<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?><?xml-stylesheet href="http://www.blogger.com/styles/atom.css" type="text/css"?><feed xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom' xmlns:openSearch='http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/' xmlns:blogger='http://schemas.google.com/blogger/2008' xmlns:georss='http://www.georss.org/georss' xmlns:gd="http://schemas.google.com/g/2005" xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421</id><updated>2024-10-11T16:59:22.196-07:00</updated><category term="Data and processes in computing"/><category term="An introduction to data and information"/><category term="MODULE E3106 Electrical  Machinery And Control"/><category term="P5126 Aspek Pemasaran Antarabangsa"/><category term="Human resources: recruitment and selection"/><category term="A1001 PENDIDIKAN ISLAM1"/><category term="A1002 PENDIDIKAN MORAL 1"/><category term="A2002 PENDIDIKAN MORAL 11"/><category term="P2114 UNDANG-UNDANG KOMERSAN"/><category term="A1003 English for Technical Purposes"/><category term="Children and violence: An introductory"/><category term="MODULE A3003 ENGLISH FOR TECHNICAL PURPOSES 3"/><category term="An introduction to business cultures"/><category term="Entrepreneurial behaviour"/><category term="MODULE A2003 ENGLISH FOR TECHNICAL PURPOSES 2"/><category term="MODULE A2003"/><category term="International Business"/><category term="international and interdisciplinary approach"/><title type='text'>Aku Study</title><subtitle type='html'></subtitle><link rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#feed' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default?redirect=false'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/'/><link rel='hub' href='http://pubsubhubbub.appspot.com/'/><link rel='next' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default?start-index=26&amp;max-results=25&amp;redirect=false'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><generator version='7.00' uri='http://www.blogger.com'>Blogger</generator><openSearch:totalResults>322</openSearch:totalResults><openSearch:startIndex>1</openSearch:startIndex><openSearch:itemsPerPage>25</openSearch:itemsPerPage><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-8068461547919260644</id><published>2011-09-29T20:17:00.007-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T20:17:50.685-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: Summary</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if !mso]&gt; &lt;style&gt;
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&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800692&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Summary&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;1.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We discussed forms of data and processes relevant to an electronic till in a supermarket. In particular, we introduced the idea of a sequence of data items.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;2.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A number of fundamental forms of data were introduced. We distinguished two types of number: integers (positive or negative whole numbers, or 0), and real numbers (thought of as decimal numbers and approximated in computers as floating point numbers). Characters may be thought of as symbols that may be entered from a computer keyboard by a single keystroke. Each character is associated with an integer code and we introduced one such encoding called the ASCII code. The Boolean values &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; form another fundamental form of data.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Data may be structured in a collection. Different forms of collection are possible. We looked at two: sets and sequences. In a sequence, the order in which the items appear in the collection is important and an item may appear more than once. In a set, one is only interested in the different items appearing in the collection, and the order in which these items are listed is of no significance, nor is repetition of an item.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The Cartesian product of sets &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt; is written &lt;em&gt;X × Y&lt;/em&gt; , and is the set consisting of all ordered pairs (&lt;em&gt;x, y&lt;/em&gt;), where &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; is in &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; is in &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt; . An ordered pair is also called a 2-tuple. More generally, an &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;-tuple is an association of &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; items, each taken from a specified set. An &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;-tuple is written in round brackets, and is a member of a Cartesian product set combining &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; component sets. For example, a member of the set &lt;em&gt;Int × Char × Int × SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; would be a 4-tuple, such as (121, ‘y’, 6, “Qwerty”).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;3.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The disjoint union of sets &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt;, written &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; &lt;img height=&quot;10&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;11&quot; /&gt;&lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt;, consists of all items that come either from &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; or from &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt; (where &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt; have nothing in common). This is useful when we want to mix different forms of data in a sequence.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;4.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A function is a process that returns a unique value for each permitted input. To give a full description of a function, we give: its signature (name, and input and output sets), a precondition (which may be &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;), and a postcondition giving its semantics. The semantics should be an unambiguous statement of the relationship between the returned value and the input(s).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;If a function has more than one input, then its input set will be a Cartesian product. If a function returns a value that is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; or &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;, then the output set will be &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt;. Usually, the semantics of a function are given by a general rule, or possibly by a formula. However, in some cases we need to list the returned value for each possible input. For example, this would be the case for a function returning the price of each barcoded product stocked by a supermarket.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;5.&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A binary operation is a process, such as addition of integers, that inputs two data items of the same type. A binary operation can be written using infix notation (as in &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; + &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt;, for example). Addition of integers corresponds to a function with signature &lt;em&gt;Int × Int&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;. We described integer division. Integer division of &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; by &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; returns an integer, written &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;n, d&lt;/em&gt;). It also leaves a remainder, denoted by &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;n, d&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We noted that binary operations are not confined to those on numbers. We described two binary operations on Boolean values that are frequently useful: ∨ (read as “or”) and ∧ (read as “and”). We also introduced the function &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt; on Booleans.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Comparisons, such as &amp;lt; or =, are operations returning values in the output set &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt;. For example, =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;, a test of whether two characters are identical, corresponds to a function with signature &lt;em&gt;Char × Char&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Bool.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/8068461547919260644/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-summary.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/8068461547919260644'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/8068461547919260644'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-summary.html' title='Data and processes in computing: Summary'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-4552537979469354107</id><published>2011-09-29T20:17:00.003-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T20:17:08.268-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: 5 Operations and comparisons</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:WordDocument&gt;   &lt;w:View&gt;Normal&lt;/w:View&gt;   &lt;w:Zoom&gt;0&lt;/w:Zoom&gt;   &lt;w:TrackMoves/&gt;   &lt;w:TrackFormatting/&gt;   &lt;w:PunctuationKerning/&gt;   &lt;w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/&gt;   &lt;w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;false&lt;/w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;   &lt;w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;false&lt;/w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;   &lt;w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;false&lt;/w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;   &lt;w:DoNotPromoteQF/&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeOther&gt;EN-MY&lt;/w:LidThemeOther&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeAsian&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeAsian&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;   &lt;w:Compatibility&gt;    &lt;w:BreakWrappedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:SnapToGridInCell/&gt;    &lt;w:WrapTextWithPunct/&gt;    &lt;w:UseAsianBreakRules/&gt;    &lt;w:DontGrowAutofit/&gt;    &lt;w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/&gt;    &lt;w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/&gt;    &lt;w:Word11KerningPairs/&gt;    &lt;w:CachedColBalance/&gt;   &lt;/w:Compatibility&gt;   &lt;w:BrowserLevel&gt;MicrosoftInternetExplorer4&lt;/w:BrowserLevel&gt;   &lt;m:mathPr&gt;    &lt;m:mathFont m:val=&quot;Cambria Math&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBin m:val=&quot;before&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBinSub m:val=&quot;&amp;#45;-&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:smallFrac m:val=&quot;off&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:dispDef/&gt;    &lt;m:lMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:rMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:defJc m:val=&quot;centerGroup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:wrapIndent m:val=&quot;1440&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:intLim m:val=&quot;subSup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:naryLim m:val=&quot;undOvr&quot;/&gt;   &lt;/m:mathPr&gt;&lt;/w:WordDocument&gt; &lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:LatentStyles DefLockedState=&quot;false&quot; DefUnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
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&lt;h1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800673&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;5 Operations and comparisons&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800674&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Seeing processes as functions&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Addition of numbers is a process that one would expect a computer to be able to perform. Now we write the result of adding the numbers 5 and 2 as 5 + 2, for example. The symbol +, which represents the process of addition, appears between the two numbers being added. This is known as &lt;strong&gt;infix&lt;/strong&gt; notation. Infix notation may be used for processes that combine two data items of the same type. Addition, subtraction and multiplication of numbers are familiar examples. We also use infix notation when writing a comparison of the size of two numbers, such as 5 &amp;lt; 9.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;In this section, we shall show that a process such as addition of numbers is a function. Perhaps more surprisingly, a process such as &amp;lt; can also be seen as a function. This perception is a necessary preliminary to seeing how such a process can be implemented by a computer.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800675&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;5.1 Arithmetic operations&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Processes such as addition of numbers are called &lt;strong&gt;binary operations&lt;/strong&gt;. (The word “binary” here reflects the fact that a binary operation combines &lt;em&gt;two&lt;/em&gt; data items.) A binary operation is a particular form of function. To see this, we need to recognise the appropriate signature.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;If you add two integers, then the resulting value is also an integer. So addition of integers takes two integers and returns an integer value. Thus adding integers is a function with signature &lt;em&gt;Int × Int&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;. We can add any two integers, so addition is a total function (that is, has precondition &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;). We can describe a function, +, corresponding to addition of integers, as below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;infix&lt;/strong&gt;) (&lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; + &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; on &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is the result of adding &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Where we use infix notation to write the value returned by a function, we will set out the signature line in the function description in a slightly different way from that used in Section 4, as illustrated above.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 21&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Describe a function, −, corresponding to integer subtraction written using infix notation.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800676&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Subtraction again combines two integers to produce an integer value. We can subtract any two integers, so this is again a total function.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;infix&lt;/strong&gt;) (&lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; − &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;on&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is the result of subtracting &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; from &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We saw in Activity 3 that division of one integer by another does not necessarily result in an integer. For example, 2 ÷ 4 = 0.5 and 0.5 is not an integer. This means that we cannot define a function for what we might call “everyday division” that returns an integer value for integer inputs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Sometimes, we need a form of division of integers that does yield an integer result. For example, suppose our supermarket features a special ‘buy 4, get 1 free’ order on bottles of wine. If a customer comes to the till with nine bottles of wine, then the till needs to calculate how many free bottles they should receive. Now nine bottles of wine contain two lots of four bottles (with one bottle left over). So the customer receives two free bottles of wine. This is an example of &lt;strong&gt;integer division&lt;/strong&gt;. Integer division of 9 by 4 gives the result 2. (Hopefully, the cashier will point out to the customer with 9 bottles of wine that they are entitled to another free bottle!)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;As another example, suppose that we want to perform integer division of 29 by 8. Now 3 × 8 = 24, while 4 × 8 = 32. When we perform integer division of 29 by 8 we obtain the result 3. Since 29 − 3 × 8 = 5, dividing 29 by 8 leaves a &lt;strong&gt;remainder&lt;/strong&gt; of 5. Notice that the remainder, 5, satisfies the condition that 0 ≤ 5 &amp;lt; 8.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Integer division has two integers as input. It is a binary operation on &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;, so we could use infix notation to write integer division. Now, many programming languages use / as an infix notation for both integer division and for real number division. In such cases, it is vital to appreciate that these are &lt;em&gt;different&lt;/em&gt; processes, whose precise behaviour depends upon the type of the values supplied. To emphasise that integer division is not the familiar process of “everyday division”, we will write it as &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt;, and use function rather than infix notation to give its values. For example, &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (29, 8) = 3.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;How can we describe integer division in general? To do this, some vocabulary is useful. In writing &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (29, 8) = 3, the number 8 is called the &lt;strong&gt;divisor&lt;/strong&gt;, and 3 is called the &lt;strong&gt;quotient&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We can generalise the equation 29 = 3 × 8 + 5 to give &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;em&gt;q × d&lt;/em&gt; + &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; (where &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; is the divisor, &lt;em&gt;q&lt;/em&gt; is the quotient and &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; the remainder). The remainder must not be too large. In this example, the remainder 5 is less than 8. In general, the remainder &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; must be less than the divisor, &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;. Also, the remainder &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; is not negative. We can express these conditions on &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; algebraically as 0 ≤ &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt; &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;. So, in general, the quotient, &lt;em&gt;q&lt;/em&gt;, is the largest integer by which we can multiply the divisor, &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;, while leaving a remainder that is not negative. If we subtract (&lt;em&gt;q × d&lt;/em&gt;) from &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;, the resulting remainder needs to be non-negative and less than &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Integer division has two integers as inputs and returns an integer. So the integer division function has signature &lt;em&gt;DIV : Int × Int&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;. Since we write &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; using function notation, we can describe this function as below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; &amp;gt; 0.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value &lt;em&gt;q&lt;/em&gt; is the result of integer division of &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; by &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;. It satisfies the condition that if &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; − (&lt;em&gt;q&lt;/em&gt; × &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;), then we have 0 ≤ &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt; &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Notice that we only consider the case where the divisor, &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;, is strictly greater than 0. There is no restriction on the number &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; that is being divided, though. The examples we have considered so far have &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; positive.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;What do these semantics give if &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt; 0? As an example, consider &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = −29 and &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = 8. We have −29 = −4 × 8 + 3 and the semantics give &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (−29, 8) = −4. (Note that the remainder, &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; = 3, satisfies the condition 0 ≤ &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt; &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;, which is 0 ≤ &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt; 8 in this case.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;If &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = 0, we have &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (0, &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;) = 0 for any &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; that satisfies the precondition.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 22&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Give the following values:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (27,4).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (32,17).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (−27, 4).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(d) &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (0,6).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(e) &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (3,0).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800677&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (27,4) = 6, since 27 = 6 × 4 + 3, where 0 ≤ 3 &amp;lt; 4.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (32,17) = 1, since 32 = 1 × 17 + 15, where 0 ≤ 15 &amp;lt; 17.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (−27, 4) = −7, since −27 = −7 × 4 + 1, where 0 ≤ 1 &amp;lt; 4.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(d) &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (0,6) = 0.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(e) This is undefined (because of the precondition on &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; ).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A second process associated with integer division returns the remainder rather than the quotient. This is again a binary operation. We will write this operation as &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;n, d&lt;/em&gt;). This operation can be described as below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; &amp;gt; 0.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; is the remainder after integer division of &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; by &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;. It satisfies the conditions 0 ≤ &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt; &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;r&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;em&gt;n -&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;q&lt;/em&gt; × &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;), where &lt;em&gt;q&lt;/em&gt; is an integer. The remainder &lt;em&gt;MOD(n, d)&lt;/em&gt; is sometimes called the value of &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;modulo&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;, or more briefly &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; mod &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt;. Many programming languages use the infix notation &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; % &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; for this operation.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 23&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Give the following values:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(67, 10).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(55, 5).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(−27, 4).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800678&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(67, 10) = 7 (since 67 = 6 × 10 + 7; the remainder on division of 67 by 10 is 7).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(55, 5) = 0 (since 55 = 11 × 5 + 0).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(−27, 4) = 1 because, as noted in Activity 22(c), we have −27 = −7 × 4 + 1.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 24&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) Suppose that you buy 335 grams of walnuts at 299 pence per kg, and the price of this purchase is expressed as a whole number of pence by ignoring any fraction. What is the cost of this purchase?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) Now consider a general purchase of this form, of &lt;em&gt;weight&lt;/em&gt; grams of a product costing &lt;em&gt;price&lt;/em&gt; pence per kilogram. Using the function &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; , give a formula for the cost of such a purchase.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800679&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) 335 grams is 0.335 kilograms, so this purchase should cost 0.335 × 299 = 100.464 pence, which will be rounded to 100 pence. (Reassuringly, this is the same as the cost given in Figure 2.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) In general we multiply &lt;em&gt;weight&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;price&lt;/em&gt;, and divide the result by 1000, ignoring any fractional part of the result. So the required value is given by the expression &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;weight × price&lt;/em&gt;,1000).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800680&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;5.2 Operations on Boolean values&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The idea of a binary operation, and the use of infix notation, is not confined to numbers. Infix notation may be used for any process with two inputs from the same set. We look now at two binary operations on Boolean values that are often used.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The first of these takes two Boolean values, and returns &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if &lt;em&gt;both&lt;/em&gt; of the input values are &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; and returns &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; otherwise. It is a binary operation, and we shall write it using the infix notation ∧, where the symbol ∧ can be read as “and”. So &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; ∧ &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; only when &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; are both &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;. We can describe the function corresponding to this operation as below (The operation ∧ is also known as &lt;strong&gt;conjunction&lt;/strong&gt;).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;infix&lt;/strong&gt;) (&lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; ∧ &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;on&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if both &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;, and is &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; otherwise.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Alternatively, we could give the semantics of ∧ by listing the returned value in each of four cases, giving the four possible combinations of input values. Using this approach, we could express the postcondition as follows.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The returned value is &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;, where&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; then &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; then &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; then &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; then &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A second binary operation on Boolean values returns &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if either (or both) of the two Boolean values is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;. We write this operation using the infix symbol ∨ , where ∧ can be read as “or”. The corresponding function is described below. The operation ∨ is also known as &lt;strong&gt;disjunction&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;infix&lt;/strong&gt;) (&lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; ∨ &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;on&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; if both &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;, and is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; otherwise.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 25&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Give the semantics of ∨ by listing the returned value in each of four cases, giving the four possible combinations of input values.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800681&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We can express the postcondition in the description above as follows.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The returned value is &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;, where&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; then &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; then &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; then &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; then &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Another useful process on Boolean values inputs a single Boolean value, and returns the reverse of that value. This process, called &lt;strong&gt;negation&lt;/strong&gt;, is not a binary operation, since it has one input only. We call this function &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt;, and we have&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;NOT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(&lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;) = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;) = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 26&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) Give a full description of the function &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) If &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;, evaluate each of:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800682&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) A description is given below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; if &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; and is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) (i) Substituting for &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt;, we have &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; ∨ &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(ii) We should evaluate the term in brackets first: &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; ∨ &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;. Then &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;) = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;. So &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; ∨ &lt;em&gt;b&lt;/em&gt;) = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(iii) Again, evaluate the term in brackets first: (&lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; ∨ &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;) = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;. Then the given expression becomes &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; ∧ &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; which evaluates to &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800683&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;5.3 Comparison functions&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Another situation where we use infix notation is in writing comparisons, such as &lt;em&gt;x &amp;lt; y&lt;/em&gt;, where &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; are numbers. Such a comparison is either true or false. For example, 5 &amp;lt; 9 is true but 5 &amp;lt; 2 is false. To describe a corresponding function, we take the output set to be &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt; = {&lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;}. Thus the comparison &amp;lt; on integers corresponds to a function, which we can describe as follows.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;infix&lt;/strong&gt;) (&lt;em&gt;x &amp;lt; Int y&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;on&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt; &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; and is &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; otherwise.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Equality is also a comparison function. This is normally written using the infix symbol =. If &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; are numbers, then &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; is true if the numbers &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; are the same and is false if they are not. If one is working with real numbers on a computer, then one needs to be very careful with tests of equality. There will be an element of approximation in the way real numbers are stored, and this may result in a computer reporting real numbers as equal when they are only approximately equal. However, we shall confine our attention to integers, where there is no such problem in deciding whether two numbers are the same.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Sometimes we may wish to test to see whether two characters are the same. (This can be done by comparing their ASCII codes, for example.) A computer will need to work in a different way when comparing two integers for equality from that needed when comparing two characters for equality. These are different processes. Equality of numbers is a function with signature &lt;em&gt;Int × Int&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt;; equality of characters, on the other hand, has signature &lt;em&gt;Char × Char&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt;. Since these are different functions, we will give them different identifiers. We will write =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;for equality of integers and =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;for equality of characters.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;infix&lt;/strong&gt;) (&lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;y&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;strong&gt;on&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if the integers &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; are equal and is &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; otherwise.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;infix&lt;/strong&gt;) (&lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;y&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;strong&gt;on&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if the characters &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; are the same and is &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; otherwise.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;One could give a binary operation &amp;lt; that compares characters by comparing their ASCII codes. Again, this is a different function from that of comparing integers (which is why we used a subscript &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; in the identifier &amp;lt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;for comparison of integers above).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Note that in mathematics the term binary operation would only be used for a total function whose return type is the same as the type of the inputs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 27&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Give a full description of an infix function corresponding to &amp;lt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;comparing two characters by comparing their ASCII codes.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800684&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A description is given below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;infix&lt;/strong&gt;) (&lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;y&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;strong&gt;on&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is true if &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;) &amp;lt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;ASC&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; (&lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt;) and is &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; otherwise.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;In practice, a variety of different comparisons are used on integers (and other forms of data, such as characters), including: &amp;gt; (strictly greater than), ≤ (less than or equal), ≥ (greater then or equal), and ≠ (not equal). Functions may be described for each of these, but we shall not do so here.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800685&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;5.4 Expressions&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;In computer code, one may want to formulate an expression to achieve some particular purpose, such as to express some condition about the states of variables involved in the code. For example, suppose that you want to express the condition that a sequence &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; contains at least two members, and that the second member of &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; is not the space character (with ASCII code 32). This condition holds when the expression below is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(&lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;) &amp;gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Int&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; 1) ∧ (&lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(2,&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;)) = &lt;/span&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Int&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; 32))&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;When writing expressions involving functions and binary operations, there are some points to be careful about. One needs to be careful to use brackets as necessary to ensure that operations are applied in the desired order. This is particularly important in expressions using infix notation. You also need to apply each process in a way that is consistent with its signature. And you must apply each process in a way that is consistent with any precondition that it has. We say that an expression is &lt;strong&gt;not valid&lt;/strong&gt; if it uses a function in a way that is inconsistent with its signature or its precondition. For example, ‘Q’ =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;32 is not valid, since =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;compares two integers, and ‘Q’ is a character, while &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt;(7, “This”, ‘Q’) is not valid, since 7 does not satisfy the precondition of &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt;. (The precondition of &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt; requires that 7≤ &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;(“This”), but &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;(“This”) is 4.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The functions &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt; were described in Activity 16, and the function &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt; was described in Section 4.3. The binary operations =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;, &amp;gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;and ∧ are defined earlier in this section.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 28&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) With &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; = “I#am.”, evaluate each of the expressions:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) Let &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; be a general string. Under what circumstances does the expression in (a) (v) give the value &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;? Under what circumstances is that expression valid?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) With &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; = “I#am.”, why is it not possible to evaluate the expression&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(&lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(2,&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;)) = &lt;/span&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Int&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; 35)?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800686&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) (i) &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(2, &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;) = ‘#’.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(ii) &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(2, &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;)) = 35.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(iii) &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(2, &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;)) =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;35 becomes 35 =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;35, which evaluates to &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(iv) &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(2, &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;)) =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;35) becomes &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;) = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(v) We have &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;) = 5 (the number of characters in the string “I#am.”), so (&lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;) &amp;gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;3) becomes (5 &amp;gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;3) which is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;. So the expression in (v) becomes &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; ∧ &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) The given expression will be &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; only if each of &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;) &amp;gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;3 and &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(2, &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;)) =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;35) is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;. The first of these is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if the string &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; contains at least four characters. The second is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if the second character is &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; is not the character ‘#’. So the expression in (a) (v) will be &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;the string &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; contains at least four characters and its second character is not ‘#’.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The precondition of &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt; requires here that the string &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; contains at least two characters. The expression in (a) (v) will be valid so long as this is true. (All the other functions in the expression are total. The example in part (a) indicates that the expression is put together in a way that is consistent with the signatures of the functions.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(2,&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;) = ‘#’. Then &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(2,&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;) =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;35 becomes ‘#’ =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;35. This expression is not valid, since =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;requires two integers as inputs, and ‘#’ is a character. So the given expression is not valid.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Notice how important the brackets are in a complicated expression. The order in which the bits of the overall expression are to be evaluated is determined by the way the brackets appear in the expression. We need to follow this carefully in evaluating an expression such as that in Activity 28 (a) (v). A slip in placing one bracket can easily lead to an expression that is not valid, as in (c) above. On the whole, it is good practice when writing computing code to seek to avoid writing complicated expressions. Usually one can split the code into intermediate steps, as indicated by the steps in the evaluation in (a) above.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800687&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Objectives for Section 5&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;After studying this section you should be able to do the following.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Recognise and use the terminology: binary operation, infix notation, quotient and remainder (associated with integer division).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Use the notation for various binary operations introduced in the text, in particular &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt; on integers; and ∧ (and) and ∨ (or) on Boolean values.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Suggest appropriate signatures and preconditions for functions corresponding to binary operations, including comparisons that return Boolean values.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Evaluate expressions involving functions and binary operations introduced in the text. Take note of where brackets appear in an expression.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Recognise an expression that is invalid because it uses a process in a way inconsistent with its signature or precondition.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800688&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercises on Section 5&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercise 12&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Give a full description of a function (using the infix notation ×) corresponding to multiplication of integers.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800689&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Solution&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A suitable description of integer multiplication is given below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;infix&lt;/strong&gt;) (&lt;em&gt;x × y&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;on&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is the result of multiplying &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercise 13&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;With &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; = 966, evaluate each of:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;n,&lt;/em&gt; 10);&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;n,&lt;/em&gt; 10);&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;n,&lt;/em&gt; 10), 10).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800690&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Solution&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;966 = 96 × 10 + 6. So (a) &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(966, 10) = 6 (the remainder when 966 is divided by 10), and (b) &lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (966,10) = 96. Then (c) &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;DIV&lt;/em&gt; (966, 10), 10) becomes &lt;em&gt;MOD&lt;/em&gt;(96, 10). This evaluates to 6, which is the remainder when 96 is divided by 10.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercise 14&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The function &lt;em&gt;LAST&lt;/em&gt; is described below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;LAST&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; ) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; is not empty.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is the last element in &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;. For example, &lt;em&gt;LAST&lt;/em&gt;([1, 2, 3]) = 3.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Consider the expression &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;LAST&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;) =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;LAST&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; (&lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt;)).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) What is the value of this expression if &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; is “the” and &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; is:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) Under what circumstances does this expression have the value &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) Is this expression valid with &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; = [1,2] and &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = [1,8,4,2]?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800691&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Solution&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) If &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; = “the” then &lt;em&gt;LAST&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;) = ‘e’. (i) With &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = “same”, we have &lt;em&gt;LAST&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt;) = ‘e’, and the given expression becomes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;NOT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(‘e’ =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Char&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; ‘e’) = &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;) = &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(i) With &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = “different”, we have &lt;em&gt;LAST&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt;) = ‘t’, and the given expression becomes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;NOT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(‘e’ =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Char&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; ‘t’) = &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;) = &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) The given expression is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if the strings &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; have different last letters.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) With these values of &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt;, the given expression becomes &lt;em&gt;NOT&lt;/em&gt;(2 =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Char&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; 2). Now =&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Char&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; compares two characters, and 2 is an integer. So this expression is not valid. (For the given expression to be valid, we need &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; to be sequences of characters, and to be non-empty, so that the precondition of &lt;em&gt;LAST&lt;/em&gt; is satisfied.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/4552537979469354107/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-5.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/4552537979469354107'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/4552537979469354107'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-5.html' title='Data and processes in computing: 5 Operations and comparisons'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-7568622710313076232</id><published>2011-09-29T20:15:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T20:15:33.766-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: 4 Processes</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if !mso]&gt; &lt;style&gt;
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&lt;h1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800654&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;4 Processes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800655&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Processes that can be applied to data&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Having looked at some forms of data, we now turn our attention to processes that can be applied to data. Each process that we consider in this section will input data of a specified form, and will result in a corresponding value. For example, one process, which we will call &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;, takes a character as input, and has as its resulting value the integer giving the ASCII code of the input character (as listed in Table 2). Another process, which we will call &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;, takes a sequence as input, and has as its resulting value the length of the sequence (which will be an integer).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;It is important to distinguish between a description of the outcome required when a process is applied to a form of data, and a description of the exact steps to be taken to achieve the desired outcome. Here, we are concerned only with the first of these; that is, with providing an overview of a computing process. You might like to think of this as a “black box” view of the process. We do not, at this stage, care how one obtains the output value. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Certain processes change the state of a named variable. For now, though, we shall not think about processes in that way. Each process that we are concerned with here simply produces a value that depends on one (or more) input value(s). Another important feature of the processes that we shall consider is that they result in a value that is entirely predictable. One can envisage a process that takes a string as input, and which results in a value that is a character that appears in the string. With input “This”, the value resulting from such a process might be any of the four characters ‘T’, ‘h’, ‘i’ or ‘s’. We will not consider a process such as that. Our attention will be confined to processes that, if given the same input twice, will produce the same resulting value each time.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Below, we give a number of examples of processes that may be applied to numbers, characters or sequences. Focus first on Example 1(a) below This process is applied to an &lt;strong&gt;input&lt;/strong&gt;, comprising data of a specified form (a sequence of integers). Application of the process results in a value (the sum of the integers in the input sequence). This resulting value will be referred to as the value &lt;strong&gt;returned&lt;/strong&gt; by the process. Similar comments apply to each of these examples. Each process takes data of a specified form as an input, and each process returns a value, based on this input data. The returned value may also be called the &lt;strong&gt;output&lt;/strong&gt; of the process.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800656&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Example 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) Given a sequence of integers, return the sum of all the numbers in the sequence. For example, given [6, 2, 5, 6] the value returned is 19.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) Given a string, return the first upper-case letter that appears in the string. For example, given the string “my name is Bob”, the value returned is ‘B’.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) Given a string, return the first character in the string. For example, given the string “This is a sentence.”, the value returned is ‘T’.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(d) Given some integer, &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;, say, return the integer &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; + &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;. For example, given the number 4, the value returned is 4&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; + 4 = 20.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(e) Given a sequence of items from a set &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;, and another item from the set &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;, return the sequence formed by placing the item at the end of the sequence. For example, given the sequence of integers [6, 2, 5, 6] and the integer 1, the value returned is [6, 2, 5, 6, 1].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(f) Given a string and a character, return the position in the string where the given character first occurs (counting characters from the front of the string). For example, if the string “This is a sentence.” and the character ‘s’ are given, then the value returned is 4, since the first occurrence of ‘s’ in the string is at the fourth place in the sequence [‘T’,‘h’,‘i’,‘s’,‘&lt;img height=&quot;8&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;7&quot; /&gt;’,‘i’,‘s’, . . . ].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Here are some key questions to consider about each process.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;How many inputs are required, and of what type?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;What type of value does the process return?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;What is the relationship between the returned value and the input(s)?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Are there any restrictions on the input(s)?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Does the process always produce an output? Given any permitted input, is there an associated returned value?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Is the output produced predictable? Given the same input, will the process always return the same value?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;For example, consider Example 1(b) above. In that case the questions can be answered as follows. The process has just one input and this is a sequence of characters. It outputs a character. The output value is the first upper-case letter that appears in the sequence of characters. For this description of the output to yield any value, the input sequence needs to contain at least one upper-case letter. Given that restriction on the input, there will always be an output. The output is predictable.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800657&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;4.1 Functions&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;function&lt;/strong&gt; is a process that, when given an input of a specified type, yields a &lt;strong&gt;unique&lt;/strong&gt; output. This is a key idea in providing a precise, mathematical, description of processes in computing.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;To describe a particular function, we first give the set from which the input will be drawn and the set from which the output is drawn. This information is called the &lt;strong&gt;signature&lt;/strong&gt; of the function. An example will make this clearer. Example 1(b), on the previous screen, requires an input that is a string, that is, a sequence of characters. The set containing all possible sequences of characters is &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;. Example 1(b) produces an output that is a character, so this output is in the set &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;. We write the signature of this function as &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;. The set to the left of the arrow is called the &lt;strong&gt;input set&lt;/strong&gt; of the function and the set to the right is called the &lt;strong&gt;output set&lt;/strong&gt;. Some texts use &lt;strong&gt;source set&lt;/strong&gt; rather than input set, and &lt;strong&gt;target set&lt;/strong&gt; rather than output set. It is usual to include an identifier for the function itself in the signature. Suppose we call this function &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt;. Then its full signature is:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;: &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; comprises all sequences of characters, and so includes some sequences that have no upper-case letters.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The second piece of information required in describing a function is any restriction on the input(s). The informal description of &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt; states only that the first upper-case letter is returned. It does not specify what happens if there is no upper-case letter in the input. Accordingly, a sensible condition on the set of inputs to &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt; is that the input sequence must contain at least one upper-case letter. This condition on the input value is called the &lt;strong&gt;precondition&lt;/strong&gt; of the function &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The third and final piece of information required is the relationship between output and input values. This relationship is referred to as the &lt;strong&gt;semantics&lt;/strong&gt; of the function. The semantics must ensure that there is a unique output for any given input. We can describe the function &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt; like this:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; has signature &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;; its input sequence must contain at least one upper-case letter, and it returns the first upper-case letter appearing in the input sequence.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;However, it is not always easy to extract key pieces of information from such a description. We shall usually describe functions using a standard layout, as in the description of &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt; given below. In exercises, to signal that we want the description of a function to be laid out as below, we will ask for a &lt;strong&gt;full description&lt;/strong&gt; of the function.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; contains at least one upper-case letter.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The returned value is the first upper-case letter appearing in s.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The signature of the function &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt; is implicit in the first line of this description. (The signature is &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt; : &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;.) This line shows that the function has an input (with identifier &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;) that comes from &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;. So its input set is &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;. The function returns a value in &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;. So its output set is &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;. We refer to the first line in the full description as the &lt;strong&gt;signature line&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The input value &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; must satisfy the condition given in the line starting &lt;strong&gt;pre&lt;/strong&gt;. This line gives the precondition of the function. The semantics of the function are given in the line starting &lt;strong&gt;post&lt;/strong&gt;. The statement in this line is referred to as the &lt;strong&gt;postcondition&lt;/strong&gt; of the function.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Here, “pre” and “post” are used in the sense of “before” and “after”. Before &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt; can be applied to a value, that value must satisfy the precondition. After &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt; has been applied, the returned value will satisfy the postcondition.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Sometimes, we want to refer to the set of input values for which a function is defined. This is called the &lt;strong&gt;domain&lt;/strong&gt; of the function, and is the set of values in the input set that satisfy the precondition of the function.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A function that is defined for all elements in its input set is called a &lt;strong&gt;total function&lt;/strong&gt;. For a total function, no precondition is required on the input value (beyond requiring that it is in the input set). We show this by writing &lt;strong&gt;pre true&lt;/strong&gt; (since the precondition is automatically true).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;As another example, consider the process 4.1(d) given earlier. It stated:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;given some integer, &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;, say, return the integer &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; + &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A full description of this function is given below. We will give it the identifier &lt;em&gt;FORMULA&lt;/em&gt;. The rule for producing an output works for any integer, so we can write &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; for the precondition.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;FORMULA&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; + &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 14&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) Call the function associated with Example 1(c) on the previous screen, &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCHAR&lt;/em&gt;. Give the signature of this function. Write out a full description of it.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) Suggest a full description of a function &lt;em&gt;SUMSEQ&lt;/em&gt;, associated with the Example 1(a).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800658&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Suitable descriptions are given below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCHAR&lt;/em&gt; inputs a string (sequence of characters), and returns a character. So its signature is &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCHAR : SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;. To have a “first character”, the input sequence needs to contain at least one character, so the function needs a corresponding precondition.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCHAR&lt;/em&gt;(s &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; Char&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; contains at least one character.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The returned value is the first character appearing in &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The choice of identifier for the input is arbitrary. You may well have used some identifier other than s in your answer.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) Note that &lt;em&gt;SUMSEQ&lt;/em&gt; inputs a sequence of integers, and returns an integer. A suitable description is given below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;SUMSEQ&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfInt&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is the total of the numbers appearing in &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;. If &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; contains no members, then the returned value is 0.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;You might have chosen to say that the input sequence should not be empty, since the idea of “the total of the numbers” might seem unclear if there are no numbers to add up! That would be fine. We have chosen to regard the “total of no numbers” as 0, and have said so explicitly in the semantics. Sometimes, one needs to make more precise an informal idea of a process. Deciding whether to add a precondition, or to explain what happens in special cases, is the sort of clarification that may be needed.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The value obtained when some function &lt;em&gt;F&lt;/em&gt; is applied to an input &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; is written &lt;em&gt;F&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;). So, for example, &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt;(“a1wQ2*”) means the result of applying the function &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCAP&lt;/em&gt; to the string “a1wQ2*”. The value obtained in that case is the first upper-case letter in “a1wQ2*”, and so is ‘Q’.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The example process 1(f), given earlier, was:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Given a string and a character, return the position in the string where the character first occurs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;For example, if the string “This is a sentence.” and the character ‘s’ are given, then the value returned is 4. This function requires two inputs: a string (a sequence of characters), and a character. We can describe the function as below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;FIRSTAT&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;,&lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The character &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; appears at least once in the sequence &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The returned value is the integer &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; satisfying the condition that the &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;th character in the sequence &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; is &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;, and this is the first occurrence of &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; in &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Where a function requires more than one input, the input set is taken to be a Cartesian product of sets, one for each input. For this example, the input set is &lt;em&gt;Char × SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;. The output set is &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;, so the signature of the function is &lt;em&gt;FIRSTAT&lt;/em&gt; : &lt;em&gt;Char × SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We can, for example, apply this function in the form&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;FIRSTAT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(‘s’, “This is a sentence.”). However, we cannot apply it in the form &lt;em&gt;FIRSTAT&lt;/em&gt;(“This is a sentence.”, ‘s’). The order of the two inputs given in the signature line in the description of &lt;em&gt;FIRSTAT&lt;/em&gt; must be adhered to.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(We could have described a function accepting the inputs in a different order, with the sequence first and the character second. But this would be another function, different from &lt;em&gt;FIRSTAT&lt;/em&gt;, just as reversing the order in which two sets are written in a Cartesian product produces a different set.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Look now at Example 1(e), repeated below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Given a sequence of items from a set &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;, and another item from the set &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;, return the sequence formed by placing the item at the end of the sequence. For example, given the sequence of integers [6,2,5,6] and the integer 1, the value returned is [6,2,5,6,1].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Note that this description is not confined to sequences of numbers. It can be used for sequences with members from any set. This general set is represented here by &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;. We can describe a function &lt;em&gt;ADDLAST&lt;/em&gt; corresponding to this process as below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;ADDLAST&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; ) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is formed by placing the item &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; at the end of the sequence &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;. For example, &lt;em&gt;ADDLAST&lt;/em&gt;(1,[6, 2, 5, 6]) = [6, 2, 5, 6, 1].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 15&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) Give the signature of the function ADDLAST.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) What are the values:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800659&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) The signature is &lt;em&gt;ADDLAST : X × SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; . (The order of the sets in the Cartesian product corresponds to the order of the inputs given in the description above.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) We have:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 16&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;This activity concerns the three functions on sequences given below. In each case, the sequence members come from an arbitrary set, &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;. You will meet these functions again later in the unit.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A function &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;, which, given a sequence, returns the number of members in it (that is, it returns the length of the sequence). So, for example, &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;([1, 11, −32, 4, 12, 1]) = 6.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A function &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;, which returns the item that is at a specified position in a sequence. So, for example, &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(4, “author”) = ‘h’.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A function &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt;, which replaces the item that is at a specified position in a sequence with an item supplied as an input. So, for example, &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt;(4,“author”,‘q’) = “autqor”.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) Give the values of:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) Give the signature of each of the three functions.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) Give full descriptions of each of the three functions.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800660&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) (i) 6 (the number of characters in the string “author”).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(ii) −32 (the third item in the sequence [1, 11, −32, 4]).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(iii) We replace the character at the third place in the string “paan” by the input character ‘i’, to get “pain”.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(iv) The first number gives the position of the item to be changed and the final number is the replacement item. So the value is [1, 3, 2, 4].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt; has one input, from &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; , and returns a value in &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;. The signature is &lt;em&gt;SIZE : SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The function &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt; inputs an integer and a sequence and returns a value from &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;, so the signature is &lt;em&gt;AT : Int × SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;For the function &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt;, the input set is a Cartesian product of three sets, one for each of the three inputs.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The signature is PUT : Int × SeqOfX × X → SeqOfX .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) Suitable descriptions are given below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;For &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;, recall that the number of elements in the empty sequence is 0, so this is a total function.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; ) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is the number of items in the sequence &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;. If &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; contains no members then the returned value is 0.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;For &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;, the semantics only make sense if the integer input gives a position actually in the sequence. So we give a precondition that the input integer is at least 1 (when the first item in the sequence will be returned), and that the input integer is not bigger than the number of items in the sequence. If we use another function in a description, as we use &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt; here in describing &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;, then we must describe that function too. &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt; was described above.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;i&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; ) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; 1≤ &lt;em&gt;i&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;i&lt;/em&gt;≤ &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The returned value is the &lt;em&gt;i&lt;/em&gt;th item in the sequence &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The function &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt; has three inputs, an integer (giving the position of the item to be changed), the sequence to be modified, and the replacement item (from the set &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;). It requires the same precondition as &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;i&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; , &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; ) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; 1 ≤ &lt;em&gt;i&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;i&lt;/em&gt; ≤ &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The returned value is the sequence formed by replacing the &lt;em&gt;i&lt;/em&gt;th item in &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; by &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800661&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;4.2 Functions defined through cases&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;In each of the examples considered so far, the function has had its semantics expressed using a formula or a general rule. Some functions have their semantics expressed simply by listing the output for each possible input. For example, let &lt;em&gt;Days&lt;/em&gt; be the set of days of the week, and the function &lt;em&gt;TOMORROW&lt;/em&gt; have signature &lt;em&gt;Days&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Days&lt;/em&gt;, and return the day following the input day. If we represent &lt;em&gt;Days&lt;/em&gt; using the strings {“Mon”, “Tues”, “Wed”, “Thurs”, “Fri”, “Sat”, “Sun”}, then we can describe the corresponding representation of the function &lt;em&gt;TOMORROW&lt;/em&gt; as below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;TOMORROW1&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; is in the set {“Mon”,“Tues”,“Wed”,“Thurs”,“Fri”,“Sat”,“Sun”}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The returned value is &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt;, where:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = “Mon” then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = “Tues”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = “Tues” then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = “Wed”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = “Wed” then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = “Thurs”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = “Thurs” then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = “Fri”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = “Fri” then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = “Sat”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = “Sat” then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = “Sun”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = “Sun” then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = “Mon”.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We distinguish the abstraction (the function &lt;em&gt;TOMORROW&lt;/em&gt;) from its representation (the function &lt;em&gt;TOMORROW1&lt;/em&gt;), because different representations of the set Days will lead to different representations of the function &lt;em&gt;TOMORROW&lt;/em&gt; (see, for example, Exercise 2).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 17&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Suppose that a particular breakfast cereal is sold in sizes Small, Medium and Large, and that we choose to represent these by the characters ‘S’, ‘M’ and ‘L’. Their respective prices, in pence, are 89 for ‘S’, 119 for ‘M’ and 159 for ‘L’. Describe a function &lt;em&gt;CEREALPRICE&lt;/em&gt; that takes a size as input and returns the associated price.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800662&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We can describe this function as follows.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;CEREALPRICE&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; is in the set {‘S’, ‘M’, ‘L’}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The returned value is &lt;em&gt;p&lt;/em&gt;, where:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = ‘S’ then &lt;em&gt;p&lt;/em&gt; = 89&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = ‘M’ then &lt;em&gt;p&lt;/em&gt; = 119&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = ‘L’ then &lt;em&gt;p&lt;/em&gt; = 159.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800663&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;4.3 Character code functions&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Many programming languages provide two functions associated with the character codes (see Table 2). We shall call these functions &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;CHR. ASC&lt;/em&gt; takes a character as input, and returns the integer giving the ASCII code of the input character. &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt; returns the character whose ASCII code is the input integer. These functions are described below. We have set a precondition on &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt; to conform to our earlier restriction on the set of characters that we will consider in this unit.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is the &lt;strong&gt;ASCII&lt;/strong&gt; code of &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;, as given in Table 2.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; 32 ≤ &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; ≤ 126.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The returned value is the character with ASCII code &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;, as given in Table 2.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 18&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Find each of:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(‘j’);&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;(43);&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;(43));&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(d) &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(‘j’)).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800664&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) Referring to Table 2, &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(‘j’) = 106.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;(43) = ‘+’.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;(43)) means the result of applying the function &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt; to &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;(43). So &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;(43)) = &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(‘+’) = 43.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(d) &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(‘j’)) = &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;(106) = ‘j’.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Looking up the ASCII code of a character, and then looking to see the character corresponding to the number you just found, will always take you back to the character you started with. We can express this in a general equation, as &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;)) = &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;. (This holds for any character &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;As illustrated in Activity 18, the two functions &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt; are closely related. Each reverses the effect of the other. We can express this relationship by writing the two equations below (which hold for every &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; in &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; and for every &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; in &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; satisfying the condition 32 ≤ &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; ≤ 126).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;ASC&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(&lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;)) = &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;CHR&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(&lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt;)) = &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We say that &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt; are &lt;strong&gt;inverse functions&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Not every function can be paired up with an inverse function in this way. For example, the function &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCHAR&lt;/em&gt; returns the first character in a string. Now different strings may have the same first character. (“This” and “The” both start with ‘T’, but are different strings.) With input ‘T’, a process attempting to reverse the effect of &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCHAR&lt;/em&gt; would not know whether to return “This” or “The” (or “To”, or “Tom”, etc). The function &lt;em&gt;FIRSTCHAR&lt;/em&gt; has no inverse function.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 19&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A simple cipher replaces each lower-case letter with the next one in alphabetical order. So ‘a’ is replaced by ‘b’, ‘b’ by ‘c’,. . . , ‘t’ by ‘u’, and so on. The letter z ‘ ’ is replaced by ‘a’. The function &lt;em&gt;NEXT&lt;/em&gt;, specified below, corresponds to this coding.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;NEXT&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; in &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;) return in &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; is a lower-case letter.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; If &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; lies between ‘a’ and ‘y’ then the returned value is the letter following &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; in alphabetical order. If &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = ‘z’ then the returned value is ‘a’.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Does the function &lt;em&gt;NEXT&lt;/em&gt; have an inverse function? If it does, describe this inverse function.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800665&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We can reverse the effect of &lt;em&gt;NEXT&lt;/em&gt; by moving each character back one place in alphabetical order. This time, the special case is ‘a’, which must be moved to ‘z’. So &lt;em&gt;NEXT&lt;/em&gt; does have an inverse function. If we call it &lt;em&gt;BEFORE&lt;/em&gt;, it can be described as below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;BEFORE&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; in &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;) return in &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; is a lower-case letter.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; If &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; lies between ‘b’ and ‘z ’ then the returned value is the letter preceding &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; in alphabetical order. If &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; = ‘a’ then the returned value is ‘z’.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800666&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;4.4 Functions returning true or false&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Consider a function, say &lt;em&gt;ISIN&lt;/em&gt; , associated with following process.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Given a character and a string, determine whether the character appears in the string.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;This function has two inputs, a character and a string (sequence of characters), so we can take the input set to be &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; × &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;. But what is the output set? If the character does appear in the string, then the function can return the value &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;, and if the character does not appear in the string, then the function can return the value &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;. So a suitable output set is &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt;. Then &lt;em&gt;ISIN&lt;/em&gt; has signature &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; × &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt;. We can describe the function &lt;em&gt;ISIN&lt;/em&gt; as below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;ISIN&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if the character &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; appears in the sequence &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; at least once, and is &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; if &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; does not appear at all in &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(If &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; is the empty string, then it contains no characters, and &lt;em&gt;ISIN&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;c, s&lt;/em&gt;) will be &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; whatever the character &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; is.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 20&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Suggest a description for a function &lt;em&gt;ISEMPTY&lt;/em&gt; corresponding to the following process.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Determine whether or not a given sequence is empty.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800667&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The function will input a sequence (which might contain elements from any set, say &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;). It can return &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if the sequence is empty, and &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; if it is not empty. So we can use the following description of &lt;em&gt;ISEMPTY&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;ISEMPTY&lt;/em&gt; (&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; ) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre &amp;nbsp; true&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; The returned value is &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; if the sequence &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; contains no members, and is &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; if &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; contains one or more members.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800668&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Objectives for Section 4&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;After studying this section you should be able to do the following.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Recognise and use the terminology: function, signature, domain, semantics, input set, output set, precondition, postcondition.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Suggest appropriate signatures and preconditions for functions corresponding to a variety of processes on numbers, characters and sequences, including those with more than one input and those that return a Boolean value.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;For given inputs, give the value returned by various functions described in this section, in particular: &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;SIZE&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;ASC&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;CHR&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;ADDLAST&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800669&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercises on Section 4&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercise 9&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;For each of the following functions, give the signature and suggest a suitable precondition.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) &lt;em&gt;TOUPPER&lt;/em&gt;, which changes a string, containing only lower-case letters, into the corresponding string consisting of upper-case letters. (So, for example, &lt;em&gt;TOUPPER&lt;/em&gt;(“word”) = “WORD”.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) &lt;em&gt;REMOVELAST&lt;/em&gt;, which, given a sequence, deletes its last member.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) &lt;em&gt;LAST&lt;/em&gt;, which returns the last member of a sequence.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800670&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Solution&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) This function inputs a string and outputs a string, therefore it has signature &lt;em&gt;TOUPPER : SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;. It requires a precondition that the input sequence consists entirely of lower-case letters.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) The members of the sequence may come from any set, which we will denote by &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;. The input is a sequence and the returned value is also a sequence. So the signature is &lt;em&gt;REMOVELAST : SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; . The input sequence should contain at least one member (otherwise there is no last member to delete), so we need a precondition that the input sequence is not empty.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) This is similar to (a), except that the returned value is an item from &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;, rather than a sequence. The signature is &lt;em&gt;LAST : SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; → &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;. We again need the precondition that the input sequence is not empty.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercise 10&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Suppose that the days of the week are represented by numbers, with Mon-day represented by 1, Tuesday represented by 2, and so on, with Sunday represented by 7. Describe a function &lt;em&gt;TOMORROW2&lt;/em&gt;, giving the next day with &lt;em&gt;Days&lt;/em&gt; represented in this way.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800671&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Solution&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;You may have given this description.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;TOMORROW2&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; is in the set {1,2,3,4,5,6,7}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The returned value is &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt;, where:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = 1 then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = 2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = 2 then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = 3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = 3 then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = 4&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = 4 then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = 5&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = 5 then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = 6&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = 6 then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = 7&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = 7 then &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = 1.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Or you may have given a shorter description, such as:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;function&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;TOMORROW2&lt;/em&gt;(&lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; &lt;strong&gt;in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;) &lt;strong&gt;return in&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;pre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; 1 ≤ &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; ≤ 7.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;post&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; The returned value is &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt;, where:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;t&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; = &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; + 1 if 1 &lt;em&gt;= d =&lt;/em&gt; 6;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;t&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; = 1 if &lt;em&gt;d&lt;/em&gt; = 7.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Either of these answers is fine.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercise 11&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) With &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; = “abcd”, evaluate each of:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) For a general sequence &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;, describe how the sequence &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt;(2&lt;em&gt;, s, AT&lt;/em&gt;(1&lt;em&gt;, s&lt;/em&gt;)) is obtained from &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The functions &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt; were described in Activity 16.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800672&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Solution&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a)(i) With &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; = “abcd”, &lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(1,&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;) = ‘a’.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(ii) Then &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt;(2,&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;,&lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(1,&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;)) = &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt;(2,“abcd”,‘a’) = “aacd”.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) In general, &lt;em&gt;PUT&lt;/em&gt;(2,&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;,&lt;em&gt;AT&lt;/em&gt;(1,&lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;)) is formed by replacing the second member of the sequence &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; with a copy of the first member of &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/7568622710313076232/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-4.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7568622710313076232'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7568622710313076232'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-4.html' title='Data and processes in computing: 4 Processes'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-7413077876816238901</id><published>2011-09-29T20:14:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T20:14:01.332-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: Objectives for Section 3</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if !mso]&gt; &lt;style&gt;
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&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800650&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Objectives for Section 3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;After studying this section you should be able to do the following.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Recognise and use the terminology: disjoint union; power set (of a set); representation (of a data abstraction).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Use and interpret the notation:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 60.0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Courier New&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Courier New&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;o&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;X&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;img height=&quot;10&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;11&quot; /&gt;&lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt; for the disjoint union of the sets &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt; ;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 60.0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Courier New&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Courier New&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;o&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;SeqOfSetOfInt&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; for the set consisting of all sequences whose members are sets of integers (and similar notations).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800651&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercises on Section 3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercise 7&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Each of (a)–(c) is a member of one of the sets given in (i)–(iii). Say which item comes from which set.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Sets&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;: (i) &lt;em&gt;SetOfSeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;. (ii) &lt;em&gt;SeqOfSetOfChar&lt;/em&gt;. (iii) &lt;em&gt;SeqOfSeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) {“error1”, “error2”, “error3”}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) [“error1”, “error2”, “error3”].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) [{‘e’,‘1’}, {‘T’}, {‘q’,‘w’,‘e’,‘r’,‘t’,‘y’}].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800652&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Answer&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Solution&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) This is a set, as shown by the outer curly brackets. Each member of this set is a string, that is, a sequence of characters. So (a) is a set of sequences of characters. It is a member of &lt;em&gt;SetOfSeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) This is a sequence, as shown by the outer square brackets. It is a sequence of strings. So (b) is a sequence of sequences of characters. It comes from &lt;em&gt;SeqOfSeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) This is again a sequence. Each member of this sequence is a set of characters. So (c) comes from &lt;em&gt;SeqOfSetOfChar&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercise 8&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Let &lt;em&gt;Mix&lt;/em&gt; be the disjoint union &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;img height=&quot;10&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;11&quot; /&gt;&lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;. What is the length of the following sequence from &lt;em&gt;SeqOfMix&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;[555, ‘5’, ‘5’, ‘5’, 11, 1].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800653&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Solution&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;There are six items in the sequence [555,‘5’,‘5’,‘5’,11,1] (three integers and three characters), so the length of this sequence is 6.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/7413077876816238901/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing_29.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7413077876816238901'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7413077876816238901'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing_29.html' title='Data and processes in computing: Objectives for Section 3'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-7670531181656565566</id><published>2011-09-29T20:12:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T20:12:42.678-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: 3.4 Representing data in applications</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:WordDocument&gt;   &lt;w:View&gt;Normal&lt;/w:View&gt;   &lt;w:Zoom&gt;0&lt;/w:Zoom&gt;   &lt;w:TrackMoves/&gt;   &lt;w:TrackFormatting/&gt;   &lt;w:PunctuationKerning/&gt;   &lt;w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/&gt;   &lt;w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;false&lt;/w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;   &lt;w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;false&lt;/w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;   &lt;w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;false&lt;/w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;   &lt;w:DoNotPromoteQF/&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeOther&gt;EN-MY&lt;/w:LidThemeOther&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeAsian&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeAsian&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;   &lt;w:Compatibility&gt;    &lt;w:BreakWrappedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:SnapToGridInCell/&gt;    &lt;w:WrapTextWithPunct/&gt;    &lt;w:UseAsianBreakRules/&gt;    &lt;w:DontGrowAutofit/&gt;    &lt;w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/&gt;    &lt;w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/&gt;    &lt;w:Word11KerningPairs/&gt;    &lt;w:CachedColBalance/&gt;   &lt;/w:Compatibility&gt;   &lt;w:BrowserLevel&gt;MicrosoftInternetExplorer4&lt;/w:BrowserLevel&gt;   &lt;m:mathPr&gt;    &lt;m:mathFont m:val=&quot;Cambria Math&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBin m:val=&quot;before&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBinSub m:val=&quot;&amp;#45;-&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:smallFrac m:val=&quot;off&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:dispDef/&gt;    &lt;m:lMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:rMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:defJc m:val=&quot;centerGroup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:wrapIndent m:val=&quot;1440&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:intLim m:val=&quot;subSup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:naryLim m:val=&quot;undOvr&quot;/&gt;   &lt;/m:mathPr&gt;&lt;/w:WordDocument&gt; &lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:LatentStyles DefLockedState=&quot;false&quot; DefUnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
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&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800648&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;3.4 Representing data in applications&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Suppose that you are designing software for some application. You will be working with a programming language that enables you to communicate instructions to a computer. In this programming language, certain forms of data will already be represented electronically. These will include common forms of data, such as numbers, characters and sequences. In any particular application, you are likely also to be concerned with forms of data that are peculiar to that application. Having identified some form of data that you need to be able to handle, you will then need to represent this in terms of what is available; that is, in terms of forms of data that have already been represented electronically.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;As a simple example, imagine that integers, characters and strings are available forms of data, and that you want to represent the days of the week.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;One natural form of representation is as strings: “Monday”, “Tuesday”, “Wednesday”, and so on. But other forms of representation are possible. The full names can be inconvenient because they involve a lot of writing, so one might choose to use shortened versions, such as: “Mon”, “Tues”, “Wed”, etc. We could be awkward (from the viewpoint of an English speaker), and use the strings: “Lundi”, “Mardi”, “Mercredi”, and so on. Or we could use integers, and represent Monday as 1, Tuesday as 2, Wednesday as 3, etc. This might be very convenient at times, but one then needs to remember which number represents which day.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;There are times when it is important to distinguish between a form of data derived from an application situation and the concrete representation you have chosen for it. We might refer to the idea of the days of the week as an &lt;strong&gt;abstraction&lt;/strong&gt;, in distinction to their &lt;strong&gt;representation&lt;/strong&gt;, perhaps as the strings “Mon”, “Tues”, “Wed”, etc.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 13&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A compact form of representation for days of the week might be to use the first character of the name: ‘M’ for Monday, ‘T’ for Tuesday, and so on. Why would this be a bad idea?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800649&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Because we could not tell whether ‘T’ meant Tuesday or Thursday (or whether ‘S’ meant Saturday or Sunday). Different entities in the abstract set of application data need to have different representations.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;One additional point of importance about any form of data in an application concerns the ways in which we need to be able to manipulate it. We turn to processes on data in the next section.&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/7670531181656565566/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-34.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7670531181656565566'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7670531181656565566'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-34.html' title='Data and processes in computing: 3.4 Representing data in applications'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-5000763087413403711</id><published>2011-09-29T20:11:00.002-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T20:11:53.262-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: 3.3 Mixing different forms of data: disjoint union of sets</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if !mso]&gt; &lt;style&gt;
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&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800646&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;3.3 Mixing different forms of data: disjoint union of sets&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;At the supermarket checkout, some items need to be weighed (organic courgettes for example) and some do not. Let &lt;em&gt;BarcodedItems&lt;/em&gt; be the set of items that do not need to be weighed, and &lt;em&gt;WeighedItems&lt;/em&gt; be the set of items that must be weighed. When a weighed item is recorded at the till, we must record both the item type and the weight of the item that has been purchased. Earlier, we saw that such a purchase can be seen as an ordered pair, such as (“WALNUTS”, 335), that comes from the set &lt;em&gt;WeighedItems × Int&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Suppose now that we want to form the set of all items that might appear in a transaction at a till. We might call this set &lt;em&gt;TillItems&lt;/em&gt;. Specifying this set &lt;em&gt;TillItems&lt;/em&gt; poses a complication, since there are two different types of element that might appear in it. An item from the set &lt;em&gt;TillItems&lt;/em&gt; will come either from &lt;em&gt;BarcodedItems&lt;/em&gt; or from &lt;em&gt;WeighedItems × Int&lt;/em&gt;. We express this relationship by saying that &lt;em&gt;TillItems&lt;/em&gt; is the &lt;strong&gt;disjoint union&lt;/strong&gt; of &lt;em&gt;BarcodedItems&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;WeighedItems × Int&lt;/em&gt;. We write this as:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;You can read &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; &lt;img height=&quot;10&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;11&quot; /&gt;&lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt; as “&lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; or &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt;.”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;TillItems&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; = &lt;em&gt;BarcodedItems&lt;/em&gt; &lt;img height=&quot;10&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;11&quot; /&gt;(&lt;em&gt;WeighedItems × Int&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;In general, the disjoint union of sets &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt; , written &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; &lt;img height=&quot;10&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;11&quot; /&gt;&lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt; , is the set consisting of all items that are either from &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; or from &lt;em&gt;Y&lt;/em&gt; . The term “disjoint” reflects the fact that an item could not come both from &lt;em&gt;BarcodedItems&lt;/em&gt; and from &lt;em&gt;WeighedItems × Int&lt;/em&gt;. These sets contain different forms of data and have nothing in common. (We will only use disjoint union to combine sets containing different forms of data.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;As in Section 1, suppose that &lt;em&gt;till1&lt;/em&gt; is a variable representing a transaction in progress at till 1. The state of &lt;em&gt;till1&lt;/em&gt; will give the items recorded so far, in the order in which they were entered into the till, either by reading the barcode, or as a weighed item. So we can describe the state of &lt;em&gt;till1&lt;/em&gt; as a sequence of till items. The set of all possible states of &lt;em&gt;till1&lt;/em&gt; is &lt;em&gt;SeqOfTillItems&lt;/em&gt;, where &lt;em&gt;TillItems&lt;/em&gt; is &lt;em&gt;BarcodedItems&lt;/em&gt; &lt;img height=&quot;10&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;11&quot; /&gt;(&lt;em&gt;WeighedItems × Int&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;As noted earlier, we usually want to avoid mixing data of different forms in a collection such as a sequence. But if we need to do this, we can first use a disjoint union to combine the different forms of data into a single set. So, for example, if we needed to form a sequence whose members might be either characters or integers, then this sequence would come from a set &lt;em&gt;SeqOfMix&lt;/em&gt;, where &lt;em&gt;Mix&lt;/em&gt; is the disjoint union &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; &lt;img height=&quot;10&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;11&quot; /&gt;&lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 12&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Let &lt;em&gt;TillItems&lt;/em&gt; = &lt;em&gt;BarcodedItems&lt;/em&gt; &lt;img height=&quot;10&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;11&quot; /&gt;(&lt;em&gt;WeighedItems × Int&lt;/em&gt;), and suppose that &lt;em&gt;BarcodedItems&lt;/em&gt; is represented as the set of integers between 10000 and 99999 and &lt;em&gt;WeighedItems&lt;/em&gt; as the set of integers between 100 and 999. Which of the sequences given in (a)–(c) below is a member of the set &lt;em&gt;SeqOfTillItems&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) [1, −740, (22, 300)]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) [11, ‘2’, ‘w’, 33000, −22]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) [11023, 11023, (998, 12), 22375, (217, 147)]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800647&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Only the sequence in (c) is in &lt;em&gt;SeqOfTillItems&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) According to the statement, a barcoded item is represented by an integer with five digits. So 1 and &lt;em&gt;−&lt;/em&gt;740 are not from the set &lt;em&gt;BarcodedItems&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) This sequence contains some characters, which are neither from the set &lt;em&gt;BarcodedItems&lt;/em&gt; nor from &lt;em&gt;WeighedItems × Int&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) Each of the integers 11023 and 22375 lies between 10000 and 99999, and so comes from the set &lt;em&gt;BarcodedItems&lt;/em&gt;. The first entry in each of the pairs (998, 12) and (217, 147) is an integer between 100 and 999, so comes from &lt;em&gt;WeighedItems&lt;/em&gt;. Thus each of these ordered pairs comes from &lt;em&gt;WeighedItems × Int&lt;/em&gt;. So each item in the sequence is either from &lt;em&gt;BarcodedItems&lt;/em&gt; or from &lt;em&gt;WeighedItems × Int&lt;/em&gt;, and so comes from &lt;em&gt;TillItems&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/5000763087413403711/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-33.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/5000763087413403711'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/5000763087413403711'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-33.html' title='Data and processes in computing: 3.3 Mixing different forms of data: disjoint union of sets'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-1764556220391887953</id><published>2011-09-29T20:11:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T20:11:08.349-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: 3.2 Combining data structures</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:WordDocument&gt;   &lt;w:View&gt;Normal&lt;/w:View&gt;   &lt;w:Zoom&gt;0&lt;/w:Zoom&gt;   &lt;w:TrackMoves/&gt;   &lt;w:TrackFormatting/&gt;   &lt;w:PunctuationKerning/&gt;   &lt;w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/&gt;   &lt;w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;false&lt;/w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;   &lt;w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;false&lt;/w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;   &lt;w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;false&lt;/w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;   &lt;w:DoNotPromoteQF/&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeOther&gt;EN-MY&lt;/w:LidThemeOther&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeAsian&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeAsian&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;   &lt;w:Compatibility&gt;    &lt;w:BreakWrappedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:SnapToGridInCell/&gt;    &lt;w:WrapTextWithPunct/&gt;    &lt;w:UseAsianBreakRules/&gt;    &lt;w:DontGrowAutofit/&gt;    &lt;w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/&gt;    &lt;w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/&gt;    &lt;w:Word11KerningPairs/&gt;    &lt;w:CachedColBalance/&gt;   &lt;/w:Compatibility&gt;   &lt;w:BrowserLevel&gt;MicrosoftInternetExplorer4&lt;/w:BrowserLevel&gt;   &lt;m:mathPr&gt;    &lt;m:mathFont m:val=&quot;Cambria Math&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBin m:val=&quot;before&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBinSub m:val=&quot;&amp;#45;-&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:smallFrac m:val=&quot;off&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:dispDef/&gt;    &lt;m:lMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:rMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:defJc m:val=&quot;centerGroup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:wrapIndent m:val=&quot;1440&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:intLim m:val=&quot;subSup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:naryLim m:val=&quot;undOvr&quot;/&gt;   &lt;/m:mathPr&gt;&lt;/w:WordDocument&gt; &lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:LatentStyles DefLockedState=&quot;false&quot; DefUnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
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&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800644&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;3.2 Combining data structures&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;In Section 2, we introduced the notation &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; for the set of all sequences whose members come from the set X. In Section 2, we looked only at sequences whose members were of one of the primitive forms of data (integers, characters or Booleans). We can have sequences whose members are themselves data with a more complicated form. For example, suppose that Jo is working at the till &lt;em&gt;T1&lt;/em&gt; and is replaced by Jessica. We might represent this handover by the 3-tuple (Jo, &lt;em&gt;T1&lt;/em&gt;, Jessica). Now suppose that we want to give all the handovers that occur during a particular day, in the order in which they occur. We could give this information in a sequence. This sequence would come from the set &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; , where &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; is the Cartesian product &lt;em&gt;Staff × Tills × Staff&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;As another example, one might think of a sentence as a sequence of words, where each word is seen as a sequence of characters. If we did this, then the sentence would be regarded as coming from the set &lt;em&gt;SeqOfSeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;. We can use notations introduced earlier to show when we want to see a sentence in this way, and when it is to be regarded as a single string (from &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;Activity 11&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Which of the following is a member of the set &lt;em&gt;SeqOfSeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) [‘W’,‘o’,‘r’,‘d’].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) “This is a sentence.”.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) [“This”,“is”,“a”,“sentence”].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800645&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Only (c) is a member of &lt;em&gt;SeqOfSeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) This is a sequence of characters and so a member of &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) This is a string, so is again a sequence of characters (written in our more compact notation).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) This is a sequence each of whose members is a string. Thus each item in the sequence in (c) comes from &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;. The sequence itself comes from &lt;em&gt;SeqOfSeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Consider a computer system which has a finite set of error messages, each of which may be displayed to a cashier at the till. Suppose these messages are: “Barcode error”; “Item code not recognised” and “System error 1234”. This set of error messages can be represented thus:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Errors&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; = {“Barcode error”, “Item code not recognised”, “System error 1234”}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Each of these messages is given as a string, that is, as a sequence of characters. So &lt;em&gt;Errors&lt;/em&gt; is a set of sequences of characters.&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/1764556220391887953/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-32.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/1764556220391887953'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/1764556220391887953'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-32.html' title='Data and processes in computing: 3.2 Combining data structures'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-2203921650637434310</id><published>2011-09-29T20:10:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T20:10:05.054-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: 3 Combining forms of data Structuring data: Structuring data</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:WordDocument&gt;   &lt;w:View&gt;Normal&lt;/w:View&gt;   &lt;w:Zoom&gt;0&lt;/w:Zoom&gt;   &lt;w:TrackMoves/&gt;   &lt;w:TrackFormatting/&gt;   &lt;w:PunctuationKerning/&gt;   &lt;w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/&gt;   &lt;w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;false&lt;/w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;   &lt;w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;false&lt;/w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;   &lt;w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;false&lt;/w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;   &lt;w:DoNotPromoteQF/&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeOther&gt;EN-MY&lt;/w:LidThemeOther&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeAsian&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeAsian&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;   &lt;w:Compatibility&gt;    &lt;w:BreakWrappedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:SnapToGridInCell/&gt;    &lt;w:WrapTextWithPunct/&gt;    &lt;w:UseAsianBreakRules/&gt;    &lt;w:DontGrowAutofit/&gt;    &lt;w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/&gt;    &lt;w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/&gt;    &lt;w:Word11KerningPairs/&gt;    &lt;w:CachedColBalance/&gt;   &lt;/w:Compatibility&gt;   &lt;w:BrowserLevel&gt;MicrosoftInternetExplorer4&lt;/w:BrowserLevel&gt;   &lt;m:mathPr&gt;    &lt;m:mathFont m:val=&quot;Cambria Math&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBin m:val=&quot;before&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBinSub m:val=&quot;&amp;#45;-&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:smallFrac m:val=&quot;off&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:dispDef/&gt;    &lt;m:lMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:rMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:defJc m:val=&quot;centerGroup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:wrapIndent m:val=&quot;1440&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:intLim m:val=&quot;subSup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:naryLim m:val=&quot;undOvr&quot;/&gt;   &lt;/m:mathPr&gt;&lt;/w:WordDocument&gt; &lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:LatentStyles DefLockedState=&quot;false&quot; DefUnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Subtitle&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;0&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Strong&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;0&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Emphasis&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;0&quot; Name=&quot;Normal (Web)&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;59&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Table Grid&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Placeholder Text&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;1&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;No Spacing&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Revision&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;34&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;List Paragraph&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;29&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Quote&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;30&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;19&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Subtle Emphasis&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;21&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
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&lt;h1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800640&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;3 Combining forms of data&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800641&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Structuring data&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;In Section 2, we considered integers, characters and truth values. We shall refer to these as &lt;strong&gt;primitive&lt;/strong&gt; forms of data. We also looked at two forms of data collection, sets and sequences, and at the association of different data items in a tuple. In this section, we will look briefly at some other ways in which data may be structured.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800642&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;3.1 Sets of sets&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;In Section 2, all the sets and sequences we considered had primitive forms of data as their elements. However, sets and sequences may contain non-primitive forms of data. Let us look first at a situation in which we may find it useful to have a set whose members are themselves sets.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Think again about a shop with just three members of staff, given in the set &lt;em&gt;Staff&lt;/em&gt; = {Jo, Jessica, Wesley}. Now let &lt;em&gt;at WorkStaff&lt;/em&gt; be the set of staff currently at work. Clearly, &lt;em&gt;at WorkStaff&lt;/em&gt; may take a range of values. If just Jo and Wesley are at work, then &lt;em&gt;at WorkStaff&lt;/em&gt; is {Jo, Wesley}. If Jessica were to start work and Jo were to leave, then &lt;em&gt;at WorkStaff&lt;/em&gt; becomes {Jessica, Wesley}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Now any combination of staff from the set &lt;em&gt;Staff&lt;/em&gt; = {Jo, Jessica, Wesley} might be at work at the same time. Possibilities include all these staff (when &lt;em&gt;at WorkStaff&lt;/em&gt; is {Jo, Jessica, Wesley}), and none of them (in which case &lt;em&gt;at WorkStaff&lt;/em&gt; is { }). The full list of possibilities (giving the possible values of &lt;em&gt;at WorkStaff&lt;/em&gt; ) is given below.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;{ }, {Jo}, {Jessica}, {Wesley}, {Jo, Jessica}, {Jo, Wesley}, {Jessica, Wesley}, {Jo, Jessica, Wesley}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Here, we have written out all the sets with members taken from the set &lt;em&gt;Staff&lt;/em&gt; = {Jo, Jessica, Wesley}. We can form a set whose members are these sets. We will denote this set by &lt;em&gt;SetOfStaff&lt;/em&gt; . So:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;SetOfStaff&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; = {{ }, {Jo}, {Jessica}, {Wesley}, {Jo, Jessica}, {Jo, Wesley}, {Jessica, Wesley}, {Jo, Jessica, Wesley}}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The outer curly brackets here delimit the members of the set &lt;em&gt;SetOfStaff&lt;/em&gt;. Each of these members is itself a set, and the inner curly brackets delimit each of these member sets. We will not often need to list the members of a set of sets like this. But it is useful to be aware that we can form a set in this way. We might have a variable &lt;em&gt;atWorkStaff&lt;/em&gt;, giving the set of staff currently at work. The set giving all possible states of this variable is then &lt;em&gt;SetOfStaff.&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;In general, we will use &lt;em&gt;SetOfX&lt;/em&gt; to denote the set consisting of all the sets drawn from some given set, &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;SetOfX&lt;/em&gt; is also known as the &lt;strong&gt;power set&lt;/strong&gt; of &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;. Various other notations are used for this, including &lt;strong&gt;P&lt;/strong&gt;(&lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;) and 2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;. The latter is sometimes used since, if &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; has cardinality &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;, then &lt;em&gt;SetOfX&lt;/em&gt; has cardinality 2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;. For example &lt;em&gt;Staff&lt;/em&gt; has cardinality 3 and &lt;em&gt;SetOfStaff&lt;/em&gt; has cardinality 8, which is 2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 10&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Suppose that the set of tills in a supermarket is &lt;em&gt;Tills&lt;/em&gt; = {&lt;em&gt;T1&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;T2&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;T3&lt;/em&gt;} and &lt;em&gt;active Tills&lt;/em&gt; is a variable giving the set of tills that are staffed at any one time. Write out in full the set of possible states for &lt;em&gt;active Tills&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800643&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The set of possible states is the set &lt;em&gt;SetOfTills&lt;/em&gt;. Written in full, this is:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;{{}, {&lt;em&gt;T1&lt;/em&gt;}, {&lt;em&gt;T2&lt;/em&gt;}, {&lt;em&gt;T3&lt;/em&gt; }, {&lt;em&gt;T1&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;T2&lt;/em&gt;}, {&lt;em&gt;T1&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;T3&lt;/em&gt;}, {&lt;em&gt;T2&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;T3&lt;/em&gt;}, {&lt;em&gt;T1&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;T2&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;T3&lt;/em&gt;}}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/2203921650637434310/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-3.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/2203921650637434310'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/2203921650637434310'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-3.html' title='Data and processes in computing: 3 Combining forms of data Structuring data: Structuring data'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-3182625884623523107</id><published>2011-09-29T20:03:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T20:03:16.022-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: 2.5 Sequences</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if !mso]&gt; &lt;style&gt;
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&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800629&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;2.5 Sequences&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;You have already met sequences briefly, and have seen that a sequence contains items given in a particular order, and that repetitions are of significance.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;One might have a sequence containing integers, such as [22, −31, 44, 0, 2, 0, 11] or a sequence containing characters, such as [‘W’,‘o’,‘r’,‘d’]. However, we will aim to avoid mixing the forms of data in a sequence. A sequence of characters may also be referred to as a string, and that “Word” is another notation for the sequence [‘W’,‘o’,‘r’,‘d’].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The items in a sequence are enumerated from the left. Thus in the sequence [‘W’,‘o’,‘r’,‘d’], the first item is ‘W’, the second item is ‘o’, and so on. The items in a sequence may also be referred to as the &lt;strong&gt;elements&lt;/strong&gt; (or sometimes &lt;strong&gt;members&lt;/strong&gt;) of the sequence. The number of items in a sequence is called its &lt;strong&gt;length&lt;/strong&gt;. So, for example, the length of the sequence [‘W’,‘o’,‘r’,‘d’] is 4. An empty sequence, [ ], has no members and so has length 0.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We do count repeated items when calculating the length of a sequence. So, for example, the sequence of numbers [22, −31, 44, 0, 2, 0, 11] has length 7, while the sequence of characters “aardvark” has length 8.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Incidentally, we are only concerned in this unit with &lt;strong&gt;finite&lt;/strong&gt; sequences. If you study mathematics in other contexts, you may meet sequences that “go on forever”, such as the sequence of real numbers: 1, &lt;img height=&quot;26&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;12&quot; /&gt;, &lt;img height=&quot;26&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; /&gt;, &lt;img height=&quot;26&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif&quot; width=&quot;12&quot; /&gt;, &lt;img height=&quot;26&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; /&gt;, ... (where the general term is &lt;img height=&quot;26&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif&quot; width=&quot;12&quot; /&gt;where &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; is a positive integer). Any form of data stored on a computer as a sequence will contain a finite number of items, so a sequence describing a form of data stored on a computer will be finite. A finite sequence will have a length that is a positive integer.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 6&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) Let &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; be the sequence &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; = [44, 21, 77, 77, 41].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) Let &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; be the sequence of characters &lt;em&gt;t&lt;/em&gt; = “This sentence.”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) Let &lt;em&gt;A&lt;/em&gt; be the set of items appearing in the sequence &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt; = [41, 21, 77, 77, 41]. What is the cardinality of &lt;em&gt;A&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800630&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) The set &lt;em&gt;A&lt;/em&gt; takes no notice of the order in which the items appear in &lt;em&gt;s&lt;/em&gt;, nor of repeated items. The set &lt;em&gt;A&lt;/em&gt; is {21, 41, 77}, and this has cardinality 3.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The set A could equally well be written as {41, 21, 77}, for example.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We have introduced notations for the set of all integers, &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;, and for the set of characters, &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt;. It is convenient also to have a notation for sequences. This will need to tell us two things: first, that we are referring to a set of sequences; and second, the set from which the members of the sequence come. Thus we write &lt;em&gt;SeqOfInt&lt;/em&gt; for the set of all sequences of integers. So, for example, [22, −31, 44, 0, 2, 0, 11] is in &lt;em&gt;SeqOfInt&lt;/em&gt;. Similarly, we write &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; for the set of all sequences of characters. The sequence [‘W’,‘o’,‘r’,‘d’] is in &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; (and not in &lt;em&gt;SeqOfInt&lt;/em&gt;), because it is a sequence that contains characters, not integers.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;There are a couple of points to note here. First, the number 22 is not in &lt;em&gt;SeqOfInt&lt;/em&gt;, because 22 is not a sequence, it is an integer. However, [22] is in &lt;em&gt;SeqOfInt&lt;/em&gt;. This is a sequence that happens to contain just one integer. Second, both &lt;em&gt;SeqOfInt&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;SeqOfChar&lt;/em&gt; include an empty sequence, [].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;More generally, we write &lt;em&gt;SeqOfX&lt;/em&gt; for the set containing all sequences of items from the set &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;. Here &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; might be any set. For example, &lt;em&gt;SeqOfBool&lt;/em&gt; contains all sequences whose members are from &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt;, that is, whose members are Boolean values.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 7&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) Give an example of a member of the set &lt;em&gt;SeqOfBool&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800631&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) A suitable example is [&lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;], but there are an infinite number of possible examples (including, if you chose to be contrary, the empty sequence [ ], containing no Boolean values!).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/3182625884623523107/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-25.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/3182625884623523107'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/3182625884623523107'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-25.html' title='Data and processes in computing: 2.5 Sequences'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-7590122276286664175</id><published>2011-09-29T20:02:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T20:02:26.699-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: 2.4 Sets</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:WordDocument&gt;   &lt;w:View&gt;Normal&lt;/w:View&gt;   &lt;w:Zoom&gt;0&lt;/w:Zoom&gt;   &lt;w:TrackMoves/&gt;   &lt;w:TrackFormatting/&gt;   &lt;w:PunctuationKerning/&gt;   &lt;w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/&gt;   &lt;w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;false&lt;/w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;   &lt;w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;false&lt;/w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;   &lt;w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;false&lt;/w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;   &lt;w:DoNotPromoteQF/&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeOther&gt;EN-MY&lt;/w:LidThemeOther&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeAsian&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeAsian&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;   &lt;w:Compatibility&gt;    &lt;w:BreakWrappedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:SnapToGridInCell/&gt;    &lt;w:WrapTextWithPunct/&gt;    &lt;w:UseAsianBreakRules/&gt;    &lt;w:DontGrowAutofit/&gt;    &lt;w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/&gt;    &lt;w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/&gt;    &lt;w:Word11KerningPairs/&gt;    &lt;w:CachedColBalance/&gt;   &lt;/w:Compatibility&gt;   &lt;w:BrowserLevel&gt;MicrosoftInternetExplorer4&lt;/w:BrowserLevel&gt;   &lt;m:mathPr&gt;    &lt;m:mathFont m:val=&quot;Cambria Math&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBin m:val=&quot;before&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBinSub m:val=&quot;&amp;#45;-&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:smallFrac m:val=&quot;off&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:dispDef/&gt;    &lt;m:lMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:rMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:defJc m:val=&quot;centerGroup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:wrapIndent m:val=&quot;1440&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:intLim m:val=&quot;subSup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:naryLim m:val=&quot;undOvr&quot;/&gt;   &lt;/m:mathPr&gt;&lt;/w:WordDocument&gt; &lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:LatentStyles DefLockedState=&quot;false&quot; DefUnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
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&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800627&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;2.4 Sets&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A set is a collection of items, and is a collection of a particular form. The items appearing in a set are referred to as the &lt;strong&gt;elements&lt;/strong&gt; (or &lt;strong&gt;members&lt;/strong&gt;) of the set. Examples of sets mentioned earlier are: &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A &lt;strong&gt;set&lt;/strong&gt; is a collection in which repetition is not significant, nor is the order in which the items are given. For example, the supermarket might sell its own brand of Wheat Flakes in three sizes: large, medium and small. In a situation where we are interested in the types of product that are available, we are interested in the set of sizes. This set of sizes may be written as:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;{large, medium, small}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We might choose to name the set:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Sizes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; = {large, medium, small}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The order in which the elements are listed is of no significance, so we might equally well have written &lt;em&gt;Sizes&lt;/em&gt; = {small, medium, large}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Notice the use of curly brackets {and} here. These are used as a signal that the collection is a set (as distinct from some other form of collection, such as a sequence). Note too the commas used to separate the elements.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We would not usually give any repetitions when writing a set, but if one were to do so, repetition of an element would be of no significance. We could write a set as&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;{large, small, large, medium, small}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;but this set is the same as &lt;em&gt;Sizes&lt;/em&gt; and has three members, not five!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We write &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; ∈ &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; to mean that the item &lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; is a member of the set &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt; (we say “&lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; is in the set &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;”, or just “&lt;em&gt;a&lt;/em&gt; is in &lt;em&gt;X&lt;/em&gt;”). So, for example, we might write small ∈ &lt;em&gt;Sizes&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;It was easy to write out the set &lt;em&gt;Sizes&lt;/em&gt; in full because it has only three elements. Imagine having to write out the set of all barcodes used at a large supermarket. It would not be practicable! We have another notation for such sets, that is sets whose members can be precisely described. Suppose that, a little unrealistically, a store (YtoZ Groceries) stocks just 90000 items, which happen to have barcodes that are consecutive integers between 10000 and 99999. Then the set of barcodes used by the store may be written:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;YtoZBarcodes&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; = { &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; ∈ &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; : 10000 ≤ &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; ≤ 99999}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A rather literal reading of this notation would be: “&lt;em&gt;YtoZBarcodes&lt;/em&gt; is the set of values, &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt;, in the set of integers, such that &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; is greater than or equal to 10000 and less than or equal to 99999.”. (We read the first curly bracket as “the set of” and the colon as “such that”.) More casually, we might say: “&lt;em&gt;YtoZBarcodes&lt;/em&gt; is the set of integers between 10000 and 99999, inclusive.”. (The word inclusive makes it clear that the numbers 10000 and 99999 are each included in the set.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Alternatively, the condition 10000 ≤ &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; ≤ 99999 can be written as 10000 ≤ &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; ≤ 99999.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A set need not have any members. (The set {&lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; ∈ &lt;em&gt;Int : n&lt;/em&gt; &amp;gt; 100 and &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt; 50} is an example of a set with no members.) A set with no members is called an &lt;strong&gt;empty set&lt;/strong&gt;. We will write this as { }.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Sometimes we need to say how many elements there are in a set. For example, the set &lt;em&gt;Sizes&lt;/em&gt;, as above, has 3 elements, while the set &lt;em&gt;YtoZBarcodes&lt;/em&gt; has 90000 members. The number of elements in a set is called the &lt;strong&gt;cardinality&lt;/strong&gt; of the set. The cardinality of the empty set is 0. (We shall only talk about the cardinality of a finite set. The set &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;, for example, does not have a finite number of elements.) If the members of a set have been written out with some elements repeated, then remember to count each repeated element only once when finding the set&#39;s cardinality. In other texts, you may see the symbol &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;∅&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; used to denote an empty set.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 5&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) Write out in full the set {&lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; ∈ &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; : 5 ≤ &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;n&lt;/em&gt; &amp;lt; 9}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) Write out in full the set {&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; ∈ &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; : the ASCII code of &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; is between 40 and 43, inclusive}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) Which of the following is true?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(d) Let &lt;em&gt;Lowercase&lt;/em&gt; = {&lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; ∈ &lt;em&gt;Char&lt;/em&gt; : the ASCII code of &lt;em&gt;c&lt;/em&gt; is strictly greater than 96 and strictly less than 123}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(e) Let &lt;em&gt;A&lt;/em&gt; be the set of characters that appear in the string “aardvark”. What is the cardinality of &lt;em&gt;A&lt;/em&gt;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800628&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) This set contains those integers that are both greater than or equal to 5, and strictly less than 9. We can write this set in full as {5, 6, 7, 8}. (Alternatively, it could be written with the elements in some other order, such as {8, 7, 5, 6}.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) {‘(‘, ‘)’, ‘*’, ‘+’}. (Remember that we write characters in single inverted commas.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) 7 is an integer, but ‘7’ is a character. So 7 ∈ &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; is true, but ‘7’ ∈ &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; is false.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(d) (i) The ASCII code of ‘C’ is 67 and so ‘C’ is not a member of the set &lt;em&gt;Lowercase&lt;/em&gt;. So ‘C’ ∈ &lt;em&gt;Lowercase&lt;/em&gt; is false.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(ii) There are 26 integers which are strictly greater than 96 and strictly less than 123. So &lt;em&gt;Lowercase&lt;/em&gt; has cardinality 26.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(e) The set of characters that appear in the string “aardvark” is: {‘a’, ‘r’, ‘d’, ‘v’, ‘k’}. This set has cardinality 5.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/7590122276286664175/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-24-sets.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7590122276286664175'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7590122276286664175'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-24-sets.html' title='Data and processes in computing: 2.4 Sets'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-3684797768052872073</id><published>2011-09-29T20:01:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T20:01:37.932-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: 2.3 Truth values</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:WordDocument&gt;   &lt;w:View&gt;Normal&lt;/w:View&gt;   &lt;w:Zoom&gt;0&lt;/w:Zoom&gt;   &lt;w:TrackMoves/&gt;   &lt;w:TrackFormatting/&gt;   &lt;w:PunctuationKerning/&gt;   &lt;w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/&gt;   &lt;w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;false&lt;/w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;   &lt;w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;false&lt;/w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;   &lt;w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;false&lt;/w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;   &lt;w:DoNotPromoteQF/&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeOther&gt;EN-MY&lt;/w:LidThemeOther&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeAsian&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeAsian&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;   &lt;w:Compatibility&gt;    &lt;w:BreakWrappedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:SnapToGridInCell/&gt;    &lt;w:WrapTextWithPunct/&gt;    &lt;w:UseAsianBreakRules/&gt;    &lt;w:DontGrowAutofit/&gt;    &lt;w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/&gt;    &lt;w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/&gt;    &lt;w:Word11KerningPairs/&gt;    &lt;w:CachedColBalance/&gt;   &lt;/w:Compatibility&gt;   &lt;w:BrowserLevel&gt;MicrosoftInternetExplorer4&lt;/w:BrowserLevel&gt;   &lt;m:mathPr&gt;    &lt;m:mathFont m:val=&quot;Cambria Math&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBin m:val=&quot;before&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBinSub m:val=&quot;&amp;#45;-&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:smallFrac m:val=&quot;off&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:dispDef/&gt;    &lt;m:lMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:rMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:defJc m:val=&quot;centerGroup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:wrapIndent m:val=&quot;1440&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:intLim m:val=&quot;subSup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:naryLim m:val=&quot;undOvr&quot;/&gt;   &lt;/m:mathPr&gt;&lt;/w:WordDocument&gt; &lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:LatentStyles DefLockedState=&quot;false&quot; DefUnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
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&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800626&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;2.3 Truth values&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We will want to distinguish between statements that are true and statements that are false. Another fundamental form of data allows us to do this. This form of data consists of just two values, which we shall write as &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Not all texts use the same notation: some use &lt;strong&gt;T&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;F&lt;/strong&gt;; others may use &lt;strong&gt;0&lt;/strong&gt; for &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;1&lt;/strong&gt; for &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; (or the reverse!).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We may refer to &lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt; as truth values, or Boolean values. We will denote the collection (set) of truth values as &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt;, after the mathematician George Boole. We write:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Bool&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/em&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; = {&lt;strong&gt;true&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;false&lt;/strong&gt;}.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;This shows the collection &lt;em&gt;Bool&lt;/em&gt; as a set. We have already mentioned the word set in passing, and now want to look at this concept in more detail.&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/3684797768052872073/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-23.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/3684797768052872073'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/3684797768052872073'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-23.html' title='Data and processes in computing: 2.3 Truth values'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-8289595400398303719</id><published>2011-09-29T19:58:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T20:00:49.198-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: 2 Forms of data: 2.2 Characters</title><content type='html'>&lt;h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot;&gt;2.2 Characters&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot;&gt;Characters are another fundamental form of data. Computers store characters as integers, and system hardware and software translate these integer codes so that monitors and printers can display them.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot;&gt;As well as the familiar characters appearing on a keyboard, the current international standard (UNICODE) includes codes for characters from a variety of languages and alphabets (such as ê and ö). For simplicity, examples in this unit will use only a part of this code, as given in Table 2. This is confined to printable symbols that appear on a standard computer keyboard (for an English-speaking user).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot;&gt;We will denote by &lt;i&gt;Char&lt;/i&gt; the set of characters appearing in Table 2. We will call the codes in the table the &lt;b&gt;ASCII codes&lt;/b&gt; of the characters.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot;&gt;The original ASCII set (developed by ANSI, the American National Standards Institute) was finalised in 1968, and provides a basic (but by no means complete) character set for English. With the development of the Internet and a more global economy, efforts are being made to create a standard character set, catering more completely for many languages, and bringing together hundreds of incompatible standards from different countries. UNICODE is the result of this development, but it still only represents some of the written characters of our languages, currently standing at about 94,000 symbols. No existing character set caters for all languages.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot;&gt;Table 2: The ASCII encoding of characters (in part).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; id=&quot;internal-source-marker_0.24950164275750775&quot;&gt;&lt;table style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border: none;&quot;&gt;&lt;colgroup&gt;&lt;col width=&quot;41&quot;&gt;&lt;/col&gt;&lt;col width=&quot;74&quot;&gt;&lt;/col&gt;&lt;col width=&quot;40&quot;&gt;&lt;/col&gt;&lt;col width=&quot;74&quot;&gt;&lt;/col&gt;&lt;col width=&quot;40&quot;&gt;&lt;/col&gt;&lt;col width=&quot;75&quot;&gt;&lt;/col&gt;&lt;/colgroup&gt;&lt;tbody&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Character&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Character&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Code&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Character&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;32&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;64&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;@&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;96&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&#39;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;33&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;65&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;97&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;34&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;66&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;98&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;b&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;35&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;#&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;67&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;C&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;99&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;c&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;36&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;$&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;68&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;D&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;100&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;d&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;37&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;%&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;69&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;E&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;101&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;38&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;amp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;70&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;F&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;102&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;39&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;’&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;71&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;G&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;103&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;g&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;72&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;H&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;104&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;h&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;41&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;73&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;105&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;42&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;*&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;74&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;J&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;106&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;j&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;43&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;+&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;75&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;K&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;107&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;k&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;44&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;76&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;L&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;108&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;l&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;45&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;−&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;77&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;M&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;109&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;m&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;46&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;78&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;N&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;110&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;n&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;47&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;79&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;O&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;111&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;o&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;48&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;P&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;112&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;p&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;49&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;81&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Q&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;113&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;q&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;82&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;R&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;114&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;r&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;51&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;83&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;S&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;115&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;s&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;52&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;4&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;84&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;T&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;116&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;t&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;53&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;5&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;85&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;U&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;117&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;u&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;54&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;6&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;86&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;V&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;118&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;55&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;7&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;87&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;W&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;119&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;w&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;56&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;8&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;88&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;X&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;120&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;57&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;89&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Y&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;121&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;y&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;58&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;90&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Z&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;122&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;z&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;59&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;91&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;123&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;{&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;lt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;92&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;\ &lt;/span&gt;&lt;img height=&quot;9px;&quot; src=&quot;https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/UV06sWxJSUpzYg4fLs53xU2l7rF1gTGWcv3sVOml7bWE5lDcpy0-H9Qn-SqwLtX1EhQMeKz0lMiKGBaFVSgr4efK45pwPl9FZuH4Z66Kl2Lauo_VRr4&quot; width=&quot;5px;&quot; /&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;124&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;|&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;61&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;=&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;93&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;125&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;}&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;62&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;94&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;^&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;126&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;˜&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 0px;&quot;&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;63&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;95&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;–&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1px dotted #aaa; padding: 1px 1px 1px 1px; vertical-align: middle;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
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&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The character with ASCII code 32 is the space character, which, when we need to write it explicitly, will appear as ‘&lt;img height=&quot;8&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;7&quot; /&gt;’ &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 4&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) What character has ASCII code 91?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) What are the ASCII codes of the characters ‘A’ and ‘a’?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) What is the ASCII code of the character ‘7’?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800625&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) The character ‘[’.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) 65 and 97, respectively.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) 55.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/8289595400398303719/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-2-forms_29.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/8289595400398303719'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/8289595400398303719'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-2-forms_29.html' title='Data and processes in computing: 2 Forms of data: 2.2 Characters'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/UV06sWxJSUpzYg4fLs53xU2l7rF1gTGWcv3sVOml7bWE5lDcpy0-H9Qn-SqwLtX1EhQMeKz0lMiKGBaFVSgr4efK45pwPl9FZuH4Z66Kl2Lauo_VRr4=s72-c" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-1885848377362868916</id><published>2011-09-29T19:56:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T19:56:30.694-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: 2 Forms of data</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if !mso]&gt; &lt;style&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Title&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;1&quot; Name=&quot;Default Paragraph Font&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;11&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Subtitle&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;0&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Strong&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;0&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Emphasis&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;0&quot; Name=&quot;Normal (Web)&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;59&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Table Grid&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Placeholder Text&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;1&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;No Spacing&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Revision&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;34&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;List Paragraph&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;29&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Quote&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;30&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Intense Quote&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 1&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 2&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 4&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 5&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;60&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Shading Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;61&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;62&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Light Grid Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;63&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;64&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Shading 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;65&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;67&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 1 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;68&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 2 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;69&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium Grid 3 Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;70&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Dark List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;71&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Shading Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;72&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful Grid Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;19&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
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&lt;h1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800621&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;2 Forms of data&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800622&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;2.1 Numbers&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The supermarket example discussed in Section 1 involves various forms of data that a computer may need to handle. Some of these, such as numbers and characters, are simple but fundamental. Other forms of data, such as sequences, involve more complicated structure. In this section, we will introduce &lt;strong&gt;sets&lt;/strong&gt;, which are a variety of data collection that is different from sequences. But first we will look more carefully at numbers and characters.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;When developing software we need to distinguish between different sorts of numbers, not least because computers represent and process them differently. Whole numbers (positive, negative or zero) are called integers. We shall use &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt; to denote the collection (or set) of all integers. In principle, digital computers can represent integers exactly, no matter how large or small. In practice, however, most programming languages place restrictions on the size of an integer (positive or negative) that can be stored. Many texts use &lt;img height=&quot;11&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;10&quot; /&gt;instead of &lt;em&gt;Int&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Sometimes, we need to work with numbers that are not integers. Measured quantities, such as weights or distances, are often presented as non-integer values. More profoundly, even if one starts with whole numbers, some arithmetic processes, such as division or finding a square root, may yield results that are not integers (see Activity 3). The real numbers are a wider collection of numbers used in mathematics. A &lt;strong&gt;real number&lt;/strong&gt; is conveniently thought of as a decimal, such as 435.5218 or –29.333344, but not every real number can be written as a decimal of a finite length. For example, √2 (the square root of 2) and the number &lt;img height=&quot;7&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif&quot; width=&quot;7&quot; /&gt;(pi) are real numbers that are non-terminating decimals. Such numbers can never be expressed exactly as a finite decimal.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;img height=&quot;7&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif&quot; width=&quot;7&quot; /&gt;is approximately equal to 3.142. You may have met it in calculating the circumference or area of a circle.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Digital computers cannot store real numbers exactly. They need to work with approximations to the real numbers. These approximations may be stored in the computer as &lt;strong&gt;floating point numbers&lt;/strong&gt;. You can get a feeling for the sorts of issues that arise through the following example. Suppose (for the purposes of illustration) that we can only store a real number to an accuracy of four decimal places. Then the number 435.5218 might be stored as 0.4355 × 10&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;. But 435.48336 (a different number) would also be stored as 0.4355 × 10&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;If a software application really does need to deal with real numbers, then great care needs to be taken to ensure that the effects of (repeated) approximations are managed in a way that is well understood. This is especially true for safety critical applications, where people&#39;s lives may depend upon the behaviour of the software. However, in this unit, we shall largely exclude further consideration of real numbers.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;If &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; may each take any integer value, which of the following will always give an integer result and which may give a result that is not an integer? If you are not sure, try to choose values of &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; that do not give integer answers.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; + &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) &lt;em&gt;x − y&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) &lt;em&gt;x × y&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(d) &lt;em&gt;x/y&lt;/em&gt;. (&lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; divided by &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt;.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(e) &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(f) √&lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800623&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;If &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; and &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; are integers, then (a) &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; + &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt;, (b) &lt;em&gt;x − y&lt;/em&gt; and (c) &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; × &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; will always be integers. In (e), &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; means &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; × &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt;, and if &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; is an integer then &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; will be an integer. However, in (d), choosing &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; = 1 and &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; = 4 (both integers) gives &lt;img height=&quot;26&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif&quot; width=&quot;12&quot; /&gt;or 0.25, which is not an integer. (In (d), if &lt;em&gt;y&lt;/em&gt; is chosen to be 0, the result is undefined. Software that performs division should always ensure that division by 0 is not attempted.) In (f), choosing &lt;em&gt;x&lt;/em&gt; = 8 (for example) gives √8, which is 2.828 (to an accuracy of 4 figures) and is not an integer.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/1885848377362868916/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-2-forms.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/1885848377362868916'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/1885848377362868916'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-2-forms.html' title='Data and processes in computing: 2 Forms of data'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-617467560923474162</id><published>2011-09-29T19:55:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T19:55:26.130-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: At the supermarket: Objectives for Section 1</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if !mso]&gt; &lt;style&gt;
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&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800616&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Objectives for Section 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;After studying this section you should be able to do the following.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Recognise the terminology: character; string; integer; sequence; element (of a sequence); variable; identifier (of a variable); state (of a variable).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 30.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 36.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;·&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Use and interpret the notational conventions:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 60.0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Courier New&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Courier New&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;o&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;single inverted commas to show a character;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 60.0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Courier New&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Courier New&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;o&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;double inverted commas to show a string (sequence of characters);&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 60.0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Courier New&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Courier New&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;o&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;‘&lt;img height=&quot;8&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;7&quot; /&gt;’ to make explicit a space character;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 60.0pt; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list 72.0pt; text-indent: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Courier New&amp;quot;; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Courier New&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;mso-list: Ignore;&quot;&gt;o&lt;span style=&quot;font: 7.0pt &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;the brackets [ and ] to delimit a sequence.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800617&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;Exercises on Section 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercise 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) How many characters are there in the string “This text.”?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) Which of the following are integers: 3, 0, 98, 4, –22,&lt;img height=&quot;26&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif&quot; width=&quot;12&quot; /&gt;, ‘7’, [56]?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) How many integers are there in the sequence [11, 23, 4, 56, 32]?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800618&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Solution&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(a) There are ten characters: four in each word, a space, and a full stop.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(b) Each of 3, 0, 98, 4 and −22 is an integer. &lt;img height=&quot;26&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif&quot; width=&quot;12&quot; /&gt;is not an integer because it is not a whole number. ‘7’ is a character, and is not an integer. [56] is a sequence containing one integer, but is not an integer.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;(c) There are five integers in the sequence.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercise 2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Suppose that the variable &lt;em&gt;till2&lt;/em&gt; holds data in the form of a sequence of barcodes. When an item is read at the checkout, the state of &lt;em&gt;till2&lt;/em&gt; is changed by appending the barcode of the item to the end of the sequence giving the state of &lt;em&gt;till2&lt;/em&gt;. Suppose that &lt;em&gt;till2&lt;/em&gt; currently has the state [50222, 50345], and that an item with barcode 50111 is read, and then an item with barcode 50456 is read. Write out the state of the variable &lt;em&gt;till2&lt;/em&gt; at each stage.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800619&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Solution&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;In turn, the state takes the following values:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;thead&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;&quot;&gt;    &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;    &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;[50222, 50345]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;    &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;    &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;(at the start).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/thead&gt;  &lt;tbody&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;mso-yfti-irow: 1;&quot;&gt;   &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;   &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;[50222,   50345, 50111]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;   &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;(after   50111 is read).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;  &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;mso-yfti-irow: 2; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;&quot;&gt;   &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;   &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;[50222,   50345, 50111, 50456]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;   &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;(after   50456 is read).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;  &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Exercise 3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;With item prices as given in Table 1, what is the sequence of prices corresponding to the sequence of barcodes [33050, 33050, 77502, 53151, 77502]? What is the total price of the items given by this sequence?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800620&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Solution&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The sequence of prices (given as integer numbers of pence, as in Table 1) is: [299, 299, 89, 440, 89]. The total price (in pence) is 1216 (or £12.16).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of answer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/617467560923474162/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-at_29.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/617467560923474162'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/617467560923474162'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-at_29.html' title='Data and processes in computing: At the supermarket: Objectives for Section 1'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-1748360028917119882</id><published>2011-09-29T19:53:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T19:53:26.374-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: At the supermarket: 1.1 Number sequences</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:WordDocument&gt;   &lt;w:View&gt;Normal&lt;/w:View&gt;   &lt;w:Zoom&gt;0&lt;/w:Zoom&gt;   &lt;w:TrackMoves/&gt;   &lt;w:TrackFormatting/&gt;   &lt;w:PunctuationKerning/&gt;   &lt;w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/&gt;   &lt;w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;false&lt;/w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;   &lt;w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;false&lt;/w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;   &lt;w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;false&lt;/w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;   &lt;w:DoNotPromoteQF/&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeOther&gt;EN-MY&lt;/w:LidThemeOther&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeAsian&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeAsian&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;   &lt;w:Compatibility&gt;    &lt;w:BreakWrappedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:SnapToGridInCell/&gt;    &lt;w:WrapTextWithPunct/&gt;    &lt;w:UseAsianBreakRules/&gt;    &lt;w:DontGrowAutofit/&gt;    &lt;w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/&gt;    &lt;w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/&gt;    &lt;w:Word11KerningPairs/&gt;    &lt;w:CachedColBalance/&gt;   &lt;/w:Compatibility&gt;   &lt;w:BrowserLevel&gt;MicrosoftInternetExplorer4&lt;/w:BrowserLevel&gt;   &lt;m:mathPr&gt;    &lt;m:mathFont m:val=&quot;Cambria Math&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBin m:val=&quot;before&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBinSub m:val=&quot;&amp;#45;-&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:smallFrac m:val=&quot;off&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:dispDef/&gt;    &lt;m:lMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:rMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:defJc m:val=&quot;centerGroup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:wrapIndent m:val=&quot;1440&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:intLim m:val=&quot;subSup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:naryLim m:val=&quot;undOvr&quot;/&gt;   &lt;/m:mathPr&gt;&lt;/w:WordDocument&gt; &lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:LatentStyles DefLockedState=&quot;false&quot; DefUnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
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&lt;h1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800610&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;1 At the supermarket&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;h2&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800611&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;1.1 Number sequences&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Imagine that you are at a modern supermarket and the cashier is processing the items from your basket or trolley. The electronic till (which is a form of computer) records each item that you have bought. Most items are scanned using a device that can read the barcode printed on the item.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Colorful List Accent 6&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;73&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;Book Title&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;37&quot; Name=&quot;Bibliography&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;39&quot; QFormat=&quot;true&quot; Name=&quot;TOC Heading&quot;/&gt;  &lt;/w:LatentStyles&gt; &lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 10]&gt; &lt;style&gt;
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   UnhideWhenUsed=&quot;false&quot; Name=&quot;Medium List 1 Accent 3&quot;/&gt;   &lt;w:LsdException Locked=&quot;false&quot; Priority=&quot;66&quot; SemiHidden=&quot;false&quot;
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&lt;span class=&quot;caption&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Figure 1 An example of a barcode. Today, nearly every product has a barcode, although not all stores use them. A laser scanner is used to convert the pattern of light and dark bars into a number stored in the till. The number, printed as part of the barcode, may be entered manually if an electronic scanner is unavailable. A computerised till uses this code to look up the price that a shop wishes to charge for the item.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800612&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;Description&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Figure 1 &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of description&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Items that need to be weighed (such as loose fruit and vegetables) do not have a barcode printed on them. Instead, the cashier looks up a different sort of code for these items and enters this manually at the till, together with the weight of the item purchased. If an error is made, the cashier may cancel the item just entered and try again. When all the items you have purchased have been processed, your final bill is calculated and you receive an itemised receipt (Figure 2).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;span class=&quot;caption&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Figure 2: An example of a supermarket till receipt. (Note the two weighed items.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800613&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Description&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Figure 2 &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of description&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Let us look a little more formally at some of the data that the supermarket computer system must store and use. As we do this, you will begin to get a flavour of the rigour that underpins the design of modern software. You will meet new vocabulary and concepts, try to get a general sense of what each new term means.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Each type of item stocked by the supermarket needs to be identified. As we have seen, this is done either using barcodes or, for weighed items, item codes of a different sort. Associated with each code is a variety of other item-related information. Perhaps the most obvious information is the price, and the description that appears on the receipt. (In the case of weighed items, the price is a unit price, giving the price per kilogram, for instance.) Other information associated with any item code might include the current stock level (so that new stock can be ordered as items are near to being out of stock), the name and address of the supplier, discount rates for multiple purchases, etc&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Barcodes such as 5000119004048 can be interpreted as whole numbers. Whole numbers are called &lt;strong&gt;integers&lt;/strong&gt;. Integers may be positive, negative or zero. (The codes for weighed items are also usually whole numbers.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Prices and weights are not ordinarily presented as whole numbers. In Figure 2, the item price of walnut bread is shown as £1.49; the unit price of organic courgettes is £3.49 per kg and the weight of organic courgettes purchased is 0.41 kg (kg is the standard abbreviation for kilogram).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A number with a fractional part such as 1.49 is an example of a real number. The real numbers include numbers such as 3.497825 (and numbers such as √2, which cannot be expressed exactly as any fraction or decimal). Computers cannot represent such real numbers exactly. When dealing with a real number, we can only rely on a computer storing and manipulating an approximation of the number. Even though the extent of the approximation may seem small, this can present problems to the unwary software developer. To avoid problems here, we will represent prices as a whole number of pence, and weights as a whole number of grams. So, for example, the bill in Figure 2 includes a purchase of 335 grams of walnuts at 299 pence per kg.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;As the items in a basket or trolley are scanned one after another, the till stores a &lt;strong&gt;sequence&lt;/strong&gt; of codes. We use a precise notation to indicate a sequence. Suppose that the item codes scanned so far are 50773, 50412, 50330, 33777, 50773. If the codes were scanned in this order, then the till would store the sequence [50773, 50412, 50330, 33777, 50773]. If the same codes were scanned in a different order, then the till might store the sequence [50773, 50773, 50412, 50330, 33777]. Barcodes normally contain more digits. In our illustrative examples, we shall use shorter codes that are easier to read.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A sequence is a collection of items in a particular order. We shall write the items in a sequence between square brackets [ and ], and commas are used to separate the items in it (in other texts, you may see angled brackets &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Arial Unicode MS&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;〈&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; and &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot; style=&quot;font-family: &amp;quot;Arial Unicode MS&amp;quot;,&amp;quot;sans-serif&amp;quot;; mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;〉&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt; used to show a sequence, rather than [ and ]). These items are called the &lt;strong&gt;elements&lt;/strong&gt; of the sequence. The order in which items appear in a sequence is important, so that [50773, 50412, 50330, 33777, 50773] is not the same as the sequence [50773, 50773, 50412, 50330, 33777]. Of course, the order in which the cashier checks your purchases does not matter in terms of the final cost. But, while the items are being entered, the order will often matter. For example, if an error occurs in scanning or weighing, the last item entered can usually be corrected using a ‘Cancel Last Item’ key on the till. Also, the itemised bill that you receive usually gives the items in the order in which they have been processed.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Item descriptions in Figure 2 include “ORGANIC SOUP” and “OLIVE OIL”. These descriptions are formed from &lt;strong&gt;characters&lt;/strong&gt; that can be typed from a computer keyboard (possibly with the Shift key pressed). There are various points to note about characters. For example, upper- and lower-case versions of the same letter, such as ‘P’ and ‘p’, are different characters. A digit such as ‘5’ can be entered from the keyboard as a character, and it is vital to be clear that, in terms of its storage in computer memory, this is not the same thing as the number 5. This means that “SOUP”, for example, also forms a sequence. It is a sequence of characters, and could be written as [‘S’, ‘O’, ‘U’, ‘P’]. However, to do this would be tedious, since we will use sequences of characters frequently. So we often use the notation “SOUP”, just to make life easier! When we do this, we usually refer to the sequence of characters as a &lt;strong&gt;string&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Note that we have introduced a number of notational conventions. An individual character is written between single inverted commas, as in ‘P’ or ‘q’. Double inverted commas are used to show a sequence of characters such as “ORGANIC”. If we write out in full the string “ORGANIC COURGETTES 0.41kg @ £3.49/kg”, it is necessary to deal with the spaces between words. This use of double inverted commas only applies to sequences of &lt;strong&gt;characters&lt;/strong&gt;. All other sequences are written using the square bracket notation introduced above. Spaces are characters like any others; they are obtained by pressing the space-bar on the keyboard. It is often desirable to indicate the space character explicitly by adopting a special symbol. We shall use ‘&lt;img height=&quot;8&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;7&quot; /&gt;’. Thus, we may write [‘O’, ‘R’, ‘G’, ‘A’, ‘N’, ‘I’, ‘C’, ‘&lt;img height=&quot;8&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;7&quot; /&gt;’, ‘C’, ‘O’, ‘U’, ‘R’, ‘G’, ‘E’, ‘T’, ‘T’, ‘E’, ‘S’, ‘&lt;img height=&quot;8&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;7&quot; /&gt;’, ‘0’, ‘.’, ‘4’, ‘1’, ‘k’, ‘g’, ‘&lt;img height=&quot;8&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;7&quot; /&gt;’, ‘@’, ‘&lt;img height=&quot;8&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;7&quot; /&gt;’,‘£’, ‘3’, ‘.’, ‘4’ ‘9’, ‘/’, ‘k’, ‘g’].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Imagine you are at the fifth till in the supermarket, and the data that constitutes your transaction is recorded by the supermarket&#39;s computer using the &lt;strong&gt;identifier&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;em&gt;till5&lt;/em&gt;. This is the name of an area in the computer&#39;s memory devoted to storing your transaction details. The data stored in &lt;em&gt;till5&lt;/em&gt; changes each time an item is scanned or entered, and so we refer to &lt;em&gt;till5&lt;/em&gt; as a &lt;strong&gt;variable&lt;/strong&gt;. We call the data stored in the variable &lt;em&gt;till5&lt;/em&gt; at any moment in time the &lt;strong&gt;state&lt;/strong&gt; of &lt;em&gt;till5&lt;/em&gt;. Each time that the data stored by &lt;em&gt;till5&lt;/em&gt; changes, we say that the state of &lt;em&gt;till5&lt;/em&gt; has changed. You do not need to know anything about how the computer&#39;s electronic memory actually works.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;These comments are not peculiar to the fifth till at the supermarket. The supermarket&#39;s computer stores data for each active till. The data for each till can be seen as a variable, and so needs its own identifier — such as &lt;em&gt;till1&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;till2&lt;/em&gt;, and so on. Indeed, the term &lt;strong&gt;variable&lt;/strong&gt; is used for any named area of computer memory, storing data that may change.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Now suppose that the variable &lt;em&gt;till5&lt;/em&gt; stores a sequence of barcodes. When the cashier starts a new transaction, no items have been entered, so the state of the variable &lt;em&gt;till5&lt;/em&gt; needs to start as a sequence with no elements, which we call an &lt;strong&gt;empty sequence&lt;/strong&gt; and write as [ ]. If an item with code 50297 is then entered, then the state of &lt;em&gt;till5&lt;/em&gt; will change to [50297]. If an item with code 50152 is scanned next, then the state becomes [50297, 50152], and so on.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;When a new item is recorded, the state of &lt;em&gt;till5&lt;/em&gt; changes, and changes in a way that is predictable. Specifically, the current state is changed by appending the newest item to the end of the sequence, giving a new state.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;We have described the change of a till state in a way that is quite general. The description is not peculiar to the fifth till in the supermarket: it applies equally well to a transaction in progress at any till. Indeed, it describes a process that adds a new item to any variable storing data as a sequence.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Table 1: Prices of items&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;thead&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;&quot;&gt;    &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;    &lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;Item code&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;    &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;    &lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;Item price (pence)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/thead&gt;  &lt;tbody&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;mso-yfti-irow: 1;&quot;&gt;   &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;   &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;33050&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;   &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;299&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;  &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;mso-yfti-irow: 2;&quot;&gt;   &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;   &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;   &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;  &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;mso-yfti-irow: 3;&quot;&gt;   &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;   &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;53151&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;   &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;440&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;  &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;mso-yfti-irow: 4; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;&quot;&gt;   &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;   &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;77502&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;td style=&quot;padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;&quot;&gt;   &lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN-GB&quot;&gt;89&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/td&gt;  &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Now suppose the computer stores the prices of certain items as given in Table 1. To calculate the bill corresponding to purchases read by the cashier as [77502, 53151, 33050, 77502], we need to store the price associated with each item purchased. Let us assume that a second sequence is also being generated as each item is recorded, giving the price of the item. Suppose that this is stored as a variable &lt;em&gt;price5&lt;/em&gt;. If the sequence of item codes were [77502, 53151, 33050, 77502], then the sequence of prices would be [89, 440, 299, 89]. Given this sequence, the total bill is obtained by simply finding the total of all the values in the sequence &lt;em&gt;price5&lt;/em&gt;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;89 + 440 + 299 + 89 = 917 pence.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;For simplicity, assume that there are no weighed items and no special offers.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;This calculation does not change the state of the variable &lt;em&gt;price5&lt;/em&gt;, but the value calculated certainly does depend upon the state of that variable.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Appending a new item at the end of a sequence, or adding a sequence of numbers, are both examples of the sort of processes that software needs to carry out time and time again. Recognising generality, and forms of data and processes on data that can be reused, are key skills in learning to design large and complex software systems.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Consider a process that changes the state of a variable storing a sequence by removing the last item from the sequence. So, for example, if the state of the variable was [22, 31, 53, 22, 13], then applying the process would change the state to [22, 31, 53, 22]. Suppose that this process is applied four more times. Write out the state of the variable after each application.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800614&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;The state starts as [22, 31, 53, 22]. After one more application of this process the state is [22, 31, 53]. If the process is applied again, the state becomes [22, 31]. If the process is applied again, the state becomes [22]. If the process is applied one more time, then the last item in the sequence is removed. We are left with a sequence containing no items, the empty sequence, which we write as [ ].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Since we use double inverted commas for strings, i.e. sequences of characters, we will use “ ” to denote the empty string in this unit. In many computing texts, the symbol ξ is used.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Activity 2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;How many characters are there in the string “I am it.”? Using the notational conventions introduced above for writing sequences and characters (including the space character), write this string out in full as a sequence of characters.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800615&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;This string includes eight characters in all, including two space characters and a full stop. Written in full, it is the following sequence of characters:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;[‘I’,‘&lt;img height=&quot;8&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;7&quot; /&gt;’,‘a’,‘m’,‘ &lt;img height=&quot;8&quot; src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Others/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif&quot; width=&quot;7&quot; /&gt;’,‘i’,‘t’,‘.’].&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;div class=&quot;delimit&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;End of discussion&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/1748360028917119882/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-at.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/1748360028917119882'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/1748360028917119882'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-at.html' title='Data and processes in computing: At the supermarket: 1.1 Number sequences'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/sfGQqKte2tSz0nxiOSgYB3K3c3KzXpxMB4ATDsBqL8Iv5yAsTXMZRM0DREUBohFaL4Z9Ql-99Y4QcewIdhsul2ZY_t4_OJ_Y4E1V9crORtCByeBo9wE=s72-c" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-383991342947644142</id><published>2011-09-29T19:43:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T19:43:38.190-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: Key ideas</title><content type='html'>&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:WordDocument&gt;   &lt;w:View&gt;Normal&lt;/w:View&gt;   &lt;w:Zoom&gt;0&lt;/w:Zoom&gt;   &lt;w:TrackMoves/&gt;   &lt;w:TrackFormatting/&gt;   &lt;w:PunctuationKerning/&gt;   &lt;w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/&gt;   &lt;w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;false&lt;/w:SaveIfXMLInvalid&gt;   &lt;w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;false&lt;/w:IgnoreMixedContent&gt;   &lt;w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;false&lt;/w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText&gt;   &lt;w:DoNotPromoteQF/&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeOther&gt;EN-MY&lt;/w:LidThemeOther&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeAsian&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeAsian&gt;   &lt;w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;X-NONE&lt;/w:LidThemeComplexScript&gt;   &lt;w:Compatibility&gt;    &lt;w:BreakWrappedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:SnapToGridInCell/&gt;    &lt;w:WrapTextWithPunct/&gt;    &lt;w:UseAsianBreakRules/&gt;    &lt;w:DontGrowAutofit/&gt;    &lt;w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/&gt;    &lt;w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/&gt;    &lt;w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/&gt;    &lt;w:Word11KerningPairs/&gt;    &lt;w:CachedColBalance/&gt;   &lt;/w:Compatibility&gt;   &lt;w:BrowserLevel&gt;MicrosoftInternetExplorer4&lt;/w:BrowserLevel&gt;   &lt;m:mathPr&gt;    &lt;m:mathFont m:val=&quot;Cambria Math&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBin m:val=&quot;before&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:brkBinSub m:val=&quot;&amp;#45;-&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:smallFrac m:val=&quot;off&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:dispDef/&gt;    &lt;m:lMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:rMargin m:val=&quot;0&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:defJc m:val=&quot;centerGroup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:wrapIndent m:val=&quot;1440&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:intLim m:val=&quot;subSup&quot;/&gt;    &lt;m:naryLim m:val=&quot;undOvr&quot;/&gt;   &lt;/m:mathPr&gt;&lt;/w:WordDocument&gt; &lt;/xml&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if gte mso 9]&gt;&lt;xml&gt;  &lt;w:LatentStyles DefLockedState=&quot;false&quot; DefUnhideWhenUsed=&quot;true&quot;
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&lt;h1&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;&quot; name=&quot;_Toc289800609&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Key ideas&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;In this unit, we will take an introductory look at two key ideas: &lt;strong&gt;forms of data&lt;/strong&gt; handled by a software system, and the &lt;strong&gt;processes&lt;/strong&gt; that may be applied to that data. These ideas are illustrated by a particular application — a supermarket till — but they are of general relevance in designing software systems. Important terminology will be highlighted in &lt;strong&gt;bold&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;In this unit we will look at some commonly occurring forms of data. We start with fundamental forms, such as numbers and characters (which are symbols that may be typed at a keyboard). We then go on to look at more complicated data structures.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;A second crucial feature of data is the processes available to handle it. The processes needed in any particular application are a particular focus in software design. Here, we shall look at how in principle we can describe a process that manipulates data. This initial description will not be concerned with how the process is executed, but only with its effect.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;This unit will introduce two important mathematical ideas that help in offering clear and precise descriptions of software components relating to data and processes. These ideas are &lt;strong&gt;set&lt;/strong&gt; and &lt;strong&gt;function&lt;/strong&gt;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span lang=&quot;EN&quot; style=&quot;mso-ansi-language: EN;&quot;&gt;Section 1 gives a brief introduction to how data and processes may arise in an application situation. Section 2 is concerned with fundamental forms of data, and the mathematical idea of a set. Section 3 looks briefly at some more structured forms of data. In Section 4 we look at processes, and the mathematical idea of function. Section 5 is concerned with processes of a particular sort. Examples of these processes are the addition of numbers (as in 5 + 6) and a comparison of two numbers (as in 3&amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;&amp;nbsp;5).&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/383991342947644142/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-key.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/383991342947644142'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/383991342947644142'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing-key.html' title='Data and processes in computing: Key ideas'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-3116955808019750955</id><published>2011-09-29T19:41:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T19:41:57.471-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Data and processes in computing"/><title type='text'>Data and processes in computing: Introduction</title><content type='html'>&lt;span id=&quot;internal-source-marker_0.24950164275750775&quot; style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 24pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Introduction&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;This  unit provides an introduction to data and processes in software, and  provides a basis that enables these fundamental ideas to be developed in  a clear and precise way. It has two main aims. The first is to  illustrate how we can describe ways in which data may be structured and  processed. The second is to introduce you to some vocabulary and  concepts that help us to do this. The material is accessible to anyone  with a little experience of the use of symbols in presenting ideas.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Section  1 provides a brief introduction to the unit. It contains some new  language that will be explained more fully in later sections. Read this  section without spending too much time on it. The most important  material in this unit is that in Sections 2 and 4. Section 3 includes  some ideas that are relatively difficult. You should read this section,  but do not spend a great deal of time on it. Section 5 is of a similar  length to Sections 2 and 4.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Overall,  do not allow yourself to spend too long on any section while you are  studying this unit. You can always come back and reread material here if  you find later that you need a more thorough understanding of some  point.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;The unit introduces you to:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;ways in which data may be stored and processed; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;language notation and concepts that enable discussion of these in a precise way. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;It enables you to do the following:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;distinguish between different forms of data, and use notations introduced in the unit to show different forms of data; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;  &amp;nbsp;appreciate that fine details may be important when interpreting formal  notation (for example, different types of brackets may be used to  distinguish between different forms of data); &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;interpret a given function description; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;recognise correct syntax in formal expressions, in particular, that: &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;a function requires the correct number and type of inputs; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;function inputs must satisfy any precondition on the function; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;  &amp;nbsp;in an expression, brackets need to be used in a way that makes it  possible to interpret the expression in a unique way, and binary  operations and functions in the expression need to be combined in a way  which is consistent with their signatures and preconditions. &lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/3116955808019750955/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/3116955808019750955'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/3116955808019750955'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/data-and-processes-in-computing.html' title='Data and processes in computing: Introduction'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-7960342409945498449</id><published>2011-09-24T03:32:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2011-10-04T10:18:27.032-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="P5126 Aspek Pemasaran Antarabangsa"/><title type='text'>UNIT 11  PEMBAYARAN DAN PEMBIAYAAN PEMASARAN ANTARABANGSA</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; id=&quot;internal-source-marker_0.5963756847732082&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;UNIT 11&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PEMBAYARAN DAN PEMBIAYAAN PEMASARAN ANTARABANGSA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF AM&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mengetahui  dan memahami tentang keperluan pembiayaan dalam pemasaran antarabangsa,  sumber-sumber pembiayaan eksport dan kaedah-kaedah pembayaran dalam  perdagangan antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF KHUSUS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di akhir unit ini anda sepatutnya dapat :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Menyatakan keperluan pembiayaan dalam pemasaran antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Menyenaraikan dan menjelaskan sumber-sumber pembiayaan eksport&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;Menjelaskan tentang kaedah-kaedah pembayaran yang digunakan dalam perdagangan antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENGENALAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemasaran  dan kewangan terjalin begitu erat sekali dengan keseluruhan  perancangan, matlamat dan objektif perbadanan; dasar dan keputusan dalam  setiap satu daripadanya mempunyai kesan yang mendalam ke atas yang  lain. &amp;nbsp;Tanpa sokongan kewangan yang sesuai, kegiatan pemasaran tidak  boleh mencapai potensi akhirnya; dan tanpa aliran tunai serta untung  yang mencukupi yang dihasilkan oleh kegiatan pemasaran, kemampuan  perbadanan untuk mencapai pertumbuhan sepenuh serta potensi pembangunan  adalah terhad. &amp;nbsp;Secara amnya dianggap bahawa pertimbangan kewangan  adalah bidang utama pegawai kewangan, tetapi seperti yang boleh  dibuktikan oleh mana-mana pemasar antarabangsa, urusan pegawai kewangan  juga merupakan urusan pemasar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keperluan Pembiayaan Dalam Pemasaran Antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jarak,  selang masa, tarif, cukai, keperluan penyertaan kewangan, pembatasan  pertukaran, nilai kewangan yang turun naik, dan kekukuhan kewangan  tempatan yang tidak mencukupi semuanya adalah unsur yang membezakan  masalah pembiayaan kegiatan pemasaran antarabangsa berbanding masalah  yang berkaitan dengan pemasaran dalam negeri. &amp;nbsp;Pengurusan yang cekap ke  atas fungsi kewangan dalam pemasaran boleh menjadi factor strategi yang  memepengaruhi untung dan mempunyai kesan yang besar ke atas kemampuan  syarikat untuk membangunkan saluran pemasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Selang  masa disebabkan oleh jarak dan penyeberangan sempadan antarabangsa  menambah unsur kos kepada pemasaran antarabangsa yang menjadikan  perancangan aliran tunai amat penting. &amp;nbsp;Malah dalam urusniaga yang  secara relatifnya mudah, wang boleh terikat selama berbulan-bulan ketika  barang dihantar dari satu bahagian di dunia ke bahagian yang lain;  pelepasan kastam mungkin menambah beberapa hari, minggu atau bulan;  pembayaran mungkin akan tersekat sementara dokumen pembayaran  antarabangsa sedang dipindahkan dari sebuah negara ke negara yang lain;  dan barang yang pecah, pertelingkahan perdagangan, atau pembatasan  kerajaan boleh menambah kelewatan seterusnya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.1.1 &amp;nbsp;Keperluan modal kerja&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Disebabkan  oleh lat masa, kos penghantaran, duti, kos permulaan yang lebih tinggi,  kos inventori, kos penyusupan pasaran, dan pertambahan keperluan  kewangan untuk kredit saluran dan perdagangan, pengendalian di luar  negeri biasanya memerlukan amaun modal kerja yang lebih besar daripada  yang diperlukan oleh kegiatan dalam negeri yang dikendalikan pada  tingkat volum yang sama. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;a) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Kos permulaan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Amaun  modal kerja yang lebih banyak sering diperlukan untuk menutup kos  permulaan sebuah syarikat yang memasuki pasaran antarabangsa yang baru.  &amp;nbsp;Kos seperti ini boleh memeranjatkan firma yang sudah biasa dengan  pengendalian dalam pasaran dalam negeri yang tidak asing lagi baginya.  &amp;nbsp;Sebuah firma mungkin mendapati bahawa ia mesti membayar untuk maklumat  yang digunakan atau diperolehi tanpa kos dalam negara sendiri. &amp;nbsp;Juga  sebahagian daripada kos permulaan ialah undang-undang, penubuhan  pejabat, pembelian lesen, dan seterusnya. &amp;nbsp;Penyelidikan pemasaran boleh  menjadi perbelanjaan yang besar, terutamanya jika syarikat terpaksa  menyelidiki tiga atau empat buah negara sebelum memulakan perusahaan  perniagaan dalam mana-mana satu daripada negara tersebut.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;b) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Inventori&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keberkesanan  pemasar dalam mengendalikan inventori boleh mempunyai kesan yang agak  besar ke atas keperluan kewangan fungsi ini. &amp;nbsp;Perkhidmatan yang  mencukupi untuk pasaran asing sering mengkehendaki barangan  diinventorikan di beberapa letakan. &amp;nbsp;Pengangkutan yang lebih lambat dan  jarak yang lebih jauh apabila menghantar melalui air bermakna bahawa  pusing ganti inventori boleh memakan masa yang lebih lama dari masa yang  biasanya diperlukan untuk pengendalian dalam negeri. &amp;nbsp;Masa tambahan  yang diperlukan untuk penyerahan menambah keperluan modal yang  diperlukan untuk membiayai inventori.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sejenis  keperluan pembiayaan inventori yang keseluruhannya baru kadang-kadang  dikenakan ke atas pemasar secara menipu apabila pemasar tersebut dipaksa  menerima barang perdagangan balas untuk menyempurnakan urusniaganya  dengan negara yang menghadapi kekurangan mata wang atau apabila pemasar  itu dipaksa membeli balik barang sebagai sebahagian daripada rumpun  pembiayaan untuk kelengkapan modal. &amp;nbsp;Kecuali jika barang yang berkenaan  dapat dijual dengan mudah, syarikat mungkin mendapati dirinya menanggung  barang tersebut untuk tempoh masa yang lama sebelum pasaran untuknya  dapat dicari.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos Penembusan Pasaran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Terdapat  berbagai-bagai jenis kos yang dikaitkan dengan penembusan pasaran. &amp;nbsp;Kos  promosi dan pengiklanan adalah serupa dalam pasaran dalam negeri dan  dalam pasaran asing kecuali ia biasanya lebih tinggi berbanding dengan  jualan sebenar. &amp;nbsp;Pengilang barang tahan lama mendapati bahawa mereka  mesti sering menyediakan dana untuk kemudahan perkhidmatan sebelum  keluaran mereka diterima. &amp;nbsp;Dalam hal yang berkaitan dengan saluran  agihan pula, pengagihan antarabangsa yang rumit memerlukan pelaburan  saluran yang lebih besar. &amp;nbsp;Orang tengah asing jarang dibiayai dengan  secukupnya dan mungkin mereka memerlukan kredit jangkapanjang yang  ekstensif jika mereka dikehendaki menyimpan inventori yang mencukupi dan  menawarkan kredit yang mencukupi kepada pelanggan mereka.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kredit  sedang menjadi sama penting kepada jualan eksport seperti harga sesuatu  keluaran. &amp;nbsp;Syarat kredit dan pembayaran telah menjadi senjata utama  persaingan antarabangsa dalam pasaran sejagat.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pelaburan Modal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Terdapat  keperluan pelaburan modal untuk kemudahan pemasaran seperti gudang, dok  perkapalan, kedai runcit dan pejabat jualan; kesemuanya memerlukan  pelaburan modal yang banyak untuk kemudahan fizikal. &amp;nbsp;Dalam  mempertimbangkan implikasi kewangan, kos kemudahan pengeluaran serta kos  kemudahan pemasaran boleh secara lojik dikaitkan dengan pemasaran  sebagai kos masukan pasaran. &amp;nbsp;Persoalan kewangan yang penting yang  dihadapi oleh pemasar antarabangsa ialah ketersediaan dan sumber modal  untuk membiayai modal kerja tambahan yang diperlukan. &amp;nbsp;Selain sumber  syarikat itu sendiri, berbagai-bagai jenis dana awam juga tersedia.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11A&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pada pendapat anda, kenapakah keperluan pembiayaan penting kepada pemasaran antarabangsa ?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SUMBER-SUMBER PEMBIAYAAN EKSPORT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.2.1 &amp;nbsp;Bank Perdagangan dan Bank Saudagar&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bank  perdagangan terlibat dalam perdagangan antarabangsa melalui pengeluaran  surat kredit dan mendiskaunkan bil pertukaran. &amp;nbsp;Pengimport yang ingin  mengimport barang-barangnya ke luar negara boleh meminta banknya menulis  satu surat kredit yang akan menjamin kebolehan membayar pengimport.  &amp;nbsp;Surat kredit itu akan dihantar kepada pengeksport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apabila  pengeksport menerima surat kredit, bank pengeksport akan menghantar bil  pertukaran kepada pengimport yang menunjukkan jumlah bayaran yang perlu  dibuat kepada pengeksport pada satu tarikh yang ditetapkan pada masa  depan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pada  tarikh yang ditetapkan itu, pengeksport akan menerima satu jumlah  bayaran yang dinyatakan dalam bil pertukaran itu. &amp;nbsp;Jika pengeksport  ingin mendapatkan bayaran lebih awal, pengeksport boleh menjual bil  pertukaran kepada banknya pada satu kadar diskaun. &amp;nbsp;Ini adalah disebut  sebagai mendiskaunkan bil pertukaran. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport akan menerima satu  jumlah bayaran yang lebih kurang daripada jumlah yang dinyatakan dalam  bil pertukaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bank  saudagar pula menyediakan perkhidmatan kepada institusi perniagaan yang  besar &amp;nbsp;sahaja. &amp;nbsp;Bank saudagar membantu pemasar antarabangsa dalam  membiayai projek pelaburan , membekalkan perkhidmatan nasihat berkenaan  dengan pergabungan, pengambilalihan, pembentukan semula atau penyusunan  semula modal syarikat. &amp;nbsp;Bank saudagar akan membantu pelanggannya untuk  mencari syarikat-syarikat yang sesuai untuk tujuan pergabungan atau  pengambilalihan syarikat. &amp;nbsp;Bank saudagar akan memberi nasihat dan  sokongan kepada pelanggan-pelanggannya berkenaan dengan strategi dan  hal-hal kewangan. Selain daripada itu, bank saudagar juga menguruskan  hal-hal dokumentasi yang perlu.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bank  saudagar juga bertindak sebagai pengurus kepada dana-dana pelanggan di  mana dana ini akan dilaburkan dalam syer, aset, institusi kewangan dan  sebagainya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.2.2 &amp;nbsp;Rumah Pendiskaunan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rumah  pendiskaunan ialah satu kemudahan yang bank sediakan kepada pengeksport  yang menjual barangannya secara kredit. &amp;nbsp;Bank akan memberikan kredit  serta-merta kepada pengeksport ini sebelum hasil daripada bil pertukaran  dipungut dan diterima. &amp;nbsp;Tempoh kredit akan bergantung kepada tempoh  penerimaan bil pertukaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengeksport,  selepas penghantaran barangan akan menyerahkan bil pertukaran beserta  dokuman lain kepada banknya untuk penerimaan oleh pengimport. &amp;nbsp;Apabila  pengimport menerima bil ini, ia menjadi bolehniaga dan pengeksport boleh  mendapatkan tunai dengan mendiskaunkan bil ini dengan banknya.  &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport tidak perlu menunggu sehingga bil ini matang. &amp;nbsp;Bank akan  membayar nilai bil ini selepas ditolak caj diskaun. &amp;nbsp;Apabila sampai  tempoh matang, bank akan menyerahkan bil ini kepada pengimport untuk  pembayaran dan hasilnya digunakan untuk membayar balik pendahuluan yang  diberikan kepada pengeksport. &amp;nbsp;Walaubagaimanapun, bank masih mempunyai  hak tuntutan terhadap pengeksport sekiranya pengimport gagal membayar  apabila bil ini sampai tempohnya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.2.3 &amp;nbsp;Pemfaktoran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemfaktoran  ialah satu kemudahan pembelian hutang atau akaun belum terima oleh  institusi kewangan ( dipanggil pemfaktor ) daripada pelanggannya (  dipanggil klien ) serta penyediaan perkhidmatan tertentu selain  pendahuluan wang sebelum hutang-hutang dipungut. &amp;nbsp;Kemudahan ini  disediakan kepada peniaga yang ingin memperbaiki aliran tunai mereka dan  mengurangkan perbelanjaan serta kerumitan dalam pengendalian dan  pengawalan akaun-akaun jualan mereka.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Proses  pemfaktoran melibatkan hutang perniagaan klien dengan para  pelanggannya. &amp;nbsp;Klien membekalkan barangan atau perkhidmatan secara  kredit kepada pelanggannya, dan akan menyerahkan bil-bil hutang ini  kepada pemfaktor. &amp;nbsp;Pemfaktor kemudiannya akan mendahulukan wang tunai  sehingga 80 peratus daripada nilai bil-bil hutang kepada klien ini dan  seterusnya memaklumkan kepada semua pelanggan yang terlibat supaya  membuat pembayaran terus kepadanya dan bukan kepada klien lagi.  &amp;nbsp;Pemfaktor juga akan menghantar penyata bulanan serta notis-notis  peringatan meminta para pelanggan membayar hutang pada tempohnya.  &amp;nbsp;Apabila semua hutang telah dikutip, pemfaktor akan mengembalikan baki  hutang sebanyak 20 peratus lagi kepada klien selepas ditolak faedah dan  caj perkhidmatan yang dikenakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.2.4 &amp;nbsp;Kerajaan dan agensi-agensinya&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kerajaan  juga &amp;nbsp;memberi pelbagai jenis bantuan, dorongan dan galakan kepada  pengeksport untuk menambahkan hasil pendapatan negara, membaiki imbangan  pembayaran dan meningkatkan taraf hidup.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Diantara bantuan-bantuan yang diberikan ialah &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memberi potongan cukai pendapatan kepada industri yang terlibat di dalam pengeksportan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memberikan elaun eksport kepada firma perdagangan yang menjalankan perdagangan eksport barang kilang dan hasil pertanian.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memberi potongan ke atas cukai pendapatan kerana menjayakan promosi eksport&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memberi  bantuan jaminan kredit eksport bagi melindungi pengeksport terhadap  risiko hutang lapuk oleh pembeli luar negara yang biasanya tidak boleh  diinsuranskan oleh syarikat-syarikat swasta.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memberikan  insentif eksport melalui akta-akta cukai seperti Akta Cukai Kastam 1967  dan Akta Cukai Eksais. &amp;nbsp;Akta Cukai Kastam 1967 membolehkan kilang  menuntut duti import yang dibayar ke atas barang yang kemudiannya boleh  dieksport semula. &amp;nbsp;Manakala Akta Cukai Eksais pula mengecualikan  pembayaran cukai eksais bagi barang yang dikenakan cukai.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kementerian Perdagangan Antarabangsa dan Industri&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kementerian  ini bertanggungjawab di dalam merancang strategi dan mengkoordinasikan  kegiatannya dalam mengenalpasti peluang pemasaran, menjalankan  penyelidikan pemasaran dan juga menghubungkan pengeksport dengan bakal  pembeli.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kementerian  ini juga menyediakan persetujuan perdagangan dua hala supaya peluang  pengeksportan dapat dipertingkatkan disamping memperkenalkan skim  “General System Of Preferences” ( GSP ) iaitu tarif istimewa yang  diberikan oleh negara maju kepada negara yang sedang membangun.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kementerian  juga menjalankan fungsi-fungsi yang berkaitan dengan perkembangan  kerjasama ekonomi dengan negara-negara lain melalui pertubuhan ASEAN dan  EEC bagi membantu pengeksport meningkatkan nilai dagangan mereka.  &amp;nbsp;Kementerian juga membantu pengeksport merancang dan melaksanakan  pameran perdagangan antarabangsa bagi keluaran tempatan di luar negara.  &amp;nbsp;Ia juga menguruskan penyertaan negara di dalam pameran perdagangan  antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pusat Perdagangan Eksport Malaysia ( MATRADE&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; )&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pusat  ini membantu pengeksport mengenali pasaran antarabangsa dengan lebih  mendalam dan mengetahui pengimport yang berminat untuk membeli barangan  tempatan. &amp;nbsp;Ia juga menyediakan nama dan alamat bakal pembeli di luar  negara dan menyediakan ruang pameran barangan tempatan di pejabat  perdagangan bagi menarik minat pembeli luar negeri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di  samping itu, pusat ini juga merancang dan menjalankan seminar-seminar  perdagangan antarabangsa untuk menerangkan peluang-peluang pemasaran  serta menerbitkan majalah, risalah, bahan rujukan atau brosur tentang  penyelidikan barangan dan pasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11B&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apa yang anda faham tentang &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rumah pendiskaunan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemfaktoran &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.3 KAEDAH-KAEDAH PEMBAYARAN YANG DIGUNAKAN DALAM PERDAGANGAN ANTARABANGSA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.3.1 &amp;nbsp;Pendahuluan tunai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kaedah  ini memerlukan pengimport membuat pembayaran terlebih dahulu kepada  pengeksport. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport hanya akan menyerah atau menghantar barangan  yang dipesan setelah wang pendahuluan dibayar. &amp;nbsp;Kaedah ini tidak disukai  oleh pengimport kerana mereka akan menanggung risiko kerana terpaksa  mendahulukan pembayaran dan memastikan pengeksport menghantar dan  menyerahkan barang-barang sepertimana yang telah dipersetujui. &amp;nbsp;Kaedah  ini biasanya digunakan apabila kredit adalah diragukan,terdapat  pembatasan pertukaran di dalam negara destinasi ataupun atas sebab-sebab  tertentu, pengeksport Amerika Syarikat tidak sanggup menjual secara  kredit.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.3.2 &amp;nbsp;Surat berdokumen&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  berdokumen atau juga dikenali sebagai surat kredit adalah instrumen  pembayaran yang paling diterima penggunaannya dalam urusniaga  antarabangsa kerana ia menyediakan perlindungan kepada kedua-dua  pengeksport dan pengimport. &amp;nbsp;Pembayaran di bawah surat kredit ini  dijamin oleh bank.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  berdokumen ini adalah satu jaminan bertulis yang diberikan oleh bank  kepada pengeksport &amp;nbsp;di mana bank berjanji yang pengeksport akan membayar  sepenuhnya bagi penghantaran barangan kepada pengimport mengikut  syarat-syarat dan peraturan yang ditetapkan dalam kredit ini. &amp;nbsp;Surat  berdokumen ini hanya dikeluarkan oleh bank bagi pihak pelanggannya iaitu  pengimport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Dalam  proses ini, pengimport akan membuat permohonan kepada banknya untuk  menerbitkan atau mengeluarkan satu surat kredit, yang kemudiannya  dihantar kepada bank pemaklum. &amp;nbsp;Bank pemaklum pula akan menyerahkan  surat kredit ini kepada benefisiari atau pengeksport. &amp;nbsp;Barang-barang  hanya akan dihantar kepada pengimport selepas penerimaan surat kredit  ini oleh pengeksport. &amp;nbsp;Disamping itu, pengeksport juga akan menyerahkan  bil pertukaran bersama-sama dokumen lain kepada bank perunding urus (  yang juga bank pemaklum ) untuk mendapatkan pembayaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  bil-bil dokumen ini menepati syarat-syarat dan peraturan-peraturan  dalam surat kredit, bank perunding urus akan mendahulukan pembayaran  kepada pengeksport, dan menghantar pula dokumen berkenaan kepada bank  penerbit ( bank pembayar ) untuk mendapatkan kembali pembayaran yang  telah didahulukan kepada pengeksport tadi. &amp;nbsp;Apabila pengimport  menjelaskan pembayaran bil, dokumen-dokumen akan diserahkan kepada  pengimport oleh bank pembayar untuk membolehkannya mengambil  barang-barang daripada syarikat perkapalan di pelabuhan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  kredit boleh berbentuk boleh dimansuh atau tidak boleh dimansuh. &amp;nbsp;Surat  kredit yang tidak boleh dimansuh merupakan satu jaminan oleh bank  penerbit untuk menerima dan membayar bil yang dikeluarkan mengikut  syarat-syaratnya. &amp;nbsp;Jaminan ini tidak boleh diubah atau dibatalkan tanpa  persetujuan semua pihak.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  kredit boleh mansuh pula boleh diubah atau dibatalkan pada bila-bila  masa tanpa persetujuan benefisiari terlebih dahulu. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport akan  menanggung risiko yang tinggi sekiranya surat kredit ini dibatal atau  diubahsuaikan mengikut keadaan yang tidak menguntungkannya, dan ia  mungkin menghadapi kesukaran mendapatkan pembayaran terus daripada  pengimport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.3.3 &amp;nbsp;Bil pertukaran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bil  pertukaran ialah instrumen paling umum digunakan untuk mendapatkan  pembayaran daripada pengimport. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport yang menghantar barangan  akan menyediakan bil pertukaran ini bertujuan untuk mendapatkan  pembayaran daripada pengimport dalam tempoh yang ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;Dengan  kata lain, ia adalah dokumen yang disediakan dan ditandatangani oleh  pengeksport dan ditujukan kepada pengimport, &amp;nbsp;bagi meminta pengimport  membayar sejumlah wang atas perintah atau pada masa hadapan yang  dtentukan kepada pengeksport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Terdapat  tiga pihak dalam bil pertukaran ini. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport yang menyediakan bil  dan memberi perintah dipanggil penyuruhbayar dan pengimport yang  perintah ini ditujukan dipanggil pesuruhbayar. &amp;nbsp;Manakala pihak yang akan  menerima pembayaran atau benefisiari dikenali sebagai penerima.  &amp;nbsp;Kebiasaannya penerima ialah bank yang bertindak bagi &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;pihak pengeksport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.3.4 &amp;nbsp;Akaun Terbuka&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Akaun  terbuka ialah satu perjanjian di antara pengimport dengan pengeksport,  di mana pengeksport akan terlebih dahulu menghantar barangan yang  dipesan oleh pengimport, dan pengimport pula bersetuju menangguhkan  pembayarannya ke suatu masa yang ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;Dokumen perdagangan dan  perkapalan dihantar terus kepada pengimport dan ia membolehkan  pengimport memiliki barangan ini dan menjual atau menggunakan mengikut  kehendaknya. &amp;nbsp;Apabila sampai tempoh, pengimport akan membuat pembayaran  menerusi banknya sama ada melalui cek, draf, pindahan telegraf atau  SWIFT ( Pertubuhan Telekomunikasi Kewangan Antara Bank Seluruh Dunia ).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di  bawah kaedah ini, pengeksport akan menanggung risiko yang kemungkinan  pengimport akan membayar kesemuanya dalam masa yang ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;Oleh  itu kemudahan ini hanya boleh disediakan oleh pengeksport kepada  pengimport yang sudah lama mempunyai hubungan perniagaan dengannya serta  mempunyai tahap kepercayaan dan reputasi yang baik.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.3.5 &amp;nbsp;Konsainan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di  bawah kaedah ini, penghantaran barangan dipersetujui melalui satu  perjanjian di mana pembayaran hanya boleh dibuat selepas barangan ini  dijual dalam suatu tempoh yang ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;Sekiranya barangan ini tidak  dapat dijual, ia akan dikembalikan kepada pengeksport tanpa sebarang  bayaran. &amp;nbsp;Kaedah pembayaran ini banyak memberikan risiko kepada  pengeksport, dan hanya disediakan kepada pengimport yang berpengalaman  luas dan betul-betul boleh dipercayai.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11C&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  anda adalah seorang pemasar antarabangsa, kaedah pembayaran yang  manakah yang anda akan gunakan apabila berurusan dengan rakan niaga anda  dan jelaskan sebab pemilihan kaedah tersebut&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Anda  telah menghampiri kejayaan. &amp;nbsp;Sila cuba semua soalan dalam penilaian  kendiri ini dan semak jawapan anda pada maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika ada sebarang masalah yang timbul, sila berbincang dengan pensyarah anda. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Selamat mencuba semoga berjaya !!!!!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 11-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Huraikan  secara ringkas tentang bagaimanakah kos permulaan memerlukan pembiayaan  apabila melibatkan diri di dalam pemasaran antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 11-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Nyatakan sumber-sumber pembiayaan eksport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 11-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Terangkan secara ringkas tentang perkara-perkara berikut &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pendahuluan tunai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat berdokumen&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bil pertukaran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Akaun terbuka&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Konsainan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h5 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h5&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pembiayaan penting kepada pemasaran antarabangsa adalah untuk &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; Keperluan modal kerja&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; Pelaburan modal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keperluan Modal Kerja&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keperluan  Modal Kerja diperlukan kerana lat masa, kos penghantaran, duti, kos  permulaan yang lebih tinggi, kos inventori, kos penyusupan pasaran, dan  pertambahan keperluan kewangan untuk kredit saluran dan perdagangan.  Pengendalian di luar negeri biasanya memrlukan amaun modal kerja yang  lebih besar daripada yang diperlukan oleh kegiatan dalam negeri yang  dikendalikan pada tingkat volum yang sama. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos permulaan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos  permulaan adalah tinggi bagi firma yang memasuki pasaran yang baru.  Antara kos yang terlibat ialah undang-undang, penubuhan pejabat,  pembelian lessen dan kos penyelidikan pemasaran untuk mendapatkan  maklumat.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Inventori&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pusing  ganti inventori memakan masa yang lama dalam pemasaran antarabangsa  disebabkan proses penghantaran (terutama melalui air) dan proses  penyerahan. Ini bererti barang-barang perlu diinventorikan di beberapa  lokasi yang melibatkan kos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos Penembusan Pasaran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos  penembusan pasaran melibatkan kos promosi dan pengiklanan, kos  mengendalikan kemudahan perkhidmatan untuk memastikan pasaran menerima  produk, pemberian kredit jangka panjang yang ekstensif kepada orang  tengah asing .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pelaburan modal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pelaburan modal diperlukan untuk kemudahan pemasaran seperti gudang, dok perkapalan, kedai runcit dan pejabat jualan. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rumah Pendiskaunan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rumah  pendiskaunan ialah satu kemudahan yang bank sediakan kepada pengeksport  yang menjual barangannya secara kredit. &amp;nbsp;Bank akan memberikan kredit  serta-merta kepada pengeksport ini sebelum hasil daripada bil pertukaran  dipungut dan diterima. &amp;nbsp;Tempoh kredit akan bergantung kepada tempoh  penerimaan bil pertukaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemfaktoran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemfaktoran  ialah satu kemudahan pembelian hutang atau akaun belum trima oleh  institusi kewangan ( dipanggil pemfaktor ) daripada pelanggannya (  dipanggil klien ) serta penyediaan perkhidmatan tertentu selain  pendahuluan wang sebelum hutang-hutang dipungut. &amp;nbsp;Kemudahan ini  disediakan kepada peniaga yang ingin memperbaiki aliran tunai mereka dan  mengurangkan perbelanjaan serta kerumitan dalam pengendalian dan  pengawalan akaun-akaun jualan mereka.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11C&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat berdokumen&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  berdokumen ialah kaedah yang akan digunakan dalam urusniaga  antarabangsa kerana ia menyediakan perlindungan kepada kedua-dua  pengeksport dan pengimport. &amp;nbsp;Surat berdokumen ini adalah satu jaminan  bertulis yang diberikan oleh bank kepada pengeksport &amp;nbsp;di mana bank  berjanji yng pengeksport akan membayara sepenuhnya bagi penghantaran  barangan kepada pngimport mengikut syarat-syarat dan peraturan yang  ditetapkan dalam kredit ini. &amp;nbsp;Surat berdokumen ini hanya dikeluarkan  oleh bank bagi pihak pelanggannya iaitu pengimpoirt.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  bil-bil dan dokumen ini menepati syarata-syarat dan peraturn-peraturan  dalam surat kredit, bank perunding urus akan mendahulukan pembayaran  kepada pengeksport, dan menghantar pula dokumen berkenaan kepada bank  penerbit ( bank pembayara ) untuk mendapatkan kembali pembayaran yang  telah didahulukan kepada pengeksport tadi. &amp;nbsp;Apabila pengimport  menjelaskan pembayaran bil, dokumen-dokumen akan diserahkn kepada  pengimport oleh bank pembayar untuk membolehkannya mengambil  barang-barang daripada syarikat perkapalan di pelabuhan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h5 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h5&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 11-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos permulaan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos  permulaan adalah seperti kos-kos berkaitan undang-undang, penubuhan  pejabat, pembelian lessen, mendapatkan maklumat mengenai pasaran luar  negeri. Kos ini sangat tinggi menyebabkan amaun modal kerja yang tinggi.  Oleh itu firma memerlukan pembayaran bagi menutup kos-kos permulaan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 11-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sumber-sumber pembiayaan eksport &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bank perdagangan dan bank saudagar&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rumah pendiskaunan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemfaktoran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kerajaan dan agensi-agensi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 11-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;i) &amp;nbsp;Pendahuluan tunai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 9pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kaedah  ini memerlukan pengimport membuat pembayaran terlebih dahulu kepada  pengeksport. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport hanya akan menyerah atau menghantar barangan  yang dipesan setelah wang pendahuluan dibayar. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;ii) &amp;nbsp;Surat berdokumen&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 9pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  berdokumen adalah instrumen pembayaran yang paling diterima  penggunaannya dalam urusniaga antarabangsa kerana ia menyediakan  perlindungan kepada kedua-dua pengeksport dan pengimport. &amp;nbsp;Pembayaran di  bawah surat kredit ini dijamin oleh bank.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  berdokumen ini adalah satu jaminan bertulis yang diberikan oleh bank  kepada pengeksport &amp;nbsp;di mana bank berjanji yang pengeksport akan membayar  sepenuhnya bagi penghantaran barangan kepada pngimport mengikut  syarat-syarat dan peraturan yang ditetapkan dalam kredit ini. &amp;nbsp;Surat  berdokumen ini hanya dikeluarkan oleh bank bagi pihak pelanggannya iaitu  pengimport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;iii) &amp;nbsp;Bil pertukaran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bil  pertukaran adalah dokumen yang disediakan dan ditandatangani oleh  pengeksport dan ditujukan kepada pengimport, meminta pengimport membayar  sejumlah wang atas perintah atau pada masa hadapan yang dtentukan  kepada pengeksport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengeksport  yang menghantar barangan akan menyediakan bil pertukaran ini bertujuan  untuk mendapatkan pembayaran daripada pengimport dalam tempoh yang  ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;iv) &amp;nbsp;Akaun Terbuka&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Akaun  terbuka ialah satu perjanjian di antara pengimport dengan pengeksport,  di mana pengeksport akan terlebih dahulu menghantar barangan yang  dipesan oleh pengimport, dan pengimport pula bersetuju menangguhkan  pembayarannya ke suatu masa yang ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;Dokumen perdagangan dan  perkapalan dihantar terus kepada pengimport dan ia membolehkan  pengimport memiliki baranagan ini dan menjual atau menggunakan mengikut  kehendaknya. &amp;nbsp;Apabila sampai tempoh, pengimport akan membuat pembayaran  menerusi banknya sama ada melalui cek, draf, pindahan telegraf atau  SWIFT ( Pertubuhan Telekomunikasi Kewangan Antara Bank Seluruh Dunia ).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;v) &amp;nbsp;Konsainan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di  &amp;nbsp;bawah kaedah ini, penghantaran barangan dipersetujui melalui satu  perjanjian di mana pembayaran hanya boleh dibuat selepas barangan ini  dijual dalam suatu tempoh yang ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;Sekiranya barangan ini tidak  dapat dijual, ia akan dikembalikan kepada pengeksport tanpa sebarang  bayaran. Pengeksport akan menanggung risiko yang lebih tinggi oleh itu  ia hanya disediakan kepada pengimport yang berpengalaman luas dan  dipercayai sahaja.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/7960342409945498449/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-11-pembayaran-dan-pembiayaan_24.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7960342409945498449'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7960342409945498449'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-11-pembayaran-dan-pembiayaan_24.html' title='UNIT 11  PEMBAYARAN DAN PEMBIAYAAN PEMASARAN ANTARABANGSA'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-4447160405996074677</id><published>2011-09-24T03:32:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T21:15:41.386-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="P5126 Aspek Pemasaran Antarabangsa"/><title type='text'>UNIT 11  PEMBAYARAN DAN PEMBIAYAAN PEMASARAN ANTARABANGSA</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; id=&quot;internal-source-marker_0.5963756847732082&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;UNIT 11&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PEMBAYARAN DAN PEMBIAYAAN PEMASARAN ANTARABANGSA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF AM&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mengetahui  dan memahami tentang keperluan pembiayaan dalam pemasaran antarabangsa,  sumber-sumber pembiayaan eksport dan kaedah-kaedah pembayaran dalam  perdagangan antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF KHUSUS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di akhir unit ini anda sepatutnya dapat :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Menyatakan keperluan pembiayaan dalam pemasaran antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Menyenaraikan dan menjelaskan sumber-sumber pembiayaan eksport&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;Menjelaskan tentang kaedah-kaedah pembayaran yang digunakan dalam perdagangan antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENGENALAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemasaran  dan kewangan terjalin begitu erat sekali dengan keseluruhan  perancangan, matlamat dan objektif perbadanan; dasar dan keputusan dalam  setiap satu daripadanya mempunyai kesan yang mendalam ke atas yang  lain. &amp;nbsp;Tanpa sokongan kewangan yang sesuai, kegiatan pemasaran tidak  boleh mencapai potensi akhirnya; dan tanpa aliran tunai serta untung  yang mencukupi yang dihasilkan oleh kegiatan pemasaran, kemampuan  perbadanan untuk mencapai pertumbuhan sepenuh serta potensi pembangunan  adalah terhad. &amp;nbsp;Secara amnya dianggap bahawa pertimbangan kewangan  adalah bidang utama pegawai kewangan, tetapi seperti yang boleh  dibuktikan oleh mana-mana pemasar antarabangsa, urusan pegawai kewangan  juga merupakan urusan pemasar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keperluan Pembiayaan Dalam Pemasaran Antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jarak,  selang masa, tarif, cukai, keperluan penyertaan kewangan, pembatasan  pertukaran, nilai kewangan yang turun naik, dan kekukuhan kewangan  tempatan yang tidak mencukupi semuanya adalah unsur yang membezakan  masalah pembiayaan kegiatan pemasaran antarabangsa berbanding masalah  yang berkaitan dengan pemasaran dalam negeri. &amp;nbsp;Pengurusan yang cekap ke  atas fungsi kewangan dalam pemasaran boleh menjadi factor strategi yang  memepengaruhi untung dan mempunyai kesan yang besar ke atas kemampuan  syarikat untuk membangunkan saluran pemasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Selang  masa disebabkan oleh jarak dan penyeberangan sempadan antarabangsa  menambah unsur kos kepada pemasaran antarabangsa yang menjadikan  perancangan aliran tunai amat penting. &amp;nbsp;Malah dalam urusniaga yang  secara relatifnya mudah, wang boleh terikat selama berbulan-bulan ketika  barang dihantar dari satu bahagian di dunia ke bahagian yang lain;  pelepasan kastam mungkin menambah beberapa hari, minggu atau bulan;  pembayaran mungkin akan tersekat sementara dokumen pembayaran  antarabangsa sedang dipindahkan dari sebuah negara ke negara yang lain;  dan barang yang pecah, pertelingkahan perdagangan, atau pembatasan  kerajaan boleh menambah kelewatan seterusnya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.1.1 &amp;nbsp;Keperluan modal kerja&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Disebabkan  oleh lat masa, kos penghantaran, duti, kos permulaan yang lebih tinggi,  kos inventori, kos penyusupan pasaran, dan pertambahan keperluan  kewangan untuk kredit saluran dan perdagangan, pengendalian di luar  negeri biasanya memerlukan amaun modal kerja yang lebih besar daripada  yang diperlukan oleh kegiatan dalam negeri yang dikendalikan pada  tingkat volum yang sama. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;a) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Kos permulaan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Amaun  modal kerja yang lebih banyak sering diperlukan untuk menutup kos  permulaan sebuah syarikat yang memasuki pasaran antarabangsa yang baru.  &amp;nbsp;Kos seperti ini boleh memeranjatkan firma yang sudah biasa dengan  pengendalian dalam pasaran dalam negeri yang tidak asing lagi baginya.  &amp;nbsp;Sebuah firma mungkin mendapati bahawa ia mesti membayar untuk maklumat  yang digunakan atau diperolehi tanpa kos dalam negara sendiri. &amp;nbsp;Juga  sebahagian daripada kos permulaan ialah undang-undang, penubuhan  pejabat, pembelian lesen, dan seterusnya. &amp;nbsp;Penyelidikan pemasaran boleh  menjadi perbelanjaan yang besar, terutamanya jika syarikat terpaksa  menyelidiki tiga atau empat buah negara sebelum memulakan perusahaan  perniagaan dalam mana-mana satu daripada negara tersebut.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;b) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Inventori&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keberkesanan  pemasar dalam mengendalikan inventori boleh mempunyai kesan yang agak  besar ke atas keperluan kewangan fungsi ini. &amp;nbsp;Perkhidmatan yang  mencukupi untuk pasaran asing sering mengkehendaki barangan  diinventorikan di beberapa letakan. &amp;nbsp;Pengangkutan yang lebih lambat dan  jarak yang lebih jauh apabila menghantar melalui air bermakna bahawa  pusing ganti inventori boleh memakan masa yang lebih lama dari masa yang  biasanya diperlukan untuk pengendalian dalam negeri. &amp;nbsp;Masa tambahan  yang diperlukan untuk penyerahan menambah keperluan modal yang  diperlukan untuk membiayai inventori.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sejenis  keperluan pembiayaan inventori yang keseluruhannya baru kadang-kadang  dikenakan ke atas pemasar secara menipu apabila pemasar tersebut dipaksa  menerima barang perdagangan balas untuk menyempurnakan urusniaganya  dengan negara yang menghadapi kekurangan mata wang atau apabila pemasar  itu dipaksa membeli balik barang sebagai sebahagian daripada rumpun  pembiayaan untuk kelengkapan modal. &amp;nbsp;Kecuali jika barang yang berkenaan  dapat dijual dengan mudah, syarikat mungkin mendapati dirinya menanggung  barang tersebut untuk tempoh masa yang lama sebelum pasaran untuknya  dapat dicari.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos Penembusan Pasaran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Terdapat  berbagai-bagai jenis kos yang dikaitkan dengan penembusan pasaran. &amp;nbsp;Kos  promosi dan pengiklanan adalah serupa dalam pasaran dalam negeri dan  dalam pasaran asing kecuali ia biasanya lebih tinggi berbanding dengan  jualan sebenar. &amp;nbsp;Pengilang barang tahan lama mendapati bahawa mereka  mesti sering menyediakan dana untuk kemudahan perkhidmatan sebelum  keluaran mereka diterima. &amp;nbsp;Dalam hal yang berkaitan dengan saluran  agihan pula, pengagihan antarabangsa yang rumit memerlukan pelaburan  saluran yang lebih besar. &amp;nbsp;Orang tengah asing jarang dibiayai dengan  secukupnya dan mungkin mereka memerlukan kredit jangkapanjang yang  ekstensif jika mereka dikehendaki menyimpan inventori yang mencukupi dan  menawarkan kredit yang mencukupi kepada pelanggan mereka.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kredit  sedang menjadi sama penting kepada jualan eksport seperti harga sesuatu  keluaran. &amp;nbsp;Syarat kredit dan pembayaran telah menjadi senjata utama  persaingan antarabangsa dalam pasaran sejagat.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pelaburan Modal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Terdapat  keperluan pelaburan modal untuk kemudahan pemasaran seperti gudang, dok  perkapalan, kedai runcit dan pejabat jualan; kesemuanya memerlukan  pelaburan modal yang banyak untuk kemudahan fizikal. &amp;nbsp;Dalam  mempertimbangkan implikasi kewangan, kos kemudahan pengeluaran serta kos  kemudahan pemasaran boleh secara lojik dikaitkan dengan pemasaran  sebagai kos masukan pasaran. &amp;nbsp;Persoalan kewangan yang penting yang  dihadapi oleh pemasar antarabangsa ialah ketersediaan dan sumber modal  untuk membiayai modal kerja tambahan yang diperlukan. &amp;nbsp;Selain sumber  syarikat itu sendiri, berbagai-bagai jenis dana awam juga tersedia.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11A&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pada pendapat anda, kenapakah keperluan pembiayaan penting kepada pemasaran antarabangsa ?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SUMBER-SUMBER PEMBIAYAAN EKSPORT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.2.1 &amp;nbsp;Bank Perdagangan dan Bank Saudagar&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bank  perdagangan terlibat dalam perdagangan antarabangsa melalui pengeluaran  surat kredit dan mendiskaunkan bil pertukaran. &amp;nbsp;Pengimport yang ingin  mengimport barang-barangnya ke luar negara boleh meminta banknya menulis  satu surat kredit yang akan menjamin kebolehan membayar pengimport.  &amp;nbsp;Surat kredit itu akan dihantar kepada pengeksport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apabila  pengeksport menerima surat kredit, bank pengeksport akan menghantar bil  pertukaran kepada pengimport yang menunjukkan jumlah bayaran yang perlu  dibuat kepada pengeksport pada satu tarikh yang ditetapkan pada masa  depan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pada  tarikh yang ditetapkan itu, pengeksport akan menerima satu jumlah  bayaran yang dinyatakan dalam bil pertukaran itu. &amp;nbsp;Jika pengeksport  ingin mendapatkan bayaran lebih awal, pengeksport boleh menjual bil  pertukaran kepada banknya pada satu kadar diskaun. &amp;nbsp;Ini adalah disebut  sebagai mendiskaunkan bil pertukaran. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport akan menerima satu  jumlah bayaran yang lebih kurang daripada jumlah yang dinyatakan dalam  bil pertukaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bank  saudagar pula menyediakan perkhidmatan kepada institusi perniagaan yang  besar &amp;nbsp;sahaja. &amp;nbsp;Bank saudagar membantu pemasar antarabangsa dalam  membiayai projek pelaburan , membekalkan perkhidmatan nasihat berkenaan  dengan pergabungan, pengambilalihan, pembentukan semula atau penyusunan  semula modal syarikat. &amp;nbsp;Bank saudagar akan membantu pelanggannya untuk  mencari syarikat-syarikat yang sesuai untuk tujuan pergabungan atau  pengambilalihan syarikat. &amp;nbsp;Bank saudagar akan memberi nasihat dan  sokongan kepada pelanggan-pelanggannya berkenaan dengan strategi dan  hal-hal kewangan. Selain daripada itu, bank saudagar juga menguruskan  hal-hal dokumentasi yang perlu.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bank  saudagar juga bertindak sebagai pengurus kepada dana-dana pelanggan di  mana dana ini akan dilaburkan dalam syer, aset, institusi kewangan dan  sebagainya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.2.2 &amp;nbsp;Rumah Pendiskaunan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rumah  pendiskaunan ialah satu kemudahan yang bank sediakan kepada pengeksport  yang menjual barangannya secara kredit. &amp;nbsp;Bank akan memberikan kredit  serta-merta kepada pengeksport ini sebelum hasil daripada bil pertukaran  dipungut dan diterima. &amp;nbsp;Tempoh kredit akan bergantung kepada tempoh  penerimaan bil pertukaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengeksport,  selepas penghantaran barangan akan menyerahkan bil pertukaran beserta  dokuman lain kepada banknya untuk penerimaan oleh pengimport. &amp;nbsp;Apabila  pengimport menerima bil ini, ia menjadi bolehniaga dan pengeksport boleh  mendapatkan tunai dengan mendiskaunkan bil ini dengan banknya.  &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport tidak perlu menunggu sehingga bil ini matang. &amp;nbsp;Bank akan  membayar nilai bil ini selepas ditolak caj diskaun. &amp;nbsp;Apabila sampai  tempoh matang, bank akan menyerahkan bil ini kepada pengimport untuk  pembayaran dan hasilnya digunakan untuk membayar balik pendahuluan yang  diberikan kepada pengeksport. &amp;nbsp;Walaubagaimanapun, bank masih mempunyai  hak tuntutan terhadap pengeksport sekiranya pengimport gagal membayar  apabila bil ini sampai tempohnya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.2.3 &amp;nbsp;Pemfaktoran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemfaktoran  ialah satu kemudahan pembelian hutang atau akaun belum terima oleh  institusi kewangan ( dipanggil pemfaktor ) daripada pelanggannya (  dipanggil klien ) serta penyediaan perkhidmatan tertentu selain  pendahuluan wang sebelum hutang-hutang dipungut. &amp;nbsp;Kemudahan ini  disediakan kepada peniaga yang ingin memperbaiki aliran tunai mereka dan  mengurangkan perbelanjaan serta kerumitan dalam pengendalian dan  pengawalan akaun-akaun jualan mereka.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Proses  pemfaktoran melibatkan hutang perniagaan klien dengan para  pelanggannya. &amp;nbsp;Klien membekalkan barangan atau perkhidmatan secara  kredit kepada pelanggannya, dan akan menyerahkan bil-bil hutang ini  kepada pemfaktor. &amp;nbsp;Pemfaktor kemudiannya akan mendahulukan wang tunai  sehingga 80 peratus daripada nilai bil-bil hutang kepada klien ini dan  seterusnya memaklumkan kepada semua pelanggan yang terlibat supaya  membuat pembayaran terus kepadanya dan bukan kepada klien lagi.  &amp;nbsp;Pemfaktor juga akan menghantar penyata bulanan serta notis-notis  peringatan meminta para pelanggan membayar hutang pada tempohnya.  &amp;nbsp;Apabila semua hutang telah dikutip, pemfaktor akan mengembalikan baki  hutang sebanyak 20 peratus lagi kepada klien selepas ditolak faedah dan  caj perkhidmatan yang dikenakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.2.4 &amp;nbsp;Kerajaan dan agensi-agensinya&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kerajaan  juga &amp;nbsp;memberi pelbagai jenis bantuan, dorongan dan galakan kepada  pengeksport untuk menambahkan hasil pendapatan negara, membaiki imbangan  pembayaran dan meningkatkan taraf hidup.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Diantara bantuan-bantuan yang diberikan ialah &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memberi potongan cukai pendapatan kepada industri yang terlibat di dalam pengeksportan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memberikan elaun eksport kepada firma perdagangan yang menjalankan perdagangan eksport barang kilang dan hasil pertanian.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memberi potongan ke atas cukai pendapatan kerana menjayakan promosi eksport&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memberi  bantuan jaminan kredit eksport bagi melindungi pengeksport terhadap  risiko hutang lapuk oleh pembeli luar negara yang biasanya tidak boleh  diinsuranskan oleh syarikat-syarikat swasta.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memberikan  insentif eksport melalui akta-akta cukai seperti Akta Cukai Kastam 1967  dan Akta Cukai Eksais. &amp;nbsp;Akta Cukai Kastam 1967 membolehkan kilang  menuntut duti import yang dibayar ke atas barang yang kemudiannya boleh  dieksport semula. &amp;nbsp;Manakala Akta Cukai Eksais pula mengecualikan  pembayaran cukai eksais bagi barang yang dikenakan cukai.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kementerian Perdagangan Antarabangsa dan Industri&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kementerian  ini bertanggungjawab di dalam merancang strategi dan mengkoordinasikan  kegiatannya dalam mengenalpasti peluang pemasaran, menjalankan  penyelidikan pemasaran dan juga menghubungkan pengeksport dengan bakal  pembeli.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kementerian  ini juga menyediakan persetujuan perdagangan dua hala supaya peluang  pengeksportan dapat dipertingkatkan disamping memperkenalkan skim  “General System Of Preferences” ( GSP ) iaitu tarif istimewa yang  diberikan oleh negara maju kepada negara yang sedang membangun.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kementerian  juga menjalankan fungsi-fungsi yang berkaitan dengan perkembangan  kerjasama ekonomi dengan negara-negara lain melalui pertubuhan ASEAN dan  EEC bagi membantu pengeksport meningkatkan nilai dagangan mereka.  &amp;nbsp;Kementerian juga membantu pengeksport merancang dan melaksanakan  pameran perdagangan antarabangsa bagi keluaran tempatan di luar negara.  &amp;nbsp;Ia juga menguruskan penyertaan negara di dalam pameran perdagangan  antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pusat Perdagangan Eksport Malaysia ( MATRADE&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; )&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pusat  ini membantu pengeksport mengenali pasaran antarabangsa dengan lebih  mendalam dan mengetahui pengimport yang berminat untuk membeli barangan  tempatan. &amp;nbsp;Ia juga menyediakan nama dan alamat bakal pembeli di luar  negara dan menyediakan ruang pameran barangan tempatan di pejabat  perdagangan bagi menarik minat pembeli luar negeri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di  samping itu, pusat ini juga merancang dan menjalankan seminar-seminar  perdagangan antarabangsa untuk menerangkan peluang-peluang pemasaran  serta menerbitkan majalah, risalah, bahan rujukan atau brosur tentang  penyelidikan barangan dan pasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11B&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apa yang anda faham tentang &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rumah pendiskaunan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemfaktoran &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.3 KAEDAH-KAEDAH PEMBAYARAN YANG DIGUNAKAN DALAM PERDAGANGAN ANTARABANGSA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.3.1 &amp;nbsp;Pendahuluan tunai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kaedah  ini memerlukan pengimport membuat pembayaran terlebih dahulu kepada  pengeksport. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport hanya akan menyerah atau menghantar barangan  yang dipesan setelah wang pendahuluan dibayar. &amp;nbsp;Kaedah ini tidak disukai  oleh pengimport kerana mereka akan menanggung risiko kerana terpaksa  mendahulukan pembayaran dan memastikan pengeksport menghantar dan  menyerahkan barang-barang sepertimana yang telah dipersetujui. &amp;nbsp;Kaedah  ini biasanya digunakan apabila kredit adalah diragukan,terdapat  pembatasan pertukaran di dalam negara destinasi ataupun atas sebab-sebab  tertentu, pengeksport Amerika Syarikat tidak sanggup menjual secara  kredit.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.3.2 &amp;nbsp;Surat berdokumen&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  berdokumen atau juga dikenali sebagai surat kredit adalah instrumen  pembayaran yang paling diterima penggunaannya dalam urusniaga  antarabangsa kerana ia menyediakan perlindungan kepada kedua-dua  pengeksport dan pengimport. &amp;nbsp;Pembayaran di bawah surat kredit ini  dijamin oleh bank.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  berdokumen ini adalah satu jaminan bertulis yang diberikan oleh bank  kepada pengeksport &amp;nbsp;di mana bank berjanji yang pengeksport akan membayar  sepenuhnya bagi penghantaran barangan kepada pengimport mengikut  syarat-syarat dan peraturan yang ditetapkan dalam kredit ini. &amp;nbsp;Surat  berdokumen ini hanya dikeluarkan oleh bank bagi pihak pelanggannya iaitu  pengimport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Dalam  proses ini, pengimport akan membuat permohonan kepada banknya untuk  menerbitkan atau mengeluarkan satu surat kredit, yang kemudiannya  dihantar kepada bank pemaklum. &amp;nbsp;Bank pemaklum pula akan menyerahkan  surat kredit ini kepada benefisiari atau pengeksport. &amp;nbsp;Barang-barang  hanya akan dihantar kepada pengimport selepas penerimaan surat kredit  ini oleh pengeksport. &amp;nbsp;Disamping itu, pengeksport juga akan menyerahkan  bil pertukaran bersama-sama dokumen lain kepada bank perunding urus (  yang juga bank pemaklum ) untuk mendapatkan pembayaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  bil-bil dokumen ini menepati syarat-syarat dan peraturan-peraturan  dalam surat kredit, bank perunding urus akan mendahulukan pembayaran  kepada pengeksport, dan menghantar pula dokumen berkenaan kepada bank  penerbit ( bank pembayar ) untuk mendapatkan kembali pembayaran yang  telah didahulukan kepada pengeksport tadi. &amp;nbsp;Apabila pengimport  menjelaskan pembayaran bil, dokumen-dokumen akan diserahkan kepada  pengimport oleh bank pembayar untuk membolehkannya mengambil  barang-barang daripada syarikat perkapalan di pelabuhan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  kredit boleh berbentuk boleh dimansuh atau tidak boleh dimansuh. &amp;nbsp;Surat  kredit yang tidak boleh dimansuh merupakan satu jaminan oleh bank  penerbit untuk menerima dan membayar bil yang dikeluarkan mengikut  syarat-syaratnya. &amp;nbsp;Jaminan ini tidak boleh diubah atau dibatalkan tanpa  persetujuan semua pihak.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  kredit boleh mansuh pula boleh diubah atau dibatalkan pada bila-bila  masa tanpa persetujuan benefisiari terlebih dahulu. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport akan  menanggung risiko yang tinggi sekiranya surat kredit ini dibatal atau  diubahsuaikan mengikut keadaan yang tidak menguntungkannya, dan ia  mungkin menghadapi kesukaran mendapatkan pembayaran terus daripada  pengimport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.3.3 &amp;nbsp;Bil pertukaran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bil  pertukaran ialah instrumen paling umum digunakan untuk mendapatkan  pembayaran daripada pengimport. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport yang menghantar barangan  akan menyediakan bil pertukaran ini bertujuan untuk mendapatkan  pembayaran daripada pengimport dalam tempoh yang ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;Dengan  kata lain, ia adalah dokumen yang disediakan dan ditandatangani oleh  pengeksport dan ditujukan kepada pengimport, &amp;nbsp;bagi meminta pengimport  membayar sejumlah wang atas perintah atau pada masa hadapan yang  dtentukan kepada pengeksport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Terdapat  tiga pihak dalam bil pertukaran ini. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport yang menyediakan bil  dan memberi perintah dipanggil penyuruhbayar dan pengimport yang  perintah ini ditujukan dipanggil pesuruhbayar. &amp;nbsp;Manakala pihak yang akan  menerima pembayaran atau benefisiari dikenali sebagai penerima.  &amp;nbsp;Kebiasaannya penerima ialah bank yang bertindak bagi &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;pihak pengeksport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.3.4 &amp;nbsp;Akaun Terbuka&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Akaun  terbuka ialah satu perjanjian di antara pengimport dengan pengeksport,  di mana pengeksport akan terlebih dahulu menghantar barangan yang  dipesan oleh pengimport, dan pengimport pula bersetuju menangguhkan  pembayarannya ke suatu masa yang ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;Dokumen perdagangan dan  perkapalan dihantar terus kepada pengimport dan ia membolehkan  pengimport memiliki barangan ini dan menjual atau menggunakan mengikut  kehendaknya. &amp;nbsp;Apabila sampai tempoh, pengimport akan membuat pembayaran  menerusi banknya sama ada melalui cek, draf, pindahan telegraf atau  SWIFT ( Pertubuhan Telekomunikasi Kewangan Antara Bank Seluruh Dunia ).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di  bawah kaedah ini, pengeksport akan menanggung risiko yang kemungkinan  pengimport akan membayar kesemuanya dalam masa yang ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;Oleh  itu kemudahan ini hanya boleh disediakan oleh pengeksport kepada  pengimport yang sudah lama mempunyai hubungan perniagaan dengannya serta  mempunyai tahap kepercayaan dan reputasi yang baik.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;11.3.5 &amp;nbsp;Konsainan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di  bawah kaedah ini, penghantaran barangan dipersetujui melalui satu  perjanjian di mana pembayaran hanya boleh dibuat selepas barangan ini  dijual dalam suatu tempoh yang ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;Sekiranya barangan ini tidak  dapat dijual, ia akan dikembalikan kepada pengeksport tanpa sebarang  bayaran. &amp;nbsp;Kaedah pembayaran ini banyak memberikan risiko kepada  pengeksport, dan hanya disediakan kepada pengimport yang berpengalaman  luas dan betul-betul boleh dipercayai.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11C&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  anda adalah seorang pemasar antarabangsa, kaedah pembayaran yang  manakah yang anda akan gunakan apabila berurusan dengan rakan niaga anda  dan jelaskan sebab pemilihan kaedah tersebut&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Anda  telah menghampiri kejayaan. &amp;nbsp;Sila cuba semua soalan dalam penilaian  kendiri ini dan semak jawapan anda pada maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika ada sebarang masalah yang timbul, sila berbincang dengan pensyarah anda. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Selamat mencuba semoga berjaya !!!!!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 11-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Huraikan  secara ringkas tentang bagaimanakah kos permulaan memerlukan pembiayaan  apabila melibatkan diri di dalam pemasaran antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 11-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Nyatakan sumber-sumber pembiayaan eksport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 11-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Terangkan secara ringkas tentang perkara-perkara berikut &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pendahuluan tunai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat berdokumen&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bil pertukaran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Akaun terbuka&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Konsainan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h5 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h5&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pembiayaan penting kepada pemasaran antarabangsa adalah untuk &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; Keperluan modal kerja&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; Pelaburan modal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keperluan Modal Kerja&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keperluan  Modal Kerja diperlukan kerana lat masa, kos penghantaran, duti, kos  permulaan yang lebih tinggi, kos inventori, kos penyusupan pasaran, dan  pertambahan keperluan kewangan untuk kredit saluran dan perdagangan.  Pengendalian di luar negeri biasanya memrlukan amaun modal kerja yang  lebih besar daripada yang diperlukan oleh kegiatan dalam negeri yang  dikendalikan pada tingkat volum yang sama. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos permulaan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos  permulaan adalah tinggi bagi firma yang memasuki pasaran yang baru.  Antara kos yang terlibat ialah undang-undang, penubuhan pejabat,  pembelian lessen dan kos penyelidikan pemasaran untuk mendapatkan  maklumat.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Inventori&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pusing  ganti inventori memakan masa yang lama dalam pemasaran antarabangsa  disebabkan proses penghantaran (terutama melalui air) dan proses  penyerahan. Ini bererti barang-barang perlu diinventorikan di beberapa  lokasi yang melibatkan kos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos Penembusan Pasaran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos  penembusan pasaran melibatkan kos promosi dan pengiklanan, kos  mengendalikan kemudahan perkhidmatan untuk memastikan pasaran menerima  produk, pemberian kredit jangka panjang yang ekstensif kepada orang  tengah asing .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pelaburan modal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pelaburan modal diperlukan untuk kemudahan pemasaran seperti gudang, dok perkapalan, kedai runcit dan pejabat jualan. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rumah Pendiskaunan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rumah  pendiskaunan ialah satu kemudahan yang bank sediakan kepada pengeksport  yang menjual barangannya secara kredit. &amp;nbsp;Bank akan memberikan kredit  serta-merta kepada pengeksport ini sebelum hasil daripada bil pertukaran  dipungut dan diterima. &amp;nbsp;Tempoh kredit akan bergantung kepada tempoh  penerimaan bil pertukaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemfaktoran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemfaktoran  ialah satu kemudahan pembelian hutang atau akaun belum trima oleh  institusi kewangan ( dipanggil pemfaktor ) daripada pelanggannya (  dipanggil klien ) serta penyediaan perkhidmatan tertentu selain  pendahuluan wang sebelum hutang-hutang dipungut. &amp;nbsp;Kemudahan ini  disediakan kepada peniaga yang ingin memperbaiki aliran tunai mereka dan  mengurangkan perbelanjaan serta kerumitan dalam pengendalian dan  pengawalan akaun-akaun jualan mereka.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11C&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat berdokumen&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  berdokumen ialah kaedah yang akan digunakan dalam urusniaga  antarabangsa kerana ia menyediakan perlindungan kepada kedua-dua  pengeksport dan pengimport. &amp;nbsp;Surat berdokumen ini adalah satu jaminan  bertulis yang diberikan oleh bank kepada pengeksport &amp;nbsp;di mana bank  berjanji yng pengeksport akan membayara sepenuhnya bagi penghantaran  barangan kepada pngimport mengikut syarat-syarat dan peraturan yang  ditetapkan dalam kredit ini. &amp;nbsp;Surat berdokumen ini hanya dikeluarkan  oleh bank bagi pihak pelanggannya iaitu pengimpoirt.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  bil-bil dan dokumen ini menepati syarata-syarat dan peraturn-peraturan  dalam surat kredit, bank perunding urus akan mendahulukan pembayaran  kepada pengeksport, dan menghantar pula dokumen berkenaan kepada bank  penerbit ( bank pembayara ) untuk mendapatkan kembali pembayaran yang  telah didahulukan kepada pengeksport tadi. &amp;nbsp;Apabila pengimport  menjelaskan pembayaran bil, dokumen-dokumen akan diserahkn kepada  pengimport oleh bank pembayar untuk membolehkannya mengambil  barang-barang daripada syarikat perkapalan di pelabuhan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h5 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h5&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 11-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos permulaan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos  permulaan adalah seperti kos-kos berkaitan undang-undang, penubuhan  pejabat, pembelian lessen, mendapatkan maklumat mengenai pasaran luar  negeri. Kos ini sangat tinggi menyebabkan amaun modal kerja yang tinggi.  Oleh itu firma memerlukan pembayaran bagi menutup kos-kos permulaan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 11-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sumber-sumber pembiayaan eksport &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bank perdagangan dan bank saudagar&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rumah pendiskaunan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemfaktoran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kerajaan dan agensi-agensi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 11-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;i) &amp;nbsp;Pendahuluan tunai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 9pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kaedah  ini memerlukan pengimport membuat pembayaran terlebih dahulu kepada  pengeksport. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport hanya akan menyerah atau menghantar barangan  yang dipesan setelah wang pendahuluan dibayar. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;ii) &amp;nbsp;Surat berdokumen&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 9pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  berdokumen adalah instrumen pembayaran yang paling diterima  penggunaannya dalam urusniaga antarabangsa kerana ia menyediakan  perlindungan kepada kedua-dua pengeksport dan pengimport. &amp;nbsp;Pembayaran di  bawah surat kredit ini dijamin oleh bank.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Surat  berdokumen ini adalah satu jaminan bertulis yang diberikan oleh bank  kepada pengeksport &amp;nbsp;di mana bank berjanji yang pengeksport akan membayar  sepenuhnya bagi penghantaran barangan kepada pngimport mengikut  syarat-syarat dan peraturan yang ditetapkan dalam kredit ini. &amp;nbsp;Surat  berdokumen ini hanya dikeluarkan oleh bank bagi pihak pelanggannya iaitu  pengimport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;iii) &amp;nbsp;Bil pertukaran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bil  pertukaran adalah dokumen yang disediakan dan ditandatangani oleh  pengeksport dan ditujukan kepada pengimport, meminta pengimport membayar  sejumlah wang atas perintah atau pada masa hadapan yang dtentukan  kepada pengeksport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengeksport  yang menghantar barangan akan menyediakan bil pertukaran ini bertujuan  untuk mendapatkan pembayaran daripada pengimport dalam tempoh yang  ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;iv) &amp;nbsp;Akaun Terbuka&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Akaun  terbuka ialah satu perjanjian di antara pengimport dengan pengeksport,  di mana pengeksport akan terlebih dahulu menghantar barangan yang  dipesan oleh pengimport, dan pengimport pula bersetuju menangguhkan  pembayarannya ke suatu masa yang ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;Dokumen perdagangan dan  perkapalan dihantar terus kepada pengimport dan ia membolehkan  pengimport memiliki baranagan ini dan menjual atau menggunakan mengikut  kehendaknya. &amp;nbsp;Apabila sampai tempoh, pengimport akan membuat pembayaran  menerusi banknya sama ada melalui cek, draf, pindahan telegraf atau  SWIFT ( Pertubuhan Telekomunikasi Kewangan Antara Bank Seluruh Dunia ).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;v) &amp;nbsp;Konsainan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 18pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di  &amp;nbsp;bawah kaedah ini, penghantaran barangan dipersetujui melalui satu  perjanjian di mana pembayaran hanya boleh dibuat selepas barangan ini  dijual dalam suatu tempoh yang ditetapkan. &amp;nbsp;Sekiranya barangan ini tidak  dapat dijual, ia akan dikembalikan kepada pengeksport tanpa sebarang  bayaran. Pengeksport akan menanggung risiko yang lebih tinggi oleh itu  ia hanya disediakan kepada pengimport yang berpengalaman luas dan  dipercayai sahaja.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/4447160405996074677/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-11-pembayaran-dan-pembiayaan.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/4447160405996074677'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/4447160405996074677'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-11-pembayaran-dan-pembiayaan.html' title='UNIT 11  PEMBAYARAN DAN PEMBIAYAAN PEMASARAN ANTARABANGSA'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-6669311785170697801</id><published>2011-09-24T03:31:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2011-10-04T10:18:27.033-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="P5126 Aspek Pemasaran Antarabangsa"/><title type='text'>UNIT 10  PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; id=&quot;internal-source-marker_0.17327636896615672&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;UNIT 10&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PERLETAKAN HARGA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF AM&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mengetahui  dan memahami tentang polisi-polisi harga, faktor-faktor yang  mempengaruhi perubahan harga dan aspek-aspek pentadbiran harga&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF KHUSUS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di akhir unit ini anda sepatutnya dapat :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;Menerangkan polisi-polisi harga yang meliputi objektif harga, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;parallel imports&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;, pendekatan terhadap penetapan harga antarabangsa dan &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;leasing. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;  Menghuraikan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perubahan harga &amp;nbsp;iaitu kos  eksport, cukai, tarif dan kos pentadbiran, turun naik pertukaran,  perbezaan nilai matawang dan kos orang tengah.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Menjelaskan aspek-aspek pentadbiran harga iaitu penetapan harga &amp;nbsp;mengikut kumpulan industri dan mengikut pengaruh kerajaan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;10.0&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENGENALAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Reformasi  ekonomi seperti pembentukan &amp;nbsp;Kesatuan Eropah membawa kepada  peluang-peluang baru dalam pasaran dan persaingan. &amp;nbsp;Apabila sesebuah  syarikat global &amp;nbsp;mencari pasaran maka harga merupakan satu alat  persaingan yang penting. &amp;nbsp;Pemasar berhadapan dengan set angkubah baru  bagi setiap pasaran seperti tarif, kos, sikap, persaingan, turun naik  matawang, kaedah penetapan harga / price quotation dan strategi  pemasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;10.1 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;POLISI HARGA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat  yang memasarkan &amp;nbsp;produk di beberapa buah negara akan menghadapi  pelbagai masalah berkait dengan polisi harga. &amp;nbsp;Aktiviti harga banyak  bergantung kepada &amp;nbsp;negara tuan rumah, jenis produk, persaingan dan  pelbagai factor lain. &amp;nbsp;Harga dan syarat-syarat jualan &amp;nbsp;tidak boleh  dilakukan dengan &amp;nbsp;hanya berasaskan kriteria domestik.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; Objektif Penetapan Harga.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemasar antarabangsa mempunyai &amp;nbsp;dua pilihan dalam membuat keputusan mengenai penetapan harga:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga  digunakan sebagai satu alat untuk mencapai objektif pemasaran seperti  mencapai tingkat jualan atau syer pasaran tertentu &amp;nbsp;dalam jangkamasa  tertentu. &amp;nbsp;Sebagai contoh, pemasar menetapkan harga sebanyak RM450 bagi  sebuah kamera &amp;nbsp;untuk mencapai tingkat syer pasaran sebanyak 30% &amp;nbsp;dalam  pasaran kamera bagi tahun depan. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga  sebagai satu elemen yang &amp;nbsp;stabil dalam keputusan perniagaan. &amp;nbsp;Syarikat  yang mengeksport inventori lebihan , &amp;nbsp;tidak menekankan perniagaan luaran  dan melihat jualan eksport sebagai satu sumbangan yang pasif kepada  volum jualan keuntungan adalah objektif harga terpenting. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  sesebuah syarikat mempunyai kawalan yang lebih tinggi dalam menetapkan  &amp;nbsp;harga jualan sesuatu produk, maka kemampuannya untuk mencapai objektif  &amp;nbsp;atau matlamat pemasaran adalah lebih baik. &amp;nbsp;Walaubagaimanapun, adalah  sukar untuk mengawal harga akhir. &amp;nbsp;Dalam keadaan seperti ini, syarikat  akan menggunakan kaedah penentuan &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;harga bersih kilang&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; iaitu di mana harga yang diterima untuk barang apabila dihantar dari loji. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Proses  pengawalan harga bagi pengguna akhir adalah lebih kompleks. &amp;nbsp;Jika lini  keluaran adalah lebih luas maka bilangan negara yang dieksport adalah  lebih banyak. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Selain &amp;nbsp;dari menghadapi persaingan harga mengikut  negara, produk sesebuah syarikat &amp;nbsp;terpaksa melindungi dirinya dari  persaingan dalam syarikat dan pelanggannya. Jika sesebuah syarikat besar  tidak mempunyai kawalan yang berkesan, produknya akan bersaing dengan  cawangan atau anak syarikatnya sendiri. &amp;nbsp;Jika sesebuah syarikat yang  besar tidak mempunyai kawalan yang berkesan, produknya akan bersaing  dengan &amp;nbsp;cawangan atau anak syarikatnya sendiri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Parallel Imports” &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Disebabkan  harga sesuatu produk &amp;nbsp;mungkin berbeza-beza di antara sesebuah pasaran,  produk yang dijual di sesebuah negara mungkin dieskpot &amp;nbsp;ke negara lain  dan dengan harga yang lebih murah yang dikenakan di negara tersebut.  &amp;nbsp;Ini menyebabkan berlakunya masalah &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“parallel import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;” &amp;nbsp;atau “&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;gray market&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;”.  &amp;nbsp;Contohnya syarikat pengeluar jam dari Jepun mengeksport produknya ke  negara Filipina dengan harga yang agak rendah. &amp;nbsp;Produk ini dieksport  dari Filipina ke negara ke tiga di mana ia akan bersaing dengan produk  yang sama yang telah dijual pada harga yang lebih tinggi. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Parallel import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; akan menjejaskan tingkat harga. &amp;nbsp;Ia berpunca dari persaingan harga yang tidak berkesan dan kurangnya kawalan dari pihak luar. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Parallel &amp;nbsp;import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;  terjadi apabila pengimport membeli produk dari pengedar dari sesebuah  negara dan menjualnya semula ke negara lain &amp;nbsp;kepada pengedar yang bukan  menjadi ahli dalam sistem pengedaran pengeluar. Amalan ini memberi  keuntungan yang tinggi &amp;nbsp;jika perbezaan harga produk di negara-negara  yang berlainan adalah tinggi. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Antara faktor-faktor yang mendorong pengedar untuk melakukan &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;parallel&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; ialah:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perbezaan Dalam Nilai Matawang Diantara Sesebuah Negara Dan Negara Lain&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sebagai  contoh, jika matawang Amerika Syarikat &amp;nbsp;adalah tinggi berbanding  matawang Jerman, produk keluaran syarikat Amerika yang dieksport ke  Jerman akan dibeli dari pengedar Jerman &amp;nbsp;pada harga yang rendah dan  dijual semula ke Amerika Syarikat. Harga &amp;nbsp;produk yang dijual semula di  Amerika Syarikat akan menjadi lebih rendah dari yang sedia ada.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bekalan &amp;nbsp;Produk Yang Terhad Dalam Sesuatu Pasaran Mengakibatkan &amp;nbsp;Harga Yang Amat Tinggi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sebagai contoh bilangan Mercedes Benz yang terhad di pasaran Amerika Syarikat. &amp;nbsp;Pasaran &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;parallel import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; terjadi disebabkan kepulangan orang-orang Amerika Syarikat &amp;nbsp;yang tinggal di Jerman.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sekatan Import Akibat Kuota Dan Tariff Yang Tinggi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sebagai  contoh, negara India mempunyai struktur &amp;nbsp;duti import tiga peringkat ke  atas barangan komputer dari 50-80%. &amp;nbsp;Hasil dari itu, sebahagian besar  dari jualan komputer tempatan datang dari “gray market”. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perbezaan Harga Yang Besar Di Antara Negara.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sebagai  contoh peniaga di Jepun menetapkan &amp;nbsp;harga yang tinggi terhadap barangan  pengguna yang dijual di pasaran Jepun. &amp;nbsp;Oleh itu harga barangan Jepun  yang dijual di negara lain adalah lebih rendah dari di Jepun. &amp;nbsp;Contohnya  orang-orang Jepun membeli kamera buatan Jepun dari peruncit di New York  melalui katalog dan menjualnya semula di Jepun pada harga yang lebih  rendah dari harga pasaran Jepun. Tambahan pula, nilai Yen yang tinggi  menyebabkan &amp;nbsp;harga adalah tidak besar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perbezaan Harga Adalah Besar Dari Kos Pengangkutan Di Antara Pasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perbezaan  cukai dan struktur harga yang berbeza di antara sesebuah negara  menyebabkan harga produk yang sama adalah berbeza &amp;nbsp;di negara yang  berlainan. Akibatnya sesebuah syarikat akan bersaing di sesebuah negara  dengan produk keluarannya sendiri yang diimport &amp;nbsp;dari negara lain pada  harga yang rendah.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bagi menghalang terjadinya “gray market”, sesebuah syarikat hendaklah :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;mempunyai sistem kawalan yang kukuh&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menetap dan memantau kawalan yang dapat &amp;nbsp;polisi saluran agihan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di  sesetengah negara, pihak pemasar mendapat bantuan dari mahkamah.  Sebagai contoh, di &amp;nbsp;Taiwan, mahkamah telah memutuskan dua buah syarikat  yang mengimport Coca Cola dari Amerika Syarikat ke Taiwan &amp;nbsp;telah  menyalahi undang hak-hak tandaniaga &amp;nbsp;Syarikat Coca Cola dan pemegang  lesen tunggalnya. Syarikat terbabit dilarang dari mengimport, memperagai  atau menjual produk yang mempunyai tanda niaga Coca Cola. &amp;nbsp;Walau  bagaimanapun tidak semua negara mendapat sokongan seperti itu dari pihak  mahkamah. Di negara Jepun, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;parallel import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; tidak menyalahi undang-undang.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Parallel import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; memberi kesan jangka panjang bagi produk yang mempunyai &amp;nbsp;tandaniaga. Ini adalah kerana :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;kualiti barangan yang dibeli tidak terjamin&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;tiada jaminan &amp;nbsp;ditawarkan terhadap pembelian produk&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;perkhidmatan selepas jualan yang sah &amp;nbsp;tidak ditawarkan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;penjual tidak dapat memberi jaminan terhadap alat gantian yang sah &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; Pendekatan Terhadap Penetapan Harga Antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Penentuan &amp;nbsp;Harga Kos Berubah vs Kos &amp;nbsp;Penuh&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Firma  yang menetapkan harga barangan berasaskan kos hendaklah memastikan sama  ada mereka memilih pendekatan kos berubah atau kos penuh.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Penentuan Harga Kos Berubah&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Firma  hanya mementingkan kos-kos marginal atau &amp;nbsp;kos tambahan dalam  pengeluaran barangan yang dijual di pasaran luar negara. &amp;nbsp;Mereka  menganggapkan &amp;nbsp;jualan luar negara sebagai satu jualan &amp;nbsp;bonus dan  &amp;nbsp;menganggapkan pulangan &amp;nbsp;ke atas kos berubah merupakan satu sumbangan  kepada keuntungan bersih. &amp;nbsp;Firma boleh menetapkan harga yang &amp;nbsp;kompetitif  &amp;nbsp;di pasaran luar negara. Tetapi disebabkan firma menjual produk di luar  negara pada harga bersih yang lebih rendah dari pasaran tempatan mereka  boleh didakwa sebagai melakukan lambakan. Dengan ini mereka terdedah  kepada antilambakan seperti &amp;nbsp;tarif atau denda yang akan menjejaskan  kelebihan bersaing mereka. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Penentuan Harga Kos Penuh&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat  yang menetapkan harga produk mereka dengan menggunakan pendekatan ini  menekankan bahawa semua barangan yang dijual adalah serupa. &amp;nbsp;Tidak wujud  perbezaan dari segi kos dan setiap unit produk menanggung bahagiannya  dalam jumlah kos tetap dan kos berubah.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kedua-dua polisi di atas digunakan oleh pemasar antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga Penarahan Dan Penembusan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 81pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keputusan  sama ada untuk menggunakan penetapan harga tarahan atau penembusan  bergantung kepada beberapa &amp;nbsp;faktor iaitu tahap persaingan, inovasi  produk dan ciri-ciri pasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga Tarahan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 99pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Polisi  ini digunakan jika produk disasarkan kepada pasaran yang tidak sensitif  &amp;nbsp;dan sanggup bayar lebih untuk mendapatkan nilai. &amp;nbsp;Polisi harga tarahan  digunakan oleh pemasar &amp;nbsp;dalam beberapa situasi iaitu jika &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;bekalan adalah terhad bagi tujuan memaksimakan &amp;nbsp;hasil jualan dan untuk memadankan &amp;nbsp;permintaan dan penawaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;sesebuah  syarikat itu adalah satu-satunya &amp;nbsp;pengeluar &amp;nbsp;produk baru tersebut atau  yang inovatif bagi tujuan untuk memaksimakan &amp;nbsp;keuntungan sehingga  persaingan memaksa harga diturunkan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;sesuatu pasaran &amp;nbsp;itu mempunyai dua tahap pendapatan – iaitu yang kaya dan miskin.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 99pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos  merupakan halangan utama penetapan harga yang akan menarik perhatian  dan minat &amp;nbsp;pasaran berpendapatan rendah supaya pemasar menetapkan harga  yang tinggi dan mengagihkan produk kepada golongan berpendapatan tinggi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Penembusan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 99pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Polisi  harga penembusan dugunakan untuk menggalakkan perkembangan pasaran dan  mendapatkan &amp;nbsp;syer pasaran dengan menawarkan produk pada harga yang  rendah. &amp;nbsp;Polisi ini sering digunakan untuk memperolehi &amp;nbsp;dan pertahankan  syer pasaran sebagai satu cara untuk mengawal persaingan.  Walabagaimanapun bagi negara yang mengalami perkembangan ekonomi yang  cepat dan mampan di mana sebahagian besar dari populasi berpindah kepada  golongan kelas pertengahan, polisi ini digunakan bagi &amp;nbsp;menggalakkan  perkembangan pasaran dengan persaingan yang minima.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 99pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga  penembusan adalah strategi yang lebih menguntungkan berbanding tarahan  jika ia &amp;nbsp;memaksimakan pulangan atau jualan dan membina syer pasaran  &amp;nbsp;sebagai asas persaingan yang bakal dihadapi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemajakan &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemajakan  adalah alat pemasaran pembiayaan-harga yang penting &amp;nbsp;bagi pembelian  peralatan maka &amp;nbsp;penggunaannya adalah semakin meluas di peringkat  antarabangsa. Syarat pajak biasanya &amp;nbsp;dari &amp;nbsp;satu hingga lima &amp;nbsp;tahun dan  bayaran dibuat secara bulanan atau tahunan. Yuran pemajakan meliputi  perkhidmatan pengendalian, pembaikan dan alatganti. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kebanyakan  system pemajakan adalah &amp;nbsp;serupa di peringkat antarabangsa dan tempatan.  &amp;nbsp;Ia adalah lebih &amp;nbsp;penting dalam pasaran antarabangsa kerana ia  membolehkan &amp;nbsp;pemajak untuk mendapatkan peralatan yang mahal pada kos  tahunan yang minima. &amp;nbsp;Ini merupakan suatu yang penting dalam pasaran  yang kekurangan modal dan kewangan yang terhad.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sistem  pemajakan menawarkan perkhidmatan penyelenggaraan . Ini adalah penting  terutama bagi negara yang kekurangan juruteknik dan mekanik terlatih.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sesetengah negara menyokong &amp;nbsp;sistem pemajakan &amp;nbsp;dengan menawarkan &amp;nbsp;beberapa kemudahan seperti &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Menawarkan insentif modal bagi menggalakkan perbelanjaan terhadap kilang dan peralatan baru.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pelbagai  insentif cukai diberikan kepada &amp;nbsp;firma yang melaburkan dalam peralatan  modal. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport boleh mengelakkan risiko dengan mengikut kontrak  dalam menyatakan harga dalam nilai matawang negaranya sendiri.  &amp;nbsp;Walaubagaimanapun penyewa &amp;nbsp;lebih suka kontrak yang menggunakan nilai  wangnya supaya pengeksport &amp;nbsp;yang menanggung risiko.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kontrak  untuk &amp;nbsp;pengaturan &amp;nbsp;pemajakan dalam &amp;nbsp;luar negara adalah serupa.  &amp;nbsp;Faktor-faktor yang mendorong &amp;nbsp;untuk menggunanakan pemajakan serta  kekurangannya adalah sama iaitu:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  membuka pintu untuk suatu segmen &amp;nbsp;besar firma &amp;nbsp;luar negeri yang  dibiayai secara nominal dan boleh dijual berdasarkan pajak tetapi  mungkin tidak dapat dibeli dengan wang tunai.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemajakan  boleh mengurangkan masalah dengan menjual peralatan yang baru atau  sedang diuji kaji kerana &amp;nbsp;ia membabitkan risiko yang kurang untuk  pengguna.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemajakan membantu menjamin penyelenggaraan dan perkhidmatan &amp;nbsp;yang lebih baik untuk peralatan luar negeri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Hasil pajak cenderung untuk menjadi stabil daripada jualan langsung mengikut suatu tempoh masa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Terdapat beberapa &amp;nbsp;kekurangan dalam pemajakan &amp;nbsp;di peringkat antarabangsa iaitu :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bagi  negara yang mengalami inflasi, kontrak pemajakan yang meliputi  &amp;nbsp;pengendalian dan bekalan alatganti boleh membawa kepada kerugian di  penghujung tempoh kontrak. &amp;nbsp;Negara yang paling menarik untuk &amp;nbsp;memajak  adalah negara yang paling &amp;nbsp;mungkin mengalami masalah inflasi lingkaran. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Masalah  lain bekait dengan pemajakan adalah penurunan nilai matawang,  pengambilalihan &amp;nbsp;atau risiko-risiko politik yang akan terus dihadapi  oleh pemasar antarabangsa sepanjang tempoh pajakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 10A&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apakah pendapat anda tentang &amp;nbsp;kesan parallel imports kepada &lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengguna&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemasar antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;2 &amp;nbsp;PENINGKATAN HARGA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; Kos Eskport&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 63pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengguna  sering mendapati produk yang dikeluarkan dan dijual di negara sendiri  &amp;nbsp;relatifnya tidak mahal tetapi ia dijual pada harga yang tinggi di  negara asing. &amp;nbsp;Mereka sering mengandaikan bahawa &amp;nbsp;harga tersebut adalah  disebabkan &amp;nbsp;perbuatan mengambil keuntungan berlebihan. &amp;nbsp;Pengeluar cuba  menyelesaikan masalah ini dengan &amp;nbsp;mengeksport produk tersebut ke pasaran  baru tetapi mereka dapati harga yang tinggi mencerminkan kos  pengeksportan yang tinggi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 63pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sebagai  contoh, &amp;nbsp;sesuatu produk yang dikeluarkan di Malaysia pada harga  RM1,000.00 &amp;nbsp;Apabila ia dijual dinegara Jepun, harganya meningkat kepada  RM3,00.00 &amp;nbsp;Ini adalah disebabkan &amp;nbsp;produk &amp;nbsp;itu melalui beberapa peringkat  sebelum sampai ke pengguna akhir seperti kos pengangkutan, insurans,  pembungkusan, tariff, saluran agihan yang lebih panjang, keuntungan yang  besar diambil oleh orang tengah, cukai khas, kos pentadbiran dan turun  naim kadar pertukaran. &amp;nbsp;Kos ini semakin tinggi apabila ia melibatkan  perpindahan barangan dari sebuah negara ke negara yang lain. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengeluar - Pengekport&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengimport&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengedar Tempatan:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat yang bertanggungjawab terhadap jualan dan perkhidmatan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengguna Akhir / Industri&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pada setiap peringkat seperti di atas, harga ditambah &amp;nbsp;yang menjadikan harga akhir &amp;nbsp;tinggi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;10.2.1.1 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Cukai, Tarif Dan Kos-Kos Pentadbiran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Tarif  atau duti &amp;nbsp;adalah bentuk pencukaian yang khas yang mungkin &amp;nbsp;dikenakan  untuk tujuan melindungi pasaran atau untuk menambah hasil kerajaan.  &amp;nbsp;Tarif adalah yuran yang dikenakan apabila baranag dibawa masuk ke dalam  sesebuah &amp;nbsp;negara yang lain. &amp;nbsp;Tingkat tarif biasanya dinyatakan sebagai  &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;kadar duti dan boleh dikenakan sebagai khusus &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;ad valorem&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;  atau kombinasu kedua-duanya. &amp;nbsp;Duti khusus adalah caj sama rata untuk  setiap unit fizikal yang diimport sebagai contoh &amp;nbsp;20 sen untuk setiap  busyel gandum yang diimport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Duti &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;ad valorem&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;  dikenakan sebagai peratusan nilai barang yang diimport misalnya 25%  dari nilai pakaian yang diimport. &amp;nbsp;Tarif kombinasi termasuk kedua-dua  caj khusus dan ad valorem misalnya RM1 untuk setiap kamera tambah 15%  daripada &amp;nbsp;nilainya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Tarif  dan bentuk cukai import yang lain bertindak untuk mendiskriminasikan  &amp;nbsp;semua barang dari luar negeri. &amp;nbsp;Yuran &amp;nbsp;untuk sijil import atau  pemprosesan &amp;nbsp;pentadbiran &amp;nbsp;lain boleh menjadi sangat tinggi hingga ia  sebenarnya &amp;nbsp;menjadi cukai import. &amp;nbsp;Banyak negara mempunyai cukai  pembelian atau cukai eksais yang diperlukan &amp;nbsp;bagi pelbagai kategori  baranag, cukai nilai ditambah atau cukai pusing ganti yang dipergunakan  apabila keluara &amp;nbsp;tersebut melalui saluran agihan dan cukai jualan  runcit. &amp;nbsp;Cukai seperti ini menambah harga akhir &amp;nbsp;barang tetapi secara  amnya ia tidak mendiskriminasi terhadap barang dari luar negeri. &amp;nbsp;Tarif  merupakan cukai berdiskriminasi &amp;nbsp;yang utama yang mesti diambil kira  dalam membuat perhitungan dengan persaingan dari luar negeri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;10.2.1.2. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Inflasi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Inflasi  yang tinggi memerlukan pengubahsuaian harga untuk menutupi &amp;nbsp;pertambahan  kos. &amp;nbsp;Disebabkan keadaan inflasi tidak sama di &amp;nbsp;pasaran yang berbeza,  pemasar &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;menghadapi pelbagai masalah dan risiko yang kompleks.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  kadar inflasi adalah tinggi di negara &amp;nbsp;pengekport, firma tidak dapat  mengubah harga seperti mana yang diperlukan. &amp;nbsp;Oleh itu ia terpaksa  menyerap peningkatan harga dalam &amp;nbsp;harga input.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  inflasi adalah tinggi di negara pengimport sama ada harga dinaikkan  atau tidak adalah bergantung kepada reaksi pengguna di negara berkenaan,  &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;kawalan kerajaan dan kos-kos &amp;nbsp;tambahan dalam perubahan harga,  pemprograman &amp;nbsp;komputer atau sistem catatan jualan dan lain-lain aktiviti  berkait dengan penetapan harga.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  bayaran dari pengimport &amp;nbsp;dijangka tertunda dan pengimport berada di  negara yang mengahadpi inflasi, kadar inflasi harus diambilkira di dalam  penetapan harga produk. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;10.2.1.3 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Turun-Naik Kadar Pertukaran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kadar  pertukaran sering berubah mengikut keadaan ekonomi. &amp;nbsp;Ini bermakna  &amp;nbsp;nilai mata wang pada masa hadapan tidak dapat ditentukan. Oleh itu  urusniaga pengekport sering mendesak supaya segala urusniaga dibuat  dengan menggunakan nilai matawang negara pengeksport dan perlindungan  nilai hadapan menjadi semakin biasa. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perbezaan Nilai Matawang&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemasar  antarabangsa turut menghadapi risiko akibat pertukaran nilai matawang  sesebuah negara relatif kepada matawang negara lain. &amp;nbsp;Sebagai contoh  nilai matawang Amerika Syarikat yang rendah &amp;nbsp;menyebabkan eksportnya  meningkat kerana pemasar mempunyai pilihan sama da untuk mengurangkan  harga dan meluaskan syer pasaran &amp;nbsp;atau mengekalkan harga dan mengumpul  keuntungan yang lebih tinggi. &amp;nbsp;Pemasar antarabangsa perlu bersikap  proaftif di dalam menetapkan harga produknya kerana ia perlu  mengambilkira variasi dalam nilai matawang.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos Orang Tengah Dan Pengangkutan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Selain  kos-kos di atas, pemasar antarabangsa turut menghadapi masalah dan  risiko berkaitan dengan saluran agihan dan pengangkutan kerana struktur  &amp;nbsp;agihan adalah berbeza di negara-negara berlainan. &amp;nbsp;Pola pemasaran dan  panjangnya &amp;nbsp;saluran adalah berbeza di setiap negara. &amp;nbsp;Kepelbagaian  saluran agaihan yang digunakan untuk mengagihkan produk ke pasaran dan  kurangnya ‘mark-up” yang standard menyebabkan pengeluar tidak sedar akan  harga akhir sesuatu produk. &amp;nbsp;Antara faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi  harga ialah kos pergudangan dan pengendalian hantaran. &amp;nbsp;Kos pengangkutan  turut meningkatkan apabila barangan dipindah dari negara pengeksport ke  negara pengimport. Kos pengangkutan ini meliputi kos pembungkusan,  insurans dan pengendalian barangan menyebabkan kos-kos tambahan di  kenakan kerana di banyak negara tariff import adalah berasaskan  &amp;nbsp;pengangkutan, insurans, penghantaran. &amp;nbsp;Ini menyebabkan harga akhir  meningkat sehingga melebihi dua kali ganda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SALURAN AGIHAN DAN KESANNYA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;TERHADAP KOS DAN HARGA AKHIR PRODUK&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;RM50.00&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rajah  diatas menunjukkan bagaimana peningkatan harga berlaku bagi pemasar  antarabangsa yang mempunyai saluran agihan yang panjang. &amp;nbsp;Kos-kos  tambahan pada setiap peringkat memainkan peranan yang penting di dalam  menentukan harga akhir sesuatu produk.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;RM30.00&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PERUNCIT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;RM10.30&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PEMBORONG&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENGEKSPORT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENGGUNA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;RM1.50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;RM5.00&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENGELUAR&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 10B&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Dapatkan  satu produk yang pernah anda beli. &amp;nbsp;Berdasarkan produk pilihan anda,  kenalpasti faktor-faktor yang membawa kepada tambahan kos sehingga  &amp;nbsp;harga akhir yang dibayar untuk mendapatkan produk tersebut.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENENTUAN HARGA TERTADBIR&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  berkaitan dengan cubaan untuk menetapkan harga untuk keseluruhan  pasaran. &amp;nbsp;Harga seperti ini &amp;nbsp;mungkin diatur melalui kerjasama pesaing,  &amp;nbsp;kerjasama kerajaan nasional, negeri atau kerajaan tempatan atau melalui  persetujuan antarabangsa. &amp;nbsp;Amnya matlamat akhir kesemua kegiatan ini  mempengaruhi penetapan harga.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Penetapan Harga &amp;nbsp;Mengkut Kumpulan Industri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pelbagai  bentuk cubaan dibuat oleh pengeluar untuk menetapkan harga di pasaran.  &amp;nbsp;Ia sering dilakukan dalam pelbagai bentuk iaitu persetujuan,  pengaturan, kombinasi, pakat sulit, kartel, komunikasi untung, kumpulan  untung, perlesenan paten, persatuan perdagangan, kepimpinan harga,  penentuan harga biasa dan persejutuan &amp;nbsp;yang formal antara firma. &amp;nbsp;Antara  bentuk yang &amp;nbsp;dikaitkan secara langsung dengan pemasaran antarabangsa  ialah perlesenan paten, kartel dan persatuan perdagangan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Persetujuan Perlesenan Paten&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Dalam  industri di mana rekaan baru teknologi adalah amat penting, persetujuan  paten atau proses adalah bentuk kombinasi antarabangsa yang paling  biasa dilakukan. &amp;nbsp;Dalam kebanyakan negara, persetujuan perlesenan paten  adalah sah di sisi undang-undang kerana pemilik paten itu memberi lesen  yang esklusif kepada seseorang dalam sesebuah negara lain untuk  mengeluarkan keluaran &amp;nbsp;berkenaan. &amp;nbsp;Pemegang paten boleh mengawal  sempadan wilayah dan disebabkan monopoli beliau juga boleh mengawal  penentuan harga. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kartel&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kartel  akan wujud apabila pelbagai pengeluar yang mengeluarkan produk yang  sama &amp;nbsp;berkerja sama &amp;nbsp;untuk mengawal pasaran bagi jenis produk yang  dikeluarkan. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Persatuan kartel mungkin &amp;nbsp;menggunakan persetujuan yang  formal untuk menentukan harga, menetapkan tingkat pengeluaran dan jualan  untuk syarikat yang mnyertainya, memperuntukkan wilayah pasaran dan  juga mengagihkan &amp;nbsp;semula untung. &amp;nbsp;Dalam beberapa keadaan organisasi  kartel itu mengambil alih keseluruhan fungsi jualan, menjual barang  semua pengeluar dan mengagihkan untung yang diperolehi. &amp;nbsp;Walaupun  terdapat kritikan terhadap kartel tetapi mereka menegaskan bahawa  &amp;nbsp;langkah ini dapat menghapuskan persaingan yang &amp;nbsp;hebat dan membolehkan  &amp;nbsp;kemajuan teknik yang lebih tinggi dan harga yang lebih rendah kepada  pengguna. &amp;nbsp;Antara bentuk-bentuk kartel ialah OPEC.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Persatuan Perdagangan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Persatuan  perdagangan boleh wujud sebagai kartel yang ketat dan tegas atau hanya  sebagai organisasi perdagangan tidak formal yang secara tidak langsung  berkaitan dengan penentuan harga, bahagian pasaran atau tingkat  pengeluaran. &amp;nbsp;Kebanyakan persatuan perdagangan &amp;nbsp;mengumpulkan maklumat  tentang harga dan urus niaga di dalam industri tertentu. &amp;nbsp;Matlamat umum  persatuan perdagangan ialah untuk melindungi dan mengekalkan struktur  penentuan harga yang paling &amp;nbsp;dapat diterima secara umumnya &amp;nbsp;oleh  ahli-ahli industri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Penetapan Harga Yang Dipengaruhi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Aktiviti  kerajaan dan pentadbiran turut mempengaruhi harga akhir sesuatu produk  yang dieksport. Kerajaan boleh mengenakan &amp;nbsp;kawalan harga terhadap produk  tertentu bagi tujuan untuk melindungi pengguna atau industri berkenaan.  &amp;nbsp;Ia dilakukan dalam bentuk harga lantai dan harga bumbung. &amp;nbsp;Selain itu,  kawalan terhadap perubahan harga atau margin keuntungan maksimum juga  dilakukan. &amp;nbsp;Kerajaan juga menawarkan &amp;nbsp;subsidi bagi membantu mengurangkan  harga barangan untuk meningkatkan daya saing sesebuah syarikat dalam  pasaran global. &amp;nbsp;Walaubagaimanapun eksport barangan yang dibantu oleh  subsidi kerajaan dilihat oleh negara pengimport sebagai lambakan kerana  harga barangan itu menjadi murah. &amp;nbsp;Dalam hal ini pesaing domestik  memberi tekanan kepada kerajaan supaya mengenakan “countervailing  tariff” supaya barangan import mempunyai harga yang sama dengan barangan  yang dikeluarkan oleh syarikat tempatan. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 10C&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Namakan beberapa produk yang mana harganya dikawal oleh kerajaan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PERDAGANGAN BALAS (COUNTERTRADE) SEBAGAI &amp;nbsp;ALAT PENETAPAN HARGA.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di  negara-negara yang kekurangan tukaran wang asing, &amp;nbsp;sesebuah firma  bersetuju untuk menerima produk sesebuah negara sebagai satu bahagian  dari bayaran kepada barangan yang dieskport &amp;nbsp;ke negara tersebut.  Perdagangan balas adalah transaksi komersil yang dilaksanakan berkaitan  bayaran terhadap penghantaran barangan dan atau perkhidmatan sebagai  tambahan kepada atau sebagai ganti kepada penyelesaian kewangan.  Terdapat beberapa bentuk countertrade seperti berikut:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Barter atau Tukar Barang&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Barter  ialah pertukaran barangan atau perkhidmatan tanpa pemindahan wang dalam  jangka pendek iaitu satu atau kurang dari satu tahun dan dinyatakan  dalam bentuk kontrak. &amp;nbsp;Semua bentuk perdagangan balas adalah berdasarkan  &amp;nbsp;kepada dua atau lebih dari dua kontrak berasingan. &amp;nbsp;Ia meliputi  kompensasi penuh atau separa penuh dan kontrak itu &amp;nbsp;selalunya meliputi  satu atau lebih dari satu tahun.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Barter Klasik&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Barter  klasik adalah di mana kedua-dua pihak bertindak sebagai pembeli dan  penjual dalam pertukaran yang dipersetujui doleh kedua-dua belah pihak.  &amp;nbsp;Barangan yang ditukarkan adalah barangan industri, barangan pengguna,  perkhidmatan atau komoditi. Walaubagaimana pun sistem ini amat jarang  berlaku dalam pasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Closed End Barter&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  agak berbeza dengan sistem barter kerana salah seorang dari rakan niaga  telahpun mempunyai pembeli bagi produk yang akan diniagakan sebelum  kontrak dibuat. &amp;nbsp;Selalunya ia adalah rakan kongsinya yang bertempat di  kawasan membangun yang lebih ekonomik. &amp;nbsp;Cara ini mengurangkan risiko  yang terdapat pada sistem barter.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Clearing Account Barter&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia berdasarkan &amp;nbsp;kepada persetujuan antara kerajaan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Lain-Lain Bentuk Perdagangan Balas&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Urusjanji Pampasan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  membabitkan bayaran dalam bentuk barang dan wang tunai. &amp;nbsp;Seorang  &amp;nbsp;penjual menyerahkan sesuatu barangan kepada pembelinya di negara asing  dan mendapat 75% dari bayarannya dalam tunai manakala 25% dalam &amp;nbsp;bentuk  barangan lain.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pembelian Balas (Counter Purchase)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  merupakan jenis perdagangan balas yang paling kerap digunakan. &amp;nbsp;Dalam  perdagangan pembelian balas, dua kontrak dirundingkan. &amp;nbsp;Penjual  bersetuju untuk menjual produk pada harga yang telah ditetapkan kepada  pembeli dan mendapat bayaran dalam bentuk wang tunai. &amp;nbsp;Walaubagaimanapun  kontrak pertama bergantung kepada kontrak kedua yang merupakan  &amp;nbsp;persetujuan oleh penjual asal untuk membeli barang daripada pembeli  sebanyak jumlah amaun kewangan yang sama dengan yang terbabit dalam  kontrak pertama atau peratusan daripada amaun tersebut yang telah  ditetapkan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;STRATEGI &amp;nbsp;PENETAPAN INTRA SYARIKAT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apabila  &amp;nbsp;sesebuah firma meluaskan pasarannya ke pasaran antarabangsa,  usahasama, sistem agihan milik syarikat dan lain-lain aktiviti  pemasaran, harga yang dikenakan kepada gabungan yang berlainan adalah  isu utama di dalam membuat keputusan harga. &amp;nbsp;Harga yang dipindahkan  daripada operasi atau unit jualan di sebuah negara ke unit syarikat di  tempat lain mungkin disesuaikan untuk meningkatkan untung akhir syarikat  secara keseluruhan. &amp;nbsp;Kebaikannya adalah &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mengurangkan  kos duti dengan menghantar produk ke negara yang mengenakan tariff yang  tinggi pada harga pindahan yang minimum supaya asas duti dan duti akan  menjadi rendah&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memudahkan  &amp;nbsp;penghantaran pulang dividen. &amp;nbsp;Apabila penghantaran pulang dividen  dibatasi oleh dasar kerajaan, pendapatan tak nampak boleh dikeluarkan  dalam bentuk harga yang tinggi untuk keluaran atau komponen yang  dihantar ke unit dalam negara tersebut.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengurangan  cukai pendapatan dalam negara yang mengekan cukai yang tinggi dengan  meletakkan harga yang berlebihan ke atas barang yang dipindahkan &amp;nbsp;ke  unit dalam negara tersebut; untung akan terhapus &amp;nbsp;dan dianjakkan ke  negara yang mengenakan cukai yang rendah. Anjakan untung seperti ini  boleh juga digunakan untuk memperbaiki penyata kewangan dengan menambah  untung yang dilaporkan dalam negara yang dilakukan pinjaman dan  pembiayaan lain.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Objektif keseluruhan sistem penetapan harga &amp;nbsp;intrasyarikat termasuklah :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memaksimumkan untung untuk perbadanan secara keseluruhan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memudahkan kawalan syarikat induk&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Menawarkan  kepada pengurusan di semua peringkat dalam kedua-dua bahagian keluaran  dan bahagian antarabangsa suatu asas yang mencukupi untuk menyelenggara,  membangun dan mendapatkan kepujian &amp;nbsp;kerana keberuntungannya sendiri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga  pindahan terlalu rendah adalah tidak &amp;nbsp;memuaskan kepada jabatan  pengeluaran kerana hasil keseluruhannya akan kelihatan tidak memuaskan;  harga yang terlalu tinggi pula menjadikan operasi antarabangsa kelihatan  tidak baik dan menghadkan keberkesanan pengurus luar negara.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemasar antarabangsa mempunyai empat pilihan pengaturan untuk menentukan harga produk bagi pindahan intrasyarikat iaitu:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jualan pada kos perkilangan tempatan tambah tokokan yang piawai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jualan pada kos pengeluar yang paling cekap dalam syarikat tambah tokokan yang piawai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jualan pada harga yang terunding&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jualan selengan menggunakan harga yang sama dengan sebut harga yang diberi kepada pelanggan yang bebas.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Daripada  keempat-empat pengaturan &amp;nbsp;ini pindahan selengan adalah yang paling  mudah diterima oleh bahagian luar negara. &amp;nbsp;Akan tetapi asas yang sesuai  untuk pindahan intrasyarikat bergantung kepada sifat anak syarikat serta  keadaan pasaran. &amp;nbsp;Jika dasar penetapan harga tidak sesuai ia boleh  memberi &amp;nbsp;sumbangan yang banyak kepada keuntungan syarikat secara  keseluruhannya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11C&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kenapakah sesebuah negara itu memilih untuk menjalankan urusniaga secara perdagangan balas?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Anda  telah menghampiri kejayaan. &amp;nbsp;Sila cuba semua soalan dalam penilaian  kendiri ini dan semak jawapan anda pada maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika ada sebarang masalah yang timbul, sila berbincang dengan pensyarah anda. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Selamat mencuba semoga berjaya !!!!!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;br class=&quot;kix-line-break&quot; /&gt;SOALAN 10-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bezakan antara harga tarahan dan penembusan dalam pemasaran antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Senaraikan LIMA faktor yang mempengaruhi peningkatan kos dalam memasarkan produk di pasaran asimg.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Namakan TIGA (3) &amp;nbsp;bentuk &amp;nbsp;pengaturan penetapan harga yang dilakukan oleh firma-firma secara berkumpulan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-4&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apakah masalah utama yang dihadapi oleh pengeksport di dalam menjalani urusniaga secara perdagangan balas?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-5&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jelaskan &amp;nbsp;konsep pemindahan harga.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 10A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kesan parallel imports kepada &lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengguna  – dapat membeli produk dengan harga yang lebih mura tetapi tidak dapat  kelebihan dari segi waranti, perkhidmatan selepas jualan dan alat  gantian.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemasar - &amp;nbsp;Persaingan yang tinggi, &amp;nbsp;ahli saluran agihan yang tidak berpuashati dengan sistem&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 10B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Contoh: &amp;nbsp;Cokelat yang diimport dari negara Eropah&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Faktor yang menyebabkan harga meningkat ialah:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Margin keuntungan yang diambil oleh pengimport&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos pengangkutan dari Eropah ke Malaysia &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos pergudangan setelah cokelat sampai ke Malaysia&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Cukai yang dikenakan oleh kerajaan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos iklan dan promosi di Malaysia&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Margin keuntungan yang dikenakan oleh peruncit di Malaysia&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 10C&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Antara produk di bawah kawalan kerajaan ialah harga beras, susu, gula, minyak petrol dan minyak masak.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga  tarahan ialah di mana &amp;nbsp;pemasar antarabangsa menetapkan harga yang  tinggi di pasaran asing. &amp;nbsp;Ia dilakukan untuk menarik pasaran  berpendapatan tinggi dan untuk mendapatkan pulangan yang tinggi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga  &amp;nbsp;penembusan ialah di mana pemasar antarabangsa menetapkan harga yang  rendah dalam pasaran asing bagi tujuan untuk menarik minat pasaran  tersebut dan meluaskan syer pasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Lima  faktor yang mempengaruhi dalam peningkatan harga sesuatu produk yang  diekpsort ialah cukai, tarif dan kos pentdabiran, inflasi, turun naik  kadar pertukaran , perbezaan nilai matawang, kos orang tengah dan  pengangkutan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Tiga  bentuk berkumpulan &amp;nbsp;yang dilakukan oleh firma untuk mengawal harga  ialah kartel, persatuan perdagangan dan &amp;nbsp;persetujuan perlesenan paten.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-4&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Menetapkan harga yang tepat dengannilai produk yang ditatwarkan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Menjual produk yang diperolehi daripada &amp;nbsp;perdagangan tukar barang setelah diterima&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-5&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemindahan  harga adalah &amp;nbsp;harga yang ditetapkan &amp;nbsp;terhadap produk yang dijual dalam  sesebuah korporat seperti dari satu bahagian ke bahagian lain atau  kepada anak syarikat negara asing.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/6669311785170697801/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-10-pembentukan-strategi-pemasaran_24.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/6669311785170697801'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/6669311785170697801'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-10-pembentukan-strategi-pemasaran_24.html' title='UNIT 10  PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-6735374992145701070</id><published>2011-09-24T03:31:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T21:15:41.536-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="P5126 Aspek Pemasaran Antarabangsa"/><title type='text'>UNIT 10  PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL</title><content type='html'>&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; id=&quot;internal-source-marker_0.17327636896615672&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;UNIT 10&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PERLETAKAN HARGA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF AM&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mengetahui  dan memahami tentang polisi-polisi harga, faktor-faktor yang  mempengaruhi perubahan harga dan aspek-aspek pentadbiran harga&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF KHUSUS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di akhir unit ini anda sepatutnya dapat :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;Menerangkan polisi-polisi harga yang meliputi objektif harga, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;parallel imports&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;, pendekatan terhadap penetapan harga antarabangsa dan &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;leasing. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;  Menghuraikan faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perubahan harga &amp;nbsp;iaitu kos  eksport, cukai, tarif dan kos pentadbiran, turun naik pertukaran,  perbezaan nilai matawang dan kos orang tengah.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Menjelaskan aspek-aspek pentadbiran harga iaitu penetapan harga &amp;nbsp;mengikut kumpulan industri dan mengikut pengaruh kerajaan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;10.0&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENGENALAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Reformasi  ekonomi seperti pembentukan &amp;nbsp;Kesatuan Eropah membawa kepada  peluang-peluang baru dalam pasaran dan persaingan. &amp;nbsp;Apabila sesebuah  syarikat global &amp;nbsp;mencari pasaran maka harga merupakan satu alat  persaingan yang penting. &amp;nbsp;Pemasar berhadapan dengan set angkubah baru  bagi setiap pasaran seperti tarif, kos, sikap, persaingan, turun naik  matawang, kaedah penetapan harga / price quotation dan strategi  pemasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;10.1 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;POLISI HARGA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat  yang memasarkan &amp;nbsp;produk di beberapa buah negara akan menghadapi  pelbagai masalah berkait dengan polisi harga. &amp;nbsp;Aktiviti harga banyak  bergantung kepada &amp;nbsp;negara tuan rumah, jenis produk, persaingan dan  pelbagai factor lain. &amp;nbsp;Harga dan syarat-syarat jualan &amp;nbsp;tidak boleh  dilakukan dengan &amp;nbsp;hanya berasaskan kriteria domestik.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; Objektif Penetapan Harga.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemasar antarabangsa mempunyai &amp;nbsp;dua pilihan dalam membuat keputusan mengenai penetapan harga:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga  digunakan sebagai satu alat untuk mencapai objektif pemasaran seperti  mencapai tingkat jualan atau syer pasaran tertentu &amp;nbsp;dalam jangkamasa  tertentu. &amp;nbsp;Sebagai contoh, pemasar menetapkan harga sebanyak RM450 bagi  sebuah kamera &amp;nbsp;untuk mencapai tingkat syer pasaran sebanyak 30% &amp;nbsp;dalam  pasaran kamera bagi tahun depan. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga  sebagai satu elemen yang &amp;nbsp;stabil dalam keputusan perniagaan. &amp;nbsp;Syarikat  yang mengeksport inventori lebihan , &amp;nbsp;tidak menekankan perniagaan luaran  dan melihat jualan eksport sebagai satu sumbangan yang pasif kepada  volum jualan keuntungan adalah objektif harga terpenting. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  sesebuah syarikat mempunyai kawalan yang lebih tinggi dalam menetapkan  &amp;nbsp;harga jualan sesuatu produk, maka kemampuannya untuk mencapai objektif  &amp;nbsp;atau matlamat pemasaran adalah lebih baik. &amp;nbsp;Walaubagaimanapun, adalah  sukar untuk mengawal harga akhir. &amp;nbsp;Dalam keadaan seperti ini, syarikat  akan menggunakan kaedah penentuan &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;harga bersih kilang&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; iaitu di mana harga yang diterima untuk barang apabila dihantar dari loji. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Proses  pengawalan harga bagi pengguna akhir adalah lebih kompleks. &amp;nbsp;Jika lini  keluaran adalah lebih luas maka bilangan negara yang dieksport adalah  lebih banyak. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Selain &amp;nbsp;dari menghadapi persaingan harga mengikut  negara, produk sesebuah syarikat &amp;nbsp;terpaksa melindungi dirinya dari  persaingan dalam syarikat dan pelanggannya. Jika sesebuah syarikat besar  tidak mempunyai kawalan yang berkesan, produknya akan bersaing dengan  cawangan atau anak syarikatnya sendiri. &amp;nbsp;Jika sesebuah syarikat yang  besar tidak mempunyai kawalan yang berkesan, produknya akan bersaing  dengan &amp;nbsp;cawangan atau anak syarikatnya sendiri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Parallel Imports” &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Disebabkan  harga sesuatu produk &amp;nbsp;mungkin berbeza-beza di antara sesebuah pasaran,  produk yang dijual di sesebuah negara mungkin dieskpot &amp;nbsp;ke negara lain  dan dengan harga yang lebih murah yang dikenakan di negara tersebut.  &amp;nbsp;Ini menyebabkan berlakunya masalah &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“parallel import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;” &amp;nbsp;atau “&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;gray market&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;”.  &amp;nbsp;Contohnya syarikat pengeluar jam dari Jepun mengeksport produknya ke  negara Filipina dengan harga yang agak rendah. &amp;nbsp;Produk ini dieksport  dari Filipina ke negara ke tiga di mana ia akan bersaing dengan produk  yang sama yang telah dijual pada harga yang lebih tinggi. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Parallel import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; akan menjejaskan tingkat harga. &amp;nbsp;Ia berpunca dari persaingan harga yang tidak berkesan dan kurangnya kawalan dari pihak luar. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Parallel &amp;nbsp;import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;  terjadi apabila pengimport membeli produk dari pengedar dari sesebuah  negara dan menjualnya semula ke negara lain &amp;nbsp;kepada pengedar yang bukan  menjadi ahli dalam sistem pengedaran pengeluar. Amalan ini memberi  keuntungan yang tinggi &amp;nbsp;jika perbezaan harga produk di negara-negara  yang berlainan adalah tinggi. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Antara faktor-faktor yang mendorong pengedar untuk melakukan &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;parallel&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; ialah:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perbezaan Dalam Nilai Matawang Diantara Sesebuah Negara Dan Negara Lain&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sebagai  contoh, jika matawang Amerika Syarikat &amp;nbsp;adalah tinggi berbanding  matawang Jerman, produk keluaran syarikat Amerika yang dieksport ke  Jerman akan dibeli dari pengedar Jerman &amp;nbsp;pada harga yang rendah dan  dijual semula ke Amerika Syarikat. Harga &amp;nbsp;produk yang dijual semula di  Amerika Syarikat akan menjadi lebih rendah dari yang sedia ada.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bekalan &amp;nbsp;Produk Yang Terhad Dalam Sesuatu Pasaran Mengakibatkan &amp;nbsp;Harga Yang Amat Tinggi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sebagai contoh bilangan Mercedes Benz yang terhad di pasaran Amerika Syarikat. &amp;nbsp;Pasaran &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;parallel import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; terjadi disebabkan kepulangan orang-orang Amerika Syarikat &amp;nbsp;yang tinggal di Jerman.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sekatan Import Akibat Kuota Dan Tariff Yang Tinggi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sebagai  contoh, negara India mempunyai struktur &amp;nbsp;duti import tiga peringkat ke  atas barangan komputer dari 50-80%. &amp;nbsp;Hasil dari itu, sebahagian besar  dari jualan komputer tempatan datang dari “gray market”. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perbezaan Harga Yang Besar Di Antara Negara.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sebagai  contoh peniaga di Jepun menetapkan &amp;nbsp;harga yang tinggi terhadap barangan  pengguna yang dijual di pasaran Jepun. &amp;nbsp;Oleh itu harga barangan Jepun  yang dijual di negara lain adalah lebih rendah dari di Jepun. &amp;nbsp;Contohnya  orang-orang Jepun membeli kamera buatan Jepun dari peruncit di New York  melalui katalog dan menjualnya semula di Jepun pada harga yang lebih  rendah dari harga pasaran Jepun. Tambahan pula, nilai Yen yang tinggi  menyebabkan &amp;nbsp;harga adalah tidak besar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perbezaan Harga Adalah Besar Dari Kos Pengangkutan Di Antara Pasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perbezaan  cukai dan struktur harga yang berbeza di antara sesebuah negara  menyebabkan harga produk yang sama adalah berbeza &amp;nbsp;di negara yang  berlainan. Akibatnya sesebuah syarikat akan bersaing di sesebuah negara  dengan produk keluarannya sendiri yang diimport &amp;nbsp;dari negara lain pada  harga yang rendah.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bagi menghalang terjadinya “gray market”, sesebuah syarikat hendaklah :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;mempunyai sistem kawalan yang kukuh&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menetap dan memantau kawalan yang dapat &amp;nbsp;polisi saluran agihan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di  sesetengah negara, pihak pemasar mendapat bantuan dari mahkamah.  Sebagai contoh, di &amp;nbsp;Taiwan, mahkamah telah memutuskan dua buah syarikat  yang mengimport Coca Cola dari Amerika Syarikat ke Taiwan &amp;nbsp;telah  menyalahi undang hak-hak tandaniaga &amp;nbsp;Syarikat Coca Cola dan pemegang  lesen tunggalnya. Syarikat terbabit dilarang dari mengimport, memperagai  atau menjual produk yang mempunyai tanda niaga Coca Cola. &amp;nbsp;Walau  bagaimanapun tidak semua negara mendapat sokongan seperti itu dari pihak  mahkamah. Di negara Jepun, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;parallel import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; tidak menyalahi undang-undang.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Parallel import&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; memberi kesan jangka panjang bagi produk yang mempunyai &amp;nbsp;tandaniaga. Ini adalah kerana :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;kualiti barangan yang dibeli tidak terjamin&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;tiada jaminan &amp;nbsp;ditawarkan terhadap pembelian produk&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;perkhidmatan selepas jualan yang sah &amp;nbsp;tidak ditawarkan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;penjual tidak dapat memberi jaminan terhadap alat gantian yang sah &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; Pendekatan Terhadap Penetapan Harga Antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Penentuan &amp;nbsp;Harga Kos Berubah vs Kos &amp;nbsp;Penuh&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Firma  yang menetapkan harga barangan berasaskan kos hendaklah memastikan sama  ada mereka memilih pendekatan kos berubah atau kos penuh.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Penentuan Harga Kos Berubah&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Firma  hanya mementingkan kos-kos marginal atau &amp;nbsp;kos tambahan dalam  pengeluaran barangan yang dijual di pasaran luar negara. &amp;nbsp;Mereka  menganggapkan &amp;nbsp;jualan luar negara sebagai satu jualan &amp;nbsp;bonus dan  &amp;nbsp;menganggapkan pulangan &amp;nbsp;ke atas kos berubah merupakan satu sumbangan  kepada keuntungan bersih. &amp;nbsp;Firma boleh menetapkan harga yang &amp;nbsp;kompetitif  &amp;nbsp;di pasaran luar negara. Tetapi disebabkan firma menjual produk di luar  negara pada harga bersih yang lebih rendah dari pasaran tempatan mereka  boleh didakwa sebagai melakukan lambakan. Dengan ini mereka terdedah  kepada antilambakan seperti &amp;nbsp;tarif atau denda yang akan menjejaskan  kelebihan bersaing mereka. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Penentuan Harga Kos Penuh&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 144pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat  yang menetapkan harga produk mereka dengan menggunakan pendekatan ini  menekankan bahawa semua barangan yang dijual adalah serupa. &amp;nbsp;Tidak wujud  perbezaan dari segi kos dan setiap unit produk menanggung bahagiannya  dalam jumlah kos tetap dan kos berubah.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kedua-dua polisi di atas digunakan oleh pemasar antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga Penarahan Dan Penembusan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 81pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keputusan  sama ada untuk menggunakan penetapan harga tarahan atau penembusan  bergantung kepada beberapa &amp;nbsp;faktor iaitu tahap persaingan, inovasi  produk dan ciri-ciri pasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga Tarahan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 99pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Polisi  ini digunakan jika produk disasarkan kepada pasaran yang tidak sensitif  &amp;nbsp;dan sanggup bayar lebih untuk mendapatkan nilai. &amp;nbsp;Polisi harga tarahan  digunakan oleh pemasar &amp;nbsp;dalam beberapa situasi iaitu jika &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;bekalan adalah terhad bagi tujuan memaksimakan &amp;nbsp;hasil jualan dan untuk memadankan &amp;nbsp;permintaan dan penawaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;sesebuah  syarikat itu adalah satu-satunya &amp;nbsp;pengeluar &amp;nbsp;produk baru tersebut atau  yang inovatif bagi tujuan untuk memaksimakan &amp;nbsp;keuntungan sehingga  persaingan memaksa harga diturunkan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;sesuatu pasaran &amp;nbsp;itu mempunyai dua tahap pendapatan – iaitu yang kaya dan miskin.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 99pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos  merupakan halangan utama penetapan harga yang akan menarik perhatian  dan minat &amp;nbsp;pasaran berpendapatan rendah supaya pemasar menetapkan harga  yang tinggi dan mengagihkan produk kepada golongan berpendapatan tinggi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Penembusan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 99pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Polisi  harga penembusan dugunakan untuk menggalakkan perkembangan pasaran dan  mendapatkan &amp;nbsp;syer pasaran dengan menawarkan produk pada harga yang  rendah. &amp;nbsp;Polisi ini sering digunakan untuk memperolehi &amp;nbsp;dan pertahankan  syer pasaran sebagai satu cara untuk mengawal persaingan.  Walabagaimanapun bagi negara yang mengalami perkembangan ekonomi yang  cepat dan mampan di mana sebahagian besar dari populasi berpindah kepada  golongan kelas pertengahan, polisi ini digunakan bagi &amp;nbsp;menggalakkan  perkembangan pasaran dengan persaingan yang minima.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 99pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga  penembusan adalah strategi yang lebih menguntungkan berbanding tarahan  jika ia &amp;nbsp;memaksimakan pulangan atau jualan dan membina syer pasaran  &amp;nbsp;sebagai asas persaingan yang bakal dihadapi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemajakan &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemajakan  adalah alat pemasaran pembiayaan-harga yang penting &amp;nbsp;bagi pembelian  peralatan maka &amp;nbsp;penggunaannya adalah semakin meluas di peringkat  antarabangsa. Syarat pajak biasanya &amp;nbsp;dari &amp;nbsp;satu hingga lima &amp;nbsp;tahun dan  bayaran dibuat secara bulanan atau tahunan. Yuran pemajakan meliputi  perkhidmatan pengendalian, pembaikan dan alatganti. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kebanyakan  system pemajakan adalah &amp;nbsp;serupa di peringkat antarabangsa dan tempatan.  &amp;nbsp;Ia adalah lebih &amp;nbsp;penting dalam pasaran antarabangsa kerana ia  membolehkan &amp;nbsp;pemajak untuk mendapatkan peralatan yang mahal pada kos  tahunan yang minima. &amp;nbsp;Ini merupakan suatu yang penting dalam pasaran  yang kekurangan modal dan kewangan yang terhad.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sistem  pemajakan menawarkan perkhidmatan penyelenggaraan . Ini adalah penting  terutama bagi negara yang kekurangan juruteknik dan mekanik terlatih.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sesetengah negara menyokong &amp;nbsp;sistem pemajakan &amp;nbsp;dengan menawarkan &amp;nbsp;beberapa kemudahan seperti &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Menawarkan insentif modal bagi menggalakkan perbelanjaan terhadap kilang dan peralatan baru.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pelbagai  insentif cukai diberikan kepada &amp;nbsp;firma yang melaburkan dalam peralatan  modal. &amp;nbsp;Pengeksport boleh mengelakkan risiko dengan mengikut kontrak  dalam menyatakan harga dalam nilai matawang negaranya sendiri.  &amp;nbsp;Walaubagaimanapun penyewa &amp;nbsp;lebih suka kontrak yang menggunakan nilai  wangnya supaya pengeksport &amp;nbsp;yang menanggung risiko.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kontrak  untuk &amp;nbsp;pengaturan &amp;nbsp;pemajakan dalam &amp;nbsp;luar negara adalah serupa.  &amp;nbsp;Faktor-faktor yang mendorong &amp;nbsp;untuk menggunanakan pemajakan serta  kekurangannya adalah sama iaitu:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  membuka pintu untuk suatu segmen &amp;nbsp;besar firma &amp;nbsp;luar negeri yang  dibiayai secara nominal dan boleh dijual berdasarkan pajak tetapi  mungkin tidak dapat dibeli dengan wang tunai.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemajakan  boleh mengurangkan masalah dengan menjual peralatan yang baru atau  sedang diuji kaji kerana &amp;nbsp;ia membabitkan risiko yang kurang untuk  pengguna.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemajakan membantu menjamin penyelenggaraan dan perkhidmatan &amp;nbsp;yang lebih baik untuk peralatan luar negeri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Hasil pajak cenderung untuk menjadi stabil daripada jualan langsung mengikut suatu tempoh masa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Terdapat beberapa &amp;nbsp;kekurangan dalam pemajakan &amp;nbsp;di peringkat antarabangsa iaitu :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bagi  negara yang mengalami inflasi, kontrak pemajakan yang meliputi  &amp;nbsp;pengendalian dan bekalan alatganti boleh membawa kepada kerugian di  penghujung tempoh kontrak. &amp;nbsp;Negara yang paling menarik untuk &amp;nbsp;memajak  adalah negara yang paling &amp;nbsp;mungkin mengalami masalah inflasi lingkaran. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Masalah  lain bekait dengan pemajakan adalah penurunan nilai matawang,  pengambilalihan &amp;nbsp;atau risiko-risiko politik yang akan terus dihadapi  oleh pemasar antarabangsa sepanjang tempoh pajakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 10A&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apakah pendapat anda tentang &amp;nbsp;kesan parallel imports kepada &lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengguna&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemasar antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;2 &amp;nbsp;PENINGKATAN HARGA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; Kos Eskport&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 63pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengguna  sering mendapati produk yang dikeluarkan dan dijual di negara sendiri  &amp;nbsp;relatifnya tidak mahal tetapi ia dijual pada harga yang tinggi di  negara asing. &amp;nbsp;Mereka sering mengandaikan bahawa &amp;nbsp;harga tersebut adalah  disebabkan &amp;nbsp;perbuatan mengambil keuntungan berlebihan. &amp;nbsp;Pengeluar cuba  menyelesaikan masalah ini dengan &amp;nbsp;mengeksport produk tersebut ke pasaran  baru tetapi mereka dapati harga yang tinggi mencerminkan kos  pengeksportan yang tinggi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 63pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sebagai  contoh, &amp;nbsp;sesuatu produk yang dikeluarkan di Malaysia pada harga  RM1,000.00 &amp;nbsp;Apabila ia dijual dinegara Jepun, harganya meningkat kepada  RM3,00.00 &amp;nbsp;Ini adalah disebabkan &amp;nbsp;produk &amp;nbsp;itu melalui beberapa peringkat  sebelum sampai ke pengguna akhir seperti kos pengangkutan, insurans,  pembungkusan, tariff, saluran agihan yang lebih panjang, keuntungan yang  besar diambil oleh orang tengah, cukai khas, kos pentadbiran dan turun  naim kadar pertukaran. &amp;nbsp;Kos ini semakin tinggi apabila ia melibatkan  perpindahan barangan dari sebuah negara ke negara yang lain. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengeluar - Pengekport&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengimport&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengedar Tempatan:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat yang bertanggungjawab terhadap jualan dan perkhidmatan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengguna Akhir / Industri&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pada setiap peringkat seperti di atas, harga ditambah &amp;nbsp;yang menjadikan harga akhir &amp;nbsp;tinggi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;10.2.1.1 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Cukai, Tarif Dan Kos-Kos Pentadbiran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Tarif  atau duti &amp;nbsp;adalah bentuk pencukaian yang khas yang mungkin &amp;nbsp;dikenakan  untuk tujuan melindungi pasaran atau untuk menambah hasil kerajaan.  &amp;nbsp;Tarif adalah yuran yang dikenakan apabila baranag dibawa masuk ke dalam  sesebuah &amp;nbsp;negara yang lain. &amp;nbsp;Tingkat tarif biasanya dinyatakan sebagai  &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;kadar duti dan boleh dikenakan sebagai khusus &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;ad valorem&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;  atau kombinasu kedua-duanya. &amp;nbsp;Duti khusus adalah caj sama rata untuk  setiap unit fizikal yang diimport sebagai contoh &amp;nbsp;20 sen untuk setiap  busyel gandum yang diimport.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Duti &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;ad valorem&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;  dikenakan sebagai peratusan nilai barang yang diimport misalnya 25%  dari nilai pakaian yang diimport. &amp;nbsp;Tarif kombinasi termasuk kedua-dua  caj khusus dan ad valorem misalnya RM1 untuk setiap kamera tambah 15%  daripada &amp;nbsp;nilainya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Tarif  dan bentuk cukai import yang lain bertindak untuk mendiskriminasikan  &amp;nbsp;semua barang dari luar negeri. &amp;nbsp;Yuran &amp;nbsp;untuk sijil import atau  pemprosesan &amp;nbsp;pentadbiran &amp;nbsp;lain boleh menjadi sangat tinggi hingga ia  sebenarnya &amp;nbsp;menjadi cukai import. &amp;nbsp;Banyak negara mempunyai cukai  pembelian atau cukai eksais yang diperlukan &amp;nbsp;bagi pelbagai kategori  baranag, cukai nilai ditambah atau cukai pusing ganti yang dipergunakan  apabila keluara &amp;nbsp;tersebut melalui saluran agihan dan cukai jualan  runcit. &amp;nbsp;Cukai seperti ini menambah harga akhir &amp;nbsp;barang tetapi secara  amnya ia tidak mendiskriminasi terhadap barang dari luar negeri. &amp;nbsp;Tarif  merupakan cukai berdiskriminasi &amp;nbsp;yang utama yang mesti diambil kira  dalam membuat perhitungan dengan persaingan dari luar negeri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;10.2.1.2. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Inflasi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Inflasi  yang tinggi memerlukan pengubahsuaian harga untuk menutupi &amp;nbsp;pertambahan  kos. &amp;nbsp;Disebabkan keadaan inflasi tidak sama di &amp;nbsp;pasaran yang berbeza,  pemasar &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;menghadapi pelbagai masalah dan risiko yang kompleks.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  kadar inflasi adalah tinggi di negara &amp;nbsp;pengekport, firma tidak dapat  mengubah harga seperti mana yang diperlukan. &amp;nbsp;Oleh itu ia terpaksa  menyerap peningkatan harga dalam &amp;nbsp;harga input.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  inflasi adalah tinggi di negara pengimport sama ada harga dinaikkan  atau tidak adalah bergantung kepada reaksi pengguna di negara berkenaan,  &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;kawalan kerajaan dan kos-kos &amp;nbsp;tambahan dalam perubahan harga,  pemprograman &amp;nbsp;komputer atau sistem catatan jualan dan lain-lain aktiviti  berkait dengan penetapan harga.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika  bayaran dari pengimport &amp;nbsp;dijangka tertunda dan pengimport berada di  negara yang mengahadpi inflasi, kadar inflasi harus diambilkira di dalam  penetapan harga produk. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;10.2.1.3 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Turun-Naik Kadar Pertukaran&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kadar  pertukaran sering berubah mengikut keadaan ekonomi. &amp;nbsp;Ini bermakna  &amp;nbsp;nilai mata wang pada masa hadapan tidak dapat ditentukan. Oleh itu  urusniaga pengekport sering mendesak supaya segala urusniaga dibuat  dengan menggunakan nilai matawang negara pengeksport dan perlindungan  nilai hadapan menjadi semakin biasa. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perbezaan Nilai Matawang&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemasar  antarabangsa turut menghadapi risiko akibat pertukaran nilai matawang  sesebuah negara relatif kepada matawang negara lain. &amp;nbsp;Sebagai contoh  nilai matawang Amerika Syarikat yang rendah &amp;nbsp;menyebabkan eksportnya  meningkat kerana pemasar mempunyai pilihan sama da untuk mengurangkan  harga dan meluaskan syer pasaran &amp;nbsp;atau mengekalkan harga dan mengumpul  keuntungan yang lebih tinggi. &amp;nbsp;Pemasar antarabangsa perlu bersikap  proaftif di dalam menetapkan harga produknya kerana ia perlu  mengambilkira variasi dalam nilai matawang.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos Orang Tengah Dan Pengangkutan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 126pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Selain  kos-kos di atas, pemasar antarabangsa turut menghadapi masalah dan  risiko berkaitan dengan saluran agihan dan pengangkutan kerana struktur  &amp;nbsp;agihan adalah berbeza di negara-negara berlainan. &amp;nbsp;Pola pemasaran dan  panjangnya &amp;nbsp;saluran adalah berbeza di setiap negara. &amp;nbsp;Kepelbagaian  saluran agaihan yang digunakan untuk mengagihkan produk ke pasaran dan  kurangnya ‘mark-up” yang standard menyebabkan pengeluar tidak sedar akan  harga akhir sesuatu produk. &amp;nbsp;Antara faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi  harga ialah kos pergudangan dan pengendalian hantaran. &amp;nbsp;Kos pengangkutan  turut meningkatkan apabila barangan dipindah dari negara pengeksport ke  negara pengimport. Kos pengangkutan ini meliputi kos pembungkusan,  insurans dan pengendalian barangan menyebabkan kos-kos tambahan di  kenakan kerana di banyak negara tariff import adalah berasaskan  &amp;nbsp;pengangkutan, insurans, penghantaran. &amp;nbsp;Ini menyebabkan harga akhir  meningkat sehingga melebihi dua kali ganda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SALURAN AGIHAN DAN KESANNYA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;TERHADAP KOS DAN HARGA AKHIR PRODUK&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;RM50.00&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Rajah  diatas menunjukkan bagaimana peningkatan harga berlaku bagi pemasar  antarabangsa yang mempunyai saluran agihan yang panjang. &amp;nbsp;Kos-kos  tambahan pada setiap peringkat memainkan peranan yang penting di dalam  menentukan harga akhir sesuatu produk.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;RM30.00&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PERUNCIT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;RM10.30&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PEMBORONG&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENGEKSPORT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENGGUNA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;RM1.50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;RM5.00&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENGELUAR&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 10B&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Dapatkan  satu produk yang pernah anda beli. &amp;nbsp;Berdasarkan produk pilihan anda,  kenalpasti faktor-faktor yang membawa kepada tambahan kos sehingga  &amp;nbsp;harga akhir yang dibayar untuk mendapatkan produk tersebut.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENENTUAN HARGA TERTADBIR&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  berkaitan dengan cubaan untuk menetapkan harga untuk keseluruhan  pasaran. &amp;nbsp;Harga seperti ini &amp;nbsp;mungkin diatur melalui kerjasama pesaing,  &amp;nbsp;kerjasama kerajaan nasional, negeri atau kerajaan tempatan atau melalui  persetujuan antarabangsa. &amp;nbsp;Amnya matlamat akhir kesemua kegiatan ini  mempengaruhi penetapan harga.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Penetapan Harga &amp;nbsp;Mengkut Kumpulan Industri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pelbagai  bentuk cubaan dibuat oleh pengeluar untuk menetapkan harga di pasaran.  &amp;nbsp;Ia sering dilakukan dalam pelbagai bentuk iaitu persetujuan,  pengaturan, kombinasi, pakat sulit, kartel, komunikasi untung, kumpulan  untung, perlesenan paten, persatuan perdagangan, kepimpinan harga,  penentuan harga biasa dan persejutuan &amp;nbsp;yang formal antara firma. &amp;nbsp;Antara  bentuk yang &amp;nbsp;dikaitkan secara langsung dengan pemasaran antarabangsa  ialah perlesenan paten, kartel dan persatuan perdagangan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Persetujuan Perlesenan Paten&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Dalam  industri di mana rekaan baru teknologi adalah amat penting, persetujuan  paten atau proses adalah bentuk kombinasi antarabangsa yang paling  biasa dilakukan. &amp;nbsp;Dalam kebanyakan negara, persetujuan perlesenan paten  adalah sah di sisi undang-undang kerana pemilik paten itu memberi lesen  yang esklusif kepada seseorang dalam sesebuah negara lain untuk  mengeluarkan keluaran &amp;nbsp;berkenaan. &amp;nbsp;Pemegang paten boleh mengawal  sempadan wilayah dan disebabkan monopoli beliau juga boleh mengawal  penentuan harga. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kartel&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kartel  akan wujud apabila pelbagai pengeluar yang mengeluarkan produk yang  sama &amp;nbsp;berkerja sama &amp;nbsp;untuk mengawal pasaran bagi jenis produk yang  dikeluarkan. &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Persatuan kartel mungkin &amp;nbsp;menggunakan persetujuan yang  formal untuk menentukan harga, menetapkan tingkat pengeluaran dan jualan  untuk syarikat yang mnyertainya, memperuntukkan wilayah pasaran dan  juga mengagihkan &amp;nbsp;semula untung. &amp;nbsp;Dalam beberapa keadaan organisasi  kartel itu mengambil alih keseluruhan fungsi jualan, menjual barang  semua pengeluar dan mengagihkan untung yang diperolehi. &amp;nbsp;Walaupun  terdapat kritikan terhadap kartel tetapi mereka menegaskan bahawa  &amp;nbsp;langkah ini dapat menghapuskan persaingan yang &amp;nbsp;hebat dan membolehkan  &amp;nbsp;kemajuan teknik yang lebih tinggi dan harga yang lebih rendah kepada  pengguna. &amp;nbsp;Antara bentuk-bentuk kartel ialah OPEC.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Persatuan Perdagangan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Persatuan  perdagangan boleh wujud sebagai kartel yang ketat dan tegas atau hanya  sebagai organisasi perdagangan tidak formal yang secara tidak langsung  berkaitan dengan penentuan harga, bahagian pasaran atau tingkat  pengeluaran. &amp;nbsp;Kebanyakan persatuan perdagangan &amp;nbsp;mengumpulkan maklumat  tentang harga dan urus niaga di dalam industri tertentu. &amp;nbsp;Matlamat umum  persatuan perdagangan ialah untuk melindungi dan mengekalkan struktur  penentuan harga yang paling &amp;nbsp;dapat diterima secara umumnya &amp;nbsp;oleh  ahli-ahli industri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Penetapan Harga Yang Dipengaruhi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Aktiviti  kerajaan dan pentadbiran turut mempengaruhi harga akhir sesuatu produk  yang dieksport. Kerajaan boleh mengenakan &amp;nbsp;kawalan harga terhadap produk  tertentu bagi tujuan untuk melindungi pengguna atau industri berkenaan.  &amp;nbsp;Ia dilakukan dalam bentuk harga lantai dan harga bumbung. &amp;nbsp;Selain itu,  kawalan terhadap perubahan harga atau margin keuntungan maksimum juga  dilakukan. &amp;nbsp;Kerajaan juga menawarkan &amp;nbsp;subsidi bagi membantu mengurangkan  harga barangan untuk meningkatkan daya saing sesebuah syarikat dalam  pasaran global. &amp;nbsp;Walaubagaimanapun eksport barangan yang dibantu oleh  subsidi kerajaan dilihat oleh negara pengimport sebagai lambakan kerana  harga barangan itu menjadi murah. &amp;nbsp;Dalam hal ini pesaing domestik  memberi tekanan kepada kerajaan supaya mengenakan “countervailing  tariff” supaya barangan import mempunyai harga yang sama dengan barangan  yang dikeluarkan oleh syarikat tempatan. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 10C&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Namakan beberapa produk yang mana harganya dikawal oleh kerajaan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PERDAGANGAN BALAS (COUNTERTRADE) SEBAGAI &amp;nbsp;ALAT PENETAPAN HARGA.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di  negara-negara yang kekurangan tukaran wang asing, &amp;nbsp;sesebuah firma  bersetuju untuk menerima produk sesebuah negara sebagai satu bahagian  dari bayaran kepada barangan yang dieskport &amp;nbsp;ke negara tersebut.  Perdagangan balas adalah transaksi komersil yang dilaksanakan berkaitan  bayaran terhadap penghantaran barangan dan atau perkhidmatan sebagai  tambahan kepada atau sebagai ganti kepada penyelesaian kewangan.  Terdapat beberapa bentuk countertrade seperti berikut:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Barter atau Tukar Barang&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Barter  ialah pertukaran barangan atau perkhidmatan tanpa pemindahan wang dalam  jangka pendek iaitu satu atau kurang dari satu tahun dan dinyatakan  dalam bentuk kontrak. &amp;nbsp;Semua bentuk perdagangan balas adalah berdasarkan  &amp;nbsp;kepada dua atau lebih dari dua kontrak berasingan. &amp;nbsp;Ia meliputi  kompensasi penuh atau separa penuh dan kontrak itu &amp;nbsp;selalunya meliputi  satu atau lebih dari satu tahun.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Barter Klasik&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Barter  klasik adalah di mana kedua-dua pihak bertindak sebagai pembeli dan  penjual dalam pertukaran yang dipersetujui doleh kedua-dua belah pihak.  &amp;nbsp;Barangan yang ditukarkan adalah barangan industri, barangan pengguna,  perkhidmatan atau komoditi. Walaubagaimana pun sistem ini amat jarang  berlaku dalam pasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Closed End Barter&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  agak berbeza dengan sistem barter kerana salah seorang dari rakan niaga  telahpun mempunyai pembeli bagi produk yang akan diniagakan sebelum  kontrak dibuat. &amp;nbsp;Selalunya ia adalah rakan kongsinya yang bertempat di  kawasan membangun yang lebih ekonomik. &amp;nbsp;Cara ini mengurangkan risiko  yang terdapat pada sistem barter.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Clearing Account Barter&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia berdasarkan &amp;nbsp;kepada persetujuan antara kerajaan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Lain-Lain Bentuk Perdagangan Balas&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Urusjanji Pampasan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  membabitkan bayaran dalam bentuk barang dan wang tunai. &amp;nbsp;Seorang  &amp;nbsp;penjual menyerahkan sesuatu barangan kepada pembelinya di negara asing  dan mendapat 75% dari bayarannya dalam tunai manakala 25% dalam &amp;nbsp;bentuk  barangan lain.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pembelian Balas (Counter Purchase)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 90pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  merupakan jenis perdagangan balas yang paling kerap digunakan. &amp;nbsp;Dalam  perdagangan pembelian balas, dua kontrak dirundingkan. &amp;nbsp;Penjual  bersetuju untuk menjual produk pada harga yang telah ditetapkan kepada  pembeli dan mendapat bayaran dalam bentuk wang tunai. &amp;nbsp;Walaubagaimanapun  kontrak pertama bergantung kepada kontrak kedua yang merupakan  &amp;nbsp;persetujuan oleh penjual asal untuk membeli barang daripada pembeli  sebanyak jumlah amaun kewangan yang sama dengan yang terbabit dalam  kontrak pertama atau peratusan daripada amaun tersebut yang telah  ditetapkan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;STRATEGI &amp;nbsp;PENETAPAN INTRA SYARIKAT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apabila  &amp;nbsp;sesebuah firma meluaskan pasarannya ke pasaran antarabangsa,  usahasama, sistem agihan milik syarikat dan lain-lain aktiviti  pemasaran, harga yang dikenakan kepada gabungan yang berlainan adalah  isu utama di dalam membuat keputusan harga. &amp;nbsp;Harga yang dipindahkan  daripada operasi atau unit jualan di sebuah negara ke unit syarikat di  tempat lain mungkin disesuaikan untuk meningkatkan untung akhir syarikat  secara keseluruhan. &amp;nbsp;Kebaikannya adalah &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mengurangkan  kos duti dengan menghantar produk ke negara yang mengenakan tariff yang  tinggi pada harga pindahan yang minimum supaya asas duti dan duti akan  menjadi rendah&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memudahkan  &amp;nbsp;penghantaran pulang dividen. &amp;nbsp;Apabila penghantaran pulang dividen  dibatasi oleh dasar kerajaan, pendapatan tak nampak boleh dikeluarkan  dalam bentuk harga yang tinggi untuk keluaran atau komponen yang  dihantar ke unit dalam negara tersebut.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengurangan  cukai pendapatan dalam negara yang mengekan cukai yang tinggi dengan  meletakkan harga yang berlebihan ke atas barang yang dipindahkan &amp;nbsp;ke  unit dalam negara tersebut; untung akan terhapus &amp;nbsp;dan dianjakkan ke  negara yang mengenakan cukai yang rendah. Anjakan untung seperti ini  boleh juga digunakan untuk memperbaiki penyata kewangan dengan menambah  untung yang dilaporkan dalam negara yang dilakukan pinjaman dan  pembiayaan lain.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Objektif keseluruhan sistem penetapan harga &amp;nbsp;intrasyarikat termasuklah :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memaksimumkan untung untuk perbadanan secara keseluruhan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memudahkan kawalan syarikat induk&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Menawarkan  kepada pengurusan di semua peringkat dalam kedua-dua bahagian keluaran  dan bahagian antarabangsa suatu asas yang mencukupi untuk menyelenggara,  membangun dan mendapatkan kepujian &amp;nbsp;kerana keberuntungannya sendiri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga  pindahan terlalu rendah adalah tidak &amp;nbsp;memuaskan kepada jabatan  pengeluaran kerana hasil keseluruhannya akan kelihatan tidak memuaskan;  harga yang terlalu tinggi pula menjadikan operasi antarabangsa kelihatan  tidak baik dan menghadkan keberkesanan pengurus luar negara.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemasar antarabangsa mempunyai empat pilihan pengaturan untuk menentukan harga produk bagi pindahan intrasyarikat iaitu:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jualan pada kos perkilangan tempatan tambah tokokan yang piawai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jualan pada kos pengeluar yang paling cekap dalam syarikat tambah tokokan yang piawai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jualan pada harga yang terunding&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jualan selengan menggunakan harga yang sama dengan sebut harga yang diberi kepada pelanggan yang bebas.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Daripada  keempat-empat pengaturan &amp;nbsp;ini pindahan selengan adalah yang paling  mudah diterima oleh bahagian luar negara. &amp;nbsp;Akan tetapi asas yang sesuai  untuk pindahan intrasyarikat bergantung kepada sifat anak syarikat serta  keadaan pasaran. &amp;nbsp;Jika dasar penetapan harga tidak sesuai ia boleh  memberi &amp;nbsp;sumbangan yang banyak kepada keuntungan syarikat secara  keseluruhannya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya…!!!. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 11C&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kenapakah sesebuah negara itu memilih untuk menjalankan urusniaga secara perdagangan balas?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Anda  telah menghampiri kejayaan. &amp;nbsp;Sila cuba semua soalan dalam penilaian  kendiri ini dan semak jawapan anda pada maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jika ada sebarang masalah yang timbul, sila berbincang dengan pensyarah anda. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Selamat mencuba semoga berjaya !!!!!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;br class=&quot;kix-line-break&quot; /&gt;SOALAN 10-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bezakan antara harga tarahan dan penembusan dalam pemasaran antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Senaraikan LIMA faktor yang mempengaruhi peningkatan kos dalam memasarkan produk di pasaran asimg.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Namakan TIGA (3) &amp;nbsp;bentuk &amp;nbsp;pengaturan penetapan harga yang dilakukan oleh firma-firma secara berkumpulan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-4&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apakah masalah utama yang dihadapi oleh pengeksport di dalam menjalani urusniaga secara perdagangan balas?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-5&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jelaskan &amp;nbsp;konsep pemindahan harga.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 10A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kesan parallel imports kepada &lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengguna  – dapat membeli produk dengan harga yang lebih mura tetapi tidak dapat  kelebihan dari segi waranti, perkhidmatan selepas jualan dan alat  gantian.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemasar - &amp;nbsp;Persaingan yang tinggi, &amp;nbsp;ahli saluran agihan yang tidak berpuashati dengan sistem&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 10B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Contoh: &amp;nbsp;Cokelat yang diimport dari negara Eropah&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Faktor yang menyebabkan harga meningkat ialah:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Margin keuntungan yang diambil oleh pengimport&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos pengangkutan dari Eropah ke Malaysia &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos pergudangan setelah cokelat sampai ke Malaysia&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Cukai yang dikenakan oleh kerajaan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos iklan dan promosi di Malaysia&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Margin keuntungan yang dikenakan oleh peruncit di Malaysia&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 10C&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Antara produk di bawah kawalan kerajaan ialah harga beras, susu, gula, minyak petrol dan minyak masak.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga  tarahan ialah di mana &amp;nbsp;pemasar antarabangsa menetapkan harga yang  tinggi di pasaran asing. &amp;nbsp;Ia dilakukan untuk menarik pasaran  berpendapatan tinggi dan untuk mendapatkan pulangan yang tinggi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Harga  &amp;nbsp;penembusan ialah di mana pemasar antarabangsa menetapkan harga yang  rendah dalam pasaran asing bagi tujuan untuk menarik minat pasaran  tersebut dan meluaskan syer pasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Lima  faktor yang mempengaruhi dalam peningkatan harga sesuatu produk yang  diekpsort ialah cukai, tarif dan kos pentdabiran, inflasi, turun naik  kadar pertukaran , perbezaan nilai matawang, kos orang tengah dan  pengangkutan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Tiga  bentuk berkumpulan &amp;nbsp;yang dilakukan oleh firma untuk mengawal harga  ialah kartel, persatuan perdagangan dan &amp;nbsp;persetujuan perlesenan paten.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-4&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Menetapkan harga yang tepat dengannilai produk yang ditatwarkan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Menjual produk yang diperolehi daripada &amp;nbsp;perdagangan tukar barang setelah diterima&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 10-5&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pemindahan  harga adalah &amp;nbsp;harga yang ditetapkan &amp;nbsp;terhadap produk yang dijual dalam  sesebuah korporat seperti dari satu bahagian ke bahagian lain atau  kepada anak syarikat negara asing.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/6735374992145701070/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-10-pembentukan-strategi-pemasaran.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/6735374992145701070'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/6735374992145701070'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-10-pembentukan-strategi-pemasaran.html' title='UNIT 10  PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-7931339771480330526</id><published>2011-09-24T03:29:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2011-10-04T10:18:27.033-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="P5126 Aspek Pemasaran Antarabangsa"/><title type='text'>UNIT 9  PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL</title><content type='html'>&lt;span id=&quot;internal-source-marker_0.9044915797740769&quot; style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;UNIT 9&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PROMOSI DAN PENGIKLANAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF AM&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mengetahui dan memahami promosi yang terlibat dalam pemasaran antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF KHUSUS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di akhir unit ini anda sepatutnya dapat :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;PENGENALAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Promosi  antarabangsa adalah kegiatan yang asas dalam campuran pemasaran  sesebuah syarikat antarabangsa. Apabila keluaran dibangunkan untuk  memenuhi keperluan pengguna dan diletakkan harga serta diagih dengan  sepatutnya, pelanggan yang ditujukan mesti dimaklumkan mengenai  ketersediaan &amp;nbsp;dan nilai keluaran. Campuran promosi yang direkabentuk  dengan baik mengandungi pengiklanan, promosi jualan, jualan langsung dan  perhubungan awam yang saling memperkukuhkan &amp;nbsp;serta tertumpu kepada  sesuatu objektif bersama.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pembangunan strategi promosi antarabangsa membabitkan lima langkah : &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menentukan campuran promosi mengikut pasaran negara &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menentukan takat pempiawaian seluruh dunia&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;membangunkan mesej yang paling berkesan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;memilih media yang berkesan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menetapkan kawalan yang perlu untuk membantu mencapai objektif &amp;nbsp;pemasaran seluruh dunia. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Promosi  adalah bahagian pemasaran antarabangsa yang mempunyai paling banyak  persamaan di seluruh dunia. Menyesuaikan &amp;nbsp;strategi promosi &amp;nbsp;kepada  keistimewaan &amp;nbsp;kebudayaan pasaran dunia ialah cabaran yang dihadapi oleh  pemasar antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9.1 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;USAHA PROMOSI DAN PENGIKLANAN SECARA GLOBAL&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9.1.1. Pengiklanan global dan “world brands”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perbahasan  mengenai merit pempiawaian atau pengubahsuaian pengiklanan antarabangsa  telah mendapat penekanan yang lebih sejak tahun kebelakangan ini hasil  daripada rencana Theodore Levitt yang bertajuk “The Globalization of  Markets”. Levitt menghujahkan bahawa terdapat pasaran global untuk  keluaran pengguna yang terpiawai. Beliau menganjurkan supaya pemasar  antarabangsa belajar beroperasi seolah-olah dunia ini adalah sebuah  pasaran yang besar, dan mengetepikan perbezaan wilayah dan negara yang  tidak begitu mendalam. Strategi pemasaran global bermakna program  pengiklanan global, jenama global dan keluaran global atau terpiawai.  Tanpa membincangkan merit hujah Levitt, terdapat bukti bahawa syarikat  mungkin memberi penekanan berlebihan ke atas keperluan untuk  mengubahsuai program pengiklanan dan pemasaran untuk setiap pasaran  nasional. Sesungguhnya banyak pihak yang mengandaikan keperluan untuk  mengubahsuai tanpa menyelidiki kemungkinan suatu campuran pemasaran yang  terpiawai untuk seluruh dunia.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklan  antarabangsa yang berpengalaman sedar bahawa persoalan mengenai  pempiawaian atau pengubahsuaian lebih bergantung kepada pola dorongan  daripada geografi. Pengiklanan mesti berhubungan dengan dorongan; jika  orang dalam pasaran yang berlainan membeli keluran yang serupa untuk  alasan yang berbeza, kempen pengiklanan perlu menumpukan perhatian  kepada perbezaan ini. Sebaliknya, apabila pasaran bertindak balas kepada  perangsang yang serupa, adalah tidak perlu unutk mengubah mesej  pengiklanan hanya demi untuk mengadakan variasi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Walaupun  keperluan untuk mengawal kos dan menyelaras program promosi seluruh  dunia meletakkan penekanan ke atas pengiklanan global, terdapat bukti  yang kukuh bahawa perbezaan pasaran negara sering memerlukan penyesuaian  untuk mewujudkan program promosi yang berkesan. Oleh kerana tidak  terdapat banyak keadaan dalam pengiklanan multi nasional yang salah satu  daripada kedua-dua kedudukan ini jelas paling baik, kebanyakan syarikat  mencari kompromi yang mempunyai pengiklanan pola.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;9.1.2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Pengiklanan Pola&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklanan  pola bermaksud memberi garis kasar umum &amp;nbsp;bagi sesuatu kempen  pengiklanan tetapi tidak memberi perincian mengenainya. Terdapat banyak  keluaran yang menghasilkan jangkaan yang berlainan ini selain daripada  faedah bersama yang dicari oleh semua pihak. Oleh itu, banyak syarikat  mengikuti strategi pempiawaian pola, iaitu strategi pengiklanan sejagat  yang mempiawai mesej asas tetapi membenarkan sesuatu darjah  pengubahsuaian &amp;nbsp;untuk memenuhi keperluan keadaan tempatan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya….!! &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 9A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Berikan langkah-langkah dalam pembangunan strategi promosi antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;CABARAN-CABARAN DALAM USAHA PROMOSI DI PERINGKAT &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ANTARABANGSA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Persaingan  antarabangsa yang semakin hebat bersama-sama dengan kerumitan  menjalankan pemasaran secara multi nasional menghendaki pengiklan  antarabangsa berfungsi pada tingkat kreatif yang paling tinggi.  Pengiklan dari seluruh dunia telah membangunkan kemahiran dan kemampuan  mereka sehingga iklan dari negara yang berlainan mendedahkan persamaan  yang asas dan menjadi semakin sofistikated. Untuk lebih merukmitkan  keadaan, daya cipta dikenakan batasan oleh penghadan undang-undang,  bahasa, kebudayaan, media, pengeluaran dan kos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9.2.1&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Aspek-Aspek Perundangan Dan Cukai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Beberapa  negara mengawal pengiklanan dengan lebih ketat daripada negara lain,  dan ini memerlukan pengubahsuaian pendekatan kreatif dari negara ke  negara. Undang-undang yang berkenaan dengan pengiklanan mungkin  membataskan amaun yang dibelanjakan ke atas pengiklanan, media yang  digunakan, jenis keluaran yang diiklankan, cara bagaimana harga mungkin  diiklankan, jenis salinan (copy) dan bahan gambaran yang digunakan,  serta lain-lain aspek program pengiklanan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sesetengah  negara mempunyai cukai khas yang dikenakan ke atas iklan dan mungkin  membataskan kebebasan daya cipta dalam pemilihan media. Pembatasan dan  cukai yang baru ke atas pengiklanan telah diperkenalkan dan  setengah-setengahnya diluluskan hampir setiap tahun dalam negara yang  secara tradisinya mengenakan pembatasan yang minimum ke atas pengiklanan  dan persaingan bebas. Variasi antara negara yang mentafsir apakah yang  membentuk pengiklanan yang boleh diterima dan jujur menimbulkan paling  banyak masalah. Sesuatu yang boleh diterima dalam satu negara mungkin  dianggap sebagai salah dan mengelirukan dalam negara yang lain.  Pertimbangan undang-undang dan cukai adalah pencegah utama kepada  pempiawaian pengiklanan yang sepenuhnya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9.2.2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Kekangan Bahasa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bahasa  adalah salah satu halangan utama kepada komunikasi yang berkesan  melalui pengiklanan. Masalahnya membabitkan bahasa yang berlainan dalam  negara yang berlainan, bahasa atau loghat yang berlainan dalam satu  negara, dan masalah yang lebih sukar dikesan iaitu mengenai perbezaan  linguistik yang halus dan bahasa tempatan. Penggunaan bahasa yang tidak  dengan berhati-hati telah menimbulkan masalah dalam hampir setiap  negara.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kebolehan  membaca dan menulis yang rendah dalam banyak negara adalah halangan  yang serius kepada komunikasi dan memerlukan daya cipta yang lebih serta  penggunaan media lisan. Berbagai-bagai bahasa dalam sebuah negara atau  kawasan pengiklanan mengemukakan satu lagi masalah kepada pengiklanan.  Terjemahan bahasa menghadapi sangat banyak halangan yang menghalang  terjemahan jalan &amp;nbsp;bahasa yang &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;berkesan dan lantas menyukarkan  komunikasi. Perkara ini paling jelas dalam bahan pengiklanan.  Kesimpulannya, penulisan yang tepat dan jelas, serta penggunaan  perkataan dengan cermat yang merupakan alat pengiklan yang paling  berkesan, mengemukakan masalah kepada penterjemah. Komunikasi dihalang  oleh bebagai-bagai jenis warisan kebudayaan dan pendidikan yang terdapat  di dalam negara dan yang menyebabkan tafsiran yang berbeza-beza,  walaupun tentang ayat atau konsep yang mudah.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9.2.3&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Kepelbagaian Kebudayaan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Masalah  berkomunikasi dengan orang dalam berbagai-bagai jenis kebudayaan adalah  salah satu cabaran kreatif yang paling besar dalam pengiklanan.  Komunikasi adalah lebih sukar kerana factor kebudayaan sebahagian  besarnya menentukan cara bagaimana pelbagai fenomena akan tertanggap.  Sekiranya rangka kerja tanggapan adalah berlainan, tanggapan terhadap  mesej itu sendiri akan berbeza. Pemasar antrabangsa semakin biasa dengan  masalah penyesuaian dari satu kebudayaan ke kebudayaan yang  lain.Sebagai contoh, warna ialah bahagian yang kecil dalam rumpun  komunikasi, tetapi jika symbol dalam setiap kebudayaan difahami, pemasar  akan dapat membuat pilihan berdasarkan pengetahuannya untuk sama ada  menggunakan atau tidak pelbagai warna yang ada.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklan  bukan sahaja terpaksa berhadapan dengan perbezaan antara negara,  pengiklan mendapati sub budaya di dalam sebuah negara perlu juga diberi  perhatian Selain perbezaan ini, terdapat pula masalah mengenai tradisi  yang berubah. Dalam semua negara, penduduk daripada setiap peringkat  umur, sama ada di bandar atau di luar bandar bergantung sedikit sebanyak  kepada warisan mereka, tetapi mereka sanggup mengubah beberapa bidang  kelakuan mereka.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9.2.4&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Kekangan Media&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kekangan  ke atas strategi kreatif yang dikenakan oleh media akan hanya  menyatakan bahawa kekangan media boleh mengecilkan peranan pengiklanan  dalam program promosi dan boleh memaksa pemasar untuk menekankan unsur  lain dalam campuran pemasaran. Pencipta yang berdaya cipta dalam  beberapa negara telah membangunkan media mereka sendiri untuk mengatasi  kekangan media.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya….!! &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 9B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apakah yang anda faham tentang kekangan bahasa dalam usaha menjalankan usaha promosi pada peringkat antarabangsa?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Anda  telah menghampiri kejayaan. &amp;nbsp;Sila cuba semua soalan dalam penilaian  kendiri ini dan semak jawapan anda pada maklum balas yang disediakan.  Jika ada sebarang masalah yang timbul, sila berbincang dengan pensyarah  anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Selamat mencuba semoga berjaya !!!!!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 9-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan pengiklanan global ?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 9-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Berikan pengertian bagi pengiklanan pola.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 9-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Senaraikan TIGA (3) cabaran yang dihadapi oleh pemasar dalam usaha promosi mereka ke peringkat antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 9A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pembangunan strategi promosi antarabangsa membabitkan lima langkah , iaitu : &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menentukan campuran promosi mengikut pasaran negara; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menentukan takat pempiawaian seluruh dunia; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;membangunkan mesej yang paling berkesan; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;memilih media yang berkesan; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menetapkan kawalan yang perlu untuk membantu mencapai objektif &amp;nbsp;pemasaran seluruh dunia.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 9B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kekangan bahasa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bahasa  adalah salah satu halangan utama kepada komunikasi yang berkesan  melalui pengiklanan. Masalahnya membabitkan bahasa yang berlainan dalam  negara yang berlainan, bahasa atau loghat yang berlainan dalam satu  negara, dan masalah yang lebih sukar dikesan iaitu mengenai perbezaan  linguistik yang halus dan bahasa tempatan. Penggunaan bahasa yang tidak  dengan berhati-hati telah menimbulkan masalah dalam hampir setiap  negara.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kebolehan  membaca dan menulis yang rendah di kebanyakan negara adalah halangan  yang serius kepada komunikasi dan memerlukan daya cipta yang lebih serta  penggunaan media lisan. Berbagai-bagai bahasa dalam sebuah negara atau  kawasan pengiklana mengemukakan satu lagi masalah kepada pengiklanan.  Terjemahan bahasa menghadapi terlalu banyak halangan yang menghalang  terjemahan jalan &amp;nbsp;bahasa yang &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;berkesan dan lantas menyukarkan  komunikasi. Perkara ini paling jelas dalam bahan pengiklanan.  Kesimpulannya, penulisan yang tepat dan jelas, serta penggunaan  perkataan dengan cermat, merupakan alat pengiklan yang paling berkesan  serta dapat mengemukakan masalah kepada penterjemah. Komunikasi dihalang  oleh berbagai-bagai jenis warisan kebudayaan dan pendidikan yang  terdapat di dalam negara dan yang menyebabkan tafsiran yang  berbeza-beza, walaupun tentang ayat atau konsep yang mudah.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 9-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Strategi  pemasaran global bermakna program pengiklanan global, jenama global dan  keluaran global atau terpiawai. Tanpa membincangkan merit hujah Levitt,  terdapat bukti bahawa syarikat mungkin memberi penekanan berlebihan ke  atas keperluan untuk mengubahsuai program pengiklanan dan pemasaran  untuk setiap pasaran nasional. Sesungguhnya banyak pihak yang  mengandaikan keperluan untuk mengubahsuai tanpa menyelidiki kemungkinan  suatu campuran pemasaran yang terpiawai untuk seluruh dunia.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklan  antarabangsa yang berpengalaman sedar bahawa persoalan mengenai  pempiawaian atau pengubahsuaian lebih bergantung kepada pola dorongan  daripada geofrafi. Pengiklanan mesti berhubungan dengan dorongan; jika  orang dalam pasaran yang berlainan membeli keluaran yang serupa untuk  alasan yang berbeza, kempen pengiklanan perlu menumpukan perhatian  kepada perbezaan ini. Sebaliknya, apabila pasaran bertindak balas kepada  perangsang yang serupa, adalah tidak perlu untuk mengubah mesej  pengiklanan hanya demi untuk mengadakan variasi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Walaupun  keperluan untuk mengawal kos dan menyelaras program promosi seluruh  dunia meletakkan penekanan ke atas pengiklanan global, terdapat bukti  yang kukuh bahawa perbezaan pasaran negara sering memerlukan penyesuaian  untuk mewujudkan program promosi yang berkesan. Oleh kerana tidak  terdapat banyak keadaan dalam pengiklanan multi nasional yang salah satu  daripada kedua-dua kedudukan ini jelas paling baik, kebanyakan syarikat  mencari kompromi yang mempunyai pengiklanan pola.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 9-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklanan Pola&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklanan  pola bermaksud memberi garis kasar umum &amp;nbsp;bagi sesuatu kempen  pengiklanan tetapi tidak memberi perincian mengenainya. Terdapat banyak  keluaran yang menghasilkan jangkaan yang berlainan ini selain daripada  faedah bersama yang dicari oleh semua pihak. Oleh itu, banyak syarikat  mengikuti strategi pempiawaian pola, iaitu strategi pengiklanan sejagat  yang mempiawai mesej asas tetapi membenarkan sesuatu darjah  pengubahsuaian &amp;nbsp;untuk memenuhi keperluan keadaan tempatan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 9-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Cabaran dalam usaha promosi antarabangsa :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;(i)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Aspek-aspek Perundangan Dan Cukai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Beberapa  negara mengawal pengiklanan dengan lebih ketat daripada negara lain,  dan ini memerlukan pengubahsuaian pendekatan kreatif dari negara ke  negara. Undang-undang yang berkenaan dengan pengiklanan mungkin  membataskan amaun yang dibelanjakan ke atas pengiklanan, media yang  digunakan, jenis keluaran yang diiklankan, cara bagaimana harga mungkin  diiklankan, jenis salinan (copy) dan bahan gambaran yang digunakan,  serta lain-lain aspek program pengiklanan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sesetengah  negara mempunyai cukai khas yang dikenakan ke atas iklan dan mungkin  membataskan kebebasan daya cipta dalam pemilihan media. Pembatasan dan  cukai yang baru ke atas pengiklanan telah diperkenalkan dan  setengah-setengahnya diluluskan hampir setiap tahun dalam negara yang  secara tradisinya mengenakan pembatasan yang minimum ke atas pengiklanan  dan persaingan bebas. Variasi antara negara yang mentafsir apakah yang  membentuk pengiklanan yang boleh diterima dan jujur menimbulkan paling  banyak masalah. Sesuatu yang boleh diterima dalam satu negara mungkin  dianggap sebagai salah dan mengelirukan dalam negara yang lain.  Pertimbangan undang-undang dan cukai adalah pencegah utama kepada  pempiawaian pengiklanan yang sepenuhnya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;(ii)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Kepelbagaian Kebudayaan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Masalah  berkomunikasi dengan orang dalam berbagai-bagai jenis kebudayaan adalah  salah satu cabaran kreatif yang paling besar dalam pengiklanan.  Komunikasi adalah lebih sukar kerana faktor kebudayaan sebahagian  besarnya menentukan cara bagaimana pelbagai fenomena akan tertanggap.  Sekiranya rangka kerja tanggapan adalah berlainan, tanggapan terhadap  mesej itu sendiri akan berbeza. Pemasar antarabangsa semakin biasa  dengan masalah penyesuaian dari satu kebudayaan ke kebudayaan yang  lain.Sebagai contoh, warna ialah bahagian yang kecil dalam rumpun  komunikasi, tetapi jika simbol dalam setiap kebudayaan difahami, pemasar  akan dapat membuat pilihan berdasarkan pengetahuannya untuk sama ada  menggunakan atau tidak pelbagai warna yang ada.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklan  bukan sahaja terpaksa berhadapan dengan perbezaan antara negara,  pengiklan mendapati sub budaya di dalam sebuah negara perlu juga diberi  perhatian Selain perbezaan ini, terdapat pula masalah mengenai tradisi  yang berubah. Dalam semua negara, penduduk daripada setiap peringkat  umur, sama ada di bandar atau di luar bandar bergantung sedikit sebanyak  kepada warisan mereka, tetapi mereka sanggup mengubah beberapa bidang  kelakuan mereka.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;(iii)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Kekangan Media&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kekangan  ke atas strategi kreatif yang dikenakan oleh media akan hanya  menyatakan bahawa kekangan media boleh mengecilkan peranan pengiklanan  dalam program promosi dan boleh memaksa pemasar untuk menekankan unsur  lain dalam campuran pemasaran. Pencipta yang berdaya cipta dalam  beberapa negara telah membangunkan media mereka sendiri untuk mengatasi  kekangan media.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/7931339771480330526/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-9-pembentukan-strategi-pemasaran_24.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7931339771480330526'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7931339771480330526'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-9-pembentukan-strategi-pemasaran_24.html' title='UNIT 9  PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-48122495104395618</id><published>2011-09-24T03:29:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T21:15:41.725-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="P5126 Aspek Pemasaran Antarabangsa"/><title type='text'>UNIT 9  PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL</title><content type='html'>&lt;span id=&quot;internal-source-marker_0.9044915797740769&quot; style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;UNIT 9&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PROMOSI DAN PENGIKLANAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF AM&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 180pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mengetahui dan memahami promosi yang terlibat dalam pemasaran antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF KHUSUS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di akhir unit ini anda sepatutnya dapat :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;PENGENALAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Promosi  antarabangsa adalah kegiatan yang asas dalam campuran pemasaran  sesebuah syarikat antarabangsa. Apabila keluaran dibangunkan untuk  memenuhi keperluan pengguna dan diletakkan harga serta diagih dengan  sepatutnya, pelanggan yang ditujukan mesti dimaklumkan mengenai  ketersediaan &amp;nbsp;dan nilai keluaran. Campuran promosi yang direkabentuk  dengan baik mengandungi pengiklanan, promosi jualan, jualan langsung dan  perhubungan awam yang saling memperkukuhkan &amp;nbsp;serta tertumpu kepada  sesuatu objektif bersama.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pembangunan strategi promosi antarabangsa membabitkan lima langkah : &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menentukan campuran promosi mengikut pasaran negara &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menentukan takat pempiawaian seluruh dunia&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;membangunkan mesej yang paling berkesan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;memilih media yang berkesan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menetapkan kawalan yang perlu untuk membantu mencapai objektif &amp;nbsp;pemasaran seluruh dunia. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Promosi  adalah bahagian pemasaran antarabangsa yang mempunyai paling banyak  persamaan di seluruh dunia. Menyesuaikan &amp;nbsp;strategi promosi &amp;nbsp;kepada  keistimewaan &amp;nbsp;kebudayaan pasaran dunia ialah cabaran yang dihadapi oleh  pemasar antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9.1 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;USAHA PROMOSI DAN PENGIKLANAN SECARA GLOBAL&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9.1.1. Pengiklanan global dan “world brands”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perbahasan  mengenai merit pempiawaian atau pengubahsuaian pengiklanan antarabangsa  telah mendapat penekanan yang lebih sejak tahun kebelakangan ini hasil  daripada rencana Theodore Levitt yang bertajuk “The Globalization of  Markets”. Levitt menghujahkan bahawa terdapat pasaran global untuk  keluaran pengguna yang terpiawai. Beliau menganjurkan supaya pemasar  antarabangsa belajar beroperasi seolah-olah dunia ini adalah sebuah  pasaran yang besar, dan mengetepikan perbezaan wilayah dan negara yang  tidak begitu mendalam. Strategi pemasaran global bermakna program  pengiklanan global, jenama global dan keluaran global atau terpiawai.  Tanpa membincangkan merit hujah Levitt, terdapat bukti bahawa syarikat  mungkin memberi penekanan berlebihan ke atas keperluan untuk  mengubahsuai program pengiklanan dan pemasaran untuk setiap pasaran  nasional. Sesungguhnya banyak pihak yang mengandaikan keperluan untuk  mengubahsuai tanpa menyelidiki kemungkinan suatu campuran pemasaran yang  terpiawai untuk seluruh dunia.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklan  antarabangsa yang berpengalaman sedar bahawa persoalan mengenai  pempiawaian atau pengubahsuaian lebih bergantung kepada pola dorongan  daripada geografi. Pengiklanan mesti berhubungan dengan dorongan; jika  orang dalam pasaran yang berlainan membeli keluran yang serupa untuk  alasan yang berbeza, kempen pengiklanan perlu menumpukan perhatian  kepada perbezaan ini. Sebaliknya, apabila pasaran bertindak balas kepada  perangsang yang serupa, adalah tidak perlu unutk mengubah mesej  pengiklanan hanya demi untuk mengadakan variasi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Walaupun  keperluan untuk mengawal kos dan menyelaras program promosi seluruh  dunia meletakkan penekanan ke atas pengiklanan global, terdapat bukti  yang kukuh bahawa perbezaan pasaran negara sering memerlukan penyesuaian  untuk mewujudkan program promosi yang berkesan. Oleh kerana tidak  terdapat banyak keadaan dalam pengiklanan multi nasional yang salah satu  daripada kedua-dua kedudukan ini jelas paling baik, kebanyakan syarikat  mencari kompromi yang mempunyai pengiklanan pola.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;9.1.2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Pengiklanan Pola&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklanan  pola bermaksud memberi garis kasar umum &amp;nbsp;bagi sesuatu kempen  pengiklanan tetapi tidak memberi perincian mengenainya. Terdapat banyak  keluaran yang menghasilkan jangkaan yang berlainan ini selain daripada  faedah bersama yang dicari oleh semua pihak. Oleh itu, banyak syarikat  mengikuti strategi pempiawaian pola, iaitu strategi pengiklanan sejagat  yang mempiawai mesej asas tetapi membenarkan sesuatu darjah  pengubahsuaian &amp;nbsp;untuk memenuhi keperluan keadaan tempatan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya….!! &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 9A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Berikan langkah-langkah dalam pembangunan strategi promosi antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;CABARAN-CABARAN DALAM USAHA PROMOSI DI PERINGKAT &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ANTARABANGSA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Persaingan  antarabangsa yang semakin hebat bersama-sama dengan kerumitan  menjalankan pemasaran secara multi nasional menghendaki pengiklan  antarabangsa berfungsi pada tingkat kreatif yang paling tinggi.  Pengiklan dari seluruh dunia telah membangunkan kemahiran dan kemampuan  mereka sehingga iklan dari negara yang berlainan mendedahkan persamaan  yang asas dan menjadi semakin sofistikated. Untuk lebih merukmitkan  keadaan, daya cipta dikenakan batasan oleh penghadan undang-undang,  bahasa, kebudayaan, media, pengeluaran dan kos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9.2.1&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Aspek-Aspek Perundangan Dan Cukai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Beberapa  negara mengawal pengiklanan dengan lebih ketat daripada negara lain,  dan ini memerlukan pengubahsuaian pendekatan kreatif dari negara ke  negara. Undang-undang yang berkenaan dengan pengiklanan mungkin  membataskan amaun yang dibelanjakan ke atas pengiklanan, media yang  digunakan, jenis keluaran yang diiklankan, cara bagaimana harga mungkin  diiklankan, jenis salinan (copy) dan bahan gambaran yang digunakan,  serta lain-lain aspek program pengiklanan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sesetengah  negara mempunyai cukai khas yang dikenakan ke atas iklan dan mungkin  membataskan kebebasan daya cipta dalam pemilihan media. Pembatasan dan  cukai yang baru ke atas pengiklanan telah diperkenalkan dan  setengah-setengahnya diluluskan hampir setiap tahun dalam negara yang  secara tradisinya mengenakan pembatasan yang minimum ke atas pengiklanan  dan persaingan bebas. Variasi antara negara yang mentafsir apakah yang  membentuk pengiklanan yang boleh diterima dan jujur menimbulkan paling  banyak masalah. Sesuatu yang boleh diterima dalam satu negara mungkin  dianggap sebagai salah dan mengelirukan dalam negara yang lain.  Pertimbangan undang-undang dan cukai adalah pencegah utama kepada  pempiawaian pengiklanan yang sepenuhnya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9.2.2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Kekangan Bahasa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bahasa  adalah salah satu halangan utama kepada komunikasi yang berkesan  melalui pengiklanan. Masalahnya membabitkan bahasa yang berlainan dalam  negara yang berlainan, bahasa atau loghat yang berlainan dalam satu  negara, dan masalah yang lebih sukar dikesan iaitu mengenai perbezaan  linguistik yang halus dan bahasa tempatan. Penggunaan bahasa yang tidak  dengan berhati-hati telah menimbulkan masalah dalam hampir setiap  negara.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kebolehan  membaca dan menulis yang rendah dalam banyak negara adalah halangan  yang serius kepada komunikasi dan memerlukan daya cipta yang lebih serta  penggunaan media lisan. Berbagai-bagai bahasa dalam sebuah negara atau  kawasan pengiklanan mengemukakan satu lagi masalah kepada pengiklanan.  Terjemahan bahasa menghadapi sangat banyak halangan yang menghalang  terjemahan jalan &amp;nbsp;bahasa yang &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;berkesan dan lantas menyukarkan  komunikasi. Perkara ini paling jelas dalam bahan pengiklanan.  Kesimpulannya, penulisan yang tepat dan jelas, serta penggunaan  perkataan dengan cermat yang merupakan alat pengiklan yang paling  berkesan, mengemukakan masalah kepada penterjemah. Komunikasi dihalang  oleh bebagai-bagai jenis warisan kebudayaan dan pendidikan yang terdapat  di dalam negara dan yang menyebabkan tafsiran yang berbeza-beza,  walaupun tentang ayat atau konsep yang mudah.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9.2.3&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Kepelbagaian Kebudayaan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Masalah  berkomunikasi dengan orang dalam berbagai-bagai jenis kebudayaan adalah  salah satu cabaran kreatif yang paling besar dalam pengiklanan.  Komunikasi adalah lebih sukar kerana factor kebudayaan sebahagian  besarnya menentukan cara bagaimana pelbagai fenomena akan tertanggap.  Sekiranya rangka kerja tanggapan adalah berlainan, tanggapan terhadap  mesej itu sendiri akan berbeza. Pemasar antrabangsa semakin biasa dengan  masalah penyesuaian dari satu kebudayaan ke kebudayaan yang  lain.Sebagai contoh, warna ialah bahagian yang kecil dalam rumpun  komunikasi, tetapi jika symbol dalam setiap kebudayaan difahami, pemasar  akan dapat membuat pilihan berdasarkan pengetahuannya untuk sama ada  menggunakan atau tidak pelbagai warna yang ada.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklan  bukan sahaja terpaksa berhadapan dengan perbezaan antara negara,  pengiklan mendapati sub budaya di dalam sebuah negara perlu juga diberi  perhatian Selain perbezaan ini, terdapat pula masalah mengenai tradisi  yang berubah. Dalam semua negara, penduduk daripada setiap peringkat  umur, sama ada di bandar atau di luar bandar bergantung sedikit sebanyak  kepada warisan mereka, tetapi mereka sanggup mengubah beberapa bidang  kelakuan mereka.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;9.2.4&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Kekangan Media&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kekangan  ke atas strategi kreatif yang dikenakan oleh media akan hanya  menyatakan bahawa kekangan media boleh mengecilkan peranan pengiklanan  dalam program promosi dan boleh memaksa pemasar untuk menekankan unsur  lain dalam campuran pemasaran. Pencipta yang berdaya cipta dalam  beberapa negara telah membangunkan media mereka sendiri untuk mengatasi  kekangan media.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya….!! &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 9B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apakah yang anda faham tentang kekangan bahasa dalam usaha menjalankan usaha promosi pada peringkat antarabangsa?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Anda  telah menghampiri kejayaan. &amp;nbsp;Sila cuba semua soalan dalam penilaian  kendiri ini dan semak jawapan anda pada maklum balas yang disediakan.  Jika ada sebarang masalah yang timbul, sila berbincang dengan pensyarah  anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Selamat mencuba semoga berjaya !!!!!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 9-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan pengiklanan global ?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 9-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Berikan pengertian bagi pengiklanan pola.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 9-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Senaraikan TIGA (3) cabaran yang dihadapi oleh pemasar dalam usaha promosi mereka ke peringkat antarabangsa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 9A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pembangunan strategi promosi antarabangsa membabitkan lima langkah , iaitu : &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menentukan campuran promosi mengikut pasaran negara; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menentukan takat pempiawaian seluruh dunia; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;membangunkan mesej yang paling berkesan; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;memilih media yang berkesan; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;menetapkan kawalan yang perlu untuk membantu mencapai objektif &amp;nbsp;pemasaran seluruh dunia.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 9B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kekangan bahasa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bahasa  adalah salah satu halangan utama kepada komunikasi yang berkesan  melalui pengiklanan. Masalahnya membabitkan bahasa yang berlainan dalam  negara yang berlainan, bahasa atau loghat yang berlainan dalam satu  negara, dan masalah yang lebih sukar dikesan iaitu mengenai perbezaan  linguistik yang halus dan bahasa tempatan. Penggunaan bahasa yang tidak  dengan berhati-hati telah menimbulkan masalah dalam hampir setiap  negara.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kebolehan  membaca dan menulis yang rendah di kebanyakan negara adalah halangan  yang serius kepada komunikasi dan memerlukan daya cipta yang lebih serta  penggunaan media lisan. Berbagai-bagai bahasa dalam sebuah negara atau  kawasan pengiklana mengemukakan satu lagi masalah kepada pengiklanan.  Terjemahan bahasa menghadapi terlalu banyak halangan yang menghalang  terjemahan jalan &amp;nbsp;bahasa yang &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;berkesan dan lantas menyukarkan  komunikasi. Perkara ini paling jelas dalam bahan pengiklanan.  Kesimpulannya, penulisan yang tepat dan jelas, serta penggunaan  perkataan dengan cermat, merupakan alat pengiklan yang paling berkesan  serta dapat mengemukakan masalah kepada penterjemah. Komunikasi dihalang  oleh berbagai-bagai jenis warisan kebudayaan dan pendidikan yang  terdapat di dalam negara dan yang menyebabkan tafsiran yang  berbeza-beza, walaupun tentang ayat atau konsep yang mudah.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 9-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Strategi  pemasaran global bermakna program pengiklanan global, jenama global dan  keluaran global atau terpiawai. Tanpa membincangkan merit hujah Levitt,  terdapat bukti bahawa syarikat mungkin memberi penekanan berlebihan ke  atas keperluan untuk mengubahsuai program pengiklanan dan pemasaran  untuk setiap pasaran nasional. Sesungguhnya banyak pihak yang  mengandaikan keperluan untuk mengubahsuai tanpa menyelidiki kemungkinan  suatu campuran pemasaran yang terpiawai untuk seluruh dunia.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklan  antarabangsa yang berpengalaman sedar bahawa persoalan mengenai  pempiawaian atau pengubahsuaian lebih bergantung kepada pola dorongan  daripada geofrafi. Pengiklanan mesti berhubungan dengan dorongan; jika  orang dalam pasaran yang berlainan membeli keluaran yang serupa untuk  alasan yang berbeza, kempen pengiklanan perlu menumpukan perhatian  kepada perbezaan ini. Sebaliknya, apabila pasaran bertindak balas kepada  perangsang yang serupa, adalah tidak perlu untuk mengubah mesej  pengiklanan hanya demi untuk mengadakan variasi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Walaupun  keperluan untuk mengawal kos dan menyelaras program promosi seluruh  dunia meletakkan penekanan ke atas pengiklanan global, terdapat bukti  yang kukuh bahawa perbezaan pasaran negara sering memerlukan penyesuaian  untuk mewujudkan program promosi yang berkesan. Oleh kerana tidak  terdapat banyak keadaan dalam pengiklanan multi nasional yang salah satu  daripada kedua-dua kedudukan ini jelas paling baik, kebanyakan syarikat  mencari kompromi yang mempunyai pengiklanan pola.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 9-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklanan Pola&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklanan  pola bermaksud memberi garis kasar umum &amp;nbsp;bagi sesuatu kempen  pengiklanan tetapi tidak memberi perincian mengenainya. Terdapat banyak  keluaran yang menghasilkan jangkaan yang berlainan ini selain daripada  faedah bersama yang dicari oleh semua pihak. Oleh itu, banyak syarikat  mengikuti strategi pempiawaian pola, iaitu strategi pengiklanan sejagat  yang mempiawai mesej asas tetapi membenarkan sesuatu darjah  pengubahsuaian &amp;nbsp;untuk memenuhi keperluan keadaan tempatan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 9-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Cabaran dalam usaha promosi antarabangsa :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;(i)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Aspek-aspek Perundangan Dan Cukai&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Beberapa  negara mengawal pengiklanan dengan lebih ketat daripada negara lain,  dan ini memerlukan pengubahsuaian pendekatan kreatif dari negara ke  negara. Undang-undang yang berkenaan dengan pengiklanan mungkin  membataskan amaun yang dibelanjakan ke atas pengiklanan, media yang  digunakan, jenis keluaran yang diiklankan, cara bagaimana harga mungkin  diiklankan, jenis salinan (copy) dan bahan gambaran yang digunakan,  serta lain-lain aspek program pengiklanan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sesetengah  negara mempunyai cukai khas yang dikenakan ke atas iklan dan mungkin  membataskan kebebasan daya cipta dalam pemilihan media. Pembatasan dan  cukai yang baru ke atas pengiklanan telah diperkenalkan dan  setengah-setengahnya diluluskan hampir setiap tahun dalam negara yang  secara tradisinya mengenakan pembatasan yang minimum ke atas pengiklanan  dan persaingan bebas. Variasi antara negara yang mentafsir apakah yang  membentuk pengiklanan yang boleh diterima dan jujur menimbulkan paling  banyak masalah. Sesuatu yang boleh diterima dalam satu negara mungkin  dianggap sebagai salah dan mengelirukan dalam negara yang lain.  Pertimbangan undang-undang dan cukai adalah pencegah utama kepada  pempiawaian pengiklanan yang sepenuhnya.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;(ii)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Kepelbagaian Kebudayaan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Masalah  berkomunikasi dengan orang dalam berbagai-bagai jenis kebudayaan adalah  salah satu cabaran kreatif yang paling besar dalam pengiklanan.  Komunikasi adalah lebih sukar kerana faktor kebudayaan sebahagian  besarnya menentukan cara bagaimana pelbagai fenomena akan tertanggap.  Sekiranya rangka kerja tanggapan adalah berlainan, tanggapan terhadap  mesej itu sendiri akan berbeza. Pemasar antarabangsa semakin biasa  dengan masalah penyesuaian dari satu kebudayaan ke kebudayaan yang  lain.Sebagai contoh, warna ialah bahagian yang kecil dalam rumpun  komunikasi, tetapi jika simbol dalam setiap kebudayaan difahami, pemasar  akan dapat membuat pilihan berdasarkan pengetahuannya untuk sama ada  menggunakan atau tidak pelbagai warna yang ada.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengiklan  bukan sahaja terpaksa berhadapan dengan perbezaan antara negara,  pengiklan mendapati sub budaya di dalam sebuah negara perlu juga diberi  perhatian Selain perbezaan ini, terdapat pula masalah mengenai tradisi  yang berubah. Dalam semua negara, penduduk daripada setiap peringkat  umur, sama ada di bandar atau di luar bandar bergantung sedikit sebanyak  kepada warisan mereka, tetapi mereka sanggup mengubah beberapa bidang  kelakuan mereka.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;(iii)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Kekangan Media&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kekangan  ke atas strategi kreatif yang dikenakan oleh media akan hanya  menyatakan bahawa kekangan media boleh mengecilkan peranan pengiklanan  dalam program promosi dan boleh memaksa pemasar untuk menekankan unsur  lain dalam campuran pemasaran. Pencipta yang berdaya cipta dalam  beberapa negara telah membangunkan media mereka sendiri untuk mengatasi  kekangan media.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/48122495104395618/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-9-pembentukan-strategi-pemasaran.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/48122495104395618'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/48122495104395618'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-9-pembentukan-strategi-pemasaran.html' title='UNIT 9  PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-7292691569457220233</id><published>2011-09-24T03:24:00.001-07:00</published><updated>2011-10-04T10:18:27.033-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="P5126 Aspek Pemasaran Antarabangsa"/><title type='text'>UNIT 8  PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL</title><content type='html'>&lt;span id=&quot;internal-source-marker_0.23261562936479152&quot; style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;UNIT 8&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SISTEM AGIHAN ANTARABANGSA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF AM&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mengetahui dan memahami sistem agihan antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF KHUSUS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di akhir unit ini anda sepatutnya dapat :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 252pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;Membincangkan sistem agihan antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Alternatif-alternatif saluran agihan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Faktor-faktor pemilihan saluran agihan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perkembangan terkini dalam saluran agihan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;8.0 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; PENGENALAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Untuk  melengkapkan komponen campuran pemasaran dan untuk menyampaikan  keluaran tersebut ke pasaran sasaran, saluran pengagihan mesti  dibangunkan. Setiap negara atau kawasan pasaran sasaran mengemukakan  pola orang tengah dan pengagihan yang unik kepada pemasar antarabangsa.  Cabaran yang dihadapi oleh pemasar antarabangsa ialah untuk membentuk  saluran dari orang tengah yang tersedia yang akan berkesan dalam  memenuhi keperluan &amp;nbsp;pasaran sasaran di dalam lingkungan kekangan yang  dikenakan oleh sumber dan dasar syarikat.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;MEMBINCANG SISTEM AGIHAN ANTARABANGSA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; 8.1.1 Alternatif-alternatif saluran agihan yang terdapat dalam pemasaran &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Home Country Middlemen&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  juga dikenali sebagai “domestic middlemen” dan lokasi mereka terletak  di syarikat pengeluar sesebuah negara di mana mereka menyediakan  perkhidmatan dari tapak domestik. Dengan memilih “domestic middlemen”  sebagai perantaraan dalam proses agihan, syarikat-syarikat akan  menyerahkan hal-hal agihan kepada pihak lain. “Domestic middlemen”  memberi banyak kelebihan kepada syarikat-syarikat di antaranya ialah  bagi yang mempunyai kadar jualan antarabangsa yang rendah, tidak  berpengalaman dengan pasaran asing, mereka yang tidak mahu terlibat  secara langsung dengan masalah pemasaran antarabangsa, bagi mereka yang  hendak memasarkan barangan ke luar negara dengan kos dan pengurusan yang  minima. Kelemahan ketara menggunakan “domestic middlemen” pula ialah  kawalan minima terhadap keseluruhan proses pemasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat Pengurusan Eksport (EMC)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  orang tengah yang sangat penting bagi firma yang mempunyai volum  antarabangsa yang rendah atau yang tidak mahu terlibat secara personal  dengan fungsi antarabangsa. Fungsi EMC terdiri daripada seorang sehingga  100 orang dan mengendali 10% daripada eksport barangan pengeluaran.  Lazimnya, EMC merupakan sebahagian daripada pengurusan pemasaran  syarikat klien. Mereka bekerja dibawah nama syarikat pengeluar dengan  berfungsi sebagai jabatan bebas, berkos rendah tetapi bertanggungjawab  secara terus dengan syarikat induk. Pihak yang ditawarkan oleh EMC  adalah sebagai penghubung dengan pengguna asing serta perundingan  jualan, promosi barangan, perundingan kredit, agihan fizikal,  penyelidikan pasaran, maklumat kewangan, hak cipta dan pelesenan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat Perdagangan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  perantaraan penting bagi dagangan antara sesebuah negara. Mereka  mengumpul, menghantar dan mengagih barangan daripada banyak negara.  Syarikat perdagangan yang besar dan ternama dan biasanya terletak di  negara-negara maju; mereka menjual barangan perkilangan ke negara  membangun dan membeli bahan mentah serta barangan yang tidak diproses.  Sebagai contoh, syarikat negara Jepun ( Sogo Shosha), beroperasi sebagai  pengimport dan pengeksport. Lebih daripada 300 syarikat adalah  berurusan dalam dagangan domestik dan asing melalui 2000 cawangan mereka  di luar Jepun dan mengendali lebih $1trillion volum jualan setiap  tahun.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Complementary Marketers”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat  yang mempunyai kemudahan pemasaran serta hubungan dengan pelbagai  negara serta keinginan untuk meluas lini keluaran sering akan menambah  saluran mereka untuk agihan antarabangsa; nama generik bagi aktiviti ini  adalah pemasaran pelengkap atau &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;piggybacking&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;.  General Electric Company telah mengagih barangan-barangan dari pembekal  sejak bertahun-tahun. Mereka menerima produk yang tidak bersaing tetapi  pelengkap kepada barangan lain dan ini mengukuhkan lagi kekuatan agihan  syarikat itu sendiri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kebanyakan  urusan piggyback di gunakan apabila syarikat ingin memastikan saluran  agihan yang bermusim berfungsi sepenuhnya sepanjang tahun. Syarikat  mungkin bekerja dengan agensi atau saudagar, tetapi volum terbesar  perniagaan piggyback dikendali melalui hakmilik atau urusan beli-jual  semula.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Proses pemilihan produk baru bagi agihan piggyback menentukan samada &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;produk berkaitan dengan lini keluaran dan memberi sumbangan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;produk memenuhi jualan dan saluran agihan yang digunakan semasa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;margin yang mencukupi untuk diambilalih&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;produk akan mencari pasaran yang diterima serta volum jualan yang menguntungkan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sekiranya  keperluan ini dipenuhi, piggyback mungkin merupakan cara yang logik  untuk meningkatkan volum dan keuntungan kepada kedua-dua pihak orang  tengah dan pengeluar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Manufacturers’ Export Agent” (MEA)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  merupakan orang tengah agen individu, syarikat orang tengah agen yang  menawarkan perkhidmatan penjualan kepada pengeluar. Tidak seperti EMC,  MEA tidak bertindak sebagai jabatan eksport pengeluar tetapi mempunyai  hubungan jangka pendek yang hanya merangkumi satu atau dua pasaran dan  beroperasi berdasarkan sistem komisyen. Manakala MEA menguruskan  perniagaan menggunakan nama sendiri dan tidak nama klien.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Home Country Brokers”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Maksud  broker ialah beberapa orang tengah menjalankan perkhidmatan agen berkos  rendah. Ia digunakan bagi broker import-eksport yang menawarkan fungsi  perantaraan bagi menemukan pembeli dan penjual dan mereka tidak  mempunyai hubungan berterusan dengan klien mereka. Kebanyakan broker  hanya mahir dalam satu atau beberapa komoditi yang mana mereka akan  mengekalkan hubungan dengan pengeluar utama dan pembeli di seluruh  dunia.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;6&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Buying Offices”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Beberapa  agen orang tengah diklasifikasi sebagai pembeli untuk eksport. Mereka  mencari dan membeli barangan di atas permintaan prinsipal; mereka tidak  menyediakan perkhidmatan penjualan. Penekanan mereka adalah ke atas  kebolehan untuk mencari barangan dari sumber yang berbeza. Mereka tidak  terikat di dalam meneruskan hubungan dengan pembekal domestik.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;7&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Selling Groups”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perundingan  akan dibentuk &amp;nbsp;di mana beberapa pengeluar atau pengilang bekerjasama di  dalam usaha untuk menjual barangan ke luar negara. Ia mungkin dalam  bentuk eksport pelengkap dan merupakan agensi yang mengurusklan eksport  dan mengenakan yuran atau komisyen.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;8&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Foreign Sales Corporation” (FSC)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  syarikat korporat jualan yang dibentuk di negara asing yang menerima  pengecualian cukai korporat di atas sebahagian daripada pendapatan hasil  daripada jualan atau sewa eksport. FSC boleh dibentuk oleh pengeluar  atau sekumpulan pengeksport. Mereka bertindak sebagai prinsipal, penjual  dan pembeli bagi pihak klien atau sebagai agen komisyen. Ia berhubung  dengan pengeluar induk atau pengeluar bebas sebagai broker atau  saudagar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;9&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Export Merchants”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  saudagar domestik beroperasi di pasaran asing. Struktur operasi mereka  sama seperti pemborong domestik. Khususnya mereka membeli barangan  daripada jumlah pengeluar yang besar, membawa mereka ke negara asing dan  menerima tanggungjawab penuh terhadap aktiviti pemasaran. Lazimnya,  mereka menggunakan organisasi sendiri, tetapi dalam keadaan tertentu  mereka menjual melalui orang tengah. Mereka mempunyai kuasa penuh  terhadap harga, mengekalkan kesetiaan yang agak rendah terhadap pembekal  walaupun meneruskan untuk mengendali produk selagi ia memberi  keuntungan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;10&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Export Jobbers”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Banyak  berurusan dengan barangan komoditi dan tidak memiliki barangan secara  fizikal tetapi bertanggungjawab di atas urusan pengangkutan. Oleh kerana  mereka bekerja di atas dasar “job-lot” mereka tidak menyediakan  alternatif agihan yang menarik untuk kebanyakan pengeluar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya….!!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas &amp;nbsp;yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 8A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan “Home Country Middlemen” dan berikan DUA (2) contoh saluran agihan ini.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;8.1.2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; “Foreign Country Middlemen”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;(i) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Wakil Pengilang&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Agen  orang tengah yang bertanggungjawab terhadap barangan pengeluar bagi  sesebuah bandar, kawasan pasaran, negeri atau beberapa negeri  berdekatan. Agen tunggal merupakan agen yang bertanggungjawab bagi  sesebuah negeri. Seperti di A.S., wakil pengilang yang terpilih,  bermotivasi, berkeboleh kawalan, mampu untuk mengawasi pasaran bagi  pengilang. Ia banyak digunakan bagi barangan industri di negara luar dan  juga bagi barangan pengguna yang dikilangkan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mereka  dikenali dengan pelbagai nama seperti agen jualan, agen jualan residen,  agen eksklusif, agen komisyen dan agen pesanan. Mereka tidak menerima  kredit, pertukaran, risiko pasaran tetapi berurusan sebagai wakil jualan  bidang. Mereka juga tidak menguruskan hal-hal pengangkutan dan  pengendalian atau menerima hakmilik fizikal.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Distributor”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Distributor”  asing merupakan saudagar orang tengah. Perantaraan ini sering  memperolehi hak jualan eksklusif dalam sesebuah negara dan bekerja rapat  dengan pengilang. Mereka bergantung rapat dengan syarikat pembekal,  secara jangka panjang dan berterusan. Bekerjasama dengan “distributors”  memberi peluang kepada pengilang untuk mengawal harga, usaha promosi,  inventori, perkhidmatan selepas jualan dan lain-lain fungsi agihan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Broker Negara Asing&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Broker  seperti yang diketahui merupakan agen yang mengendalikan barangan  komoditi dan produk makanan secara besar-besaran. Broker asing  beroperasi di sesebuah negara sebagai firma broker secara kecil-kecilan.  Kekuatan mereka adalah pada hubungan baik yang berterusan dengan  pengguna serta memberi liputan pasaran yang cepat pada kos yang rendah.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mengurus Agen dan Compradors&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mereka  mengurus perniagaan dikalangan negara asing di bawah kontrak eksklusif  dengan syarikat induk. Mereka juga melabur di dalam operasi dan membuat  kontrak dengan syarikat induk dan mereka menerima pampasan dari  sebahagian keuntungan yang diperolehi. Di sesetengah negara, agen  mengurus dikenali sebagai compradors dan terdapat sedikit perbezaan dari  segi hubungan, hakmilik, tahap kawalan, kuasa meletak harga serta  maklumat tentang pasaran di antara yang dapat disenaraikan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengedar&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  mereka yang mempunyai perhubungan berterusan dengan pembekal di dalam  urusan jual beli barangan. Mereka menjadi orang tengah di dalam menjual  barangan industri dan barangan pengguna yang tahan lama terus kepada  pengguna akhir. Pengedar mempunyai hubungan berterusan dan rapat dengan  pembekal dan hak jualan eksklusif bagi barangan pengeluar di dalam  kawasan geografi tertentu. Mereka merupakan saudagar orang tengah bebas  walaupun dalam keadaan tertentu syarikat pembekal mempunyai hak ekuiti  ke atas pengedar. Contoh pengedar ialah yang terlibat dengan barangan  pertanian, memecah tanah dan industri automobil seperti Caterpillar  Tractor Company.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jober import, Pemborong dan Peruncit&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jober  import membeli barangan terus daripada pengilang dan menjualnya kepada  pemborong atau peruncit serta pengguna industri. Pemborong atau perucit  terlibat di dalam import untuk outlet mereka sendiri serta agihan semula  kepada orang tengah kecil-kecilan. Kombinasi peruncit-pemborong lebih  penting di negara luar berbanding dengan A.S.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya….!!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas &amp;nbsp;yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 8B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Berikan TIGA (3) contoh Foreign Country Middlemen.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;8.2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; FAKTOR-FAKTOR PEMILIHAN SALURAN AGIHAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;(i) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Kos&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 63pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -63pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;  Dua jenis kos yang terlibat dengan saluran agihan ialah kos modal dan  pelaburan yang membentuk saluran serta kos berterusan untuk  mengekalkannya. Kos berterusan adalah dalam bentuk perbelanjaan langsung  untuk mengekalkan tenaga jualan syarikat atau dalam bentuk margin,  mark-up, komisyen bagi orang tengah yang mengendali barangan. Kos  pemasaran mesti diambilkira sebagai perbezaan di antara harga kilang  dengan harga yang dibayar oleh pengguna untuk barangan tersebut. Kos  orang tengah termasuklah pengangkutan dan penyimpanan barangan, memecah  pukal, penyediaan kredit, pengiklanan tempatan, wakil jualan dan  perundingan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keperluan Modal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Hal-hal  kewangan bagi polisi agihan seringkali diabaikan. Di antara elemen  penting adalah keperluan modal, corak aliran tunai yang terlibat di  dalam menggunakan perkhidmatan orang tengah. Pelaburan maksima biasanya  diperlukan apabila syarikat menubuhkan saluran agihan dalaman mereka  sendiri serta tenaga jualan sendiri. Penggunaan distributors dan  pengedar mungkin dapat mengurangkan pelaburan tunai tetapi pengeluar  sering menyediakan inventori awal di atas penghantaran, pinjaman, plan  bangunan dan laian-lain.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kawalan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat  membabitkan diri secara mendalam dalam pengagihan barangannya sendiri  supaya dapat mengawal masa hadapan pemasaran mereka dengan lebih baik.  Secara amya adalah dipersetujui bahawa tenaga julan syarikat sendiri  memberi kawalan yang maksima walaupun ia mendatangkan kos tambahan.  Setiap jenis pengaturan saluran dan setiap orang tengah yang khusus  mempunyai tingkat kepekaan yang berlainan kepada kawalan. Apabila  saluran pengagihan menjadi lebih panjang, kemampuan untuk &amp;nbsp;mengawal  harga, volum, kaedah promosi dan jenis saluran keluar dikurangkan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Liputan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Liputan sepenuh ke atas pasaran adalah untuk :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memperolehi volum optimum jualan yang boleh didapati dalam setiap pasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mendapat bahagian pasaran yang berpatutan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mencapai penembusan pasaran yang memuaskan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Liputan  boleh ditaksir berdasarkan segmen geografi atau segmen pasaran yang  lain. Liputan pasaran yang mencukupi mungkin memerlukan perubahan dalam  system pengagihan dari negara ke negara atau dari masa ke semasa.  Liputan sukar dibangunkan dalam kedua-dua kawasan yang sangat maju dan  dalam pasaran yang tidak padat; kesukaran dalam kawasan yang pertama  disebabkan oleh persaingan yang hebat sementara kesukaran dalam kawasan  yang kedua disebabkan oleh saluran yang tidak mencukupi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Liputan  juga termasuklah konsep perwakilan penuh untuk semua barisan yang ingin  dijual oleh syarikat dalam suatu pasaran tertentu. Kadang-kadang orang  tengah akan mengambil bahagian yang lebih menguntungkan dalam sesuatu  barisan tetapi mengetepikan atau enggan mengendalikan &amp;nbsp;keluaran lain  yang mahu dititikberatkan oleh pengilang. Tanpa liputan sepenuh ke atas  barisan, pengilang boleh dilumpuhkan dengan serius dalam usahanya untuk  membangunkan pengagihan yang menguntungkan. Syarikat mungkin lebih  menyukai pengaturan saluran yang teratur dan menggunakan satu bentuk  pengagihan yang utama sahaja; tetapi, untuk dapat mencapai liputan yang  dikehendaki, ia mungkin terpaksa menggunakan semua saluran yang ada.  Oleh itu, syarikat mungkin terpaksa menggunakan saluran yang tidak  selari, iaitu tenaga jualannya sendiri dalam sesebuah negara, saluran  agen pengilang dalam negara lain, dan saudagar pemborong dalam negara  yang satu lagi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kesesuaian dan lain-lain&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sistem  saluran pengagihan yang dipilih mesti sesuai dengan ciri syarikat dan  pasaran yang di dalamnya ia menjalankan perniagaannya. Sesetengah  keperluan keluaran yang jelas adalah berkenaan dengan kemudahan  kerosakan barang atau pukal keluaran tersebut, kerumitan jualan,  perkhidmatan jualan yang diperlukan, dan nilai keluaran tersebut. Faktor  ini sering merupakan faktor pertama yang dipertimbangkan. Memadankan  ciri pengeluar dan orang tengah mungkin lebih sukar; kadang-kadang  menyelaraskan kedua-dua ciri ini begitu mustahil hingga menyebabkan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;8.3&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; PERKEMBANGAN TERKINI &amp;nbsp;DALAM SALURAN AGIHAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Peruncitan  di seluruh dunia telah berubah-ubah semenjak beberapa tahun yang lalu.  Kadar perubahan kelihatan berhubung secara langsung dengan tahap dan  kelajuan pembangunan ekonomi dalam negara yang berkenaan, tetapi negara  yang paling kurang membangun pun sedang mengalami perubahan dengan  tiba-tiba. Peruncitan layan diri telah bertumbuh pada kadar yang  membingungkan di seluruh dunia. Berbagai-bagai jenis pasar raya sedang  bertumbuh dengan banyaknya dalam kedua-dua negara maju dan negara kurang  membangun. Gedung diskaun &amp;nbsp;telah mengambil bahagian yang semakin  bertambah dalam pasaran negara yang menjadikan kegiatan sedemikian sah  di sisi undang-undang. Arah aliran jualan secara automatik dan pesanan  mel sedang ditetapkan di seluruh dunia dan dalam industri makanan  sebagai contoh, terdapat rantaian sukarela yang sangat maju, kedai  rantaian berbilang, koperasi pengguna, pasar raya, gedung pesanan mel  dan kedai mudah beli. Franchise juga merupakan salah satu daripada  aliran baru dalam saluran agihan yang mana ia tidak hanya terhad kepada  makanan segera tetapi minuman ringan, perkhidmatan kenderaan &amp;nbsp;bermotor ,  hotel dan motel juga merupakan franchise yang utama. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Automasi  juga merupakan perubahan penting yang sedang berlaku dalam peruncitan.  Ia kini sudah menjadi kenyataan di negara maju dan membangun apabila  peruncit berusaha untuk menjadi lebih cekap supaya dapat mengimbangi  persaingan harga yang semakin bertambah dan membebankan pengguna.  Pengkodan bar barang niaga , kawalan inventori secara elektronik antara  pengilang dan peruncit dan pindahan dana secara elektronik pada tempat  jualan kini sedang menjadi kenyataan di kalangan peruncit yang besar di  seluruh dunia. Selain daripada itu, selaras dengan perkembangan  teknologi maklumat dan kaitannya dengan pemasaran secara global, peranan  E-Marketing menjadi semakin penting untuk memasarkan barangan terus  kepada pengguna seperti melalui internet samada melibatkan keluaran atau  perkhidmatan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya….!! &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 8C&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Senaraikan LIMA (5) faktor pemilihan saluran agihan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Anda  telah menghampiri kejayaan. &amp;nbsp;Sila cuba semua soalan dalam penilaian  kendiri ini dan semak jawapan anda pada maklumbalas yang disediakan.  Jika ada sebarang masalah yang timbul, sila berbincang dengan pensyarah  anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Selamat mencuba semoga berjaya !!!!!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 8-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Berikan perbezaan di antara EMC dan MEA.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 8-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan Export Merchants dan Export Jobbers.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 8-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bincangkan perkembangan terkini dalam dalam saluran agihan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI &amp;nbsp;8A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  juga dikenali sebagai domestic middlemen dan lokasi mereka terletak di  syarikat pengeluar sesebuah negara di mana mereka menyediakan  perkhidmatan dari tapak domestik.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Dua Contoh : &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Syarikat Pengurusan Eksport (EMC)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat Perdagangan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI &amp;nbsp;8B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Wakil pengilang&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Distributor&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Broker Negara Asing&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI &amp;nbsp;8C&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;LIMA (5) faktor pemilihan saluran agihan :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keperluan Modal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kawalan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Liputan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kesesuaian dan lain-lain&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN &amp;nbsp;8-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat Pengurusan Eksport (EMC)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  orang tengah yang sangat penting bagi firma yang mempunyai volume  antarabangsa yang rendah atau yang tidak mahu terlibat secara personal  dengan fungsi antarabangsa. Fungsi EMC terdiri daripada seorang sehingga  100 orang dan mengendali10% daripada eksport barangan pengeluaran.  Lazimnya, EMC merupakan sebahagian daripada pengurusan pemasaran  syarikat klien. Mereka bekerja dibawah nama syarikat pengeluar dengan  berfungsi sebagai jabatan bebas, berkos rendah tetapi bertanggungjawab  secara terus dengan syarikat induk. Pihak yang ditawarkan oleh EMC  adalah sebagai penghubung dengan pengguna asing serta perundingan  jualan, promosi barangan, perundingan kredit, agihan fizikal,  penyelidikan pasaran, maklumat kewangan, hak cipta dan pelesenan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -72pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Manufacturers’ Export Agent” (MEA)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  merupakan orang tengah agen individu, syarikat orang tengah agen yang  menawarkan perkhidmatan penjualan kepada pengeluar. Tidak seperti EMC,  MEA tidak bertindak sebagai jabatan eksport pengeluar tetapi mempunyai  hubungan jangka pendek yang hanya merangkumi satu atau dua pasaran dan  beroperasi berdasarkan sistem komisyen. Manakala MEA menguruskan  perniagaan menggunakan nama sendiri dan tidak nama klien.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 8-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Export Merchants&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  saudagar domestik beroperasi di pasaran asing. Struktur operasi mereka  sama seperti pemborong domestik. Khususnya mereka membeli barangan  daripada jumlah pengeluar yang besar, membawa mereka ke negara asing dan  menerima tanggungjawab penuh terhadap aktiviti pemasaran. Lazimnya,  mereka menggunakan organisasi sendiri, tetapi dalam keadaan tertentu  mereka menjual melalui orang tengah. Mereka mempunyai kuasa penuh  terhadap harga, mengekalkan kesetiaan yang agak rendah terhadap pembekal  walaupun meneruskan untuk mengendali produk selagi ia memberi  keuntungan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Export Jobbers&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Banyak  berurusan dengan barangan komoditi dan tidak memiliki barangan secara  fizikal tetapi bertanggungjawab di atas urusan pengangkutan. Oleh kerana  mereka bekerja di atas dasar “job-lot” mereka tidak menyediakan  alternatif agihan yang menarik untuk kebanyakan pengeluar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 8-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Peruncitan  di seluruh dunia telah berubah-ubah semenjak beberapa tahun yang lalu.  Kadar perubahan kelihatan berhubung secara langsung dengan tahap dan  kelajuan pembangunan ekonomi dalam negara yang berkenaan, tetapi negara  yang paling kurang membangun pun sedang mengalami perubahan dengan  tiba-tiba. Peruncitan layan diri telah bertumbuh pada kadar yang  membingungkan di seluruh dunia. Berbagai-bagai jenis pasar raya sedang  bertumbuh dengan banyaknya dalam kedua-dua negara maju dan negara kurang  membangun. Gedung diskaun &amp;nbsp;telah mengambil bahagian yang semakin  bertambah dalam pasaran negara yang menjadikan kegiatan sedemikian sah  di sisi undang-undang. Arah aliran jualan secara automatik dan pesanan  mel sedang ditetapkan di seluruh dunia dan dalam industri makanan  sebagai contoh, terdapat rantaian sukarela yang sangat maju, kedai  rantaian berbilang, koperasi pengguna, pasar raya, gedung pesanan mel  dan kedai mudah beli. Franchise juga merupakan salah satu daripada  aliran baru dalam saluran agihan yang mana ia tidak hanya terhad kepada  makanan segera tetapi minuman ringan, perkhidmatan kenderaan &amp;nbsp;bermotor ,  hotel dan motel juga merupakan franchise yang utama. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Automasi  juga merupakan perubahan penting yang sedang berlaku dalam peruncitan.  Ia kini sudah menjadi kenyataan di negara maju dan membangun apabila  peruncit berusaha untuk menjadi lebih cekap supaya dapat mengimbangi  persaingan harga yang semakin bertambah dan membebankan pengguna.  Pengkodan bar barang niaga , kawalan inventori secara elektronik antara  pengilang dan peruncit dan pindahan dana secara elektronik pada tempat  jualan kini sedang menjadi kenyataan di kalangan peruncit yang besar di  seluruh dunia. Selain daripada itu, selaras dengan perkembangan  teknologi maklumat dan kaitannya dengan pemasaran secara global, peranan  E-Marketing menjadi semakin penting untuk memasarkan barangan terus  kepada pengguna seperti melalui internet samada melibatkan keluaran atau  perkhidmatan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/7292691569457220233/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-8-pembentukan-strategi-pemasaran_24.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7292691569457220233'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/7292691569457220233'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-8-pembentukan-strategi-pemasaran_24.html' title='UNIT 8  PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8059721401951856421.post-8897338820104637119</id><published>2011-09-24T03:24:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2011-09-29T21:15:41.819-07:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="P5126 Aspek Pemasaran Antarabangsa"/><title type='text'>UNIT 8  PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL</title><content type='html'>&lt;span id=&quot;internal-source-marker_0.23261562936479152&quot; style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;UNIT 8&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 14pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SISTEM AGIHAN ANTARABANGSA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF AM&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mengetahui dan memahami sistem agihan antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;OBJEKTIF KHUSUS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 216pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Di akhir unit ini anda sepatutnya dapat :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 252pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;Membincangkan sistem agihan antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Alternatif-alternatif saluran agihan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Faktor-faktor pemilihan saluran agihan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perkembangan terkini dalam saluran agihan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a name=&#39;more&#39;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;8.0 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; PENGENALAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Untuk  melengkapkan komponen campuran pemasaran dan untuk menyampaikan  keluaran tersebut ke pasaran sasaran, saluran pengagihan mesti  dibangunkan. Setiap negara atau kawasan pasaran sasaran mengemukakan  pola orang tengah dan pengagihan yang unik kepada pemasar antarabangsa.  Cabaran yang dihadapi oleh pemasar antarabangsa ialah untuk membentuk  saluran dari orang tengah yang tersedia yang akan berkesan dalam  memenuhi keperluan &amp;nbsp;pasaran sasaran di dalam lingkungan kekangan yang  dikenakan oleh sumber dan dasar syarikat.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;MEMBINCANG SISTEM AGIHAN ANTARABANGSA&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; 8.1.1 Alternatif-alternatif saluran agihan yang terdapat dalam pemasaran &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;antarabangsa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h3 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Home Country Middlemen&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  juga dikenali sebagai “domestic middlemen” dan lokasi mereka terletak  di syarikat pengeluar sesebuah negara di mana mereka menyediakan  perkhidmatan dari tapak domestik. Dengan memilih “domestic middlemen”  sebagai perantaraan dalam proses agihan, syarikat-syarikat akan  menyerahkan hal-hal agihan kepada pihak lain. “Domestic middlemen”  memberi banyak kelebihan kepada syarikat-syarikat di antaranya ialah  bagi yang mempunyai kadar jualan antarabangsa yang rendah, tidak  berpengalaman dengan pasaran asing, mereka yang tidak mahu terlibat  secara langsung dengan masalah pemasaran antarabangsa, bagi mereka yang  hendak memasarkan barangan ke luar negara dengan kos dan pengurusan yang  minima. Kelemahan ketara menggunakan “domestic middlemen” pula ialah  kawalan minima terhadap keseluruhan proses pemasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat Pengurusan Eksport (EMC)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  orang tengah yang sangat penting bagi firma yang mempunyai volum  antarabangsa yang rendah atau yang tidak mahu terlibat secara personal  dengan fungsi antarabangsa. Fungsi EMC terdiri daripada seorang sehingga  100 orang dan mengendali 10% daripada eksport barangan pengeluaran.  Lazimnya, EMC merupakan sebahagian daripada pengurusan pemasaran  syarikat klien. Mereka bekerja dibawah nama syarikat pengeluar dengan  berfungsi sebagai jabatan bebas, berkos rendah tetapi bertanggungjawab  secara terus dengan syarikat induk. Pihak yang ditawarkan oleh EMC  adalah sebagai penghubung dengan pengguna asing serta perundingan  jualan, promosi barangan, perundingan kredit, agihan fizikal,  penyelidikan pasaran, maklumat kewangan, hak cipta dan pelesenan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat Perdagangan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  perantaraan penting bagi dagangan antara sesebuah negara. Mereka  mengumpul, menghantar dan mengagih barangan daripada banyak negara.  Syarikat perdagangan yang besar dan ternama dan biasanya terletak di  negara-negara maju; mereka menjual barangan perkilangan ke negara  membangun dan membeli bahan mentah serta barangan yang tidak diproses.  Sebagai contoh, syarikat negara Jepun ( Sogo Shosha), beroperasi sebagai  pengimport dan pengeksport. Lebih daripada 300 syarikat adalah  berurusan dalam dagangan domestik dan asing melalui 2000 cawangan mereka  di luar Jepun dan mengendali lebih $1trillion volum jualan setiap  tahun.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Complementary Marketers”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat  yang mempunyai kemudahan pemasaran serta hubungan dengan pelbagai  negara serta keinginan untuk meluas lini keluaran sering akan menambah  saluran mereka untuk agihan antarabangsa; nama generik bagi aktiviti ini  adalah pemasaran pelengkap atau &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;piggybacking&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;.  General Electric Company telah mengagih barangan-barangan dari pembekal  sejak bertahun-tahun. Mereka menerima produk yang tidak bersaing tetapi  pelengkap kepada barangan lain dan ini mengukuhkan lagi kekuatan agihan  syarikat itu sendiri.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kebanyakan  urusan piggyback di gunakan apabila syarikat ingin memastikan saluran  agihan yang bermusim berfungsi sepenuhnya sepanjang tahun. Syarikat  mungkin bekerja dengan agensi atau saudagar, tetapi volum terbesar  perniagaan piggyback dikendali melalui hakmilik atau urusan beli-jual  semula.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Proses pemilihan produk baru bagi agihan piggyback menentukan samada &amp;nbsp;:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;produk berkaitan dengan lini keluaran dan memberi sumbangan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;produk memenuhi jualan dan saluran agihan yang digunakan semasa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;margin yang mencukupi untuk diambilalih&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: decimal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;produk akan mencari pasaran yang diterima serta volum jualan yang menguntungkan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sekiranya  keperluan ini dipenuhi, piggyback mungkin merupakan cara yang logik  untuk meningkatkan volum dan keuntungan kepada kedua-dua pihak orang  tengah dan pengeluar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Manufacturers’ Export Agent” (MEA)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  merupakan orang tengah agen individu, syarikat orang tengah agen yang  menawarkan perkhidmatan penjualan kepada pengeluar. Tidak seperti EMC,  MEA tidak bertindak sebagai jabatan eksport pengeluar tetapi mempunyai  hubungan jangka pendek yang hanya merangkumi satu atau dua pasaran dan  beroperasi berdasarkan sistem komisyen. Manakala MEA menguruskan  perniagaan menggunakan nama sendiri dan tidak nama klien.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Home Country Brokers”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Maksud  broker ialah beberapa orang tengah menjalankan perkhidmatan agen berkos  rendah. Ia digunakan bagi broker import-eksport yang menawarkan fungsi  perantaraan bagi menemukan pembeli dan penjual dan mereka tidak  mempunyai hubungan berterusan dengan klien mereka. Kebanyakan broker  hanya mahir dalam satu atau beberapa komoditi yang mana mereka akan  mengekalkan hubungan dengan pengeluar utama dan pembeli di seluruh  dunia.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;6&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Buying Offices”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Beberapa  agen orang tengah diklasifikasi sebagai pembeli untuk eksport. Mereka  mencari dan membeli barangan di atas permintaan prinsipal; mereka tidak  menyediakan perkhidmatan penjualan. Penekanan mereka adalah ke atas  kebolehan untuk mencari barangan dari sumber yang berbeza. Mereka tidak  terikat di dalam meneruskan hubungan dengan pembekal domestik.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;7&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Selling Groups”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Perundingan  akan dibentuk &amp;nbsp;di mana beberapa pengeluar atau pengilang bekerjasama di  dalam usaha untuk menjual barangan ke luar negara. Ia mungkin dalam  bentuk eksport pelengkap dan merupakan agensi yang mengurusklan eksport  dan mengenakan yuran atau komisyen.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;8&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Foreign Sales Corporation” (FSC)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  syarikat korporat jualan yang dibentuk di negara asing yang menerima  pengecualian cukai korporat di atas sebahagian daripada pendapatan hasil  daripada jualan atau sewa eksport. FSC boleh dibentuk oleh pengeluar  atau sekumpulan pengeksport. Mereka bertindak sebagai prinsipal, penjual  dan pembeli bagi pihak klien atau sebagai agen komisyen. Ia berhubung  dengan pengeluar induk atau pengeluar bebas sebagai broker atau  saudagar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;9&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Export Merchants”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  saudagar domestik beroperasi di pasaran asing. Struktur operasi mereka  sama seperti pemborong domestik. Khususnya mereka membeli barangan  daripada jumlah pengeluar yang besar, membawa mereka ke negara asing dan  menerima tanggungjawab penuh terhadap aktiviti pemasaran. Lazimnya,  mereka menggunakan organisasi sendiri, tetapi dalam keadaan tertentu  mereka menjual melalui orang tengah. Mereka mempunyai kuasa penuh  terhadap harga, mengekalkan kesetiaan yang agak rendah terhadap pembekal  walaupun meneruskan untuk mengendali produk selagi ia memberi  keuntungan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;10&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Export Jobbers”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Banyak  berurusan dengan barangan komoditi dan tidak memiliki barangan secara  fizikal tetapi bertanggungjawab di atas urusan pengangkutan. Oleh kerana  mereka bekerja di atas dasar “job-lot” mereka tidak menyediakan  alternatif agihan yang menarik untuk kebanyakan pengeluar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya….!!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas &amp;nbsp;yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 8A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan “Home Country Middlemen” dan berikan DUA (2) contoh saluran agihan ini.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;8.1.2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; “Foreign Country Middlemen”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;(i) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Wakil Pengilang&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Agen  orang tengah yang bertanggungjawab terhadap barangan pengeluar bagi  sesebuah bandar, kawasan pasaran, negeri atau beberapa negeri  berdekatan. Agen tunggal merupakan agen yang bertanggungjawab bagi  sesebuah negeri. Seperti di A.S., wakil pengilang yang terpilih,  bermotivasi, berkeboleh kawalan, mampu untuk mengawasi pasaran bagi  pengilang. Ia banyak digunakan bagi barangan industri di negara luar dan  juga bagi barangan pengguna yang dikilangkan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mereka  dikenali dengan pelbagai nama seperti agen jualan, agen jualan residen,  agen eksklusif, agen komisyen dan agen pesanan. Mereka tidak menerima  kredit, pertukaran, risiko pasaran tetapi berurusan sebagai wakil jualan  bidang. Mereka juga tidak menguruskan hal-hal pengangkutan dan  pengendalian atau menerima hakmilik fizikal.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Distributor”&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Distributor”  asing merupakan saudagar orang tengah. Perantaraan ini sering  memperolehi hak jualan eksklusif dalam sesebuah negara dan bekerja rapat  dengan pengilang. Mereka bergantung rapat dengan syarikat pembekal,  secara jangka panjang dan berterusan. Bekerjasama dengan “distributors”  memberi peluang kepada pengilang untuk mengawal harga, usaha promosi,  inventori, perkhidmatan selepas jualan dan lain-lain fungsi agihan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Broker Negara Asing&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Broker  seperti yang diketahui merupakan agen yang mengendalikan barangan  komoditi dan produk makanan secara besar-besaran. Broker asing  beroperasi di sesebuah negara sebagai firma broker secara kecil-kecilan.  Kekuatan mereka adalah pada hubungan baik yang berterusan dengan  pengguna serta memberi liputan pasaran yang cepat pada kos yang rendah.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mengurus Agen dan Compradors&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mereka  mengurus perniagaan dikalangan negara asing di bawah kontrak eksklusif  dengan syarikat induk. Mereka juga melabur di dalam operasi dan membuat  kontrak dengan syarikat induk dan mereka menerima pampasan dari  sebahagian keuntungan yang diperolehi. Di sesetengah negara, agen  mengurus dikenali sebagai compradors dan terdapat sedikit perbezaan dari  segi hubungan, hakmilik, tahap kawalan, kuasa meletak harga serta  maklumat tentang pasaran di antara yang dapat disenaraikan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Pengedar&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  mereka yang mempunyai perhubungan berterusan dengan pembekal di dalam  urusan jual beli barangan. Mereka menjadi orang tengah di dalam menjual  barangan industri dan barangan pengguna yang tahan lama terus kepada  pengguna akhir. Pengedar mempunyai hubungan berterusan dan rapat dengan  pembekal dan hak jualan eksklusif bagi barangan pengeluar di dalam  kawasan geografi tertentu. Mereka merupakan saudagar orang tengah bebas  walaupun dalam keadaan tertentu syarikat pembekal mempunyai hak ekuiti  ke atas pengedar. Contoh pengedar ialah yang terlibat dengan barangan  pertanian, memecah tanah dan industri automobil seperti Caterpillar  Tractor Company.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;5&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jober import, Pemborong dan Peruncit&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 108pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Jober  import membeli barangan terus daripada pengilang dan menjualnya kepada  pemborong atau peruncit serta pengguna industri. Pemborong atau perucit  terlibat di dalam import untuk outlet mereka sendiri serta agihan semula  kepada orang tengah kecil-kecilan. Kombinasi peruncit-pemborong lebih  penting di negara luar berbanding dengan A.S.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya….!!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas &amp;nbsp;yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 8B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Berikan TIGA (3) contoh Foreign Country Middlemen.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;INPUT&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 36pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;8.2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; FAKTOR-FAKTOR PEMILIHAN SALURAN AGIHAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;(i) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Kos&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 63pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -63pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;  Dua jenis kos yang terlibat dengan saluran agihan ialah kos modal dan  pelaburan yang membentuk saluran serta kos berterusan untuk  mengekalkannya. Kos berterusan adalah dalam bentuk perbelanjaan langsung  untuk mengekalkan tenaga jualan syarikat atau dalam bentuk margin,  mark-up, komisyen bagi orang tengah yang mengendali barangan. Kos  pemasaran mesti diambilkira sebagai perbezaan di antara harga kilang  dengan harga yang dibayar oleh pengguna untuk barangan tersebut. Kos  orang tengah termasuklah pengangkutan dan penyimpanan barangan, memecah  pukal, penyediaan kredit, pengiklanan tempatan, wakil jualan dan  perundingan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keperluan Modal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Hal-hal  kewangan bagi polisi agihan seringkali diabaikan. Di antara elemen  penting adalah keperluan modal, corak aliran tunai yang terlibat di  dalam menggunakan perkhidmatan orang tengah. Pelaburan maksima biasanya  diperlukan apabila syarikat menubuhkan saluran agihan dalaman mereka  sendiri serta tenaga jualan sendiri. Penggunaan distributors dan  pengedar mungkin dapat mengurangkan pelaburan tunai tetapi pengeluar  sering menyediakan inventori awal di atas penghantaran, pinjaman, plan  bangunan dan laian-lain.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kawalan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat  membabitkan diri secara mendalam dalam pengagihan barangannya sendiri  supaya dapat mengawal masa hadapan pemasaran mereka dengan lebih baik.  Secara amya adalah dipersetujui bahawa tenaga julan syarikat sendiri  memberi kawalan yang maksima walaupun ia mendatangkan kos tambahan.  Setiap jenis pengaturan saluran dan setiap orang tengah yang khusus  mempunyai tingkat kepekaan yang berlainan kepada kawalan. Apabila  saluran pengagihan menjadi lebih panjang, kemampuan untuk &amp;nbsp;mengawal  harga, volum, kaedah promosi dan jenis saluran keluar dikurangkan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;3&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Liputan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Liputan sepenuh ke atas pasaran adalah untuk :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Memperolehi volum optimum jualan yang boleh didapati dalam setiap pasaran.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mendapat bahagian pasaran yang berpatutan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-alpha; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Mencapai penembusan pasaran yang memuaskan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Liputan  boleh ditaksir berdasarkan segmen geografi atau segmen pasaran yang  lain. Liputan pasaran yang mencukupi mungkin memerlukan perubahan dalam  system pengagihan dari negara ke negara atau dari masa ke semasa.  Liputan sukar dibangunkan dalam kedua-dua kawasan yang sangat maju dan  dalam pasaran yang tidak padat; kesukaran dalam kawasan yang pertama  disebabkan oleh persaingan yang hebat sementara kesukaran dalam kawasan  yang kedua disebabkan oleh saluran yang tidak mencukupi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Liputan  juga termasuklah konsep perwakilan penuh untuk semua barisan yang ingin  dijual oleh syarikat dalam suatu pasaran tertentu. Kadang-kadang orang  tengah akan mengambil bahagian yang lebih menguntungkan dalam sesuatu  barisan tetapi mengetepikan atau enggan mengendalikan &amp;nbsp;keluaran lain  yang mahu dititikberatkan oleh pengilang. Tanpa liputan sepenuh ke atas  barisan, pengilang boleh dilumpuhkan dengan serius dalam usahanya untuk  membangunkan pengagihan yang menguntungkan. Syarikat mungkin lebih  menyukai pengaturan saluran yang teratur dan menggunakan satu bentuk  pengagihan yang utama sahaja; tetapi, untuk dapat mencapai liputan yang  dikehendaki, ia mungkin terpaksa menggunakan semua saluran yang ada.  Oleh itu, syarikat mungkin terpaksa menggunakan saluran yang tidak  selari, iaitu tenaga jualannya sendiri dalam sesebuah negara, saluran  agen pengilang dalam negara lain, dan saudagar pemborong dalam negara  yang satu lagi.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ol start=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: lower-roman; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kesesuaian dan lain-lain&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sistem  saluran pengagihan yang dipilih mesti sesuai dengan ciri syarikat dan  pasaran yang di dalamnya ia menjalankan perniagaannya. Sesetengah  keperluan keluaran yang jelas adalah berkenaan dengan kemudahan  kerosakan barang atau pukal keluaran tersebut, kerumitan jualan,  perkhidmatan jualan yang diperlukan, dan nilai keluaran tersebut. Faktor  ini sering merupakan faktor pertama yang dipertimbangkan. Memadankan  ciri pengeluar dan orang tengah mungkin lebih sukar; kadang-kadang  menyelaraskan kedua-dua ciri ini begitu mustahil hingga menyebabkan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;8.3&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; PERKEMBANGAN TERKINI &amp;nbsp;DALAM SALURAN AGIHAN&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Peruncitan  di seluruh dunia telah berubah-ubah semenjak beberapa tahun yang lalu.  Kadar perubahan kelihatan berhubung secara langsung dengan tahap dan  kelajuan pembangunan ekonomi dalam negara yang berkenaan, tetapi negara  yang paling kurang membangun pun sedang mengalami perubahan dengan  tiba-tiba. Peruncitan layan diri telah bertumbuh pada kadar yang  membingungkan di seluruh dunia. Berbagai-bagai jenis pasar raya sedang  bertumbuh dengan banyaknya dalam kedua-dua negara maju dan negara kurang  membangun. Gedung diskaun &amp;nbsp;telah mengambil bahagian yang semakin  bertambah dalam pasaran negara yang menjadikan kegiatan sedemikian sah  di sisi undang-undang. Arah aliran jualan secara automatik dan pesanan  mel sedang ditetapkan di seluruh dunia dan dalam industri makanan  sebagai contoh, terdapat rantaian sukarela yang sangat maju, kedai  rantaian berbilang, koperasi pengguna, pasar raya, gedung pesanan mel  dan kedai mudah beli. Franchise juga merupakan salah satu daripada  aliran baru dalam saluran agihan yang mana ia tidak hanya terhad kepada  makanan segera tetapi minuman ringan, perkhidmatan kenderaan &amp;nbsp;bermotor ,  hotel dan motel juga merupakan franchise yang utama. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Automasi  juga merupakan perubahan penting yang sedang berlaku dalam peruncitan.  Ia kini sudah menjadi kenyataan di negara maju dan membangun apabila  peruncit berusaha untuk menjadi lebih cekap supaya dapat mengimbangi  persaingan harga yang semakin bertambah dan membebankan pengguna.  Pengkodan bar barang niaga , kawalan inventori secara elektronik antara  pengilang dan peruncit dan pindahan dana secara elektronik pada tempat  jualan kini sedang menjadi kenyataan di kalangan peruncit yang besar di  seluruh dunia. Selain daripada itu, selaras dengan perkembangan  teknologi maklumat dan kaitannya dengan pemasaran secara global, peranan  E-Marketing menjadi semakin penting untuk memasarkan barangan terus  kepada pengguna seperti melalui internet samada melibatkan keluaran atau  perkhidmatan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ujikan kefahaman anda sebelum meneruskan input selanjutnya….!! &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 36pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Sila semak jawapan anda pada ruangan maklum balas yang disediakan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI 8C&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Senaraikan LIMA (5) faktor pemilihan saluran agihan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Anda  telah menghampiri kejayaan. &amp;nbsp;Sila cuba semua soalan dalam penilaian  kendiri ini dan semak jawapan anda pada maklumbalas yang disediakan.  Jika ada sebarang masalah yang timbul, sila berbincang dengan pensyarah  anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Selamat mencuba semoga berjaya !!!!!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 8-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Berikan perbezaan di antara EMC dan MEA.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 8-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan Export Merchants dan Export Jobbers.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 8-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Bincangkan perkembangan terkini dalam dalam saluran agihan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI &amp;nbsp;8A&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  juga dikenali sebagai domestic middlemen dan lokasi mereka terletak di  syarikat pengeluar sesebuah negara di mana mereka menyediakan  perkhidmatan dari tapak domestik.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Dua Contoh : &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Syarikat Pengurusan Eksport (EMC)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat Perdagangan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI &amp;nbsp;8B&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Wakil pengilang&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Distributor&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Broker Negara Asing&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;AKTIVITI &amp;nbsp;8C&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;LIMA (5) faktor pemilihan saluran agihan :&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kos&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Keperluan Modal&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kawalan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Liputan&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Verdana; font-size: 10pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; list-style-type: disc; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Kesesuaian dan lain-lain&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;MAKLUM BALAS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;PENILAIAN KENDIRI&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 18pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Adakah anda telah mencuba dahulu ? &amp;nbsp;Jika “YA”, sila semak jawapan anda.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h2 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN &amp;nbsp;8-1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Syarikat Pengurusan Eksport (EMC)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  orang tengah yang sangat penting bagi firma yang mempunyai volume  antarabangsa yang rendah atau yang tidak mahu terlibat secara personal  dengan fungsi antarabangsa. Fungsi EMC terdiri daripada seorang sehingga  100 orang dan mengendali10% daripada eksport barangan pengeluaran.  Lazimnya, EMC merupakan sebahagian daripada pengurusan pemasaran  syarikat klien. Mereka bekerja dibawah nama syarikat pengeluar dengan  berfungsi sebagai jabatan bebas, berkos rendah tetapi bertanggungjawab  secara terus dengan syarikat induk. Pihak yang ditawarkan oleh EMC  adalah sebagai penghubung dengan pengguna asing serta perundingan  jualan, promosi barangan, perundingan kredit, agihan fizikal,  penyelidikan pasaran, maklumat kewangan, hak cipta dan pelesenan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-left: 72pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -72pt;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;“Manufacturers’ Export Agent” (MEA)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Ia  merupakan orang tengah agen individu, syarikat orang tengah agen yang  menawarkan perkhidmatan penjualan kepada pengeluar. Tidak seperti EMC,  MEA tidak bertindak sebagai jabatan eksport pengeluar tetapi mempunyai  hubungan jangka pendek yang hanya merangkumi satu atau dua pasaran dan  beroperasi berdasarkan sistem komisyen. Manakala MEA menguruskan  perniagaan menggunakan nama sendiri dan tidak nama klien.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h4 dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 8-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Export Merchants&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Merupakan  saudagar domestik beroperasi di pasaran asing. Struktur operasi mereka  sama seperti pemborong domestik. Khususnya mereka membeli barangan  daripada jumlah pengeluar yang besar, membawa mereka ke negara asing dan  menerima tanggungjawab penuh terhadap aktiviti pemasaran. Lazimnya,  mereka menggunakan organisasi sendiri, tetapi dalam keadaan tertentu  mereka menjual melalui orang tengah. Mereka mempunyai kuasa penuh  terhadap harga, mengekalkan kesetiaan yang agak rendah terhadap pembekal  walaupun meneruskan untuk mengendali produk selagi ia memberi  keuntungan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Export Jobbers&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Banyak  berurusan dengan barangan komoditi dan tidak memiliki barangan secara  fizikal tetapi bertanggungjawab di atas urusan pengangkutan. Oleh kerana  mereka bekerja di atas dasar “job-lot” mereka tidak menyediakan  alternatif agihan yang menarik untuk kebanyakan pengeluar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;SOALAN 8-3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Peruncitan  di seluruh dunia telah berubah-ubah semenjak beberapa tahun yang lalu.  Kadar perubahan kelihatan berhubung secara langsung dengan tahap dan  kelajuan pembangunan ekonomi dalam negara yang berkenaan, tetapi negara  yang paling kurang membangun pun sedang mengalami perubahan dengan  tiba-tiba. Peruncitan layan diri telah bertumbuh pada kadar yang  membingungkan di seluruh dunia. Berbagai-bagai jenis pasar raya sedang  bertumbuh dengan banyaknya dalam kedua-dua negara maju dan negara kurang  membangun. Gedung diskaun &amp;nbsp;telah mengambil bahagian yang semakin  bertambah dalam pasaran negara yang menjadikan kegiatan sedemikian sah  di sisi undang-undang. Arah aliran jualan secara automatik dan pesanan  mel sedang ditetapkan di seluruh dunia dan dalam industri makanan  sebagai contoh, terdapat rantaian sukarela yang sangat maju, kedai  rantaian berbilang, koperasi pengguna, pasar raya, gedung pesanan mel  dan kedai mudah beli. Franchise juga merupakan salah satu daripada  aliran baru dalam saluran agihan yang mana ia tidak hanya terhad kepada  makanan segera tetapi minuman ringan, perkhidmatan kenderaan &amp;nbsp;bermotor ,  hotel dan motel juga merupakan franchise yang utama. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;Automasi  juga merupakan perubahan penting yang sedang berlaku dalam peruncitan.  Ia kini sudah menjadi kenyataan di negara maju dan membangun apabila  peruncit berusaha untuk menjadi lebih cekap supaya dapat mengimbangi  persaingan harga yang semakin bertambah dan membebankan pengguna.  Pengkodan bar barang niaga , kawalan inventori secara elektronik antara  pengilang dan peruncit dan pindahan dana secara elektronik pada tempat  jualan kini sedang menjadi kenyataan di kalangan peruncit yang besar di  seluruh dunia. Selain daripada itu, selaras dengan perkembangan  teknologi maklumat dan kaitannya dengan pemasaran secara global, peranan  E-Marketing menjadi semakin penting untuk memasarkan barangan terus  kepada pengguna seperti melalui internet samada melibatkan keluaran atau  perkhidmatan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/feeds/8897338820104637119/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-8-pembentukan-strategi-pemasaran.html#comment-form' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/8897338820104637119'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/8059721401951856421/posts/default/8897338820104637119'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://akustudy.blogspot.com/2011/09/unit-8-pembentukan-strategi-pemasaran.html' title='UNIT 8  PEMBENTUKAN STRATEGI PEMASARAN GLOBAL'/><author><name>onekills</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00755080337193169374</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='16' height='16' src='https://img1.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry></feed>