Agro Info Zone

Pesticide Management Bill, 2020 (PMB 2020) in India

2020-03-26T12:30:00.000-07:00

The Green Revolution introduced sturdier crop plants that could support heavier grain load without the lodging resulting from the intensive use of fertilisers, pesticides and other inputs. This, unfortunately, left farmers believing more is better — be it seed, fertiliser or pesticide. It had, therefore, become necessary to have regulations in place for the use of inputs in agriculture, and pesticides were thus regulated through the Insecticide Act, 1968. The focus of the Act was on pest management through sustainable agricultural practices, keeping in view the broader policy framework of integrated pest management, where the use of pesticides was considered an integral component. Pesticides have helped increase food production and ensure the nation’s food security. Their use has helped in keeping the crops free of pests, increasing the overall yield and allowing better storage of the harvest. The protection ensured by the usage of pesticides thus allowed the agricultural industry to grow and meet the demands of the rising population. Despite all the benefits delivered by plant protection chemicals in boosting agricultural yield, their possible impact on the environment and living organisms continues to be a cause for worry.

Critical issues

Some of the critical issues in focus in recent years due to the misuse or overuse of pesticides are: residues in food items, pesticide-resistance among pests, emergence of new pests, unintentional poisoning of workers and animals and degradation of biodiversity. In view of this, India’s scientists and lawmakers have begun to discuss the shortcomings of the Insecticides Act, 1968, and focus on sustainable agriculture practices. The Union Cabinet recently approved the Pesticide Management Bill, 2020 (PMB 2020), which is expected to be tabled in Parliament during the Budget session. Will it replace the Insecticides Act and address its inadequacies? Time and again the shortcomings of the present Act have come to the fore, particularly in curbing spurious pesticides, imitation of labels of standard brands, faulty method of drawing samples based on the quota system, little encouragement for players to invest in R&D, lack of NABL-accredited testing laboratories and poor safeguarding of regulatory data and confidential business information. The present situation demands strong legislation to address public concerns and inadequacies in the Insecticides Act.

Narrower coverage

The PMB defines pesticides as substances that destroy or control the spread of pests in agricultural commodities and animal feeds. By doing so, the PMB is seemingly narrowing down the scope of coverage of pesticides and may have overlooked their use for storage pests, vector control for human health and other non-agricultural purposes. The Bill includes a provision to compensate farmers in case of losses due to the use of spurious or low-quality pesticides. The punishment for cheating farmers has also been drastically enhanced so that it will act as a deterrent to wrong-doers. Any person who wants to import, manufacture or export pesticides will have to register under the new Bill and provide all details regarding any claims, expected performance, efficacy, safety, usage instructions and infrastructure available to stock that pesticide. The information will also include details on the pesticide’s potential effects on the environment. One of the most important provisions in the Bill pertains to deterring fake claims in product advertisements. The Centre may also form a fund to handle compensation in cases of losses due to the application of pesticides. It appears that the experience of administering the Insecticides Act over the last few decades has made the government wiser, making it try to bridge the legislative gaps in favour of users (the farmers).

What the Bill lacks

At the same time, there are several issues and concerns in the Bill with respect to the definition of pesticides (which excludes pesticides used for non-agricultural purposes), provision for harsh criminal penalty, absence of provisions for data protection, incoherence between the proposed Bill and the FSSAI 2006 with respect to tolerance limits for pesticides, ambiguities with respect to pesticides approved without tolerance limits, and the free hand given to pesticide inspectors.

Opposed By the Larger Section of Industry

The larger portion of Industry seems unhappy with various provisions of the bill, some of the important ones are:

1. Penal Provisions: The Penal Provisions in the Act are too hard and strict, with Jail Term ranging from 1 to 7 years and fine amount of upto USD70000 equivalent of Indian Currency. The penal provisions are attracted even on small discrepancy of labels and leaflets. The whole industry is of the view that these provisions are too harsh and will unnecessary give teeths to the authorities, fueling more corruption in the already corrupt system.

2. Dilution of Section 9(4) for the metoo registrations - The provisions of Section 9(4) TIT (new Source) have already been arbitrarily removed by the Central Insecticides Board before this bill, even though the Agriculture ministers at different times confirmed that such section is inculcated into the Act to safeguard the small and medium scale units. In this new bill there is no scope of fixing the blunder already done.

3. Defeating the PM Modi's agenda of ease of doing business: This Bill put so much of regulatory requirements and issues for the industry, that most of the management time will go into fulfilling these requirements, thus making it difficult for the industry due to the unnecessary hurdles, thus defeating the "ease of doing " agenda of the Hon'ble PM Mr. Narendra Modi.

4. The provisions of the Act are Pro MNC's and make the business difficult for the the local industry.

5. High Cost to Farmers: The regulatory requirements with increase the cost for the Manufacturers, which will be passed on to the farmers, who are already at the last leg of the social and economic strata.

Final Crux

Ultimately, the focus of the new Bill should be on encouraging methods to identify fake products through technologies such as micro-encapsulated pesticides, authentication through security holograms, low-cost transponder tags and tracing technologies which will not only empower the farmers but also provide for better management of pests. The Cabinet, while approving the Bill, also stated that it promotes the use of organic pesticides. However, the present experience of using botanicals — biological products as organic substitutes to chemical pesticides — has not been very satisfactory. In the name of organic pesticides, several marketed botanical products were found to be severely laced with routine chemical pesticides.

What is important is the message through PMB 2020, that no more will the government tolerate illicit pesticides, and cheating of farmers in the name of pest management; and that it wants to promote science-based activities in the interest of farmers as they set out to avoid the losses induced by pests, diseases, weeds and rodents.

Types of Pesticides

2011-06-22T02:34:00.001-07:00

Pesticides are often referred to according to the type of pest they control. Another way to think about pesticides is to consider those that are chemical pesticides or are derived from a common source or production method. Other categories include biopesticides, antimicrobials, and pest control devices.

Chemical Pesticides

Some examples of chemically-related pesticides follow. Other examples are available in sources such as Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings.

Organophosphate Pesticides - These pesticides affect the nervous system by disrupting the enzyme that regulates acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Most organophosphates are insecticides. They were developed during the early 19th century, but their effects on insects, which are similar to their effects on humans, were discovered in 1932. Some are very poisonous (they were used in World War II as nerve agents). However, they usually are not persistent in the environment.

Carbamate Pesticides affect the nervous system by disupting an enzyme that regulates acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. The enzyme effects are usually reversible. There are several subgroups within the carbamates.

Organochlorine Insecticides were commonly used in the past, but many have been removed from the market due to their health and environmental effects and their persistence (e.g. DDT and chlordane).

Pyrethroid Pesticides were developed as a synthetic version of the naturally occurring pesticide pyrethrin, which is found in chrysanthemums. They have been modified to increase their stability in the environment. Some synthetic pyrethroids are toxic to the nervous system.

Biopesticides

Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. For example, canola oil and baking soda have pesticidal applications and are considered biopesticides. At the end of 2001, there were approximately 195 registered biopesticide active ingredients and 780 products. Biopesticides fall into three major classes:

(1) Microbial pesticides consist of a microorganism (e.g., a bacterium, fungus, virus or protozoan) as the active ingredient. Microbial pesticides can control many different kinds of pests, although each separate active ingredient is relatively specific for its target pest[s]. For example, there are fungi that control certain weeds, and other fungi that kill specific insects.

The most widely used microbial pesticides are subspecies and strains of Bacillus thuringiensis, or Bt. Each strain of this bacterium produces a different mix of proteins, and specifically kills one or a few related species of insect larvae. While some Bt's control moth larvae found on plants, other Bt's are specific for larvae of flies and mosquitoes. The target insect species are determined by whether the particular Bt produces a protein that can bind to a larval gut receptor, thereby causing the insect larvae to starve

(2) Plant-Incorporated-Protectants (PIPs) are pesticidal substances that plants produce from genetic material that has been added to the plant. For example, scientists can take the gene for the Bt pesticidal protein, and introduce the gene into the plant's own genetic material. Then the plant, instead of the Bt bacterium, manufactures the substance that destroys the pest. The protein and its genetic material, but not the plant itself, are regulated by EPA.

(3) Biochemical pesticides are naturally occurring substances that control pests by non-toxic mechanisms. Conventional pesticides, by contrast, are generally synthetic materials that directly kill or inactivate the pest. Biochemical pesticides include substances, such as insect sex pheromones, that interfere with mating, as well as various scented plant extracts that attract insect pests to traps. Because it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a substance meets the criteria for classification as a biochemical pesticide, EPA has established a special committee to make such decisions.

Pest Types

Pesticides that are related because they address the same type of pests include:

Algicides
Control algae in lakes, canals, swimming pools, water tanks, and other sites.

Antifouling agents
Kill or repel organisms that attach to underwater surfaces, such as boat bottoms.

Antimicrobials Antimicrobials
Kill microorganisms (such as bacteria and viruses).

Attractants
Attract pests (for example, to lure an insect or rodent to a trap). (However, food is not considered a pesticide when used as an attractant.)

Biopesticides
Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals.

Biocides
Kill microorganisms.

Disinfectants and sanitizers
Kill or inactivate disease-producing microorganisms on inanimate objects.

Fungicides
Kill fungi (including blights, mildews, molds, and rusts).

Fumigants
Produce gas or vapor intended to destroy pests in buildings or soil.

Herbicides
Kill weeds and other plants that grow where they are not wanted.

Insecticides
Kill insects and other arthropods.

Miticides (also called acaricides)
Kill mites that feed on plants and animals.

Microbial pesticides
Microorganisms that kill, inhibit, or out compete pests, including insects or other microorganisms.

Molluscicides
Kill snails and slugs.

Nematicides
Kill nematodes (microscopic, worm-like organisms that feed on plant roots).

Ovicides
Kill eggs of insects and mites.

Pheromones
Biochemicals used to disrupt the mating behavior of insects.

Repellents
Repel pests, including insects (such as mosquitoes) and birds.

Rodenticides
Control mice and other rodents.
The term pesticide also includes these substances:

Defoliants
Cause leaves or other foliage to drop from a plant, usually to facilitate harvest.

Desiccants
Promote drying of living tissues, such as unwanted plant tops.

Insect growth regulators
Disrupt the molting, maturity from pupal stage to adult, or other life processes of insects.

Plant growth regulators
Substances (excluding fertilizers or other plant nutrients) that alter the expected growth, flowering, or reproduction rate of plants.

Pest Control Devices
What about pest control devices? EPA also has a role in regulating devices used to control pests. More specifically, a "device" is any instrument or contrivance (other than a firearm) intended for trapping, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest. A mousetrap is an example of a device. Unlike pesticides, EPA does not require devices to be registered with the Agency. Devices are subject to certain labeling, packaging, record keeping, and import/export requirements, however.

Preparation method of 5% Neem seed kernel extract

2011-06-22T02:25:00.000-07:00

Azadiractin chemical present in the Neem seed will affect on different stages of the pest life cycle. It will act through stomach and contact insects

Required materials: Neem seeds – 5 kilo and sodic soil or soap nut powder – 100 grams

Preparation: Five kilo of Neem seeds dried under shade with good quality can be powdered. This powder can be packed in cloth and keep in 10lts of water for 10-12 hrs. Extract the decoction by pressing the cloth pack for 10-15mints. Filter this solution through a thin cloth. Add 100grs of surf to the filtered solution. Add 100lts of water to the solution and spray it in 1acre during evening time

Uses of Neem seed kernel extract: It affects egg and larva stages. Larvae can feed on the leaves, as the leaves tastes bitter. Azadiractin chemical which is present in the Neem, affects the lifecycle of the pests. The pest will die as larvae or pupae. This solution will not affect human health, friendly insects and environment. Lemonades chemical present in Neem will help in keeping the crop healthy

Advantages Of Aquaponics Over Conventional And Organic Farming

2011-06-22T02:20:00.002-07:00

Aquaponics is a system of growing plants and fish together in a mutually beneficial system. Aquaponics is starting to revolutionize the way many people are growing food. Because of the many advantages that aquaponics has over conventional farming and organic farming, it is no surprise why so many food growers are switching to this kind of system.

One of the most precious resources, when it comes to growing food is water. Farmers must dump massive amounts of water onto the land so the plants can get the small amount of it that they need.

Most of this water ends up being wasted through evaporation or soaking deep into the ground. With aquaponics, the water is contained and recirculated in the system and delivered directly to the roots. None of it is dumped on the ground and evaporation is much less. Aquaponics can use as little as 2% of the water that conventional farming uses to grow the same amount of food.

With aquaponics, there is no need for fertile land. Fertile land is very valuable and expensive. But with aquaponics, plants are not grown in the ground, so food can be grown in areas that would normally be unsuitable. With this system, food can be grown on cheap infertile rocky ground and even barren deserts. Since very little water is needed, this can allow food to be grown in many parts of the world where it otherwise wouldn’t.

Aquaponics is energy efficient. Massive amounts of energy is required in faring to till the soil, add fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides. Plus the energy to produce these materials, which many are made from petroleum. With aquaponics, there is no soil to till. The biggest energy user is the pumps to circulate and aerate the water. And these can be run off electricity, which is easy to supply with solar panels.

Plants can be grown closer together in a aquaponics system and they can grow faster. This allows several times more produce to be grown in the same amount of space as with soil farming. And with this organic system, food is known for having more of a garden grown quality than with even hydroponics, with its use of chemical fertilizers.

Aquaponics has a low start up and operating cost. Aquaponic systems can be made from low cost simple materials and equipment. It is also very scalable, making it easy to start small and add on to the system later. You can buy a cheap piece of land and get set up with an aquaponics farm for a fraction of what it may cost to buy the fertile land that would only grow a fraction of the food in the same amount of space.

A great bonus with aquaponics is the production of fish. With many concerns about the quality of imported farmed fish and depleting natural fish, the fresh clean fish from these systems in some cases be even more valuable than the plants they grow. This more than pays for the cost of fish feed while creating free fertilizer for the plant crops.

All help to farmers adopting organic farming, says Nitish

2011-06-22T02:20:00.001-07:00

Patna, Jun 22 (PTI) Bihar Chief Minister Nitish Kumar today said his government would provide all-possible help to farmers for adopting "organic farming." Inaugurating a three-day International Conference here, Kumar said elaborate measures have been taken for organic farming in Bihar. Stating that the state government was giving more importance to organic farming, he said "we have initiated works on a special programme for promoting organic farming on which a sum of Rs 250 crore will be spent." "Under the programme, one village in each of the 38 districts in Bihar will be identified as organic village," he said adding the state government had made the production of "Worm Compost" need-based and in the first year itself, around 40,000 farmers reaped the benefits of it. "Now now a programme has been launched for making worm compost commercial," he said, adding the state government had decided to give 50 per cent concession under the programme to those who would plan to set up biogas units in Bihar together with production of worm compost. He said the state government had provided free of cost one lakh quintal "Dhaincha Seed" to farmers during this Kharif season and "we want that the fertility of the land is protected at all costs." +We are also trying to promote bio fertiliser and the organic fertiliser will be made available free of cost to farmers for seed development+, Kumar said.

Ethanol from seaweed project to get a major boost with CSMCRI deciding to ramp up off-shore production

2011-06-22T02:07:00.000-07:00

AHMEDABAD: The project of deriving ethanol, a bio-fuel for blending with petrol, from a seaweed is all set to get a major boost, with the Central Salt and Marine Chemical Research Institute (CSMCRI) deciding to ramp up off-shore production of the weed by manifolds.

The joint project of Council of Scientific & Industrial Research ( CSIR) and Ministry of New Renewable Energy (MNRE) is expected to give a major push to efforts in the country for producing ethanol from sources other than cash crops like sugarcane.

"We are planning to increase cultivation of ethanol producing seaweed - Kappahycus alvarezi- say in a few hectares of area about 5 to 10 km's inside sea with the help of over 1,000 bamboo rafts," CSMCRI director Dr Pushpito Ghosh told PTI.

The institute has already demonstrated cultivation of seaweed inside 2-3 km of sea on the bamboo rafts, without using any pesticides.

"The sea venture shall be advantageous in two ways. Firstly, the sap derived from seaweed will help raise the nation's sugarcane yield by 10 to 30 per cent, secondly the seaweed bio-mass will be a source for ethanol," he said.

Ethanol, a bio-fuel is used as blend with petrol to lower emission levels. The Centre has fixed 2012 as the deadline for making 10 percent ethanol blend with petrol mandatory, industry sources said.

"On filtering fresh seaweed crush we get sap, which is a bio-fertiliser. The residue solid contains polysaccharides, which is then converted into sugar and fermented to produce ethanol," Ghosh said, explaining the process of obtaining ethanol from the seaweed.

Biofertilizers Market in India - India Continues to be One of the Largest Consumers of Fertilizers

2011-06-22T02:04:00.000-07:00

DUBLIN--Research and Markets (http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/d4dfc4/biofertilizers_mar) has announced the addition of the "Biofertilizers Market in India" report to their offering.

This report covers the nascent but aggressively growing biofertilizers market in India. Among the major concerns in today's world are the pollution and contamination of soil by excessive and injudicious use of agrochemicals, as well as their detrimental effects to humans a burden borne, in particular, by agricultural workers and rural communities worldwide. Compelled to respond to concerns on both health and environmental grounds, governments all over the world are now switching from 'risk reduction' and 'safe use' procedures, to developing more environment-friendly alternatives of sustainable agricultural production such as the use of bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides.

Bio-fertilizers are seen as an important alternative technology, since the negative externalities of chemical fertilizers have become well known. India continues to be one of the largest consumers of fertilizers with the total consumption in 2009-10 estimated at 53.3 million tons in terms of various products as against 50.7 million tons in the previous year. this report consist of different key challenges, opportunities, drivers of Biofertilizer market, analysis of major players and implicate the future market and strategies for the Biofertilizer market.

Key Topics Covered:

Executive Summary
Industry Overview
Usage segment
Usage behavior trend
Market Size
Market Structure & Segmentation
Competition situation
Key Drivers
Key Challenges / Barriers
Key Opportunities
Country Advantage
Regulatory Advantage & legal frameworks
Names of industry bodies
Market forecast with Macroeconomic assumptions
Success stories
Bibliography
For more information visit http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/d4dfc4/biofertilizers_mar

Increasing Demand in China Bio-insecticide Market

2011-06-22T01:58:00.000-07:00

Guangzhou, Guangdong --06/16/2011 -- China's bio-pesticide industry has been witnessing fast and sound development in the past decades. Bio-insecticide, bio-fungicide and bio-herbicide are three different types of bio-pesticide. With features of low toxicity and quick decomposition, bio-insecticide is considered as eco-friendly and easy to be used.

Having intense competition with chemical pesticides, bio-pesticides have taken up almost 10% of the market share. Abamectin is the largest bio-pesticide nowadays, with its output reaching a huge record high in China. Thanks to the expansion of application on fried crops, the demand for abamectin is increasing rapidly in recent years.

How many percentages of market value does abamectin take? What are opportunities for bio-insecticide, especially for abamectin? What is the current production situation of bio-insecticide? What is the future of bio-pesticide in China?

The report named The Survey of Bio-pesticide Industry in China reveals these problems with accurate statistic figure by analyzing current and future bio-insecticide supply and demand, current technology level and future development trends, export and import situation as well as opportunities of bio-insecticide industry, etc.

The following sections are covered in this report:
I Overview of pesticide industry in China
II Production situation of bio-pesticide in China
II-1 The development history of bio-pesticide industry
II-2 The position of bio-pesticide in pesticide industry
II-3 Current production situation of bio-pesticide industry in China
II-3.1 Summary of production & manufacturers
II-3.2 Current production situation of Bio-insecticide
II-3.2.1 Abamectin
II-3.2.2 Bacillus thuringiensis
II-3.2.3 Matrine
II-3.2.4 Azadirachtin
II-3.2.5 Pyrethrins
II-3.2.6 Heliothis armigera NPV
III Problems existing in bio-pesticide industry
IV Technology level and research status of bio-pesticide in China
V Policy and regulation and the influence to bio-pesticide industry
VI The trade of Bio-pesticide in China
VII-1 Price and its trends
VII-2 Distribution channel
VII-3 Export and import situation
VII Use of Bio-pesticide in China
VII-1 Consumption volume
VII -2 Use situation in crop
VII-3 Farmer’s habits and attitudes
VIII Prospect of bio-pesticide in China (2011-2015)
IX Conclusions
X Appendix
X-1 Profile of key player of bio-pesticide industry
X-2 SWOT analysis of top five producers

If you are interested in this report, please check the following link for the whole survey: http://www.cnchemicals.com/Report/ReportMin.aspx?id=1882, or contact us at econtact@cnchemicals.com .

India silent on endosulfan at Rotterdam Convention

2011-06-22T01:57:00.000-07:00

India is remaining silent on the listing of endosulfan under the Rotterdam Convention at the fifth meeting of the Conference of the Parties which opened in Geneva on Monday.

The Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade requires exporting countries of listed chemicals to provide the importing countries with data on effects of the pesticide in advance so that the importing country could opt to reject or prohibit the imports.

The Convention agreed, in principle, to list endosulfan under the Convention. However, final decision had been delayed because Cuba would not agree to the listing unless decision included need for technical and financial assistance. An agreement might be worked out before the closure of the conference on Friday.

Meriel Watts, who is attending the Convention as representative of Pesticide Action Network (Asia-Pacific) said in an email message that the conference had already decided to list alachlor and aldicarb under the Convention.

India, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Vietnam and Sudan objected to listing of Chrysotile asbestos besides Zimbabwe and Russia which are non-members. So, a decision had been postponed until after discussion on how to deal with chemicals for which consensus could not be reached.

Later the conference formed a contact group to discuss the issue and attempted to work out a consensus on chrysotile asbestos.

In its opening statement at the Conference, India noted the importance of achieving Convention objectives within the framework of sustainable development. It called for development of alternatives to listed chemicals, and emphasized the importance of consensus-based decision-making, according to Earth Negotiations Bulletin published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development.

China called for consensus-based decision-making and a gradual approach in listing chemicals under the Convention, it said.

Opening the conference, President Noluzuko (Zukie) Gwayi expressed optimism that participants would use the conference to improve the effectiveness of the Convention. She noted that support for the attendance of all parties was not available because of the Convention’s extreme financial constraints.

Jim Willis, Joint Executive Secretary of the Basel, Stockholm, and Rotterdam conventions, highlighted the successes of the Rotterdam Convention, including listing 40 chemicals and establishing the Chemical Review Committee as a strong, science-based subsidiary body.

ANALYSIS METHOD OF POTASSIUM HUMATE

2011-06-22T00:21:00.000-07:00

Currently there is no National standard, Trade standard in China for Humate series products, so we compile this Enterprise Standard to ensure the steady production. This standard is compiled according to the GB/T1.1-2000< The structure of Standard and the Rules of Compile> stipulated in the first part of .

Analysis of Potassium Humate

a./ Application range
This standard is used for the Humic acid analysis in Potassium Humate that is made from lignite and weathering coal, etc.

b./ Quality Demand
The quality must meet up with the following standards:
Analysis items Standards
A B
Humic acid(dry basis) 80%min 65%min
Moisture 15%max 15%max
Potassium Oxide 7.5%min 10-12%
Ph value of 1% solution 9-10 9-10

c./ Analysis method (Gravimetric method)

.analyze contents of total Humic acid

1. test facilities and instruments
a./ tropical drying box with temperature controlled at 110±5℃.
b./ centrifuge with rotate speed at least 2000r/min and its volume above 150ml.
c./ tropical water bath
d./ muffle roaster
e./ filter paper.
f./ weighing bottle with ground-glass stopper; diameter 500mm, height 30mm.

2. Reagents and solutions
a./ Sodium Pyrophosphate（HGB-1288）chemically pure
b./ Sodium Hydrate(GB629-81) chemically pure
c./ Alkaline extraction solvent of Sodium Pyrophosphate
Weigh 15g Sodium Pyrophosphate and 7g Sodium Hydrate and then dissolve them into l liter distilled water and keep at airproof place.

3. Process of analysis

a./ dissolve
weigh 0.2g sample(precision 0.0002g) and put into 250ml conical flask, then add 100.00ml Alkaline extraction solvent of Sodium Pyrophosphate，shake it to make sure the sample is wet. Insert glass-filler an put them into boiling water bath, heat and extract for 2hours and shake it in every 30miuntes during this time.

b./ Centrifugation
take out the flask, cool to room temperature(about 20℃), then put whole extraction liquid and residue into centrifugal glass and centrifugalize it for 30minutes at the speed of 2000r/min. .

c./ filtration
put in advance the filter paper and weighing bottle into 105-110℃ drying box and make them constant weight. Pour away the topper clear liquid by inclining the glass, then transfer the whole residue onto constant-weight filter paper, syringe it till the ph value becomes neutral.

d./ drying
put residue together with filter paper into constant-weight weighing bottle and put them into drying box for 2hours under 105-110℃. Take out, covering and cooling for 3minutes; put again into drying box and cool it to around 20℃(about 20minutes) and weigh it; Make inspective drying and weigh in every 30minutes. Stop doing so till the difference of close analysis weight is within 0.001g, weigh the residue(G1).

e./ignition
Move dried residue and filter paper into crucible and then put into muffle roaster with an aperture of 15-20mm, heat from 20℃ to 250-300℃ to slowly ash this product; close the furnace door, ignite it under 815+/-20℃ for 1 hour; take out in the air for 5 minutes and then put into drying box and cool it to about 20℃(around 20minutes), weigh the ash in the residue(G2).

4. Results calculation
The total content of Humic Acid(HA) is expressed by weight percentage(%) and calculated by following formula:
HA’t. ad = (G-G1+G2) ÷ G x 100 – (Mad+Aad)
Remark : G—the sample weight, g
G1 — Weight of residue, g
G2 — Ash weight, g
Mad — moisture in sample, %
Aad — Ash in sample, %

5. Allowable deviation

HA’t, % Same lab Different lab
ad % d%
<50 1.0 2.0
≥50 2.0 3.0

6. Attention matters
a./ be careful during transferring the extraction residue and first syringe to avoid filter paper-perforation.
b./ to keep the same water volume and syringe times during filtration.
c./ the temperature must be lower 200 while the residue start to become partly into ash, so that the filter paper keeps away from fired.

Azoxystrobin is one of the first of a new class of fungicides

2010-04-03T01:58:00.000-07:00

Azoxystrobin is one of the first of a new class of fungicides, the strobilurins, to be commercialised. It is now the leading proprietary fungicide in the world, but there are already serious resistance concerns.

What is azoxystrobin?

Azoxystrobin was first marketed in 1998 and is a systemic, broad-spectrum fungicide with activity against the four major groups of plant pathogenic fungi including Ascomcetes (eg powdery mildews), Basidiomycetes (eg rusts), Deutoromycetes (eg rice blast) and Oomycetes (eg downy mildew)(1). It inhibits spore germination and mycelial growth(2). It has worldwide uses on cereals, vines, rice, citrus, potatoes and tomatoes. In 1999, azoxystrobin was the leading proprietary fungicide worldwide with sales of US$415m(3) and is now a world market leader in cereals.

It was given provisional approval for use in the UK on some fungal diseases of wheat and barley in 1997(4), subject to approval at EU level. It was given Annex 1 approval in the EU in 1998 as a fungicide for use on cereals and vines(5). In the UK it is marketed as Amistar, and in the US as Heritage.

In 1998, the first year of its use in the UK, azoxystrobin was the 17th most used active ingredient in arable crops by area. It was used on 882,676 ha(6). 86 tonnes of azoxystrobin were applied, making it the 36th product most used by weight. In the broad-spectrum cereal fungicide market strobilurins took a 42% share in 1999, which is expected to have increased to 60% in 2000 mainly at the expense of triazole fungicides(7).
For more click

Analysis Method of Amino Acid

2010-03-23T05:05:00.000-07:00

1. Reagent
1.1. Concentrated hydrochloric acid (GR)
1.2. 6 mol/L Hydrochloric acid: Concentrated hydrochloric acid mixed with water in the volume ratio 1:1.
1.3.Phenol: need to be re-distilled.
1.4.(0.0025 mol/L) mixed Amino Acid standard solution (Sold by the equipment manufacturing company)
1.5.Buffer
1.5.1. Sodium citrate buffer with pH2.2: Weigh 19.6g sodium citrate(Na3C6H5O7•2H2O) and 16.5mL concentrated Hydrochloric acid, dilute with water to 1000mL, adjust pH to 2.2 using concentrated Hydrochloric acid, or 500g / L of Sodium Hydroxide solution.
1.5.2. Sodium citrate buffer with pH3.3: Weigh 19.6g Sodium Citrate and 12mL concentrated Hydrochloric acid, dilute with water to 1000mL, adjust Ph to 3.3 by using concentrated Hydrochloric acid or 500g/L Sodium Hydroxide solution.
1.5.3.Sodium citrate buffer with pH4.0: Weigh 19.6g sodium citrate and 9mL concentrated Hydrochloric acid, dilute with water to 1000mL, adjust ph to 4.0 by using concentrated Hydrochloric acid or 500g/L Sodium Hydroxide solution.
1.5.4.Sodium citrate buffer with pH3.3: Weigh 19.6g sodium citrate and 46.8g NaCl (GR), dilute with water to 1000ml, adjust ph to 6.4 by using concentrated Hydrochloric acid or 500g/L Sodium Hydroxide solution.
1.6. Ninhydrin solution
1.6.1.Solution of Lithium acetate dihydrate with pH5.2: Weigh 168g Lithium hydroxide(LiOH•H2O), then adding 279ml glacial acetic acid (GR), dilute with water to 1000mL, adjust ph to 5.2 by concentrated Hydrochloric Acid or 500g/L Sodium Hydroxide solution.
1.6.2. Ninhydrin solution: take 150mL Dimethyl sulfoxide (C2H6OS) and 50mL Lithium acetate dihydrate solution, add 4g (C9H4O3•H2O) and 0.12g Restore Ninhydrin(C18H10O6•2H2O), stir it until completely dissolved.
1.7.High-purity nitrogen: Purity 99.99%
1.8.Refrigerant: mix the salt sold in market with ice in mass ratio 1:3.

2. Instruments and equipment
2.1 Vacuum Pump
2.2 Ovens with constant temperature.
2.3 Hydrolysis tube: pressure resistant glass tube with screw cap or hard glass tube, volume 20ml – 30ml, rinse and dry by Deionized water.
2.4.Vacuum Dryer(Temperature can be adjusted)
2.5 Amino Acid Analyzer

3. Sample handling
Homogenized the samples by homogenizer (or try to crush samples completely), store in the low-temperature refrigerator, unfreeze samples when analyzing.

4. Analysis Steps
4.1 Weigh Sample
Take a certain amount of uniform sample, such as milk, etc., accurate to 0.0001g（the sample protein content within 10mg ~ 20mg; sample in poor uniformity, such as meat, etc. in order to reduce the error, increase the sample weight properly, dilute again before measurement. Put the sample into Hydrolisis tube.
4.2 Hydrolysis
4.2.1. Take 6mol / L hydrochloric acid 10ml ~ 15ml (depending on protein content in the
sample) into the hydrolysis tube, add equal volume of concentrated Hydrochloric Acid into the sample of high water content (such as milk), add newly distilled Phenol of 3 – 4 drops, put the Hydrolysis tube in refrigerant, freeze for 3 – 5 min, connect to the exhaust pipe of vacuum pump, vacuum ( close to 0 Pa), inflate high purity nitrogen; vacuum and inflate nitrogen, repeat 3 times, seal the screw cap close when inflating nitrogen, put the Hydrolysis tube in the costant temperature oven at 110 ℃ ± 1 ℃, hydrolyze for 22 hours, draw out and cooling.
Open the Hydrolysis tube, filter the hydrolysis solution, rinse the hydrolysis tube by deionized water. Remove the hydrolysis solution into 50ml volumetric flask, dilute with deionized water to 50ml. Draw filtrate of 1ml into 5ml volumetric flask, dry at 40℃~ 50℃ by vacuum dryer，dissolve the residues in water of 1-2ml, and dry, repeat twice, then dry completely, dissolve with 1ml pH 2.2 buffer, keep and for use of instrumental determination

5. Determination
draw exactly 0.200ml standard mixed Amino Acid, dilute with pH2.2 buffer to 5ml, the concentration of this standard dilution solution is 5.00 nmol/50μL, use it as the criterion of amino acid determination when on the instruments. Determine the amino acid content of sample solution using the External Standard Method by Amino Acid analyzer.

6. Calculation
Calculate as the expression as below:

Thereinto:
X ---- Amino acid content in sample, unit as g/100g;
C ---- Amino acid content in sample solution, unit as nmol/50μL;
F ----- Dilute multiple of sample;
V ----- Dilution volume after hydrolysis, unit as ml;
M ---- Molecular weight of Amino acid;
m ---- Mass of sample, unit as g;
1/50 ---- Amino acid content of per milliliter sample, unite asμmol/L;
109 ------ Coefficient of convertion of sample content from ng to g.
The molecular weight of the 16 amino acids: Aspartate 133.1, Threonine 119.1, Serine 105.1, Glutamate 147.1, Proline 115.1, Glycine 75.1, Gly Ala 89.1, Valine 117.2, Methionine 149.2, Isoleucine 131.2, Leucine 131.2, Tyrosine 181.1, Phenylalanine 165.2, Histidine 155.2, Lysine 146.2, Arginine 174.2.

Semiochemicals

2010-03-16T05:10:00.003-07:00

What are Semiochemicals?
Semiochemicals are message carrying chemicals that are used in nature for communicating between living organisms. Pheromones are the best known group of semiochemicals.

What are Pheromones?
Pheromones are highly specific chemicals produced by many organisms including insects which elicit a response from other individuals of the same species. There are many types of pheromones but only two main types are used for monitoring and pest control.

a) Sex pheromones - these are usually produced by the female of a species in order to attract males of the same species for reproduction. This is the most common type of pheromone and is especially important for moths. Examples include Helicoverpa armigera and Plutella xylostella.

b) Aggregation pheromones - these attract both male and female insects of a species and can be produced by one or both sexes. This type of pheromone tends to be more common amongst beetles but is also important for cockroaches for example.
Other attractants are often used for monitoring. These are used either where the specific pheromone is unknown, or difficult to make, or when the alternative attractant gives superior results. These can be food based or from unrelated sources. In general these attractants are composed of foodstuffs or constituents of food which have been found to be particularly attractive to the target pest(s). Traps may also be baited with a compound or compounds which are not normally produced by an insect, nor found as a component of its food but which never the less attract the insect. Examples of this include Trimedlure used for attracting the Mediterranean Fruit Fly and Methyl Eugenol for Oriental Fruit Fly and other related species.

Pheromone Formulation
Pheromones by their very nature are very volatile and extremely unstable. To use them effectively these chemicals must be formulated so that their release into the air is controlled and so they can be protected from degradation by UV light and oxygen. A wide range of formulations have been developed with varying degrees of sophistication.
For a pheromone system to work effectively it is important to ensure that the lures are made with quality components and that the formulation has been developed to protect the pheromone from degradation and to release it at the required rate for optimal activity. It is very difficult without complex chemical analysis to determine whether any product being offered commercially is effective for the purpose. It is therefore vitally important that users obtain their pheromones from reputable sources.

Trap Designs
The lures themselves are of no use if there is not also some method of trapping the insects. Many factors influence trap design. These include the insect itself, what it does and where it occurs, the expected number of insects to be caught, the general environment of the trap, and the customer's expectation about price and longevity of the product.

Pressure Sensitive Adhesives
Pressure Sensitive Adhesives, or simply Glues, have been used for catching insects for many years. Indeed, in nature there are examples of insects being caught in natural sticky substances, such as “amber” and other plant resins millions of years ago, which are available for scientific examination to this day.
We can easily define the properties of glue that we need in order to make it an effective insect catching substance. These characteristics are its “stickiness” or “aggression”, longevity, i.e. resistance to deterioration from exposure to light, air (oxygen) dust etc, ease of application on plastic and card, health and safety properties and last but not least, economics. Combining

Mating Disruption
Many pests are the most damaging when in their juvenile stages. Most of our pest management practices, including the use of insecticides, target the damaging stages. Mating disruption, instead, targets the adults by interrupting the reproductive cycle so that no eggs or young are produced. The key to mating disruption is to use the insect’s own pheromone against it. The pheromone is formulated into high dose controlled release devices. By artificially increasing the amount of pheromone in the field much higher than what females produce, males can not find the females. Mating does not take place; eggs are not laid and the pest larvae are not produced.

Attract & Kill
Attract & Kill (or Lure and Kill) is based on the combination of a pheromone (or other attractant) and an insecticide to kill the target pest. The insects responding to the attractant contact the pheromone source and are killed or incapacitated. Since most (though not all) of the attractants available are only effective on the males, the system works by removing as large a percentage of the male population as possible thus leaving very few to mate with the females.
Often the action of the pheromone is supplemented by the addition of other attractants such as food volatiles which also attract the female. This leads to reduced egg lay and consequently fewer crop damaging larvae. This technique has been successfully applied to the control of insects such as the Olive fly, Mediterranean fruit fly, Codling moth and many other insects.

Redesigning Crops to Harvest Fuel

2010-03-16T05:10:00.001-07:00

That is the new mission of crop scientists. In an era of $3-a-gallon gasoline and growing concern about global warming from fossil fuels, seed and biotechnology companies see a big new opportunity in developing corn and other crops tailored for use in ethanol and other biofuels.

Syngenta, for instance, hopes in 2008 to begin selling a genetically engineered corn designed to help convert itself into ethanol. Each kernel of this self-processing corn contains an enzyme that must otherwise be added separately at the ethanol factory.

Just last week, DuPont and Bunge announced that their existing joint venture to improve soybeans for food would also start designing beans for biodiesel fuel and other industrial uses.

And Ceres, a plant genetics company in California, is at work on turning switch grass, a Prairie States native, into an energy crop.

“You could turn Oklahoma into an OPEC member by converting all its farmland to switch grass,” said Richard W. Hamilton, the Ceres chief executive.

Developing energy crops could mean new applications of genetic engineering, which for years has been aimed at making plants resistant to insects and herbicides, but would now include altering their fundamental structure. One goal, for example, is to reduce the amount of lignin, a substance that gives plants the stiffness to stand upright but interferes with turning a plant’s cellulose into ethanol.

Such prospects are starting to alarm some environmentalists, who worry that altered plants will cross-pollinate in the wild, resulting in forests that practically droop for want of lignin. And some oppose the notion of altering corn to feed the nation’s addiction to automobiles.

“I don’t think people want extra enzymes in the food supply put there to better fit the crops for energy production,” said Margaret Mellon, director of the food and environment program at the Union of Concerned Scientists.

But proponents of designer fuel crops argue that the risks are small compared with the threat of dependence on foreign oil. Some studies also suggest that ethanol use could help fight global warming because the crops that help produce ethanol absorb carbon dioxide.

So far, much of the attention on bioenergy has focused on improving the chemical processes for turning crops into ethanol. But experts say that if biofuels are to make a significant dent in the nation’s petroleum consumption, the crops themselves must be improved to provide more energy from an acre.

And new agricultural sources beyond corn must be developed, they say. Even if the nation’s entire corn crop were converted to ethanol production, it would replace only about 15 percent of petroleum use, according to an Energy Department report.

“Half the improvement we make over the next 10 to 15 years will come from improving the feedstocks,” said Gerald A. Tuskan, a biofuel expert in the department, referring to the crops fed into the ethanol factories.

Some of the work will not necessarily involve genetic engineering. Notably, Monsanto, the leader by far in crop biotechnology, says that its biofuel development will focus on conventional breeding, which it says is quicker.

Monsanto has tested its existing corn varieties to determine which ones are better for ethanol production. Pioneer Hi-Bred International, the DuPont subsidiary that is Monsanto’s rival in the corn-seed business, is doing the same.

The companies say that the designated varieties, which have higher fermentable starch content, can increase ethanol production 2 to 5 percent over other corn. And some factories are starting to request certain types of corn or to pay a premium for more desirable corn, said Pradip Das, head of crop analytics at Monsanto.

Still, some ethanol factory operators say they do not really care which corn they get. The factories are so hungry that they take “pretty much all the commercial corn you can get your hands on,” said David Nelson, chairman of Midwest Grain Processors, which runs an ethanol plant in Lakota, Iowa.

William S. Niebur, vice president for crop genetics research and development at DuPont, said the demands of ethanol production would require extremely hardy corn.

“The demand for this corn grain could be so dramatic,” he said, “that it would change farming practices.” Instead of rotating corn with other crops, he said, farmers would be pressed to grow corn year after year, which could strain the soil and allow the buildup of insects and disease.

Many of the traits needed for energy corn — high yield as well as tolerance to disease, insects and drought — would also be desirable in corn used for human and animal food. That is not the case, though, with Syngenta’s enzyme corn, which would be specifically for energy production.

Generally, the enzyme, known as amylase, is made in vats of bacteria. Ethanol manufacturers add the enzyme to corn to break down starch into sugar, which can be fermented into ethanol.

To get corn to produce its own amylase, Syngenta inserted a gene borrowed from a type of microbe called archaea that live near hot-water vents on the floor of the ocean.

The gene — actually a composite of three amylase genes — was developed with the help of Diversa, a San Diego company that specializes in finding chemicals in organisms that inhabit extreme environments.

Diversa says that because its enzyme is derived from a heat-loving microbe, ethanol factories can operate at higher temperatures and under more acidic conditions, improving efficiency.

Some people in the biofuel industry question what the advantage is of having the enzyme in the corn rather than just buying the very similar amylase that Diversa is already selling.

While Syngenta’s corn is meant for industrial use in the United States, it is almost inevitable that some of it will get into human and animal food supplies, including exports, because of cross-pollination or seed intermingling. That is what happened in 2000 with Aventis CropScience’s StarLink corn, which was approved only for animal use, yet ended up in human food, forcing recalls and disrupting exports.

To prevent such liability, Syngenta is seeking approval of the corn for human and animal food use, not only in the United States but in Europe, South Africa and elsewhere. Syngenta says the amylase enzyme is safe, noting that these enzymes are found in saliva.

But Bill Freese of the Center for Food Safety, an advocacy group in Washington opposed to biotechnology crops, said that this particular amylase is from a little-studied exotic microbe and that some amylase induces allergy.

The Agriculture Department has asked Syngenta for more information on its application.

Regardless of what is done to corn, some experts say that starch alone will not provide enough ethanol. The new frontier is to produce ethanol from cellulose, the fibrous material in all plants. Cellulose is made of complex carbohydrates that can be broken down by enzymes into simpler sugars for fermenting into ethanol.

While some of the cellulose for biofuels could come from agricultural residue like corn stalks, there will probably be a need for other crops grown specifically for energy production — in particular, perennial plants like grasses that require far less energy-consuming irrigation and fertilization than crops like corn that have to be replanted each year.

That is why Ceres, a privately owned supplier of genetics technology to Monsanto, sees a future in switch grass. The company’s greenhouses are filled with versions of tall, gangly grass plants, some developed by conventional breeding and some by genetic engineering.

The grasses are meant to have higher yields, to withstand drought or to break down easily in the ethanol factory — “the energy crop that melts in your mouth, if you will,” Mr. Hamilton said.

Ceres, based in Thousand Oaks, Calif., is not working with Monsanto on switch grass but is collaborating with the Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation in Ardmore, Okla., a leading research institute on forage grasses. Mr. Hamilton said the partners were already testing conventionally bred switch grass varieties that yield eight or nine tons of biomass an acre, compared with about five tons for typical switch grass.

Mendel Biotechnology, based in Hayward, Calif., is looking more at miscanthus, a perennial grass native to China, where Mendel has set up an operation.

The company said miscanthus could produce well over 20 tons an acre each year. “No planting, no fertilizing, no irrigation,” said its chief executive, Chris Somerville, who is also the director of plant biology at the Carnegie Institution and a Stanford University professor. “You can just cut it every year for 10 years.”

Another cellulose candidate is poplar, which recently became the first tree to have its entire genome sequenced, an effort led by the Energy Department.

At first, significantly higher-yielding cellulose sources can come from conventional breeding, experts say. But later, genetic engineering may be needed. That could raise concerns because trees and grasses live longer and spread more easily than currently engineered crops like corn and soybeans.

And yet, energy crops may also be an opportunity for the industry to burnish its public image.

“After all,” the journal Nature Biotechnology said in a recent editorial, “it’s difficult to oppose a technology that’s helping to save the planet

Plans for more methane projects in rural China

2010-03-16T05:07:00.000-07:00

BEIJING, -- The Chinese government will fund 2.6 million more rural households to build methane pits, which provide clean energy and protect local environment, in 2007, according to the Ministry of Agriculture.

Wei Chao'an, vice minister of agriculture, said that the 2.6 million rural households would be selected from the western and major grain producing regions in the country.

The government will grant a subsidy ranging from 800 yuan (about 100 U.S. dollars) to 1,200 yuan for each household to build one pit, in view of their locations, Wei said.

Governmental statistics show that a total of 18 million rural families had each built a methane pit by the end of 2005.

An eight-cubic-meter methane pit can provide 80 percent of the energy used by a four-member family in cooking annually. The 18 million methane pits produce energy equivalent to 10.9 million tons of coal and save 3.96 million hectares of forest.

Since the 1970s, China has been promoting the use of methane pits to process rural organic wastes.

Dunghill, which were common in most of rural China in the past, are no longer seen in places where people have built methane pits.

Wei said, methane pits changed human and animal wastes into "treasure"-- the gas generated in the pits is piped out for cooking, heating and even for lighting.

In the mean time, methane pits also serve as an important method to control spread of schistosomiasis and pig-borne bacteria streptococcus suis as well as other diseases in rural area, Wei said, adding that test shows methane pits can completely kill schistosome eggs.

According to the Ministry of Agriculture, there would be 50 million methane pits by 2010.

According to plan, the Ministry of Agriculture will select 10,000 villages to conduct pilot energy recycling projects, which are expected to popularize the use of clean energy and raise the treatment of wastes in rural areas.

'Farming our fuel'

2010-03-16T05:06:00.001-07:00

America, meet your next tank of gas -- made from superpowered seeds.

A couple of Orlando entrepreneurs say that a Malaysian variety newly approved for U.S. import could help solve America's energy woes and boost Central Florida's economy with a new cash crop.

State Agriculture Commissioner Charles Bronson, along with executives from the Orlando-based Xenerga Inc., are scheduled to introduce a patented version of the jatropha plant today in Tallahassee.

"We're doing things right here in Orlando that are going to change America," said Dave Jarrett, a company spokesman. "Just wait and see."

The oil pressed from the jatropha nut can be used to make biodiesel, producing six to eight times the amount of energy extracted from soybeans -- the most common crop used for biodiesel in the U.S.

Xenerga president Jason Sayers and his business partner Victor Clewes have the exclusive patent on the high-octane version of the plant with seeds that grow inside bunches of fat green pods the size of peach pits.

It can produce 1,600 gallons of biodiesel per acre, compared with soy's 200 gallons, Sayers said.

A Lake Wales farmer is ready to grow 5,000 acres of the genetically enhanced jatropha, Jarrett said. And unlike soy, which takes lots of tending, fertilizer and water, the jatropha plant can grow happily in arid soil, with little water and almost no tending.

"Think of it as farming our fuel," Sayers said.

President Bush mandated that refineries should have renewable fuels blended into 7.5 billion gallons of the nation's fuel supply by 2012.

Only about 75 million gallons of biodiesel were sold in the U.S. last year, compared with about 6 billion gallons of petroleum diesel, according to the National Biodiesel Board, a trade organization.

"Biodiesel is huge in Europe and Asia," Sayers said. "America is just now catching up."

So Sayers and his associates are also launching a venture with Xenerga that will sell prefabricated mom-and-pop biodiesel refineries for about $2 million.

Their plan is to sell turnkey operations, manufactured in Germany and shipped here, and promise a steady supply of raw materials and customers. They have contracts to build about 16 of the refineries. Each refinery, if running at capacity, can produce 5 million gallons of biodiesel a year. Jarrett said they already have a slew of inquiries and expect to have 100 refineries throughout the country up and running in 18 months.

Besides the jatropha nut, his other sources will include a plentiful supply of restaurant grease. Through Sayers' other business, FiltaFry, which cleans restaurant fryers, he spotted a potential energy source in leftover grease.

The National Biodiesel Board said the industry is growing fast, with about 90 plants operating now and another 60 under construction.

While Xenerga won't have its first plant, in Kissimmee, up and running for two more months, Silver Bullet Energy has a small plant in Groveland that started making biodiesel this year out of grease extracted from sewage.

Another company, Southeast BioDiesel, plans to make about 6 million gallons of fuel a year from restaurant grease or soybean oil. It expects to be up and running in Sanford this summer.

And MetroWest developer and entrepreneur Kevin Azzouz said he's getting into the business with a company called Clean Fuel. He envisions using restaurant grease at a plant in Orange County that would create about 400 jobs.

Azzouz already made the rounds to potential customers, including Orange County Public Schools, which runs 1,000 buses each school day using a total of 14,000 gallons of diesel.

"We buy our diesel by the tanker-truck load," said Arby Creach, a transportation manager for Orange County schools.

School Board member Karen Ardaman said that biodiesel is promising, especially if produced locally.

"If it's cost-effective, hopefully it would help us stretch our dollars," she said.

Byproduct of biodiesel effective in poultry feed

2010-03-16T05:03:00.000-07:00

Researchers at Iowa State University and the US Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Services are studying a biodiesel by-product in poultry and swine feed.

Biodiesel often is made from soybean or vegetable oil, with crude glycerin the resulting by-product. This compound, which currently is used in such things as hand lotions, cosmetics and shampoo, is a pure energy source.

According to Mark Honeyman, animal science professor and coordinator of Iowa State's Research Farms, with an increase in biodiesel production comes a surplus of crude glycerine.

Brian Kerr, an ARS research leader and collaborating associate professor of animal science, directed the glycerin feed trials Metabolism trail with laying hens
Kristjan Bregendahl, assistant professor of poultry nutrition, conducted a metabolism experiment with 48 laying hens. Typical feed rations that included corn, soybean meal, meat and bone meal, and four levels of crude glycerin - 0, 5, 10, or 15% - were fed to the hens to determine the energy value of the glycerin.

Trial results
"We found the energy in crude glycerin was used with high efficiency by the hens," Bregendahl said. "And we saw no adverse effects on egg production, egg weight, egg mass or feed consumption in this short experiment."
However, the consistency of the feed was an issue. Bregendahl described the laying-hen diets that included 10-15% crude glycerin as "rather sticky." Honeyman said that the 10% inclusion level of glycerol may be the upper limit.

Caution when using glycerin
Another issue was that when biodiesel is produced from soybean oil, methanol is used in the process. Methanol can be toxic, so Honeyman said swine and poultry producers interested in trying glycerin as part of a feed ration would need to work with the biodiesel plant to make sure methanol levels are below the Food and Drug Administration approved level of 150 parts per million in the glycerol.
Iowa State researchers, have a series of funding proposals in the works to further examine the use of crude glycerin in diets for nursery and finishing pigs, sows, broilers and layers.

Global Warming: It's About Energy

2010-03-16T05:01:00.002-07:00

Global warming is an energy problem, and we cannot have both an increase in conventional fossil fuel use and a habitable planet. Yet the United States is projected to consume 35 percent more oil, coal, and gas combined in 2030 than in 2004.

Finally, after years of effort by dedicated scientists and activists like Al Gore, the issue of global warming has begun to receive the international attention it desperately needs. The publication on February 2 of the most recent report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), providing the most persuasive evidence to date of human responsibility for rising world temperatures, generated banner headlines around the world. But while there is a growing consensus on humanity's responsibility for global warming, policymakers have yet to come to terms with its principal cause: our unrelenting consumption of fossil fuels (primarily coal, fuel oil and natural gas).

When talk of global warming is introduced into the public discourse, as in Gore's An Inconvenient Truth, it is generally characterized as an environmental problem, akin to water pollution, air pollution, pesticide abuse, and so on. This implies that it can be addressed - like those other problems - through a concerted effort to "clean up" our resource-utilization behavior, by substituting "green" products for ordinary ones, by restricting the release of toxic substances, and so on.

But global warming is not an "environmental" problem in the same sense as these others - it is an energy problem, first and foremost. Almost ninety percent of the world's energy is supplied through the combustion of fossil fuels, and every time we burn these fuels to make energy we release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere; carbon dioxide, in turn, is the principal component of the "greenhouse gases" that are responsible for warming the planet. Energy use and climate change are two sides of the same coin.

Fossil Fuel Dependency

Consider the situation in the United States. According to the Department of Energy, carbon dioxide emissions constitute 84 percent of this nation's greenhouse gas emissions. Of all US carbon dioxide emissions, most - 98 percent - are emitted as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels, which currently provide approximately 86 percent of America's total energy supply. This means that energy use and carbon dioxide emissions are highly correlated: the more energy we consume, the more carbon dioxide we release into the atmosphere, and the more we contribute to the buildup of greenhouse gases.

Because Americans show no inclination to reduce their consumption of fossil fuels - but rather are using more and more of them all the time - one can foresee no future reduction in US emissions of greenhouse gases. According to the Department of Energy, the United States is projected to consume 35 percent more oil, coal, and gas combined in 2030 than in 2004; not surprisingly, the nation's emissions of carbon dioxide are expected to rise by approximately the same percentage over this period. If these projections prove accurate, total US carbon dioxide emissions in 2030 will reach a staggering 8.1 billion metric tons, of which 42 percent will be generated through the consumption of oil (most of it in automobiles, vans, trucks, and buses), forty percent by the burning of coal (principally to produce electricity), and the remainder by the combustion of natural gas (mainly for home heating and electricity generation). No other activity in the United States will come even close in terms of generating greenhouse gas emissions.

What is true of the United States is also true of other industrialized and industrializing nations, including China and India. Although a few may rely on nuclear power or energy renewables to a greater extent than the United States, all continue to consume fossil fuels and to emit large quantities of carbon dioxide, and so all are contributing to the acceleration of global climate change. According to the Department of Energy, global emissions of carbon dioxide are projected to increase by a frightening 75 percent between 2003 and 2030, from 25.0 to 43.7 billion metric tons. People may talk about slowing the rate of climate change, but if these figures prove accurate, the climate will be much hotter in coming decades and this will produce the most damaging effects predicted by the IPCC.

What this tells us is that the global warming problem cannot be separated from the energy problem. If the human community continues to consume more fossil fuels to generate more energy, it inevitably will increase the emission of carbon dioxide and so hasten the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, thus causing irreversible climate change. Whatever we do on the margins to ameliorate this process - such as planting trees to absorb some of the carbon emissions or slowing the rate of deforestation - will have only negligible effect so long as the central problem of fossil-fuel consumption is left unchecked.

State of Denial

Many political and business leaders wish to deny this fundamental reality. They may claim to accept the conclusions of the IPCC report. They will admit that vigorous action is needed to stem the buildup of greenhouse gases. But they will nevertheless seek to shield energy policy from fundamental change.

Typical of this approach is a talk given by Rex W Tillerson, the CEO of Exxon Mobil, at a conference organized by Cambridge Energy Research Associates on February 13. As head of the world's largest publicly traded energy firm, Tillerson receives special attention when he talks. That his predecessor Lee Raymond often disparaged the science of global warming lent his comments particular significance. Yes, Tillerson admitted, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels were increasing, and this contributed to the planet's gradual warming. But then, in language characteristic of the industry, he added, "The scale advantages of oil and natural gas across a broad array applications provide economic value unmatched by any alternative". It would therefore be a terrible mistake, he added, to rush into the development of energy alternatives when the consequences of global warming are still not fully understood.

The logic of this mode of thinking is inescapable. The continued production of fossil fuels to sustain our existing economic system is too important to allow the health of the planet to stand in its way. Buy into this mode of thought, and you can say goodbye to any hope of slowing - let alone reversing - the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

What to Do

If, however, we seek to protect the climate while there is still time to do so, we must embrace a fundamental transformation in our energy behavior: nothing else will make a significant difference. In practice, this devolves into two fundamental postulates. We must substantially reduce our consumption of fossil fuels, and we must find ways to capture and bury the carbon by-products of the fossil fuels we do consume.

Various strategies have been proposed to achieve these objectives. Those that offer significant promise should be utilized to the maximum extent possible. This is not the place to evaluate these strategies in detail, except to make a few broad comments.

First, as noted, since 42 percent of American carbon dioxide emissions (the largest share) are produced through the combustion of petroleum, anything that reduces oil consumption - higher fuel-efficiency standards for motor vehicles, bigger incentives for hybrids, greater use of ethanol, improved public transportation, car-pooling, and so - should be made a major priority.

Second, because the combustion of coal in electrical power plants is our next biggest source of carbon dioxide, improving the efficiency of these plants and filtering out the harmful emissions has to be another top priority.

Finally, we should accelerate research into promising new techniques for the capture and "sequestration" of carbon during the combustion of fossil fuels in electricity generation. Some of these plans call for burying excess carbon in hollowed-out coalmines and oil wells - a very practical use for these abandoned relics, but only if it can be demonstrated that none of the carbon will leak back into the atmosphere, adding to the buildup of greenhouse gases.

Global warming is an energy problem, and we cannot have both an increase in conventional fossil fuel use and a habitable planet. It's one or the other. We must devise a future energy path that will meet our basic (not profligate) energy needs and also rescue the climate while there's still time. The technology to do so is potentially available to us, but only if we make the decision to develop it swiftly and on a very large scale.

Are GM Crops Killing Bees?

2010-03-16T05:01:00.001-07:00

A mysterious decimation of bee populations has German beekeepers worried, while a similar phenomenon in the United States is gradually assuming catastrophic proportions. The consequences for agriculture and the economy could be enormous.

Walter Haefeker is a man who is used to painting grim scenarios. He sits on the board of directors of the German Beekeepers Association (DBIB) and is vice president of the European Professional Beekeepers Association. And because griping is part of a lobbyist’s trade, it is practically his professional duty to warn that “the very existence of beekeeping is at stake.”

The problem, says Haefeker, has a number of causes, one being the varroa mite, introduced from Asia, and another is the widespread practice in agriculture of spraying wildflowers with herbicides and practicing monoculture. Another possible cause, according to Haefeker, is the controversial and growing use of genetic engineering in agriculture.

As far back as 2005, Haefeker ended an article he contributed to the journal Der Kritischer Agrarbericht (Critical Agricultural Report) with an Albert Einstein quote: “If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.”

Mysterious events in recent months have suddenly made Einstein’s apocalyptic vision seem all the more topical. For unknown reasons, bee populations throughout Germany are disappearing — something that is so far only harming beekeepers. But the situation is different in the United States, where bees are dying in such dramatic numbers that the economic consequences could soon be dire. No one knows what is causing the bees to perish, but some experts believe that the large-scale use of genetically modified plants in the US could be a factor.

Organic is healthier - Kiwis prove that green is good

2010-03-16T04:59:00.002-07:00

Kiwifruit vines grown under different regimes on the same Californian farm have produced fruit with almost identical levels of sugars and acids – but the fruit grown organically proved healthier.

Organically grown kiwifruit on the Marysville farm had significantly higher levels of vitamin C and polyphenols – compounds associated with health benefits including reducing cholesterol, improving circulation and preventing cancer.

The new research was carried out by Dr Maria Amodio and Dr Adel Kader, from the University of California Davis.

The researchers' comparison of organic and non-organic kiwifruit grown next to each other showed the organic fruit was darker and had thicker skin – likely to have developed as part of its defence against pests in the absence of pesticides.

The polyphenols, antioxidants that reduce the production in the body of harmful chemicals called free radicals, were 17 per cent higher in the organic fruit than in the fruit grown conventionally.

The organic produce was also found to have 14 per cent more vitamin C and greater concentrations of several important minerals such as potassium and calcium.

Writing in the Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, the two researchers said: "All the main mineral constituents were more concentrated in the organic kiwi fruit, which also had higher asorbic acid (vitamin C) and total polyphenol content, resulting in higher antioxidant activity."

They said it was possible that conventional growing practices use levels of pesticides that could disrupt production of phenolic metabolites in the plant that have a protective role in plant defence mechanisms. Another recent study overseas found that a pint of organic milk has 68 per cent more omega 3 fatty acids – important for normal brain functioning – than conventionally produced milk.

Integrated Pest Management

2010-03-16T04:59:00.001-07:00

Integrated Pest Management or I.P.M. takes a slightly different approach to pest control. Where you may have reached for the chemical pesticides as your first defense, with I.P.M., that is your last choice. As the name implies with I.P.M., you integrate different pest control methods to keep the pests in check.

You aren’t trying to totally eliminate the pests, just keep the numbers low enough to prevent damage to your plants.

I.P.M. Can be simple or complex depending on what you are growing and how much area you are growing in. For the home gardener it is usually a pretty easy process, where for a large farmer it can get pretty complicated. The money saved in not using expensive pesticides will usually far out way the time spent setting up the system. Besides who wants to eat fruits and vegetables covered in pesticides.

A typical IPM system is normally designed around six basic components.

1.Acceptable pest levels Like I said at the beginning of the article you are trying to control the pests, not eradicate them. The idea here is that it can be virtually impossible to completely remove all the pests without using chemicals and even then it isn’t always possible as there are more pests just around the corner.

2.Preventive practices This involves selecting plant varieties that are best suited for your local growing conditions. Maintaining healthy plants is your first line of defense.

3.Monitor If maintaining healthy plants is your first line of defense, then monitoring the plants is the cornerstone. Visual inspections, insect traps, and record keeping are essential in determining a threshold level for the pests that can harm your plants. Knowing how many can be present for your plants to survive and thrive will be found by monitoring.

4.Mechanical controls When or if a pest reaches unacceptable levels, this is your first option for getting them under control. Some of the mechanical methods you can use are, hand picking, erecting insect barriers, using traps, vacuuming, or tilling to disrupt breeding and egg hatching and laying.

5.Biological controls Natural processes and materials can provide biological controls to prevent pets problems, with a minimal environmental impact. The main idea here is to promote beneficial insects that will eat the pest insects and planting companion plants that the pest insects will either want to eat instead or that will repel them.

6.Chemical controls This is the last resort if nothing else is working.

Purple grape juice could protect your heart

2010-03-16T04:58:00.000-07:00

London: A glass of purple grape juice a day could leave you feeling in the pink. It is the most effective of all fruit juices at preventing heart disease and cancer, says a latest study.

It has long been known that fruits contain antioxidants called polyphenols which help to neutralise unstable oxygen molecules called free radicals. If left unchecked, these molecules can harm cells, playing a role in everything from ageing to cancer.

Researchers at the University of Glasgow in Britain wanted to see how much polyphenols remained once fruit had been turned into juice, reported the online edition of Daily Mail.

Professor Alan Crozier and other researchers tested 13 types of juice from a supermarket, including those made from pomegranates, grapefruit, apples, pineapples and tomatoes.

They were a mixture of 'not from concentrate' and 'concentrated' varieties.

A drink made from purple Concord grapes had the greatest level of antioxidants, with cloudy apple, tropical and cranberry juices coming in next, the researchers found.

Generally, the darker juices were best, with purple grapes having the highest levels of polyphenols, the researchers said in their study published in the 'Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry'.

NITROGEN CYCLE AND BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTION

2010-03-16T04:57:00.003-07:00

Soil fertility and importance of nitrogen input
The inputs of nutritive substances to a soil have two fold character: to maintain and/or improve soil quality on one side and to nourish crop on the other side. The noted purpose can be provided by: green-dung (stubble ploughing) and manure, allowing organic matter to be decomposed biogenically in the soil. The present organic matter provides fertility, regulating water management and soil structure, at the same time. The origin and species of organic matter, green-dung or manure, determine their quality; the ploughed stubble contain mainly lingo-cellulose, poor in nitrogen, while the manure, dependently, again on origin and fermentation degree, include nitrogen, lesser (fresh with high straw share) or more (completely fermented).
Nitrogen level in agricultural soil is inadequate for both, the crop and present microorganisms, so it had to be added. The input of completely fermented manure satisfies the soil nitrogen quantity, despite its mineralization is continued, what prolong manure effect during three years (50% was consumed in first year of application and the rest was consumed during next two years). Additionally, the gradual input of mineral nitrogen, combined with manure, have to be done in agreement with degree of nitrogen output by crop. The presence of humus, acquired from organic matter decomposition, act upon water and minerals retaining, inhibits soil leaching, in a great level.
Unrestrained, overdose nitrogen input, without knowledge of present status inside of the soil, could lead to the crop overgrowing, it’s lodging and breaking. Unspent part of nitrogen fertilizer leaches to ground water, polluting water-flows. The observed facts underline importance of nitrogen for crops and soil fertility maintenance and possible risks of pollution, what bring ahead control of soil nitrogen content and its input, dictated by crop outputs. The control is going to be mandatory in Europe and in this purpose is developed N-min (mineral nitrogen) method, quick and cheap.

Nitrogen cycle in soil and pollution
The nitrogen is element absent in terrestrial minerals (the exceptions are a few phyllosilicates that contain ammonia substituted for potassium), but present in air as N2 molecule (gas). It has two outmost forms: NH4+1 and NO3-1, which are transformed by plants to a -NH2 form (amino group), all living systems’ essential. The living organisms incorporate nitrogen, although the non-living organic matter releases it. The both pathways substantially exist in soil. The soil nitrogen part, as segment of global nitrogen cycle represents potentially the most adjustable part and aught to be in equilibrium with carbon cycle, at disposal. The observed chain shouldn’t be disturbed, as well as, it could be easily made, in the course of nitrogen un-enclosing (soil depletion), leaching and microorganisms destroying (pesticide overdosing).
Nitrate and ammonium salts, regardless to their origin, tend to dissolve in the presence of even small amounts of liquid water in soil and afford to be leached. Mineralization of organic matter occurs sequentially, over gaseous intermediates giving nitrogen trace gas emissions. They are highly reactive; depending on oxidation degree, react with water and/or oxygen. The noted process is spontaneous. The upper observed nitrogen salts leaching and trace gas emissions could be regard as the pollution source of the first order (biological pollution), while the industrial waste could be regard as the pollution source of the second order (product of civilization).
At the soil under processing the two ways of nitrogen output occur: through emission of trace gases and organic forms (living systems). The intensity maintenance of noted nitrogen cycle could be provided by input of: organic residues, mineral fertilizers and presence of soil microorganisms. Meanwhile, the shifting of soil nitrogen and carbon cycles equilibrium (have to aspire to stoichiometric relation) result in deprivation of soil fertility. Then again, the restoring of soil fertility is truly distressing and mainly uncertain process.
Meanwhile, the nitrogen and carbon misplacing through volatile forms should be surpassed by production of huge amounts of oxygen via forest areas, as counterbalance to areas with intensive agricultural production. Additionally, in the aim of atmosphere protection from biological and industrial nitrogen and carbon dioxide emission, the equilibrium have to be restituted with spontaneous oxygen production by carbon capturing (photosynthesis).

Reuse of pig slurry as high-quality fertilizer

2010-03-16T04:57:00.001-07:00

The European Life project “Ecodíptera” has been presented this week in Brussels by its consortium partners. This initiative involves a sustainable and innovative solution for pig manure. The technology applied within the project enables the use of fly larvae to transform pig slurry into a high-quality fertilizer and proteins.

The main idea of “Ecodíptera” is to showcase the viable use of the natural degradation process of animal organic matter in order to obtain the decomposition of pig slurry at an industrial scale.

The material process lies in the controlled use of the fly larvae capacity to grow in organic matter in decomposition. Adult flies, after a phase of feeding and maturation, lay eggs on different types of waste. After a phase of growth, the larva transforms itself into a pupa, remaining still until its birth as a fly. During this process, between 50 and 70 per cent of waste is degraded, being incorporated to the biomass of the larva. However, the rest of the waste is also modified into a high quality organic fertilizer by the secretion and fermentation that takes place after the larvarian action.

The Valencian Region, leader in receiving LIFE EU funds

The seminar, which has taken place at the Committee of the Regions, has been led by the Valencian Regional Minister of Agriculture, Mr Juan Cotino, who has explained that the Valencian Regional government always supports projects that look for innovative solutions for agricultural problems in the region. “This projects is very positive to solve one of the worst problems that farmers have in our region, and in the European Union”, Mr Cotino has stressed. He has also emphasized the fact that, with this project, the Valencian Region keeps on being the EU leader region in receiving LIFE funds.

“Ecodiptera” is a three-year project co-financed by the European Union. With a budget over 1.5 million euros, it has been launched by six partners, under the leadership of the County Council of Valencia. The Fundación Comunidad Valenciana – Región Europea and the consulty agency network of Valencian Municipalities towards Sustainability “Ambienta” are the partners undertaking the communication and dissemination tasks of the programme at a local, regional, national and international level.

The rest of the partners - the University of Alicante, the Slovak Academy of Sciences and the University of Helsinky- are in charge of developing the necessary bases for the building of the pilot plant for the bio-degradation of pig manures, which will be located in Tuéjar, in the Region of Los Serranos, in Valencia.

The project is part of the European Programme LIFE Environment, launched in 1992, and contributes to the implementation, development and enhancement of the environment policy of the European Union.

Conserve Water Efficiently

2010-03-16T04:56:00.002-07:00

The sharp rise in world population and income during the past five decades has stimulated greatly increased demand for clean water, and concern about whether the supply of water would be adequate to meet these needs. Demand for usable water in the future will surely continue to grow at a significant pace unless steps are taken to reduce demand, while the supply of water could grow more slowly, especially if global warming reduced rainfall and increased evaporation of water. The best way to bring demand into balance with supply is to introduce much more sensible pricing of water consumption than is common in most countries.

Many discussions of water conservation create the impression that households are large and inefficient users of clean water for drinking, eating, bathing, and toilet flushing. That is a myth. About 40 per cent of all the freshwater use in the United States is for irrigating land for agriculture, another 40 percent is used to produce power, and only 8 percent is used for domestic use; these percentages are similar in other countries. Moreover, about a third of all the water used by households in rich countries goes to water lawns and for other out door purposes, so probably no more than about 5 per cent of the total demand for water is for personal use.

Water used is usually a poor measure of the net amount of water consumed since much water is returned either immediately, or after evaporation and condensation, to the source pool, where it can be used again. Thermoelectric plants use a lot of water for cooling purposes, but typically have a very high reutilization rate (about 98 percent). Household use is also efficient, with a reutilization rate of about 75 percent. As a result, neither power producers nor households are big net consumers of water. Irrigation of farmland absorbs much water since most irrigation systems have low reutilization rates. In California, the biggest water using state, irrigation systems have a reutilization rate of only about 40 percent.

Governments usually try to close the gap between the supply and demand of usable water by command and control policies that regulate water use, usually starting with households. Many local governments have introduced requirements for low flow toilet flushes, bans on lawn watering except during certain hours or days, requirements for more efficient household outdoor watering systems, and other water conserving regulations. None of these regulations do anything to economize on the water used by farmers and industry, the main demanders of water.

Water is wasted in many ways by all sectors, and regulations do nothing to affect the main source of wasteful use of water: the inefficient pricing of water. Most irrigation systems in the world price water through annual flat fees, and not through charges that rise with the water consumed. Often domestic water use is not priced at all, and when priced, flat fees are far more common than fees that depend on use. As with any other scarce good, water is wasted when the cost of using more is negligible.

The obvious solution is to implement fees that rise with the amount of water demanded. Such fees are especially important in the agricultural sector since farming is a heavy consumer of water. Consumption ideally would be defined as net use after reutilization is accounted for. With this measure, the fee per gallon of water used would be low to power plants since they recover almost all the water they use. Farmers would tend to pay a lot both because they typically use much water, and also because most agriculture irrigation systems do a poor job of recovering the water used.

Fees that rise with consumption would reduce the demand for water partly by cutting demand. For example, households would water their lawns less frequently, and sometimes would replace natural grass with artificial grass, or with rock gardens and trees, Farmers would cut their demand for water by switching away from crops that require much water, such as rice, toward crops that need less, such as wheat. They would also switch to more efficient irrigation systems, such as spraying and dripping rather than flooding (which is the cheapest), if the price of water took account of reutilization rates. With proper water pricing, California and other regions that need expensive irrigation system to grow rice and other water-intensive crops would switch to other crops, or to other uses of their land, so that water-intensive crops would become more concentrated in areas with abundant water supplies. More generally, with sensible water pricing in different countries, arid parts of the world would not grow food that absorbs much water, and would shift to other crops and activities that they would exchange for these foods.

Some opponents of effective metering of water demand claim that it would not reduce the use of water because of the mistaken belief that most of the water used goes to households for drinking and personal hygiene. The demand for water for personal use may not be very responsive to price, but households in developed countries use lots of water for lawns and swimming pools that would be sensitive to the price of water. Also public and private golf courses and some other recreational facilities require much water, and these uses too would respond to higher water costs. Clearly, the use of water in agriculture and industry would be sensitive to its price.

Effective water pricing is even more important to poor countries since they cannot afford expensive methods of increasing the supply of usable water, such as desalinization, and since a large fraction of their water is used in agriculture with inefficient irrigation systems. Yet most poor countries make little effort to price water sensibly.

Implementation of significant fees is not easy politically since households and farmers believe they have a right to as much water as they can get. In particular, farmers in richer countries are well organized politically, and often resist efforts to raise the cost of water they use to irrigate their land. Perhaps their opposition could be weakened if they received generous reductions in their water fees when they introduce irrigation systems with high reutilization rates.