ALFANIO

AMPO - Traditional Food From Tuban, West Java, Indonesia, using Clay as The Ingredient)

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Thu, 20 Oct 2011 13:35:00 +0700

Have you ever felt eating a baked clay? What it was like eating a baked clay?

If you maybe a stay at Tuban, Jawa Timur, Indonesia, you will fell it and according to them, the taste is like usual chocolate that we eat.

Food from clay, named the 'Ampo' has become a traditional food in Tuban. That is believed from Tuban community that it can strengthen their digestive system. Even eating clay is also believed to be a drug that can treat several kinds of diseases.

Tuban is the only place in the world who eat baked clay.
Indeed there are other people in the world who like to eat sand, and other strange objects, but no one ate baked clay.

According Rasima, the seller Ampo, saying that there is no special recipe for cooking Ampo. She's just looking for a clean soil free from gravel, then crushed and compacted so that a square form.
Then, overcome it with a stick and shape it like rolls.
Land that has been rolled up and then burned and smoked for 1 hour, then be as a snack or light meal ready to eat.
Rasima usually sell in the market and one day she can have income of about 20000 IDR (about 2 USD) to support her family.
Rasima also said that if she likes to eat when she was a little girl and eat Ampo since Ampo can cool her stomach.

How to make Ampo?

1. Separate Clay With Gravel and Sand

At this stage the clay sorted out between the soft and rough. As well as making dough snacks, then the uniformity of the soil determines the enjoyment and the resulting of snack later.

2. Forms Clay Being Boxes

If we could see, its just like make the pie, yes here too. But its make the dough clay an advanced form of the box. The "chef" shows that the clay is ready to baked. If we can form it into boxes, it means the composition of soil and water were evenly on each piece of dough. Dough characteristics dull clay had not seen from sticking to the palm of the hand.

3. Being Formed Stick / Bars

The clay dough was then formed into sticks, if you look at first glance similar to the manufacture of wafer manufacture stick

4. Baking the Clay

Once the clay is formed into sticks, then baked on a traditional stove until set and dry for about 1 hour. As shown in the drawings, clay placed over the pan to the heating and wood stove.

5. Ready to Serve

After all processes traversed the clay ready to be served at the table to be friends chat.

Reason Why Sea Has Color

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Mon, 10 Oct 2011 22:48:00 +0700

If an object can emit light and objects that emit red light, then the object would look red.
Meanwhile, if an object can not emit light, then the object would appear in color in accordance with the color spectrum of the reflected object.
Meanwhile, the color spectrum that is not reflected will be absorbed by atoms or molecules making up the object.
For example, when illuminated with white light, the leaves will reflect the green color spectrum than the spectrum colors absorb light green leaves look so green.

Then why is an atom or molecule absorbs certain light?
Absorption only occurs if the incident photon energy matches the energy required to move one electron outside the atom or molecule from ground level to excited levels (or from the valence band into the conduction band in solids).
So the absorption spectrum of colors by the constituent atoms or molecules of an object that causes the object reflects a specific color only.
The spectrum of colors that are not absorbed, will be reflected.
And the spectrum of the reflected color is visible to the eye, and make the object to be colored.

Water also Has a Color

Then why is there a clear object alias is colorless like water.
However, it turns out water and other translucent objects actually have color.
Keep in mind that water color is blue, because the water absorbs the sun's light wave (which consists of seven elements of color).
Water molecules are then absorbed the colors and reflects blue color spectrum, and that is visible to our eyes.

But we may not be able to see the blue water was only on the glass of water or a bucket of water alone.
Because the layer of water in the glass does not absorb and reflect enough of the color spectrum that comes to him, so that water can not show the original blue color.
Another case when we look into the swimming pool or even ocean.
The water will reflect the blue color spectrum and absorbs the other colors of the spectrum so that the water appears blue.

With this it is clear why the sea water or water in a swimming pool blue.
However, in addition to the reflected blue water itself, the oceans also contain many other particles.
Starting from the fish, corals, plankton, and so on.
There is also dissolved organic substances in water.
These materials is the one who causes the absorption of sunlight leaving only a dark blue for the ocean.
In addition, the reflection of blue sky in the water also helped to give the role of the blue color of sea water.

Indonesia Independence Day (Selamat Hari Merdeka! Dirgahayu Indonesia!)

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Wed, 17 Aug 2011 09:49:00 +0700

In Indonesia, every August 17th we celebrate our independence day. We get our freedom by bloods and tears. Finally at August 17th 1945, Mr Soekarno and Mr Hatta was proclamating our independence from colonizer. Each Indonesian president has own statement to this Independence day.

Mr. Soekarno
"Sekarang tibalah saatnya kita benar-benar mengambil sikap nasib bangsa dan nasib tanah air kita di dalam tangan kita sendiri. Hanya bangsa yang berani mengambil nasib dalam tangan sendiri akan dapat berdiri dengan kuatnya."
"Now it's time we really took the attitude of the nation's fate and the fate of our homeland in our own hands. Only a nation that dared to take fate in their own hands will be able to stand strong."
(17 Agustus 1945)-(August 17th 1945)

Mr. Muhammad Soeharto
"Pembangunan itu hanya mempunyai arti jika rakyat banyak menikmatinya. Pembangunan yang tidak membawa kemajuan dan kesejahteraan bagi rakyat banyak adalah pembangunan yang gagal. Dan kita tidak boleh gagal."
"Development has meaning only if the people enjoy it. Development that does not bring progress and prosperity for the people ,that development was failed. And we must not fail."
(16 Agustus 1975)-(August 16th 1975)

Mr. B.J. Habbibie
"Bangsa Indonésia mempunyai kemampuan dan kualitas yang sama dalam penguasaan Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Téknologi, sekaligus dilengkapi dengan kokohnya Iman dan Takwa."
"The Indonesian nation has the ability and mastery of the same qualities in Science and Technology, as well as equipped with strong faith and godly."
(15 Agustus 1998)-(August 15th 1998)

Mr. Abdurrahman Wahid
"Negara kebangsaan Indonésia itu bukanlah milik dari sekelompok orang, tidak terkecuali kelompok mayoritas, baik dalam artian suku, agama, maupun kelas dan kasta. Negara Républik ini adalah milik bangsa Indonésia seluruhnya."
"Indonesian nation-state that does not belong to a group of people, not least the majority, both in terms of ethnicity, religion or class and caste. Republic of Indonesia was the nation's total."
(16 Agustus 2000)-(August 16th 2000)

Mrs. Megawati Soekarnoputri
"Jangan kita lupakan, bahwa tanggung jawab terakhir terhadap masa depan bangsa dan negara tetap terletak di tangan kita sendiri. Kitalah yang harus menetapkan kebijakan dan stratégi yang akan kita anut dan kita laksanakan."
"Let us not forget that the ultimate responsibility to the future of the nation and the state still lies in our own hands. It is we who must establish policies and strategies that will we embrace and our conduct."
(1 Agustus 2003)-(August 1st 2003)

Mr. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
"Atas kerja keras kita semua, di awal abad ini, kita berhasil menunjukkan kepada dunia bahwa Indonésia adalah negara merdeka yang mampu berdiri tegak dan siap bersaing di pentas global."
"For our hard work all of us, at the beginning of this century, we managed to show the world that Indonesia is an independent country that can stand up and be ready to compete on the global stage."
(16 Agustus 2011)-(August 16th 2011)

Synthetic Oil or Mineral Oil? Which one is better?

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Thu, 21 Apr 2011 10:45:00 +0700

Motor or Car Engine Oil

The answer is not as simple as “yes” or “no”. A better question would be:

“Is synthetic oil the best choice for this application? All types of synthetic base oils can be the best choice for certain situations.” That will help you to identifying some situations where they make sense or provide value.

Synthetic Oil

There are plenty of potential benefits to using synthetic oil vs mineral oil, but that doesn’t mean that synthetics are necessarily better.

Mineral Oil

In order to get value from using a higher-priced synthetic oil, you must ensure that you are utilizing the potential improved performance of those products; and to make those determinations, you need to understand the conditions that allow synthetics to provide that value. To more fully understand this issue, first consider the major advantages of common types of synthetic base oils and then identify the conditions for which these advantages become benefits.

For the sake of brevity, I will not discuss all synthetics, but rather focus on the most common ones –

PAOs (polyalphaolefins), PAGs (polyalkaline glycol), diester and polyol ester.

Polyalphaolefins (PAOs)

PAOs, often called synthetic hydrocarbons, are probably the most common type of synthetic base oil used today. They are moderately priced, provide excellent performance and have few negative attributes.

PAO base oil is actually similar to mineral oil. The advantage comes from the fact that it is built, rather than extracted and modified, making it more pure. Practically all of the oil molecules are the same shape and size and are completely saturated.

The potential benefits of PAOs are improved oxidative and thermal stability, excellent demulsibility and hydrolytic stability, a high VI, and very low pour point. Most of the properties make PAOs a good selection for temperature extremes – both high operating temperatures and low start-up temperatures. In my opinion, those are the conditions that favor PAO selection. Typical applications for PAOs are engine oils, gear oils and compressor oils.

The negative attributes of PAOs are the price and poor solubility. The low inherent solubility of PAOs creates problems for formulators when it comes to dissolving additives. Likewise, PAOs cannot suspend potential varnish-forming degradation by-products, although they are less prone to create such material.

For the most part, this issue of solubility can be addressed through the addition of other base oils such as diester. The cost issue is really about whether or not you actually get value by utilizing the performance.

Polyalkaline glycols (PAGs or PGs)

PAG base oils have several unique properties that allow them to work very well in certain applications. In general, they have excellent oxidative and thermal stability, very high VI, excellent film strength and an extremely low tendency to leave deposits on machine surfaces. The low deposit-forming tendency is really due to two properties – the oil’s ability to dissolve deposits and the fact that the oil burns clean. So when they are exposed to a very hot surface or subjected to micro-dieseling by entrained air, PAGs are less likely to leave residue that will form deposits. PAGs may also be the only type of base oil with significantly lower fluid friction, which may allow for energy savings. The other unique property of PAGs is the ability to absorb a great deal of water and maintain lubricity.

There are actually two different types of PAGs – one demulisifies and the other absorbs water. The latter can be very useful if you have a compressor that cannot be stopped that is continually contaminated with large amounts of water. The most common applications for PAGs are compressors and critical gearing applications.

The negatives of PAGs are their very high cost and the potential to be somewhat hydrolytically unstable.

Dibasic Acid Ester (Diester)

The properties of diester are somewhat similar to that of PGs. It has excellent oxidative and thermal stability, very high VI and excellent solubility. This excellent solubility makes it a good choice for reciprocating compressors, where valve deposits can be a huge problem. Another common application for diester is in synthetic engine oil. It is often used as an additive with PAO basestocks to provide the necessary solvency for the engine oil’s large additive package. As a side effect, the synthetic engine oil will have excellent detergency. The negative attributes of diester are the high price and poor hydrolytic stability.

Polyol Ester

Polyol ester basestocks have several excellent performance properties, including thermal stability, super-high VI and fire resistance. Of the base oils mentioned in this column, it is probably the best choice for very high-temperature applications. The two most common applications for polyol ester are fire-resistant hydraulic fluids and jet engine oils. They can be used in engine oils and compressor applications, as well. The negative attributes are the same as those for diester.

3 Common Misconceptions about Synthetic Oil

There are at least three common misconceptions about synthetic oil. The first misconception is that a car has to be flushed before using synthetic oil. The second misconception is that motorcycles do not benefit from using synthetic oil. The third misconception about synthetic oil is that your car's warranty will be voided if you use synthetic oil. These misconceptions are founded in a belief that synthetic oil is bad for cars and that you should use conventional oil only.

There are other misconceptions associated with the use of synthetic oil. You can find these misconceptions published by the makers of synthetic oil. You can go on line for the specifics or contact the manufacturer of the synthetic oil.

1. A Car Needs to Be Flushed

There is a misconception that the car needs to be flushed completely of its conventional oil before you can add synthetic oil. The fact is there is no special preparation that is required when you add synthetic oil to your car. switching to synthetic oil only requires you to start adding it to your engine. The next time you have an oil change ask that synthetic be added completely.

Flushing the car's oil is only necessary if you are experiencing problems with the engine. This includes sludge build up and problems with starting and stopping the engine. An engine flush will solve these problems and you can take the opportunity to substitute your old conventional oil with synthetic oil.

2. Motorcycles cannot Use Synthetic Oil

Another common misconception about synthetic oil is that motorcycles do not benefit from its use. The fact is that synthetic oil is especially designed for motorcycles and motorcycle use. Many synthetic oil companies make products that are specially designed for motorcycles.

A motorcycle's engine design is best suited for using synthetic oil. A motorcycle high performance makes it the ideal vehicle for using synthetic oil.

3. Car's Warranty will be Voided

A third misconception about synthetic oil is that the car's warranty will be voided if you use synthetic oil. This is not true with the exception of Mazda brand cars. Mazda brand cars do not permit the use of synthetic oil and any such use will immediately void the car's warranty. No other vehicle brand has such as restriction regarding the use of synthetic oil nor do they have such a prohibition in place. As such using synthetic oil in place of conventional motor oil does not pose any problems for you as long as the vehicle that you own is not a Mazda brand car.

These are a few of the common misconceptions associated with synthetic oil. Other misconceptions can be found online. Any questions that you have regarding the use of synthetic oil should be raised with the manufacturer of the oil or the manufacturer of your car. This is the best source to determine how to use synthetic oil.

Go for ‘Right’ Quality

There are many applications for which synthetic oils provide solutions to tough operating conditions. I have mentioned a few of those here, but there are others. To me, it is not so important to use the “best” quality lubricant in every application, but rather to use the “right” quality.

Synthetic oil is improvement from mineral oil, and that will caused overall synthetic oil better than mineral oil. Synthetic oil has uniform molecular structure and perfectly balance.

The Uniform of molecular structure from the oil

Many people waste money on expensive products that for a number of reasons don’t improve reliability or anything else. One other important thing to remember is that I am discussing the properties of base oils, not finished lubricants. It is quite possible for a finished lubricant using a mineral basestock to offer better performance than a similar product utilizing a synthetic.

So, back to the original question, is synthetic oil better? The answer is yes … and no … or maybe. You’ll have to decide.

Active Ingredients in Body Care (part 1)

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Tue, 1 Mar 2011 00:31:00 +0700

We are familiar in of these product or brand:

Soap (White Dove® Beauty Bar Soap for Deep Moisture);
Lotion (Vaseline® Intensive Care Total Moisture);
Shampoo ( Clear ® for Men Anti Dandruff);
Face Wash Soap (Vaseline ® Men Whitening Face Wash).

In this post, I will tell you several active ingredients of that product. I pick that product because I use it for my daily care, but I did not use Dove ® soap. I use general bar soap, because I think using lotion is enough to take care of my skin.

Beauty Soap (White Dove® Beauty Bar Soap for Deep Moisture)

Dove ®

Everybody know this White Dove® Beauty Bar Soap for Deep Moisture is one of best beauty soap because its contain ¼ part of moisturizer. This moisturizer makes our skin does not dry anymore. Our skin will see healthy and not dry (even some other people feel scaly in their skin). White Dove® Beauty Bar Soap represent for the costumer very well.

In chemical engineering, this moisturizer known as a hygroscopic chemical compound. However, this chemical compound is harmless for human skin. It does not make allergic (but maybe it can affect several people). This hygroscopic chemical compound can absorb water in air. For the result is our skin, which is been take care by moisturizer; will not dry because of the hygroscopic chemical compound will “Moist” of our skin.

Ingredients of White Dove® Beauty Bar Soap for Deep Moisture is:

· Sodium Cocoyl Isethionate,

· Stearic Acid,

· Coconut Acid,

· Sodium Tallowate,

· Water,

· Sodium Isethionate,

· Sodium Stearate,

· Cocamidopropyl Betaine,

· Sodium Cocoate,

· Palm Kernelate,

· Fragrance,

· Sodium Chloride,

· Tetrasodium EDTA,

· Trisodium Etidronate,

· BHT,

· Titanium Dioxide (CI 77891),

· Sodium Dodecylbenzene Sulfonate.

BHT:

Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) is a toluene-based ingredient used as a preservative in food and personal care products.

TITANIUM DIOXIDE:

Titanium dioxide is an inorganic compound used in a range of body care products such as sunscreens and makeup. It appears to have low skin penetration but inhalation is a concern.

COCAMIDOPROPYL BETAINE:

Cocamidopropyl betaine is a synthetic surfactant; it has been associated with irritation and allergic contact dermatitis, reactions that could be due to the ingredient itself or to impurities present in it, such as 3-dimethylaminopropylamine.

Beauty Lotion (Vaseline® Intensive Care Total Moisture)

Vaseline ®

Vaseline brand is one of best lotion because of the experience of the company for many years serve the customer very well. Same as point 1 (Dove®), this lotion also contain moisturizer that makes our skin does not dry anymore. Our skin will see healthy and not dry (even some other people feel scaly in their skin).

This moisturizer known as a hygroscopic chemical compound. However, this chemical compound is harmless for human skin. It does not make allergic (but maybe it can affect several people). This hygroscopic chemical compound can absorb water in air. For the result is our skin, which is been take care by moisturizer; will not dry because of the hygroscopic chemical compound will “Moist” of our skin.

Ingredients of Vaseline® Intensive Care Total Moisture is:

· WATER,

· GLYCERIN,

· STEARIC ACID,

· GLYCOL STEARATE,

· PETROLATUM,

· ISOPROPYL PALMITATE,

· GLYCINE SOJA STEROL (SOYBEAN),

· HELIANTHUS ANNUUS SEED OIL (SUNFLOWER),

· OR GLYCINE SOJA OIL (SOYBEAN),

· AVENA SATIVA KERNEL PROTEIN (OAT),

· SODIUM STEAROYL 2 LACTYLATE,

· TOCOPHERYL ACETATE (VITAMIN E ACETATE),

· RETINYL PALMITATE (VITAMIN A PALMITATE),

· CARBOMER,

· LECITHIN,

· KERATIN,

· DIMETHICONE,

· GLYCERYL STEARATE,

· CETYL ALCOHOL,

· SODIUM PCA,

· POTASSIUM LACTATE,

· LACTIC ACID,

· COLLAGEN AMINO ACIDS,

· MINERAL WATER,

· FRAGRANCE,

· TRIETHANOLAMINE,

· MAGNESIUM ALUMINUM SILICATE,

· UREA,

· METHYLPARABEN,

· DMDM HYDANTOIN,

· IODOPROPYNYL BUTYLCARBAMATE,

· DISODIUM EDTA,

· TITANIUM DIOXIDE (CI 77891).

DMDM Hydantoin :

DMDM hydantoin is an antimicrobial formaldehyde releaser preservative. People exposed to such formaldehyde-releasing ingredients may develop a formaldehyde allergy or an allergy to the ingredient itself and its decomposition products. In the U.S., approximately 20% of cosmetics and personal care products contain a formaldehyde-releaser and the frequency of contact allergy to these ingredients is much higher among Americans compared to studies in Europe.

Iodopropynyl Butylcarbamate:

Iodopropynyl butylcarbamate is used as a preservative in cosmetic formulations; it is acutely toxic by inhalation and should not be used in products that can be aerosolized or inhaled.

Lecithin:

Lecithin is a naturally ocurring lipid found in both plants and animals. According to the PETA's Caring Consumer guide, lecithin for com mercial purposes is most commonly obtain from eggs and soybeans.

Magnesium Aluminum Silicate:

Magnesium Aluminum Silicate is a naturally occurring mineral derived from refined and purified clay that is used primarily as a thickener in cosmetics and beauty products. It is naturally of a flaky, white consistency and is used most often as filler in deodorants, shaving creams and thick lotions. It is also important to note that Magnesium Aluminum Silicate has unusually large molecules; because of these large molecules, it is unable to be absorbed into the skin.

Will be continued…

Pheromon : Falling in Love (From Your Nose then Going Down to Your Heart)

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Sun, 30 Jan 2011 23:32:00 +0700

The bulk majority of human pheromones belong to a group of chemicals known as 16-androstenes.

Definition
The term pheromone - from the Greek roots of pherin, to transfer, and hormone, to excite - describes a class of chemicals that are communicated between animals of the same species and that elicit stereotyped behavioural or neuroendocrine responses. Some pheromones - called "releaser" pheromones - elicit an immediate response, while others - termed "primer" pheromones - induce long-term changes in behavioural or endocrine state.

Pheromone-induced responses are mediated primarily by the vomeronasal organ (VNO). The VNO, also known as "Jacobson's organ", is part of an accessory olfactory system. It is present in a variety of non-human vertebrates but its existence in the human has been open to question until recently.

Historical Perspective
The VNO was first discovered by Ruysch (1703), a military doctor, in a soldier with a facial wound. The organ was named after Jacobson who published his findings on animals, but not humans, in 1811. Various other investigators have published studies; Potiquet (1891) observed the VNO in 25% of 200 adult humans, Pearlman (1934) described its occurrence in many animals, in human embryos and mentioned that it may be found occasionally in the adult human. (more detail can be found in Moran, Monti-Bloch, Stensaas and Berliner (1994)).

It was work published by Crosby and Humphrey (see below) that put the functional presence of the VNO in the human adult into doubt. In a standard anatomical textbook, "Correlative Anatomy of the Nervous System" by Crosby, Humphrey and Lauer (1962), we read the following; "In some human embryos, an accessory olfactory bulb, with complete representation of layering from the glomerular through the mitral cell layer, is to be found on the dorsomedial aspect of the main olfactory bulb (Humphrey, 1940). The accessory bulb receives the vomeronasal (or Jacobson's) nerve from the vestigial vomeronasal organ, which has also been demonstrated in the human embryo (McCotter, 1912). The vomeronasal nerve and its associated bulb vary in size and may be absent in the human embryo (Humphrey, 1940; Macchi, 1951). This variability appears to be characteristic of these structures in certain other adult primates (Lauer, 1945, 1949) Jacobson's organ and nerve and the accessory olfactory bulb are well developed in certain submammals and some subprimate mammals (Crosby and Humphrey, 1939). They are not present in adult man (Crosby and Humphrey, 1941). In human development these structures are merely ontogenetic signs of the persistence of phylogenetic structures and are without function".

Largely as a result of the above observations the existence of the VNO in humans has been disregarded. The consensus has been that, if it exists at all, it is vestigal and not functional. As recently as 1991 a paper by Meredith asserted that the accessory olfactory system is not present in humans or other old-world primates. This disregard for the existence of the VNO in adult humans is exemplified by the fact that the area containing the VNO is often removed during plastic surgery on the nose.

In 1980, Kreutzer and Jafek documented the early morphogenesis of the vomeronasal organ in the human embryo and early foetus. Later, in 1985, Johnson et al. examined 100 human adults specifically for the presence of the opening of the vomeronasal organ on the antero-interior part of the nasal septum. This was found in 39% of patients. Twenty seven human septums were removed post mortem, and vomeronasal structures were found in 70% of these. However, histological examination failed to reveal any evidence that these organs were functional (Johnson et al., 1985). In the same year, Nakashima et al. studied the VNO and nerves of Jacobson in a 28-week human foetus. They described the structure of the organ and traced the vomeronasal nervealong the nasal septum and through the cartilaginous cribriform plate with the olfactory nerve. While they found evidence for the existence of receptors in the vomeronasal epithelium similar to those in the olfactory epithelium, they suggested that the lack of intraepithelial blood vessels and mitotic figures in the epithelium indicated that the organ was undergoing degeneration at 28 weeks of gestation (Nakashima, Kimmelman and Snow, 1985). Since 1985 there has been a steady accumulation of evidence demonstrating the presence of the VNO in most, if not all, humans (Moran et al., 1985, 1991; Johnson et al., 1985; Stensaas et al., 1991; Garcia-Velasco and Mondragon, 1991, and reviewed in Moran et al., 1995).

The VNO is located bilaterally on the anterior third of the floor of the nasal septum. It opens into the nasal cavity by a pit which varies in size from 0.2 to 2 mm situated 1-2 cm from the posterior margin of the nostril.

VNO Structure
The VNO is lined by a pseudostratified, columnar epithelium some 60um in depth that lies on a thick basement membrane. The vomeronasal neuroepithelium contains three morphologically distinct cell types; basal cells, dark cells and light cells. The basal cells are small, polygonal, dark-staining cells, measuring 6um in diameter. The dark cells are tall, slender, columnar cells with densely staining cytoplasm. The light cells are tall, columnar cells that, like the dark cells, extend from the basement membrane to the free surface of the epithelium. They differ from the surrounding cells of the respiratory epithelium in the nose by having no cilia (Moran et al, 1995).

VNO Receptors
The vomeronasal organ in the human foetus from 12 to 23 weeks is lined by a pseudostratified epithelium, with neurone-specific enolase (NSE) positive cells which resemble olfactory receptors. However, at 36 weeks the organ was lined by a respiratory epithelium and did not show any receptor-like cells, although there were some pear-shaped NSE-positive cells in the upper part of the respiratory epithelium of unknown significance (Boehm and Gasser, 1993). It was suggested that, during the early foetal period, the VNO could have some, as yet unknown, sensory function (op. cit.).

In contrast, calbindin, a 28Kd protein that has been immunolocalised to VNO receptor cells, was found to be expressed in humans, firstly in a male neonate and secondly an adult female suggesting the presence of receptors during early development and in the adult (Johnson, Eller and Jafek, 1994)

Whether or not the VNO continues to express receptor cells or neuronal markers in the adult, the structure itself continues to expand according to Smith et al. (1997). When comparing the increase in length of the VNO in the developing foetus to the length in the adult human, they concluded that further prenatal or postnatal size increase must occur.

VNO - Functionality
Compounds occurring naturally on the human skin were found to cause a local depolarisation when applied directly to the VNO (Monti-Bloch and Grosser, 1991). The nature of these compounds was not disclosed. This depolarisation had the characteristics of a receptor potential. Furthermore these compounds did not cause a response from the olfactory epithelium and, olfactory stimulants (e.g. cineole) had no effect on the VNO. Using the same compounds sexual dimorphism was demonstrated in their effect on electrodermal activity (Monti-Bloch et al, 1994). These compounds were subsequently revealed to be 16-androstenes and estrenes (Berliner, 1993; 1994). The androstenes have been previously isolated from human sweat (secreted by the axillary apocrine glands) (Gower et al., 1985).
Another "vomeropherin", pregna-4,20-diene-3,6-dione (PDD), caused evoked potentials in the VNO and also changed gonadotropin pulsatility in males, resulting in a reduced level of luteinizing hormone (Berliner et al, 1996) and testosterone (Monti-Bloch et al, 1998). In addition, PDD decreased respiratory frequency, increased cardiac frequency and caused event-related changes of electrodermal activity in EEG pattern (Berliner et al, 1996).

Is The Adult Human VNO Vestigial?
The overwhelming anatomical evidence suggests that the in the adult human the VNO is vestigial (Meredith, 2001). There is no evidence for any anatomical connection from the VNO to the brain. Furthermore, the channel responsible for pheromone transduction in lower mammals, TRP2 (a non-selective cation channel), is a pseudogene in humans. However, this does not mean that human pheromones do not exist. mRNA for a vomeronasal receptor, hV1RL1, has been found in the human olfactory epithelium (Rodriguez & Mombaerts, 2002).

Human Pheromones
When pheromones were first discovered in the late 1950s they were defined as “..substances which are secreted to the outside by an individual and received by a second individual of the same species, in which they release a specific reaction, for example, a definite behaviour or a developmental process” (Karlson and Luscher, 1959).

Following the pioneering work on menstrual synchrony by McClintock (1971), Stern and McClintock (1998) have shown that odourless axillary compounds from the armpits of women in the late follicular phase of their menstrual cycles accelerated the preovulatory surge of luteinizing hormone of recipient women and shortened the menstrual cycles. Axillary compounds from the same donors which were collected later in the menstrual cycle (at ovulation) had the opposite effect: they delayed the luteinizing hormone surge of the recipients and lenghtened their menstrual cycle (Stern and McClintock, 1998).
The work by McClintock is very supportive of the existence of a chemical signal in axillary secretion - a pheromone - but it does not prove the existence of a functional VNO.

Androstadienone
Androstadienone is the current best candidate we have for a human pheromone. Is is a component of human (in particular male) secretions. Does androstadienone meet Karlson & Luscher (1959) "pheromone" criteria? In human studies in which androstadienone had access to the olfactory mucosa both physiological and psychological effects have been reported (Jacob and McClintock, 2000; Jacob, Hayreh and McClintock, 2001; Jacob, Garcia, Hayreh and McClintock, 2002 Bensafi et al., 2003; Lundstrom et al., 2003; Bensafi et al 2004a, 2004b; Cornwell et al., 2004). While none of these changes can be regarded as the behavioural changes required for a compound to qualify as a pheromone, Savic et al. (2001) demonstrated that androstadienone activated the hypothalamus in a gender-specific manner (it activated the hypothalamus in women but not men). Compared with other odorous substances, androstadienone activated the anterior part of the inferior lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the superior temporal cortex (STP) in addition to olfactory areas (Gulyas et al., 2004). The PFC and STP have been implicated in aspects of attention, visual perception and recognition and social cognition.

The definition of a pheromone (see above, Karlson and Luscher 1959) was later modified to include a mutual benefit requirement (Rutowski, 1981). In this context it is possible to see such mutual benefit if the pheromone leads, for example, to choice of partner on the basis of their HLA-dependent odortype to increase immune diversity (Ober et al., 1997, 1999) and lower miscarriage rates (Ober et al., 1998) or if the pheromone participates in the mother-infant bonding process (Schleidt, 1992). On its own it is unlikely to be able to achieve these outcomes but, as recently reported by Coureaud et al (2004), a pheromone can act as a reinforcing agent or a one-trial conditioning agent in which the presence of the pheromone converts a second odour (that of the partner or infant) into a conditioned stimulus.

Odor and Major Histocompatibility Complex
Mice can distinguish one another by odour. This odour is genetically determined and partly specified by the H-2 major histocompatibility complex (MHC) (Yamazaki et al, 1979; 1994) on chromosome 17 (Schellinck et al, 1993). There are however other genetic loci coding for odortypes found on the nonrecombining part of the Y chromosome (Schellinck et al, 1993). These odors are excreted in the urine and may play a part in pregnancy block (the Bruce effect), aggression and other mouse social behaviours.

The human equivalent of the MHC locus is the human leucocyte antigen (HLA). Numerous studies have been carried out with humans that suggest that axillary odour contains enough chemical differences in its odour profile to allow for discrimination between individuals. It has been hypothesised that at least some of this individual specific odour may be under the control of human leucocyte antigen (HLA) genes (Preti, Spielman and Wysocki, 1997). Studies have shown that women prefer those male odours that have HLA types different from their own - a preference that was reversed when those women doing the rating were taking oral contraceptives.
Supporting evidence for the existence of individual-specific odour comes from studies in which mothers have identified their own newborn infants from the smell of a previously worn T-shirt (Schaal et al, 1980). In turn, infants prefer breast or axillary pads from their own mothers, distinguishing the odour from other kin (Schaal et al, 1991).

Summary
Pheromones are well established in many species but the their existence in humans is still controversial. Much of the problem lies with the fact that the original definition of a pheromone cannot allow for volitional control over the biological response. Humans have a will of their own and can refuse the biological imperative. How then do you determine if a chemical signal is altering human behaviour? The experiments that have attempted to do this, e.g. by measuring autonomic responses, have had extremely variable results. The results in one lab are different to those in another. This implies that the are too many uncontrolled variables. Humans are obstinately different. They respond differently depending upon whether the experimenter is male or female for instance!

While the behavioral changes induced by axillary secretions are supportive evidence, they have not convinced everyone in the field - measuring menstrual synchrony is a process fraught with problems. Receptors (or at least their mRNA) for pheromones have been found in the human olfactory epithelium, but we are still waiting for someone to demonstrate the presence of a pheromone receptor protein expressed in the surface membrane of an olfactory receptor neuron and that responds to a ligand (a potential pheromone) - as has been demonstrated for the olfactory receptors.

History of Bullet Proof Vest

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Sun, 30 Jan 2011 22:48:00 +0700

Body Armor in Middle Age at England

The principle of bullet-proof armor has been developed since the early Middle Ages. Starting from the knight with iron armor, which can reduce puncture wounds sword or shooting an arrow. Unfortunately with the development of firearms, the protection becomes useless.

Aramid (Kevlar™)

This material was found in 1964, by Stephanie Kwolek, an American chemist, who worked as a researcher at the DuPont company.

Stephanie Kwolek

Aramid is stand for aromatic polyamide. Aramid has a strong structure, tough, has a good impact and also vibration damping, acid and alkaline resistant and besides that can be heated up to 370°C (so is not flammable). Because of that advantages, aramid is also used in the aircraft, tanks, and aerospace (rocket). The products was known as Kevlar™. Kevlar™ is light, and 5 times stronger than steel.

Structure Molecule of Aramid

This fiber is commonly known as Kevlar™

The thickness of Kevlar™ layer is less than 1 mm, generally in standard body armor, it contain up to 32 layers and the weight can reach 10 kg.

Basic Principle of Bullets Proof Vest

The basic principle of bullets proof vest is reduce as much as possible of kinetic energy of the bullet, by using layers of kevlar, it can absorb energy, so that energy is not enough anymore to make a bullet break through the vest. In absorbing the kinetic energy of bullet, Kevlar™ will deformed inwards and it will be transferred into the pressure to the user's body. The maximum limit pressure should not be more than 4.4 cm (44 mm). If that limit is exceeded, the user will have internal organs injury, which is very dangerous.

Bullet Strike in Bullet Proof Vest

Kevlar™ Deformation

This analogy like goal's net which can hold the kinetic energy of moving ball. The net is contain thight structure of the rope. If the moving ball go through the net, the kinetic energy of the ball will absorb by the net and the rope around will extending and the pressure of the rope will discarged the goal post.

The picture above show if the bullet proof armor can fully protect the user but sometime if user is not lucky, something bad will happen. The main purpose of bullet proof armor is only decrease the kinetic energy from the moving bullet then the user will not dead. No matter because of this reducing pressure from bullet, the user will suffer blunt force trauma or broken bone.

Bullet Proof Vest or Ballistic Vest ?
Bullet Proof Vest divided by Soft Body Armor and Hard Body Armor.

Soft Body Armor

Soft Body Armor type 1

Soft Body Armor type 2

In everyday duty of cop / detective in undercover work prefers a lightweight bulletproof clothing like that. Soft body armor is now mostly made of Aramid Fibers.

Hard Body Armor


Hard Body Armor

Hard body armor is like soft body armor but it adding with several special layer. The layer that used is ceramic (Al2O3 "Alumina"), metal slab, or composite. The weight is heavy and thick and uncomfortable, so no matter is rarely used in daily duty. It only use in high risk duty like military operation or SWAT team operation.

SWAT Team Operation

Standart Level of The Type of Bullet Proof Armor
Standard measurement of bullet proof armor commontly is using NIJ Standart (National Institute of Justice) in America. In this standard, bullet proof armor can devided by several level which is :

Level I,
Level II-A,
Level II,
Level III-A,
Level III, and
Level IV.

Level I is the lowest level. This armor only proofing low caliber bullet.

Level of Bullet Proof Armor

Type of bullet and which level that can protect the user

With using new composite material, the safety level is increasing time by time. But it still have the weakness that is "If you want to safe, use the thick one, but you must carrying that heavy vest". For this condition, the scientist and the military always create new product which is lighter and stronger.

pH of Your Food. Is It Acid or Alkaline?

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Sat, 29 Jan 2011 19:43:00 +0700

pH Meter for Food

A surprising number and variety of physical problems and diseases can be caused by the problem of foods that are acid-producing after digestion. Today the vast majority of the populace in industrialized nations suffers from problems caused by the stress of acidosis, because both modern lifestyle and diet promote acidification of the body's internal environment.

The current typical Western or Eastern diet is largely composed of acid-forming foods (proteins, cereals, sugars). Alkaline-producing foods such as vegetables are eaten in much smaller quantities. Stimulants like tobacco (cigarette), coffee, tea, and alcohol are also extremely acidifying. Stress, and physical activity (both insufficient or excessive amounts) also cause acidification.

Many foods are alkaline-producing by nature, but manufactured processed foods are mostly acid-producing. It is important to consume at least 60% alkaline-producing foods in our diet, in order to maintain health. We need plenty of fresh fruits and particularly vegetables (alkaline-producing) to balance our necessary protein intake (acid-producing). And we need to avoid processed, sugary or simple-carbohydrate foods, not only because they are acid-producing but also because they raise blood sugar level too quickly (high glycemic index therefore fattening); plus they tend to be nutrient-lacking and may be toxic too.

The body maintains correct pH in the blood at all costs, by homeostasis, but that is stressful for the body's systems and resources when the diet is unbalanced in terms of acid-forming foods (the residue after digestion, that is). Within cells it's a different story. Saliva and urine tests show clearly enough the changes in alkalinity or acidity that are caused by diet and lifestyle.

What is the body's pH?

Water is the most abundant compound in the human body, comprising 70% of the body. The body therefore contains a wide range of solutions, which may be more or less acid. pH (potential of Hydrogen) is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution - the ratio between positively charged ions (acid-forming) and negatively charged ions (alkaline-forming.) The pH of any solution is the measure of its hydrogen-ion concentration. The higher the pH reading, the more alkaline and oxygen rich the fluid is. The lower the pH reading, the more acidic and oxygen deprived the fluid is. The pH range is from 0 to 14, with 7.0 being neutral. Anything above 7.0 is alkaline, anything below 7.0 is considered acidic.

Human blood pH should be slightly alkaline (7.35 - 7.45). Below or above this range means symptoms and disease. If blood pH moves below 6.8 or above 7.8, cells stop functioning and the body dies. The body therefore continually strives to balance pH. When this balance is compromised many problems can occur.

An imbalanced diet high in acidic-producing foods such as animal protein, sugar, caffeine, and processed foods puts pressure on the body's regulating systems to maintain pH neutrality. The extra buffering required can deplete the body of alkaline minerals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium, making the person prone to chronic and degenerative disease. Minerals are borrowed from vital organs and bones to buffer (neutralize) the acid and safely remove it from the body. Because of this strain, the body can suffer severe and prolonged damage--a condition that may go undetected for years.

pH Range

Test Your Body's Acidity or Alkalinity with pH Strips

It is recommended that you test your pH levels to determine if your body's pH needs immediate attention. By using pH test strips (Litmus Paper), you can determine your pH factor quickly and easily in the privacy of your own home. The best time to test your pH is about one hour before a meal and two hours after a meal.

Saliva pH Test:

Simply wet a piece of Litmus Paper with your saliva. While generally more acidic than blood, salivary pH mirrors the blood and tells us what the body retains. It is a fair indicator of the health of the extracellular fluids and their alkaline mineral reserves. The optimal pH for saliva is 6.4 to 6.8. A reading lower than 6.4 is indicative of insufficient alkaline reserves. After eating, the saliva pH should rise to 7.5 or more. To deviate from an ideal salivary pH for an extended time invites illness. If your saliva stays between 6.5 and 7.5 all day, your body is functioning within a healthy range.

Acidosis, an extended time in the acid pH state, can result in rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, lupus, tuberculosis, osteoporosis, high blood pressure, most cancers and many more. If salivary pH stays too low, the diet should focus on fruit, vegetables and mineral water as well as remove strong acidifiers such as sodas, whole wheat and red meat.

Urine pH Test:

The pH of the urine indicates how the body is working to maintain the proper pH of the blood. The urine reveals the alkaline (building - anabolic) and acid (tearing down - catabolic) metabolic cycles. The pH of urine indicates the efforts of the body via the kidneys, adrenals, lungs and gonads to regulate pH through the buffer salts and hormones. Urine can provide a fairly accurate picture of body chemistry, because the kidneys filter out the buffer salts of pH regulation and provide values based on what the body is eliminating. Urine pH can vary from around 4.5 to 9.0 in extremes, but the ideal range is 6.0 to 7.0. If your urinary pH fluctuates between 6.0 to 6.5 first thing in the morning and between 6.5 and 7.0 in the evening before dinner, your body is functioning within a healthy range.

Urine testing may indicate how well your body is excreting acids and assimilating minerals, especially calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. These minerals function as "buffers." Buffers are substances that help maintain and balance the body against the introduction of too much acidity or too much alkalinity. Even with the proper amounts of buffers, acid or alkaline levels can become stressful to the body's regulatory systems. When the body produces too many of these acids or alkalis, it must excrete the excess. The urine is the method the body uses to remove any excess acids or alkaline substances that cannot be buffered. If the body's buffering system is overwhelmed, a state of "auto-intoxication" exists, and attention should be given to reducing this stress.

Use the food charts to the right and below to make your lifestyle more alkaline and reap the benefits of vibrant health and abundant energy.

pH of Food

It is important that your daily dietary intake of food naturally acts to balance your body pH. To maintain health, the diet should consist of at least 60% alkaline forming foods and at most 40% acid forming foods. To restore health, the diet should consist of 80% alkaline forming foods and 20% acid forming foods.

Positive Aspects of Nicotine Use

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Thu, 27 Jan 2011 18:01:00 +0700

Nicotine can be found in tobacco. Tobacco is generally use to make a cigarette.

Tobacco

Dried Tobacco

Do you know that is several positive effect from smoking cigarette? We usually showed many of attention word in the cigarette there are "Smoking can caused cancer, heart attack, impotent, and bad effect of pregnancy". But, I found positive aspects of nicotine use. They are for emotional and physiologist, for lower blood pressure. For further information, you can see below :

page 1

page 2

page 3

page 4


page 5

page 6

page 7

page 8

page 9

page 10

page 11

Chillis, Capsaicin, and Scoville

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Thu, 27 Jan 2011 16:31:00 +0700

Chilli is hot. Chilli can make burning sensasion. Many kind of species of chilli in the world. But in this cause I will tell you about :

Capsaicin
Scoville
Chilli by Zero Scoville Heat Units

Capsaicin

(8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide,(CH3)2CHCH=CH(CH2)4CONHCH2C6H3-4-(OH)-3-(OCH3))

is the active component of chili peppers, which are plants belonging to the genus Capsicum. It is an irritant for mammals, including humans, and produces a sensation of burning in any tissue with which it comes into contact. Capsaicin and several related compounds are called capsaicinoids and are produced as a secondary metabolite by chili peppers, probably as deterrents against certain herbivores and fungi. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, crystalline to waxy compound.

Capsaicin compound was first extracted (albeit in impure form) in 1816 by Christian Friedrich Bucholz (1770–1818). He called it "capsicin," after the genus Capsicum from which it was extracted. Capsaicin was first isolated in pure, crystalline form in 1876 by John Clough Thresh (1850–1932), who gave it the name "capsaicin". In 1873 German pharmacologist Rudolf Buchheim (1820–1879) and in 1878 the Hungarian doctor Endre Hőgyes stated that "capsicol" (partially purified capsaicin) caused the burning feeling when in contact with mucous membranes and increased secretion of gastric juice. The structure of capsaicin was partly elucidated by E. K. Nelson in 1919. Capsaicin was first synthesized in 1930 by E. Spath and S. F. Darling. In 1961, similar substances were isolated from chili peppers by the Japanese chemists S. Kosuge and Y. Inagaki, who named them capsaicinoids.

Capsaicin is present in large quantities in the placental tissue (which holds the seeds), the internal membranes and, to a lesser extent, the other fleshy parts of the fruits of plants in the genus Capsicum. The seeds themselves do not produce any capsaicin, although the highest concentration of capsaicin can be found in the white pith around the seeds. The seeds of Capsicum plants are predominantly dispersed by birds. Birds do not have the receptor to which capsaicin binds, so it does not function as an irritant for them. Chili pepper seeds consumed by birds pass through the digestive tract and can germinate later, but mammals have molars, which destroy seeds and prevent them from germinating. Thus, natural selection[citation needed] may have led to increasing capsaicin production because it makes the plant less likely to be eaten by animals that do not help it reproduce. There is also evidence that capsaicin evolved as an anti-fungal agent, and capsaicinoids are broadly anti-microbial. In 2006, it was discovered that tarantula venom activates the same pathway of pain as is activated by capsaicin, the first demonstrated case of such a shared pathway in both plant and animal anti-mammal defense.

Here, 10 things you should know about capsaicin:

1.Capsaicin is the active component of chili peppers.
Capsaicin is actually an irritant to humans, producing a burning sensation in any tissue it touches. Capsaicin works by depleting or interfering with substance P, a chemical involved in transmitting pain impulses to the brain. The properties of capsaicin make it an option for relieving pain associated with osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and diabetic neuropathy. Capsaicin is used to relieve muscle pain, joint pain, or nerve pain.

2.Capsaicin is available over the counter.
You do not need a prescription for capsaicin from your doctor. You can find products containing capsaicin in your drugstore for over-the-counter purchase. You should follow the directions given by your doctor or the directions on the label (there are different dosages or strengths of capsaicin available). For pain relief, capsaicin is usually used 3 or 4 times a day. You should rub the capsaicin cream or gel into the painful area until no more cream is visible on the skin.

Wash hands thoroughly after applying capsaicin to other areas of the body. If the capsaicin was applied for hand pain, however, wash your hands after 30 minutes.

3.Don't use extra doses of capsaicin.
Stick to the directions, but if you should inadvertently miss a dose, use it as soon as you remember -- unless it's close to the time of the next dose.

4.Capsaicin has no known drug interactions.Though there are no recognized drug interactions with capsaicin, ask your doctor to be sure that you can use capsaicin, and continue to take your current medications. It's important to inform your doctor about any products you are using.

5.Capsaicin may cause a burning sensation.
You will likely experience a warm, burning, stinging sensation when you begin using capsaicin. The sensation, which is expected when beginning use, may actually continue for 2 to 4 weeks. The sensation should lessen the longer you use capsaicin. Reducing the number of daily doses of capsaicin will not reduce the sensation, but it may reduce the pain relief achieved.

6.Arthritis pain relief is not immediate.
Even with regular use of capsaicin, arthritis pain relief will take some time. Pain relief from arthritis typically is evident 1 to 2 weeks after starting capsaicin. To prevent pain from returning, capsaicin must be continued. However, if pain is not better after using capsaicin for 3 or 4 weeks, talk to your doctor. It may not be worth it to continue.

7.Capsaicin must be handled with care.Be aware of what can happen if you get capsaicin in your eyes or on other sensitive body parts because of the burning sensation it causes. If capsaicin gets in your eyes, immediately flush your eyes with water. To rid other sensitive areas of capsaicin and the burning feeling, wash the areas with warm soapy water. Keep capsaicin out of reach of children.

8.Some people should not use capsaicin.There are warnings about using capsaicin under certain circumstances. Before using capsaicin, tell your doctor about:

    * broken skin
    * skin irritation
    * previous allergic reactions to capsaicin, hot peppers, other drugs, dyes, foods, preservatives
    * breastfeeding
    * pregnancy or current attempts to become pregnant

Also, be aware that capsaicin should not be used by children under 2 years of age.

9.Research supports use of capsaicin for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.A study from 1991 involved 70 osteoarthritis patients and 31 rheumatoid arthritis patients. Patients were instructed to apply 0.025% capsaicin or placebo to painful knees, four times a day. Results revealed that 80% of patients treated with capsaicin experienced pain reduction following two weeks of treatment.

10.Research also supports the use of capsaicin for osteoarthritis of the hands.Capsaicin 0.075% was evaluated for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis in a 4-week study, published in 1992. All of the study participants had significant hand pain and applied capsaicin to their hands 4 times daily. It was found that capsaicin reduced tenderness and pain in osteoarthritis of the hand patients, but not rheumatoid arthritis patients when compared to placebo.

Scoville

The Scoville scale is a measurement of the spicy heat (or piquance) of a chili pepper. The number of Scoville heat units (SHU) indicates the amount of capsaicin present. Capsaicin is a chemical compound that stimulates chemoreceptor nerve endings in the skin, especially the mucous membranes. The scale is named after its creator, American chemist Wilbur Scoville. His method, devised in 1912, is known as the Scoville Organoleptic Test. The modern commonplace method for quantitative analysis uses high-performance liquid chromatography, making it possible to directly measure capsaicinoid content.

The chilis with the highest rating on the Scoville scale exceed one million Scoville units, and include specimens of naga jolokia or bhut jolokia and its cultivars, the "Dorset naga" and the "Ghost chili," neither of which has official cultivar status. The Naga Viper currently holds the unofficial title for hottest pepper. It was produced in the UK by crossing the three hottest peppers known to the world, including the Bhut jolokia. Researchers at Warwick University tested the Naga Viper and found that it measures 1,359,000 on the Scoville scale. It should be noted that a chilli trial carried out by a team from the BBC's Gardeners' World programme put the heat value of Dorset Naga at a staggering 1.6 million SHU. Those levels were tested by Warwick HRI. However, this is not the average Scoville Heat Unit level of the pepper, nor was this submitted to any world record holder. Numerical results for any specimen vary depending on its cultivation conditions and the uncertainty of the laboratory methods used to assess the capsaicinoid content.

Chilli by Zero Scoville Heat Units

Bell Pepper, Cubanelle, Aji Dulce ( have 0 point of SHU )

Bell Pepper


Cubanelle

Aji Dulce (They're sweet, not spicy)

Bayesian-LOPA Methodology Development for LNG Industry

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Thu, 6 Jan 2011 23:34:00 +0700

In order to meet the fast growing LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) demand, many LNG importation terminals are operating currently. Thus, it is important to estimate the potential risks in LNG terminals with LOPA (Layer of Protection Analysis) which can provide quantified results with less time and efforts than other methods. For LOPA application, failure data are essential to compute risk frequencies. However, the failure data from the LNG industry are very sparse and have statistically shake grounds. Therefore, Bayesian estimation, which can update the generic data with plant specific data, was used to compensate for its weaknesses.

Based on Bayesian estimation, the frequencies of initiating events were obtained using a conjugate gamma prior distribution such as OREDA (Offshore Reliability Data) and Poisson likelihood distribution. If there is no prior information, Jeffreys noninformative prior may be used. The LNG plant failure database was used as plant specific information. The PFDs (Probability of Failure on Demand) of IPLs (Independent Protection Layers) were estimated with the conjugate beta prior such as EIReDA (European Industry Reliability Data Bank) and binomial distribution. In some cases, EIReDA did not provide failure data, so the newly developed Frequency-PFD conversion method was used instead. By the combination of Bayesian estimation and LOPA procedures, the Bayesian-LOPA methodology was developed and was applied to an LNG terminal. The found risk values were compared to the tolerable risk criteria to make risk decisions and compared to each other to make a risk ranking. The Bayesian-LOPA methodology can be used in other industries. Furthermore, it can be used with other frequency assessment methods such as Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) and Event Tree Analysis (ETA) to strengthen their results.

LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) is one of the fastest growing energy sources in the U.S. to fulfill the increasing energy demands and diversify the energy portfolio. In order to meet the LNG demand, many LNG facilities including LNG importation terminals are operating currently. Moreover, there are many proposed projects for LNG terminals to fill the gap between supply and demand of LNG in North America. Therefore, it is important to control and estimate the potential risks in LNG terminals to ensure their safety and reliability.

Figure 1. Description of an LNG importation terminal (www.kogas.co.kr)

One of the most cost effective ways to estimate the risk is LOPA (Layer of Protection Analysis) because it can provide quantified risk results with less time and efforts than other methods. Thus, LOPA was applied in this research. For LOPA application, failure data are essential to compute risk frequencies (see Figure 2). However, the failure data from the industry are very sparse and have statistically shaky grounds due to insufficient population of sample data and relatively short-term operational history. Bayesian estimation is identified as one of the better methods to use to compensate for the weaknesses found in the LNG industry’s failure data. It can update the generic data with plant specific data. In other words, the data updated by Bayesian logic can reflect both long-term based historical experiences and plant specific conditions. Thus, in this research, the new Bayesian-LOPA methodology was developed as shown in Figure 3, and it was applied to an LNG importation terminal to estimate the potential risks.

Based on Bayesian estimation, the frequencies of initiating events were obtained using a conjugate gamma distribution as the prior information and Poisson distribution as the likelihood function. OREDA (Offshore Reliability Data) database was used as a prior distribution because it was produced from a gamma distribution (see Figure 4). If there is no prior information, Jeffreys noninformative prior may be used. The LNG plant failure database was used as plant specific likelihood information. The PFDs (Probability of Failure on Demand) of IPLs (Independent Protection Layers) were estimated with the conjugate beta prior distribution and binomial likelihood distribution. EIReDA (European Industry Reliability Data Bank) database was used as prior information because it provided the failure data made from beta distribution. In some cases EIReDA did not provide failure data, so the newly developed Frequency-PFD conversion method was used instead. By the combination of Bayesian estimation and LOPA procedures, the Bayesian-LOPA methodology was developed. The method was applied to an LNG importation terminal. For seven incident scenarios, it produced valid risk values. The posterior values of every initiating event or IPLs are located between prior and likelihood values. This means that the posterior values are valid and well-updated. The found risk values were compared to the tolerable risk criteria given by CCPS (Center for the Chemical Process Safety) to make risk decisions. Finally, the estimated risk values of seven incident scenarios were compared to each other to make a risk ranking in view of probabilistic risk analysis which considers only failure frequency without considering consequence analysis. In conclusion, as the good safety records of LNG industries speak, in this research, it can be generally concluded that the LNG terminal has good safety protections to prevent dangerous events (see Figure 5). The newly developed Bayesian-LOPA methodology as one of the risk assessment methods really does work well in an LNG importation terminal and it can be applied in other industries including refineries, petrochemicals, nuclear plants, and aerospace industries. Moreover, it can be used with other frequency analysis methods such as Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) and Event Tree Analysis (ETA).

Figure 3. The flow diagram of this research

Special Thanks to :

Geun Woong Yun

from Texas A&M University

How Is Lightning Made?

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Wed, 5 Jan 2011 16:49:00 +0700

I live in Jogjakarta, Indonesia and almost everyday we see hard rain and lightning, here I will tell you about lightning..
~~Not this Lightning~~ :)

~~But~~ This is real LIGHTNING

How is lightning made? People used to make up stories to answer that question. Today, science tells us how.

You have heard of Ben Franklin. Did you know he flew a kite during a thunderstorm? He wanted to prove that lightning is a form of electricity. We know now that flying a kite in a storm is not safe. But, Ben was right. Lightning is a form of electricity. How does this "electricity" form?

What do You Need to Make Lightning?
You need cold air and warm air. When they meet, the warm air goes up. It makes thunderstorm clouds! The cold air has ice crystals. The warm air has water droplets. During the storm, the droplets and crystals bump together and move apart in the air. This rubbing makes static electrical charges in the clouds.

Just like a battery, these clouds have a "plus" end and a "minus" end. The plus, or positive, charges in the cloud are at the top. The minus, or negative, charges are at the bottom. When the charge at the bottom gets strong enough, the cloud lets out energy.

The energy goes through the air. It goes to a place that has the opposite charge. This lightning bolt of energy that is let out is called a leader stroke. It can go from the cloud to the ground. Or, a leader stroke can go from the cloud to another cloud. No one is sure why lightning bolts follow a zigzag path as they move. The main bolt or stroke will go back up to the cloud. It will make a flash of lightning. It will also heat the air. The air will spread quickly. It will make the sound we hear as thunder.

Be Safe in a Storm
Lightning is dangerous. Here are some safety rules.

Stay away from open spaces. But, do not stand under a tree. The best place is inside a building.

If you are swimming, get out of the water. Get out as soon as you see a storm coming. The storm may seem far away, but lightning can travel over 20 miles!

During a thunderstorm, shut off or unplug all electrical items. Do not use the phone.

Never walk in a thunderstorm carrying a metal pole. Don't even carry an umbrella!

How will you know if a lightning strike is near you? You will feel the hair on your head or body start to stand up. If this happens, go to a safe place. Go quickly! If there is no safe place near, get as close to the ground as you can.

Scientists have learned some facts about lightning from pictures. Some lightning flashes are made up of as many as 25 or more lightning bolts (strokes). They move so fast that your eyes only see one flash!

Lightning is fun to watch. But, make sure you do so safely.

Source :
Lightnign NASA Document
Lightning Wikipedia

Alternative Sequences of the Separation (Plate Column and Packet Column)

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Wed, 5 Jan 2011 16:27:00 +0700

Here the definition of Plate Column and Packet Column

Plate Column

The tray column (1) has downcomers (3) for transporting a liquid between adjacent trays (2). The liquid transport takes place in each downcomer through a plurality of discharge apertures (32) onto a loaded tray. Liquid flows out of the discharge apertures in the form of jets (60) that blend into a regionally divergent flow field (6) on striking the loaded tray. The flow field has transverse components of the flow speed with respect to a longitudinal main flow direction (61). Guide elements (4) are arranged beneath the discharge apertures and at a spacing from the loaded tray which each guide the impulse of liquid corresponding to the divergent flow field. The guide elements contribute to forming the transverse speed components such that the longitudinal component of the flow speed has a largely constant profile in each plane perpendicular to the main flow direction. The discharge apertures are preferably made in different sizes in a graduated fashion to be smaller in a central region than in adjacent flank regions.

Packet Column

In chemical processing, a packed bed is a hollow tube, pipe, or other vessel that is filled with a packing material. The packing can be randomly filled with small objects like Raschig rings or else it can be a specifically designed structured packing.

The purpose of a packed bed is typically to improve contact between two phases in a chemical or similar process. Packed beds can be used in a chemical reactor, a distillation process, or a scrubber, but packed beds have also been used to store heat in chemical plants. In this case, hot gases are allowed to escape through a vessel that is packed with a refractory material until the packing is hot. Air or other cool gas is then fed back to the plant through the hot bed, thereby pre-heating the air or gas feed.

Here the differences of Plate Column and Packet Column

Plate or Tray Column	Packed Column
Vapor contacting is better	--
Liquid hold-up is better	--
Easy to cleaning	--
--	Less pressure drop, so its suitable to vacuum operation
--	Cheaper for corosive fluid
--	Suitable for little diameter
Can be used for liquid which contain solid particle	Solid particle can suspending the flow
--	Suitable for foaming liquid
--	Less heavy (light)
Side stream avaiable	--

source :
Packed Column Wikipedia
Tray Column Freepatents Online

Basic Principles of Machine - Combustion Engine (chap. 2)

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Tue, 4 Jan 2011 23:48:00 +0700

The tool that converts chemical energy from fuel into mechanical energy (energy used to propel something) through the combustion process.

Type of combustion:

External combustion engine: the steam engine, steam turbine, closed cycle gas turbine, Stirling engine.
Internal combustion engine : motor gasoline, diesel, gas turbine, jet engine

Classification of Internal Combustion Engine

Usefulness:
Automotive, trucks, airplanes, power generators.
Construction:
Rotary motor (turbine, Wankel engine), reciprocating engine (back and forth).
Work Cycle:
Four steps and two steps
Ignition Method:
Spark ignition (spark ignition engines), compression ignition (compression ignition engines)
Fuel:
Gasoline, diesel fuel, compressed gas and, alcohol
Mixing Method:

Carburetor and injector
Cooling Method:
Cooling water and air cooling

Here is a picture of the External Combustion Engine:

Here are pictures of the Internal Combustion Engine :

Basic Principles of Machine - 2 Stroke Engine (chap.1)

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Tue, 4 Jan 2011 23:37:00 +0700

Two (2) stroke Machine, was "powerful" in the streets in ancient times (probably around 1980). This machine has a pretty fundamental difference compared with 4 stroke engine. Two (2) stroke engines require additional oil which participate in the fuel in the engine (Side Oil) to lubricate the movement of the piston.

Due to this machine also burn oil fuel in space, spending will be very thick smoke. In fact, not infrequently there is also a splashing oil out the exhaust. There are advantages and disadvantages of using 2 stroke engine if compared to 4 stroke engine.

Advantages:

In theory for the same volume from 4 stroke engine that have 2 times of its volume. 100cc in 2 stroke engine will equal from 200cc in 4 stroke engine (theoretically)

Construction is simpler so the light weight and low initial price.

The moment of working engine is more uniform.

It's easier to start up.

Disadvantages:

Fuel is wasteful because during flushing some go wasted.

Exhaust gas is not good because the new mixed contaminated waste gas.

Small compression ratio so that the low thermal efficiency.

Need more lubricant.

Filling Nitrogen Gas For Tire On Vehicles

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Tue, 4 Jan 2011 23:06:00 +0700

Tires are an important component in the vehicle. Whatever the vehicle (car, motorcycle, bicycle, public transport, trucks, etc.) gas pressure in the tires need to be considered for performance (grip / traction) of road tires and optimum tire life becomes longer. If the gas pressure in the tire is lower than the recommended, then the field of tread and grip the road is uneven so that the field becomes less tread that is just on the outskirts of tires.

Likewise if excessive pressure from the recommended, so that only the middle of the tire tread only. As a result of shortage and excess gas pressure is running low tire tread is uneven. Conversely, if the gas pressure in the tires filled as directed, then the field of tire treads gripping the road becomes more widely and evenly. For driving safety will be ensured.

Uneven tire out can also be caused by damage to other components such as Shock Absorber, suspension, braking suddenly, road conditions, wheel alignment position (need spooring), balance wheel (necessary in Balance), and others. Every tire is mounted on wheels need tires dibalance to maintain balance while spinning.

Gas Filler for Tire

Tires are filled with gas (air) a certain pressure, usually consisting of 21% oxygen gas and 78% Nitrogen gas. Where the gas mixture obtained from the air around the gas pump, or gas that we breathe everyday. Oxygen gas particles are smaller than nitrogen gas, so that oxygen gas can be three times faster than Nitrogen gas leak, through the crevices of smooth connections to the rim or mechanical tire bulkhead/valve on the faucet (ventil).

Slowly but surely, make the car tire will reduce its gas pressure and the need to always check the pressure, if less immediately add up to the recommended factory spec cars and used tires. Gas pressure of less makes less security and comfort, also makes fuel wasteful.

The air pressure tends to be moist, for which still use the wheels of steel materials can help the process of rust that would damage the wheel itself.

We are encouraged to check tire pressure on cold tires, this is because when the tire is used (driving), the gas temperature inside the tire will increase (heat). Increasing the gas temperature makes the rise in gas pressure in the tires. Nitrogen gas (N2) in claims have a steady pressure on the working temperature change tires, so it will be safe for vehicles that are often driven fast (speeding) or carrying heavy loads.

Follow the recommendations listed in the panel recommended tire pressure is usually mounted on a pillar of the motor car door and frame if you use standard tires, or follow the advice of used tires if the tire specifications are not written in the panel recommended tire pressure.

Nitrogen gas (N2) as Gas Filler Tire

Due to the gas particles Nitrogen (N2) is greater than oxygen (O2), then the N2 to prevent the leakage (seepage) that cause a reduction in gas pressure (wind) on the tires. Also safe to use nitrogen because it can not burn, no smell, and is part of the existing gas in the atmosphere which we breathe too everyday.

To tell which tire that contains regular gas and gas containing N2, generally agreed with the valve cap (ventil) Green colored labeled N2 to N2 gas-filled tires.

Benefits Using N2 as the gas-filler Tire

Tire pressure is maintained longer (become less frequent refilling)
Traction and performance tires to optimal (due to a good grip, pressure is not reduced)
Save fuel (the right pressure, relieve the work machine)
Extend tire life (the right pressure, tires will be evenly ending)
Improve safety (proper pressure, grip and stability maintained)
Oxidation does not occur in the rubber tire (tire rubber extends the life of elasticity)
No help to rust (iron safe for component)
Tire pressure tire stable against temperature (to reduce accidents due to tire burst - overpressure)

N2 itself was used first in the arena of racing, aircraft and special heavy vehicle, before it was introduced to the public for use in everyday vehicles and motor cars.

Weakness Nitrogen Gas (N2) as Gas Filler Tire.

Prices are still expensive

Generally revolve around 10ribu until 20ribu dollars for each tire. Not to mention there are additional costs if the gas before filling the tire is not N2, because it must be drained first and then filled with N2 gas. Costs range from approximately 5ribu drain - 10ribu rupiah.

Treatment

Every time the tire has been filled by N2, then the next if the pressure is reduced, it is advisable to add it to the N2 as well.

Availability

Not many tire repair shop that provides the services N2 filling.

Making Water Fuel Stove

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Tue, 4 Jan 2011 01:04:00 +0700

As an alternative option in times of crisis fuel to substitute kerosene and even LPG stove.

BASIS Theory:

Kerosene is no longer subsidized by the government. So the price will be submitted on the international market price. The price is probably around 6000 IDR.
Stock LPG is also sometimes jammed by PT Pertamina.
Using water as fuel is much cheaper and faster than the boiling kerosene (according to the creator's test).

Materials for Construction of Water Fuel Stove

· Water

More pure water is getting better

Ex. Water <aquadest <Demin Water

· Electricity

12 Volt DC 5 Ampere

· Power Inverter

Power converter from 220 volts AC to 12 volts DC

· Diode (in lieu Power Inverter , to save money)
· Heat resistant bottles ( Thermal Resist )
· Power Cable for High Ampere
· Tube Pumps
· Manual Pump
· Stainless Steel

Estimated Price Materials Making Water Fuel Stove

Item Name	Price (Estimated)
5 A 220 V Diode	IDR 20,000. per piece
Heat Resistant Bottle	IDR 50,000. per piece
Stainless Steel	IDR 10,000. per bar
Power cable	IDR 5,000. per meter
Tubing Pumps	IDR 100,000. per piece
Flowers Stove ( Nozzle )	IDR 20,000. per piece
TOTAL	IDR205,000.

Estimated Price Materials Making LPG Fuel Stove

Item Name	Price (Estimated)
LPG Stoves	IDR 300,000. per piece
LPG	IDR 200,000. per piece
Hose and Adapter	IDR 50,000. per piece
TOTAL	IDR 550,000.

Estimated Price Water Fuel Stove Operations (per day)

Item Name	Price (Estimated)
Water	IDR 1,000. per liter (Considered to obtain water must be bought)
Electricity 1 day: 1 x cooking much (2 hours) 5 x cook slightly (1.5 hours) TOTAL = 2.5 hours Needed for electrical power conversion: 80 W = 0.08 KW	1 kWh = IDR 1500. For operational costs: 1500 x 2.5 x 0.08 = IDR 300.
Kerosene	For comparison the water: oil is 10:1 IDR 700.
TOTAL	IDR 2,000.

Estimated Price of LPG Fuel Stove Operations (per day)

Item Name	Price (Estimated)
LPG gas: Tube 15 Kg for households can hold up to 20 days. Price IDR60,000 refill tube (already have a tube) Then one day the cost:	60,000 20 IDR 3,000.
TOTAL	IDR 3,000.

Stove Work Scheme

With Power Inverter

With Diode

Work Scheme Single Ejector

SWTO factor (Strength Weakness Opportunity Treat)

Strength	Weakness	Treath	Opportunity
Capital science engineering	Ever tried before (Not original)	Still nothing new so it is difficult published	This could be an alternative to daily needs
The price of water is very cheap	Still use kerosene (So that the capillary tube is not easily corroded)	Requires energy to be sufficiently trained to assemble stoves	Almost all homes have access to safe water
Durability cooker 1 quart of water for 1 day (According to the info from the manufacturer)	Never seen directly	The price is more expensive than kerosene stove	Enterprises can be developed in a way to sell distilled water as a fuel cheaper
Initial capital is similar to LPG stove	Still more needs to be optimized the design so that the energy created by more efficient (use of kerosene is much less again)		Distilled water will make the durability of stainless steel because the water is dirty (there are other minerals) will close the surface of stainless steel
Maintenance is fairly easy

Factors Places and Locations

Location in the design entrepreneurship is a strategic location and do not need a place that is too broad. Most important is the location easy in its mobility, has a storage warehouse, and assembly room.

Glass Technology

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Mon, 3 Jan 2011 00:56:00 +0700

Glass Overview

Glass is a solid material is amorphous (non crystalline). Glass (glass) itself in the German language has a transparent meaning. Glasses are usually fragile, brittle, and often are optically transparent. Glass is generally used for windows, bottles, glasses and examples of materials including glass of soda lime glass.

Strictly speaking, glass is defined as an inorganic product of fusion that has cooled through the glass transition for the solid state without crystallization process. Many glasses contain silica as its main component and glass formers. The term "glass", is often extended to all amorphous solids (and melts that easily form amorphous solids), including plastics, resins, or other silica-free amorphous solids. Glass plays an important role in science and industry. Optical properties and physical properties of glass make it suitable for applications such as flat glass, glass containers, optical and optoelectronic materials, laboratory equipment, thermal insulator (glass wool), reinforcement fiber (glass reinforced plastic, glass fiber reinforced concrete), and art .

HISTORY OF GLASS

Glass obsidia originally derived from material that is formed from volcanic lava, and in fact has been known since the stone age. According to one reference, the first glass makers are a nation of Egypt around 2000 BC. At that time, the glass used as packaging pottery and a number of other objects. In the first century BC, developing and manufacturing techniques of glass became more widely used in everyday life.

At the time of the Roman Empire largely shaped glass products and glass bottles. Then in the 12th century stained glass was made by mixing the dye in the form of metal oxides. This type of glass is less developed because it is not used widely by the public. In the 14th century glass-making center is the city of Venice in Italy. This city gave birth to many new techniques, and glass products eventually become important commodities, such as plates, cups, bowls, mirrors, and other luxury goods.

Then around the year 1688, the glass manufacturing process uses a number of ways that have been developed, so that the glass products are more easily made. With the birth of glass products processing machinery in 1827, the glass-based products can be made in bulk, the price is cheaper. In the mid-1800s introduced the process of making glass crown (crown glass process).

Glass Production

* Composition of Making Glass

Quartz sand (silica) as main raw material for commercial glass production. Pure silica (SiO2) has a melting point (in the viscosity of 10 Pa / s) more than 2,300 ° C (4,200 ° F). Pure silica can be made into glass for special applications, but there are other substances are added to the glass to simplify the process in general. One is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), which can lower the melting point of about 1,500 ° C (2,700 ° F). However, the soda makes soluble sodium silicate, which is usually not desirable. So, grilled lime (calcium oxide (CaO), which is generally derived from burnt limestone (CaCO3)), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) was added to provide better chemical resistance. The resulting glass contains about 70-74% by weight of silica glass itself.

In addition to soda and lime, other additional material on the most common glass to change its properties. Crystals (Crystal) more brilliant because of the increased refractive index causes look more "sparkling", while boron may be added to change the thermal and electrical properties, such as Pyrex. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide makes glass has a high refractive index and low dispersion, and never used in producing high-quality lenses, but given the radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide then this world are rarely used in modern glasses.

In large quantities, iron is used for glass that absorbs infrared energy, such as filters to absorb heat in film projectors, while cerium (IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs the UV wave (biologically damaging ionizing radiation). Two other common glass material is calumite (a byproduct of steel industry) and "cullet" (glass recycling). Recycled glass saves raw materials and energy. However, impurities in the cullet may lead to failure of products and equipment. Finally, glass complement agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony oxide is added to reduce the bubble content in the glass.

* Glass Making in Several Age

How to blow down the first is the traditional way is to form the glass. But the growing period so that this technique is getting a little abandoned. Common method now is to make a mixture of glass is SiO2 (quartz sand), NaCO3 (sodium carbonate), CaO (calcium oxide), and other additions in melting in the furnace and then printed. Things like this will be faster and more uniform results.

To strengthen the crystal structure of glass commonly used technique of glass coated with certain polymers. This technique is commonly known lamination techniques. This technique is to make bulletproof glass.

* Addition of Color Compound

Colored glass produced by mixing with a bit of transition metal oxides. For example, manganese oxide will result in the color purple, cupric oxide and chromium provide the green color, and oxides cobalt give blue.

</span>

Bravo National Team of Indonesia (Timnas Indonesia) !!

noreply@blogger.com (Thomas Alfanio) — Sun, 2 Jan 2011 23:45:00 +0700

Squad of National Team of Indonesia :

Manager by : Alfred Riedl