino, Dante Illuminating Florence With His Poem
Italian, 1465
Florence, Museo dell'Opera del Duomo

Called Dante Illuminating Florence with His Poem, the painting shows representations of the city of Florence (at right) and all three of the states he explored in his great poem, the Divine Comedy. To Dante’s right is an image of Hell, over his extended right hand is the image of Purgatory and, above all, are the spheres of Paradise.

Domenico di Michelino, Dante Illuminating Florence
detail of Purgatory

Dante’s image of Purgatory is an extremely interesting one. In his vision it is not a lake or river of fire, it is a mountain, ringed with seven ridges. As one ascends the mountain and passes through each ridge the Seven Deadly Sins are purged away by penalties appropriate to the sin of that ridge. Each ridge also includes several examples of the corresponding Seven Virtues.

• At the bottom of the mountain the souls of the recently dead who are saved but not purged approach the angelic gatekeeper to begin their upward journey.

• On the first ridge, we see the proud bowed beneath large rocks that keep them in a position which enables them to see sculptured reliefs illustrating the virtue of humility on the ground under their feet.

• On the second ridge, the envious sit with their eyes sewn shut, since it was through their eyes that they looked enviously on their fellow humans. Here the virtue is that of generosity.

• On the third, the wrathful wander about through smoke, representing the blindness that came upon them through their anger. The opposing virtue is meekness.

• On the fourth, the slothful run with urgency. The opposite virtue here is zeal.

• On the fifth, the greedy and the spendthrifts lie motionless, unable to move or help themselves. The opposing virtue is charity.

• On the sixth, the gluttons stand before trees laden with fruit that they cannot reach. Temperance is the corresponding virtue.

• On the seventh, the lustful pass through fire, representing the effects of their sin on the psyche. Chastity is the virtue here.

• At the top of the mountain, a man and woman who have passed through all the ridges have regained the original purity of Adam and Eve before the Fall and are now ready to advance into Paradise.

Purgatorio is undoubtedly my favorite part of the Divine Comedy. I reread it every few years, more frequently than I reread the other two parts. It has a wonderful atmosphere. All the souls seem happy and contented to be where they are. They know that they will ultimately enter heaven and seem happy to work toward their final cleansing from the baggage they brought with them from their earthly existence. There’s a sort of comfort in that, since almost everyone will bring similar baggage on departure.

Eternal rest grant unto them, O Lord, and let perpetual light shine upon them. May the souls of the faithful departed, through the mercy of God, rest in peace. Amen. (Traditional prayer for the Dead.)
_________________________________________________
1. Catechism of the Catholic Church, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Vatican City, 1993, Part 1, Section 2, Chapter 3, Article 9, Paragraph 5, Item 2, Number 954.

2. See above, Part 1, Section 2, Chapter 3, Article 9, Paragraph 5, Number 947.

Both citations may be found at http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2B.HTM

November 1 – Feast of All Saints

2011-11-01T00:35:00.002-04:00

Celestial Rose, Illustration to Canto XXXII of
Paradiso, Third Book of the Divine Comedy
by Dante Alighieri
15th-Century Italian
Vatican City State, Vatican Library

On November 1 the Church celebrates the feast of All Saints. On this day we honor all those who through their lives, lived in faith and hope and with charity, have achieved the Beatific Vision of God. Some of them are saints who have been identified and formally recognized by the Church, but most are simply men, women and children who have passed without formal recognition and whose names are now forgotten. They are our ancestors in faith exactly as they are our ancestors in flesh and blood. They enjoy the peace, the glory and the vision of God that we hope eventually to attain.

For obvious reasons it is difficult to represent all the saints in art, but there are some works that come to mind.

The first is the literary image of the Celestial Rose from Canto XXXII of Paradiso, the final book of Dante’s Divine Comedy. Every saint in heaven has his or her seat in the petals of this rose. Representing this in art is impossible, but a 15th-century Italian manuscript now in the Vatican Library gives an idea of what it might look like.

The next image that comes to mind is the exquisite altarpiece by the Van Eyck brothers, Hubert and Jan in the cathedral of St. Bavo in Ghent. Known as the Ghent Altarpiece, its lower half represents the Adoration of the Mystic Lamb. Its inspiration comes from the description in the Book of Revelation of the Triumph of the Lamb (Rev. 7:9-10):

“After this I had a vision of a great multitude, which no one could count, from every nation, race, people, and tongue. They stood before the throne and before the Lamb, wearing white robes and holding palm branches in their hands.
They cried out in a loud voice:
“Salvation comes from our God, who is seated on the throne,
and from the Lamb.”

Hubert and Jan Van Eyck, Adoration of the Lamb
The Ghent Altarpiece
Netherlandish, 1425-1432
Ghent, Cathedral of St. Bavo

In the Van Eycks’ painting, which extends over five panels, the Lamb on the altar (who is Christ, especially Christ in the Sacrament of the Altar, the Eucharist) occupies the central position of the central panel. He is surrounded by angels holding the instruments of the Passion through which He has triumphed over death. Two kneeling angels incense Him. Two groups kneel before Him. To the left are the Old Testament prophets and heroes. To the right are the Apostles, Fathers and other male saints. Advancing from the distance are two other groups; additional male saints from the left and female saints, some of whom carry the martyr’s palm, from the right. In the side panels more saints advance. In the background we can see the New Jerusalem, composed of a combination of actual buildings from several towns and imaginary ones.

Albrecht Durer, Adoration of the Holy Trinity
German, 1511
Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum

A final image is that of Albrecht Dürer’s Landauer Altarpiece, the Adoration of the Trinity. Clearly deriving from the same inspiration as the Van Eycks’ picture, Dürer interpreted the text less literally. He replaces the Lamb with the image of the Trinity and places the scene in the skies. But, the essentials of the image are the same; God is surrounded by His saints.

These are the images of what we celebrate today.

Giuseppe Arcimboldo – A Halloween Offering

2011-10-30T22:59:00.004-04:00

Giuseppe Arcimboldo, Winter,
Italian, 1564
Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum

In the years between ages 4 and 6 my mother went through a period of illness (severe anemia) that required her to make frequent visits to her doctor. While she was with the doctor I was on my own in the waiting room and, while waiting, would peruse the magazines that were available. In those days it was mostly Life, Time and Look, with the occasional Saturday Evening Post (based on my memories of their format). There may have been other magazines too but, since I couldn’t yet read, I can’t be sure of their identity.

One day, in one of the magazines, I remember seeing reproductions of some paintings that both fascinated and repelled me. They still do. These are the notorious “composite portrait” paintings of Giuseppe Arcimboldo.

Leonardo, Grotesque Heads
Italian, c. 1494
Windsor, Royal Collection

Giuseppe Arcimboldo was the son of the Lombard (north Italian) Renaissance painter, Biagio. He was presumably born sometime in 1526 or 1527, presumably in Milan. In his youth he worked with his father, most notably on designs for stained glass windows in the cathedral of Milan. He also seems to have worked in collaboration with other artists on various decorative projects in and around Milan during the 1540s and 1550s. 1

In Milan, Arcimboldo could have become familiar with some of the works of Leonardo da Vinci, who had worked in the area at the beginning of the century. Leonardo’s famous Last Supper is in Milan and some of his other work, such as drawings, including his studies of grotesque heads, was also there at the time. Milan was also the home of some of Leonardo’s pupils and assistants, notably Francesco Melzi, Bernardino Luini and Giovanni Ambrogio Figino. 2

The mood of painting in these decades was that of what is known as Mannerism. 3 The art of the Mannerist period delighted in various kinds of visual extravagances, such as distortions of proportion, complex compositions (with figures often irrelevant to the supposed subject matter being given prominent place), grotesques and visual jokes. It was a sophisticated and deliberately “in” style of art, highly suited for an aristocratic and learned audience, but not well suited for straightforward didactic purposes. One could say, in fact, that in Mannerist art the complexity of the composition and elegance of execution took precedence over content and meaning.

In 1562 Giuseppe moved north of the Alps to offer his services to the King of the Romans (eventually also Holy Roman Emperor), Maximilian II. His move from Milan may have been precipitated by the episcopate of Cardinal (later Saint) Charles Borromeo. Cardinal Borromeo preferred artists who were able to focus their production on a more straightforward and serious presentation of the truths of the faith. In this way he anticipated the aims of what became known as Counter-Reformation art or Tridentine art (named after the reforming Council of Trent, which met in northern Italy from 1545 - 1563). At the imperial court Arcimboldo could hope to obtain work from the kind of sophisticated audience that had supported the Mannerist style in mid-century Italy.

Arcimboldo, Sketch for a Sleigh
Italian, 1570s
Florence, Uffizi Gallery

Initially, he painted portraits of the imperial family and court. He also worked as a designer for the kinds of courtly activities that were common in late 16th-century Europe: pageants, tournaments, etc. But, beginning in the mid-1560s he also began the series of composite heads that fascinated me as a child and continue to fascinate me as an adult.

The composite heads are human forms that are composed of flowers, fruits and vegetables or sometimes of other items.

Arcimboldo, Spring
Italian, 1573
Paris, Louvre

Arcimboldo, Autumn
Italian, 1573
Paris, Louvre

The best known are several series of The Four Seasons, one of which is at the Louvre.

In the Louvre Four Seasons, Spring is made up of flowers and spring plants; Autumn is composed of fruits and grains.

In Spring teeth are actually lilies of the valley, in Autumn a pear becomes a nose.

He also did a series of heads of the classical four elements: earth, air, fire, water. Two of the Elements are in the Kunsthistoricsches Museum in Vienna.

Arcimboldo, Fire
Italian, 1566
Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum

Fire is a head composed of flames, flammable items and items associated with different forms of fire, such as candles, lamps, flint and parts of guns and cannons. Burning coals form the hair.

Arcimboldo, Water
Italian, 1566
Viena Kunsthistorisiches Museum

Water, who appears, from the pearl earring and necklace, to be a female, is composed of aquatic elements: fish, crustaceans, amphibians, coral, even a tiny seal. 4

The composite heads are sometimes “portraits” of actual individuals. For example, the well-known Vertumnus is a portrait of the Emperor Rudolf II (son of Maximilian II).

Arcimboldo, Vertumnus
Italian, ca. 1590
Skokloster (Sweden), Skokloster Castle

Arcimboldo, Librarian
Italian, ca. 1566
Skokloster (Sweden), Skokloster Castle

Other portraits are visual jokes, based on the profession of the “sitter”. The painting called The Librarian, made up of books, is presumed to be a portrait of the court historian, Wolfgang Lazius.

And some are both visual jokes and optical illusions, as for instance the painting titled, The Cook. In that painting we see a platter of roasted meats in the process of being uncovered. But, when it is turned upside down, it becomes a face and the platter becomes a hat.

Arcimboldo, The Cook
Italian, 1570
Stockholm, National Museum

In his final years Arcimboldo painted a head called The Four Seasons in One Head, which may be a self-portrait. In it the flowers of spring, the grains and fruits of summer and autumn and the dead branches of winter all combine.

Arcimboldo, Four Seasons in One Head
Italian, c. 1590
Washington, D. C., National Gallery of Art

These heads combine a keen, almost scientific, observation of natural elements, vegetable and animal, and of man-made items such as cannons, candles and books, with a playful and ingenious sense of design. Some have seen them as the result of mental illness, but they are more probably expressions of the taste for oddity and the grotesque that can be seen in much of late 16h-century art, especially of the Mannerist art that was associated with the secular courts of the time (as opposed to art intended for the decoration of churches).

Bernard Palissy, Platter
French, c, 1580
Paris, Louvre

One need only look at the “rustic” pottery of Bernard Palissy in Paris, with its casts of creepy crawlies, and at the grotesque doorways of the house built by the brothers Taddeo and Federico Zuccaro on Via Gregoriana in Rome to see this mood expressed in the minor arts and in architecture.

Palazzo Zuccari, Doorway
Italian, 1592
Rome, Via Gregoriana 28

Much of this work was regarded by patrons as clever and interesting. Emperor Rudolf II clearly felt this way about Arcimboldo’s paintings because he placed them in his Kunstkammer in Prague. A Kunstkammer (literally “art room”) was a kind of private museum of odd and curious items and included not only paintings but scientific instruments, natural specimens, clever toys, small statuary, in short, whatever unusual object appealed to the owner. 5 Emperor Rudolf’s Kunstkammer was famous throughout Europe. To be placed there was a great honor to Arcimboldo.

However, tastes in art change and the collection was broken up. It was also the victim of looting over the years and was, therefore, widely dispersed. Arcimboldo’s work virtually disappeared until it was “discovered” early in the 20th century by the Surrealists. They obviously felt an affinity with the precise detailing and odd combinations of the composite heads. Since then Arcimboldo has remained a kind of art historical curiosity.

I think of his work as a fitting subject for Halloween, as it seems to fit easily into the atmosphere of disguise and pranks that prevails in relation to this very old festival, which heralds the approach of winter.
_________________________________________________
1. For information on what is known about Arcimboldo’s early life see:

Kaufmann, Thomas Da’Costa. Arcimboldo: visual jokes, natural history, and still-life painting, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2009.
Arcimboldo : 1526-1593, edited by Sylvia Ferino-Pagden. Milano and New York, Skira, 2007. Catalog of the exhibition held at Musée du Luxembourg, Paris, Sept. 15, 2007-Jan. 13, 2008; and at Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Feb. 12-June 1, 2008.
Kriegeskorte, Werner. Arcimboldo, Cologne, Taschen, 1987.

2. See #1 above.

3. Shearman, John K. G., Mannerism, New York, Penguin, 1967 is a well-known study of the period.

4. Arcimboldo 1526 – 1593, Nature and Fantasy, text by Silvia Ferino-Pagden. Exhibition brochure National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., September 19, 2010 – January 9 , 2011. It is available online at http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2010/arcimboldo/arcimboldo_brochure.pdf

5. For informaiton on the Kunstkammer or Studiolo see: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kuns/hd_kuns.htm