ALL YOU NEED TO ENJOY MEDICINE

Health tips: The benefits of orange

2012-04-10T05:43:00.000-07:00

Oranges, like any other citrus fruits, is a good source of vitamin C which is a powerful antioxidant. Thus, consumption of orange helps the body develops resistance against infectious disease and inflammatory free radicals from the blood.
Also it play a vital role in person with excess body weight, since its low in calories and contains no saturated fats or cholesterol, and rich in pectin-a dietary fiber which is very effective in loss of body weight , specifically good in reducing cholesterol blood level.
Oranges is also an excellent source of vitamin A, Vitamin B complex such as thiamin, folates and other antioxidant like alpha and beta carotenes, crytoxanthin, zeaxanthin and lutein. They protects the body against lung and oral cancer.
Also they are good sources of minerals like potassium and calcium, calcium is essential for development of bones in the body. Potassium is an important component of cell and body fluids that control heart rate and blood pressure .
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Health tips: The benefits of papaya

2012-04-08T05:42:00.000-07:00

Reported has shown that papaya is one of the natural tropical fruit that play an important role towards imunnity, digestion and disorder of the gastrointestinal tract.
Papaya is an excellent source of vitamin C as well as vitamin E and vitamin A, Thses vitamins are very powerfull antioxidants that are good in reducing inflamation and infectious diseases of the colon. It has a tendency to prevent cancer in organ and glands with epithelial tissue.
Papain and chymopapain are unique protein-digesting enzymes that aid in digestion of proteins in addition to healing of burns.
It also prevents constipation and has a highly beneficial effect upon stomach and intestine.
It’s a good source of fibers which lower high cholesterol level, prevent atherosclerosis and diabetic diseases.

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Health tips: The benefits of Root Ginger

2012-04-06T05:40:00.000-07:00

Since ginger root look just like the stomach, study shows that its main benefits is aiding digestion.
Test on mice at the university of mimesota found injecting the chemical that gives ginger its flavor slowed down the growth of bowels tumors.
Chinese have been using it for over two centuries to calm the stomach and cure nausea.
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Health tips: The benefits of walnut

2012-04-04T05:39:00.000-07:00

The benefits of walnut lie on its appearance, which usually mimic the shape of Human brain.
It usually contain significant amounts of omega -3fatty acids.
Researchers at tufts university in boston found walnuts reversed some sign of brain ageing in rats, and also enhance signaling within the brain and encourage new messaging links between brains.
An American study also found that walnuts extract low protein- based plaques associated with alzheimers diseases.
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Health tips: The benefits of watermelon

2012-04-02T05:38:00.000-07:00

Although water melons are found almost everywhere in the world, and in our market throughout the year, most people usually care not to know about its great health benefits.
Watermelon is one of the natural source of very powerful antioxidants such as vitamins, carotene,electrolytes,citrulline,thiamin, lycopene etc.
Vitamins such as vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin B1 and B6 found in watermelon are necessary for energy production(usually fat free) and reduce the risk of dehydration(it’s a safe alternative for other energy drinks since watermelon contain high water quantity and can hydrates us , while most energy drinks dehydrate us and its caffeine sourced), also protects us from diseases such as cancer, asthma, heart disease, rheumatoid arthritis etc.
It’s a good source of carotene antioxidant usually called lycopene(watermelon contains higher concentrations of lycopene than any other fresh fruit) , lycopene play a role in neutralizing free radicals in the body ,free radicals oxidize cholesterol, which result in blockage of blood vessels condition known as atherosclerosis. This condition causes heart attack and subsequent dead, but with the help of watermelon the free radicals are been neutralised. Lycopene also reduce the risk of prostate and colon cancer.
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EXAM FOCUS MCQ ON ABDOMEN-GIT(intestine)#8

2012-03-31T05:36:00.000-07:00

INTESTINE(GROSS)
70. small intestine lengthens approximately:
a. 8 meters
b. 6.5 meters
c. 1.5 meters
d. 5 meters
           ANSWER: B
NOTE: The average length of the mesentery from its root to the intestinal border is 20 cm.

71. which of the following regarding Proper mesentery is false:
a. it attaches the jejunum and ileum to the anterior abdominal wall
b. it attaches the jejunum and ileum to the posterior abdominal wall
c. It extends from the duodenojejunal junction on the left side of L2 vertebra
d. it has root and intestinal border with a distance of 6m between
                  ANSWER: A
NOTE: The origin or root of the mesentery (approximately 15 cm long) is directed obliquely, inferiorly, and to the right.

72. which is not a contents of Proper mesentery:
a. the superior mesenteric vessels
b. lymph nodes
c. celiac trunk
d. autonomic nerves
                 ANSWER: C
NOTE: the superior mesenteric vessels, lymph nodes, a variable amount of fat, and autonomic nerves.
73. Which of the following is NOT a region of the duodenum:
a. Superior
b. Inferior
c. Descending
d. vertical
e. Ascending
                     ANSWER: D
NOTE: The duodenum is divisible into four parts, Superior (first) part: short (approximately 5 cm) and lies anterolateral to the body of the L1 vertebra. Descending (second) part: longer (7-10 cm) and descends along the right sides of the L1-L3 vertebrae. Inferior (third) part: 6-8 cm long and crosses the L3 vertebra. Ascending (fourth) part: short (5 cm) and begins at the left of the L3 vertebra and rises superiorly as far as the superior border of the L2 vertebra

74. The hepatoduodenal ligament connects the duodenum to the:
a. Diaphragm
b. Lesser omentum
c. Pancreas
d. Spleen
                     ANSWER: B
NOTE: Most of the duodenum is fixed by peritoneum to structures on the posterior abdominal wall and is considered partially retroperitoneal.

75. Which part of deudenum lies retroperitoneal:
a. Superior
b. Inferior
c. Descending
d. Ascending
   ANSWER: C
NOTE: The descending part of the duodenum is entirely retroperitoneal.

76. The duodenal suspensory ligament (Ligament of Treitz) connects the duodenum to the:
a. Diaphragm
b. Liver
c. Pancreas
d. Spleen
             ANSWER: A
NOTE; suspensory muscle of the duodenum (ligament of Treitz) is composed of a slip of skeletal muscle from the diaphragm and a fibromuscular band of smooth muscle from the third and fourth parts of the duodenum.

77. The bile duct passes down between the deudenum and:
a. neck of pancreas
b. body of pancreas
c. haed of pancreas
d. uncinate process of pancreas
                ANSWER: C
NOTE: The bile and main pancreatic ducts enter its posteromedial wall.

78. Anteriorly, first part of deudenum is related to the following Except:
a. gall bladder
b. kidney
c. liver
         ANSWER: B
NOTE: The superior part of the duodenum ascends from the pylorus and is overlapped by the liver and gallbladder.

79. Anteriorly, Second part of deudenum is related to the following Except:
a. gallbladder
b. transverse colon
c. transverse mesocolon
d. liver
                 ANSWER: A
NOTE: The anterior surface of its proximal and distal thirds is covered with peritoneum; however, the peritoneum reflects from its middle third to form the double-layered mesentery of the transverse colon, the transverse mesocolon.

80. Anteriorly, third part of deudenum is related to the following Except:
a. transverse colon
b. jejunum
c. superior medenteric vessels
d. sigmoid colon
                 ANSWER: D
NOTE: It is crossed by the superior mesenteric artery and vein and the root of the mesentery of the jejunum and ileum.
81. POSTERIORLY, fourth part of deudenum is related to the following Except:
a. abdominal aorta
b. transverse colon
c. inferior mesenteric vessels
d. ovarian vessels
                      ANSWER: B
NOTE: Posteriorly it is separated from the vertebral column by the right psoas major, IVC, aorta, and the right testicular or ovarian vessels.

82. Compared with the jejunum, there are ____ plicae circulares in the ileum and the wall is ____ in the ileum.
a) More; Thinner
b) More; Thicker
c) Less; Thinner
d) Less; Thicker
             ANSWER: C
NOTE: Most of the jejunum lies in the left upper quadrant (LUQ) of the infracolic compartment, whereas most of the ileum lies in the right lower quadrant (RLQ).

83. large intestine lengthens approximately:
a. 8 meters
b. 6.5 meters
c. 1.5 meters
d. 5 meters
                  ANSWER: C
NOTE: The large intestine consists of the cecum; appendix; ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon; rectum; and anal canal.
84. Compared with the small intestine, there are ____ Taeniae coli in the large intestine and the lumen is ____ in the large intestine
a. More; small
b. More; large
c. Less; small
d. Less; large
              ANSWER: C
NOTE: The teniae run the length of the large intestine, abruptly broadening and merging with each other again at the rectosigmoid junction into a continuous longitudinal layer around the rectum.

85. The taenia coli are in the large intestine and consist of ____ bands of smooth muscle arranged in distinct strips.
a. 7
b. 4
c. 5
d. 3
      ANSWER: D
NOTE: The teniae coli (thickened bands of smooth muscle representing most of the longitudinal coat) begin at the base of the appendix as the thick longitudinal layer of the appendix separates into three bands.

86. Pouches in the intestinal wall that give the intestine a segmental appearance are called:
a. Taeniae coli
b. Epiploic appendages
c. McBurney’s points
d. Haustra
             ANSWER: D
NOTE: Haustra is sacculations of the wall of the colon between the teniae
87. ceacum is supplied by:
a.Branch of ileocolic artery
b. right colic artery
c. branches from appendicular artery
d.middle colic artery
e. none of the above
            ANSWER: A
NOTE: The arterial supply of the cecum is from the ileocolic artery, the terminal branch of the SMA.

88. which of the following regarding appendix is false:
a. its 6-10 cm in length
b. It arises from the posteromedial aspect of the cecum
c. appendicular artery, supplies it
d. none
            ANSWER: D
NOTE: It arises from the posteromedial aspect of the cecum inferior to the ileocecal junction.

89. . POSTERIORLY, caecum is related to the following Except:
a. posteriorly abdominal wall
b. femoral nerve
c. greater omentum
d. lateral cutaneous nerve
                         ANSWER: C
NOTE: cecum usually lies within 2.5 cm of the inguinal ligament, is almost entirely enveloped by peritoneum.

90. the taeniae coli in ascending and desending colon may lie:
a. anterior, anteromedial, and anterolateral
b. anterior, posteromedial, and posterolateral
c. posterior, anteromedial, and and anterolateral
d. none
                ANSWER: B
NOTE: in the transverse colon, the position of taeniae coli are posterior, superior, and anterior.

91. ascending colon may lie on the following nerve,Except:
a. renal nerve
b. illioinguinal nerve
c. iliohypogastric nerve
d. lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh
                ANSWER: A
NOTE: The ascending colon is separated from the anterolateral abdominal wall by the greater omentum.

92. which of the following regarding TRANSVERSE COLON is false:
a. most mobile part of the large intestine
b. posterior to liver and fundus of gallbladder
c. attaches to the diaphragm through the phrenicocolic ligament
d. all of the above
              ANSWER: D
NOTE: It crosses the abdomen from the right colic flexure to the left colic flexure, where it turns inferiorly to become the descending colon.

EXAM FOCUS MCQ ON ABDOMEN-GIT(stomach)#7

2012-03-30T05:35:00.000-07:00

STOMACH(GROSS)
63. the stomach:
a. interperitoneal organ
b. retroperitoneal organ
c. intraperitoneal organ
d. all of the above
            ANSWER: C
NOTE: The stomach is covered by peritoneum, except where blood vessels run along its curvatures and in a small area posterior to the cardial orifice.

64. What section of the stomach is situated between the body and pylorus:
a) Fundus
b) Greater curvature
c) Lesser curvature
d) Antrum
e) Cardiac orifice
ANSWER: D
NOTE: Body is the major part of the stomach between the fundus and pyloric antrum, the pyloric antrum, leads into the pyloric canal, its narrower part.

65. The ligament connecting the lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver is the:
a) Gastrohepatic
b) Falciform
c) Round
d) Lesser hepatic
e) Ligamentum venosum
                ANSWER: A
NOTE: The sheet-like remainder of the lesser omentum, the hepatogastric ligament, extends between the groove for the ligamentum venosum and the lesser curvature of the stomach.

66. All are fold of peritoneum related to stomach Except:
a. omentum
b.gastroslenic ligament
c. gastrophrenic ligament
d. none
                       ANSWER: D
NOTE: the omenta contain the vascular and lymphatic supply of the stomach.

67. Anteriorly, stomach are related to the following Except:
a. anterior abdominal wall
b. diaphragm
c. right coastal margin
d. left lobe of the liver
                    ANSWER: C
NOTE: Anteriorly, the stomach is related to the diaphragm, the left lobe of liver, and the anterior abdominal wall.

68. which is not a contents of STOMACH BED:
a. Head of pancreas
b. spleen
c. left kidney and left supra renal gland
d. left colic flexure and transverse colon
                       ANSWER: A
NOTE: The spleen is separated from the stomach by the greater sac, Posteriorly, the stomach is related to the omental bursa and pancreas.

69. which of the following regarding stomach is false:
a. structures of stomach bed are separated by greater sac
b. gastrosplenic ligament attached to the greater curvature of the fundus of stomach
c. posterior surface of the stomach forms most of the anterior wall of the omental bursa
d. the cardial orifice usually lies posterior to the 6th left costal cartilage
                 ANSWER: A
NOTE: structures of stomach bed are separated by lesser sac, The bed of the stomach, on which the stomach rests in the supine position, is formed by the structures forming the posterior wall of the omental bursa

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EXAM FOCUS MCQ ON ABDOMEN-GIT(Suprarenal gland)#6

2012-03-28T05:34:00.000-07:00

SUPRARENAL GLAND(GROSS)
56. which of the following regarding suprarenal gland is false:
a. its inner part produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).
b. its outer part is medulla
c. its outer part is cortex
d. its outer part produces steroid
                      ANSWER: B
NOTE: The suprarenal cortex derives from mesoderm and secretes corticosteroids and androgens, The suprarenal medulla is a mass of nervous tissue permeated with capillaries and sinusoids that derives from neural crest cells associated with the sympathetic nervous system.

57. Anteriorly, right suprarenal gland is related to all of the following EXCEPT:
a. liver
b. ivc
c.spleen
                 ANSWER: C
NOTE: The pyramidal right gland is more apical with the IVC anteromedially and the liver anterolaterally.

58. Anteriorly, LEFT suprarenal gland is related to all of the following EXCEPT:
a. stomach
b. spleen
c. pancreas
d. kidney
                ANSWER: D
NOTE: The crescent-shaped left gland is medial to the superior half of the left kidney and is related to the spleen, stomach, pancreas, and the left crus of the diaphragm.

59. Posteriorly, right suprarenal gland is related to all of the following EXCEPT:
a. right kidney
b. right crus of the diaphragm
c. left crus of diaphragm
d. splenn
                             ANSWER: both C and D
NOTE: The medial borders of the suprarenal glands are 4-5 cm apart.

60. Posteriorly, LEFT suprarenal gland is related to all of the following EXCEPT:
a. left kidney
b. left crus of diaphragm
c. pancreas
                ANSWER: C
61. Regarding venous drainage of suprarenal glands which of the following statements is CORRECT:
a. drains in corresponding renal vein
b. drains in IVC
c. right suprarenal vein drain in IVC and left drain in left renal vein
d. drain in veins corresponding to suprarenal arteries
e. None of these
ANSWER: C
NOTE: The venous drainage of the suprarenal glands occurs via large suprarenal veins. The short right suprarenal vein drains into the IVC, whereas the longer left suprarenal vein, often joined by the inferior phrenic vein, empties into the left renal vein.

62: Suprarenal arteries arise from the following sources except:
a.Superior suprarenal arteries from the inferior phrenic arteries.
b.Middle suprarenal arteries from the abdominal aorta near the level of origin of the SMA.
c.Inferior suprarenal arteries from the renal arteries.
d. none
                    ANSWER: D
NOTE: The endocrine function of the suprarenal glands makes their abundant blood supply necessary.

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EXAM FOCUS MCQ ON ABDOMEN-GIT(The kidney)#5

2012-03-26T05:30:00.000-07:00

KIDNEY(GROSS)
56. which is not a contents of sinus of the kidney:
a. renal pelvis
b. renal vessels
c. calyces
d.none of the above
                    ANSWER: D
NOTE: Structures that serve the kidneys (vessels, nerves, and structures that drain urine from the kidney) enter and exit the renal sinus through the renal hilum, At the hilum, the renal vein is anterior to the renal artery, which is anterior to the renal pelvis.

57.The following statements concerning the RENAL FASCIA are correct EXCEPT which:
a. is continuous laterally with the transversalis fascia
b. is continuous superiorly with the diaphragmatic fascia
c. is continuous medially with the fascia around the suprarenals glands
d. is continuous medially with the fascia around the renal vessels
                                      ANSWER: C
NOTE: The renal pelvis receives two or three major calices (calyces), each of which divides into two or three minor calices. Each minor calyx is indented by a renal papilla, the apex of the renal pyramid, from which the urine is excreted.

58. which of the following regarding Renal Fascia is false:
a. Encloses kidneys as well as suprarenal glands
b. Causes suprarenal glands to move when Kidneys are excessively mobile
c. is continuous medially with the fascia around the renal vessels
d. All of the above
              ANSWER: D
NOTE: The lateral margin of each kidney is convex, and the medial margin is concave where the renal sinus and renal pelvis are located.

59. which of the following regarding KIDNEY is false:
a. the kidneys normally lie at the level of T12-L3 vertebrae
b. the kidneys normally lie at the level of T9-L4 vertebrae
C. They lie retroperitoneally on the posterior abdominal wall
d. All of the above
                                  ANSWER: D
NOTE: They lie retroperitoneally on the posterior abdominal wall, one on each side of the vertebral column at the level of the T12-L3 vertebrae.

60. Posteriorly, each kidney is related to all of the following EXCEPT:
a. diaphragm
b. psoas major
c. quadratus lomburum
d. anterior abdominal wall
e. transverses abdominis
f. subcostal vessels
g.12th rib-right kidney
h. 11th and 12th rib-left kidney
                           ANSWER: D
NOTE: The subcostal nerve and vessels and the iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal nerves descend diagonally across the posterior surfaces of the kidneys.

61. Anteriorly, right kidney is related to all of the following EXCEPT:
a. 2nd part of deudenum and transverse colon
b. right suprarenal gland
c. left suprarenal gland
d. liver and jejunum separated by peritoneum
                     ANSWER: C
NOTE: The liver, duodenum, and ascending colon are anterior to the right kidney, This kidney is separated from the liver by the hepatorenal recess.

62. Anteriorly, Left kidney is related to all of the following EXCEPT:
a. pancreas and tranverse colon
b. Left suprarenal gland
c. right suprarenal gland
d. stomach, spleen and jejunum separated by peritoneum
                             ANSWER: C
NOTE: The left kidney is related to the stomach, spleen, pancreas, jejunum, and descending colon.

63. ureteric bud gives rise to:
a. ureter
b. renal pelvis
c. major and minor calyces
d.pyramids
e. all of these
                 ANSWER: E
NOTE: The renal pelvis is the flattened, funnel-shaped expansion of the superior end of the ureter.

64. which of the following regarding KIDNEY is false:
a. renal arteries supply both kidneys
b. renal vein drain directly into IVC
c. lymphatics is directly from para-aortic lymph nodes
d. none of the above
                 ANSWER: D
NOTE: The renal arteries arise at the level of the IV disc between the L1 and L2 vertebrae.

65. which of the following regarding URETER is false:
a. the ureter is approximately 20–30 cm long and courses from the hilum of the kidney to the bladder

b. It has a muscular wall and is lined by transitional epithelium

c. It passes along the medial part of psoas major
d. none
                     ANSWER: D
NOTE: The ureters occupy a sagittal plane that intersects the tips of the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae.

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ALL ABOUT BIOLOGICAL BUFFERS

2012-03-24T06:06:00.000-07:00

In all multicellular organisms, the fluid within the cell and the fluids surrounding the cells have a characteristic and nearly constant pH. This pH is maintained in a number of ways, and one of the most important is through buffer systems. Two important biological buffer systems are the dihydrogen phosphate system and the carbonic acid system.

The condition called respiratory acidosis occurs when blood pH falls as a result of decreased respiration. When respiration is restricted, the concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide in the blood increases, making the blood too acidic. Such a condition can be produced by asthma, pneumonia, emphysema, or inhaling smoke.

Metabolic acidosis is the decrease in blood pH that results when excessive amounts of acidic substances are released into the blood. This can happen through prolonged physical exertion, by diabetes, or restricted food intake. The normal body response to this condition is increases breathing to reduce the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide in the blood. This is why we breathe more heavily after climbing several flights of stairs.

Respiratory alkalosis results from excessive breathing that produces an increase in blood pH. Hyperventilation causes too much dissolved carbon dioxide to be removed from the blood, which decreases the carbonic acid concentration, which raises the blood pH. Often, the body of a hyperventilating person will react by fainting, which slows the breathing.

Metabolic alkalosis is an increase in blood pH resulting from the release of alkaline materials into the blood. This can result from the ingestion of alkaline materials, and through overuse of diuretics. Again, the body usually responds to this condition by slowing breathing, possibly through fainting.

The carbonic acid-hydrogen carbonate ion buffer works throughout the body to maintain the pH of blood plasma close to 7.40. The body maintains the buffer by eliminating either the acid (carbonic acid) or the base (hydrogen carbonate ions). Changes in carbonic acid concentration can be effected within seconds through increased or decreased respiration. Changes in hydrogen carbonate ion concentration,

The phosphate buffer system operates in the internal fluid of all cells. This buffer system consists of dihydrogen phosphate ions (H₂PO₄^-) as hydrogen-ion donor (acid) and hydrogen phosphate ions (HPO₄^2-) as hydrogen-ion acceptor (base). These two ions are in equilibrium with each other as indicated by the chemical equation below.

H₂PO₄^-(aq) H⁺(aq) + HPO₄^2-(aq)

If additional hydrogen ions enter the cellular fluid, they are consumed in the reaction with HPO₄^2-, and the equilibrium shifts to the left. If additional hydroxide ions enter the cellular fluid, they react with H₂PO₄^-, producing HPO₄^2-, and shifting the equilibrium to the right.

The value of K_a for this equilibrium is 6.23 × 10^-8 at 25°C. From this equation, the relationship between the hydrogen-ion concentration and the concentrations of the acid and base can be derived.

Thus, when the concentrations of H₂PO₄^- and HPO₄^2- are the same, the value of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions is equal to the value of the equilibrium constant, and the pH is equal to the pK_a (-log K_a), namely 7.21. Buffer solutions are most effective at maintaining a pH near the value of the pK_a. In mammals, cellular fluid has a pH in the range 6.9 to 7.4, and the phosphate buffer is effective in maintaining this pH range.

Another biological fluid in which a buffer plays an important role in maintaining pH is blood plasma. In blood plasma, the carbonic acid and hydrogen carbonate ion equilibrium buffers the pH. In this buffer, carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) is the hydrogen-ion donor (acid) and hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO₃^-) is the hydrogen-ion acceptor (base).

H₂CO₃(aq) H⁺(aq) + HCO₃^-(aq)

This buffer functions in exactly the same way as the phosphate buffer. Additional H⁺ is consumed by HCO₃^- and additional OH^- is consumed by H₂CO₃. The value of K_a for this equilibrium is 7.9 × 10^-7, and the pK_a is 6.1 at body temperature. In blood plasma, the concentration of hydrogen carbonate ion is about twenty times the concentration of carbonic acid. The pH of arterial blood plasma is 7.40. If the pH falls below this normal value, a condition called acidosis is produced. If the pH rises above the normal value, the condition is called alkalosis.

The concentrations of hydrogen carbonate ions and of carbonic acid are controlled by two independent physiological systems. Carbonic acid concentration is controlled by respiration, that is through the lungs. Carbonic acid is in equilibrium with dissolved carbon dioxide gas.

H₂CO₃(aq) CO₂(aq) + H₂O(l)

An enzyme called carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the conversion of carbonic acid to dissolved carbon dioxide. In the lungs, excess dissolved carbon dioxide is exhaled as carbon dioxide gas.

CO₂(aq) CO₂(g)

The concentration of hydrogen carbonate ions is controlled through the kidneys. Excess hydrogen carbonate ions are excreted in the urine.

The much higher concentration of hydrogen carbonate ion over that of carbonic acid in blood plasma allows the buffer to respond effectively to the most common materials that are released into the blood. Normal metabolism releases mainly acidic materials: carboxylic acids such as lactic acid (HLac). These acids react with hydrogen carbonate ion and form carbonic acid.

HLac(aq) + HCO₃^-(aq) Lac^-(aq) + H₂CO₃(aq)

The carbonic acid is converted through the action of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase into aqueous carbon dioxide.

H₂CO₃(aq) CO₂(aq) + H₂O(l)

An increase in CO₂(aq) concentration stimulates increased breathing, and the excess carbon dioxide is released into the air in the lungs.

EXAM FOCUS MCQ ON ABDOMEN-GIT(gallbladder)#4

2012-03-24T05:28:00.000-07:00

GALL BLADDER(GROSS)

51. which is not the contents of calot’striangle

a. liver

b. cystic duct

c. bile duct

d. hepatic duct

ANSWER: C

NOTE: calot’s triangle is an autonomictriangle bordered by liver, cystic duct and hepatic duct.

52. The three parts of gallbladderare:

a. fundus , body and antrum

b. fundus, neck and antrum

c. fundus, pyloric and antrum

d. fundus, body and neck

ANSWER:D

NOTE: The gallbladder has three parts Which are fundus, bodyand neck.

53. Which of the following is not arelation of fundus of gall bladder:

a. anteriorly-anterior abdominal wall

b. anteriorly-diaphragm

c. posterorly-1^st part ofdeudenum

ANSWER: B

NOTE: Fundus: the wide blunt endthat usually projects from the inferior border of the liver at the tip of theright 9th costal cartilage in the MCL.

54. Which of the following is not arelation of BODY and NECK of gall bladder:

a. upper surface-related to fossa for gallbladder

b. upper surface not covered by peritoneum

c. lower surface-related to 2^ndpart of deudenum and transverse colon

d. lower surface not covered by peritoneum

ANSWER: D

NOTE: Lower surface is covered byperitoneum which is related to 2^nd part of duodenum and transversecolon.

55. the cystic artery supplies:

a. gall bladder

b. cystic duct

c. common hepatic duct

d. All of the above

ANSWER: D

NOTE: The cystic artery commonlyarises from the right hepatic artery in the trianglebetween the common hepatic duct, cystic duct, and visceral surface of theliver, the cystohepatic triangle.

EXAM FOCUS MCQ ON ABDOMEN-GIT(Liver)#3

2012-03-22T05:27:00.000-07:00

LIVER(GROSS)

31. Thediaphragmatic surface of the liver is made of:

a.base, superior and inferior surface

b.base, superior and anterior surface

c.base, superior and posterior surface

d.All of the above

ANSWER: B

NOTE:The liver has a convex diaphragmatic surface(anterior, superior, and some posterior).

32.The concave visceral surface of theliver is made of:

a.anterosuperior surface

b.anteroinferior surface

c.posterosuperior surface

d.posteroinferior surface

ANSWER: D

NOTE:the visceral surface of the liver is directed inferiorly, posteriorly, and tothe left.

33. Subphrenic recesses IS:

a. inferior extensions of peritoneal cavity

b. superior extentions of peritoneal cavity

c. anterior extentions of peritoneal cavity

d. posterior extentions of peritoneal cavity

ANSWER: B

NOTE: Subphrenic recesses—superior extensions of theperitoneal cavity (greater sac)—exist between diaphragm and the anterior andsuperior aspects of the diaphragmatic surface of the liver.

34.The subphrenic recesses are separated into right and left recesses by the :

a.coronary ligament

b.ligamentum teres

c.falciform ligament

d.ligamentum venosum

ANSWER: C

NOTE:The subphrenic recesses are separated into right and left recesses by the falciform ligament, which extends between the liver and theanterior abdominal wall.

35.The hepatorenal recess is the:

a. posterosuperiorextension of the subhepatic space

b.posteroinferior extension of the subhepatic space

c.anterosuperior extension of the subhepatic space

d.anteroinferior extension of the subhepatic space

ANSWER: A

NOTE:it lies between the right part of the visceral surface of the liver and theright kidney and suprarenal gland, The portion of the supracolic compartment ofthe peritoneal cavity immediately inferior to the liver is the subhepatic space.

36. the falciform ligament anteriorly is attached to:

a. diaphragm and infraumblical anterior abdominal wall
b. diaphragm and supraumblical posterior abdominal wall

c.diaphragm and supraumblical anterior abdominal wall

d. diaphragm and infraumblical posterior abdominal wall

ANSWER: C

NOTE: The falciform ligament is the ventral part of the ventralabdominal wall

37. which is not correct about falciform ligament:

a. the apex is attached to the umbilicus

b. the attached margin is attached to the anterior abdominal wall

c. the free margin is attached to posterior abdominal wall

d. the base is attached to the anterosuperior surface

ANSWER: C

NOTE: The free margin has a paraumblical vein as content

38. which ligament passed to the left extremity of the portalhepatis and fuses with the left branch of the portal vein:

a. coronary ligament

b. round ligament

c. right triangular ligament

d. left triangular ligament

ANSWER: B

NOTE: The round ligament passes from the free edge of the falciformligament into a fissure on the posteroinferior surface of the liver.

39. which is not the contents of free margin of falciform ligament;

a. anterior abdominal wall

b. ligamentum teres

c. paraumblical vein

ANSWER: A

NOTE: Posterosuperiorly, the falciform ligament forms the anteriormargin of bare area. The ligamentum teres represents the left umbilical vein ofthe embryo, The round ligament and small paraumbilicalveins course in the free edge of the falciform ligament.

40. the diaphragm separates the liver from:

a. pericardium

b. lung

c. right pleural cavity

d. All of the above

ANSWER: D

NOTE: the right lobe of the liver is separated from the costodiaphragmaticrecess of the pleura by the diaphragm.

41. the bile canaliculi join to form:

a. the bile ductules

b. the hepatic duct

c. the cystic duct

d. All of the above

ANSWER: A

NOTE: The bile canaliculi joins to form bile ductules which, inturnform interlobular ducts.

42. interlobular ducts emerge from portal hepatis as:

a. cystic duct

b. right and left hepatic duct

c. common hepatic duct

d. none of the above

ANSWER:B

NOTE: The right and left hepatic duct join to form common hepaticduct, the common hepatic duct is directly continuous with the bile duct, wherethe cystic duct from the gall bladder joins it.

43. which is not the contents of portal triad:

a. right and left common hepatic ducts

b. right and left hepatic vessels

c. lymphatics and autonomic fibres

d. NOne of the above

ANSWER: D

NOTE: The portal triadenters liver at the portal hepatis. The bare area of the liver is bounded bysuperior and inferior coronary ligament and right triangular ligament.

44. folds of peritoneum related to the liver are:

a. ligaments of liver

b. lesser omentum

c. All of the above

ANSWER: C

NOTE: The lesser omentun arises from the fissures of theporta-hepatis and ligamentum venosum and passes as a sheet to be attached toalong the lesser curvature of the stomach.

45. Which of the following is a visceral relation of The inferior surface of the liver:

a. gastric impression

b. tuber omentale

c. fissure for ligamentum teres containing it

d. quadrate lobe

e. porta-hepatis and its contents

f. fossa for gallbladder

g. duodenal impression

h. renal impression

i. colic impression

j. All of the above

ANSWER: J

NOTE: The round ligament of the liver(Lligamentum teres hepatis) isthe fibrous remnant of the umbilical vein, whichcarried well-oxygenated and nutrient-rich blood from the placenta to the fetus.

46. Which of the following is a visceralrelation of The SUPerior surface of the liver:

a. diaphragm

b. pericardium

c. left and right pleura containing lungs

d. All of the above

ANSWER: D

NOTE: The visceral surface of the liver is covered with peritoneum,except at the fossa for the gallbladder and the porta hepatis—a transversefissure where the vessels (hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery, and lymphaticvessels), the hepatic nerve plexus, and hepatic ducts that supply and drain theliver enter and leave it. In contrast to the smooth diaphragmatic surface, thevisceral surface bears multiple fissures and impressions from contact withother organs.

47. Which of the following is NOT a visceral relation of The ANTerior surface of the liver:

a. anterior abdominal wall

b. posterior abdominal wall

c. diaphragm

ANSWER: B

NOTE: Two sagittally orientedfissures, linked centrally by the transverse porta hepatis,form the letter H on the visceral surface. The right sagittal fissure is the continuous groove formedanteriorly by the fossa for the gallbladder and posteriorly by the groove forthe vena cava. The left sagittal fissure is thecontinuous groove formed anteriorly by the fissure for theround ligament and posteriorly by the fissure for theligamentum venosum.

48. Which of the following is a visceralrelation of The POSTerior surface of the liver:

a. oesophageal impression

b. fissure for ligamentum venosumcontaining it

c. caudate lobe

d. fossa for imperior vena cava

e. bare area of liver

f. All of the above

ANSWER: F

NOTE: The ligamentumvenosum is the fibrous remnant of the fetal ductusvenosus, which shunted blood from the umbilical vein to the IVC,short-circuiting the liver

49. Which of the following is not avisceral relation of The Right-lateral surface of theliver:

a. diaphragm

b. ribs-5,6,7,8,and 9^th

c. right pleura and lungs

d. anterior abdominal all

ANSWER: D

NOTE: The thick, free edge of thelesser omentum extends between the porta hepatis and the duodenum (the hepatoduodenal ligament) and encloses the structures thatpass through the porta hepatis. The sheet-like remainder of the lesser omentum,the hepatogastric ligament, extends between the groovefor the ligamentum venosum and the lesser curvature of the stomach.

50. The following statements concerning the LIVER arecorrect EXCEPT which

a. portal vein gives 70-80% of blood to the liver

b. hepatic artery gives 20-30% of blood to the liver

c. hepatic vein drains into IVC

d. the liver has five anatomical lobes

ANSWER: D

NOTE: the liver isdivided into two anatomical lobes and two accessory lobes by the reflections ofperitoneum from its surface, the fissures formed in relation to thosereflections and the vessels serving the liver and the gallbladder.

EXAM FOCUS MCQ ON ABDOMEN-GIT(Pancreas)#2

2012-03-21T05:25:00.000-07:00

PANCREAS(GROSS)

13. Pancreas is:
a. retroperitoneum
b.intraperitoneum
c.interperitoneum
d.All of the above
ANSWER: A
NOTE: Pancreas lies in posterior abdominal wall roughly in the transpyloric plane, Also the posterior surface of pancreas is not covered by peritoneum.

14. pancreas lies posterior to the stomach between:
a. the duodenum on the right and the spleen on the right
b. the duodenum on the right and the spleen on the left
c. the duodenum on the left and the spleen on the left
d. the duodenum on the left and the spleen on the right
ANSWER: B
NOTE: Its transversely crossing the bodies of the L1 and L2 vertebra.

15. The transverse mesocolon attaches to:
a.posterior margin of pancreas
b. superior margin of pancreas
c. Anterior margin of pancreas
d. All of the above
ANSWER: C
NOTE: The head of pancreas is covered anteriorly by the peritoneum of the greater sac except where its related to transvers colon. The neck and body is covered anteriorly by the peritoneum of lesser sac.

16. The head of the pancreas is the expanded part of the gland that is embraced by:
a. the C-shaped curve of the duodenum
b. horizontal part of the duodenum
c. body of stomach
d. hilum of the spleen
ANSWER: A
NOTE: The head of the pancreas is the expanded part of the gland that is embraced by the C-shaped curve of the duodenum to the right of the superior mesenteric vessels just inferior to the transpyloric plane.

17. Which of the following is not a relation of The Anterior surface of the head of pancreas:
a. pylorus of stomach
b. transverse colon
c. transverse mesocolon
ANSWER: A
NOTE: The pancreatic head rests anteriorly on the tranverse colon and mesocolon.

18. Which of the following is a relation of The Anterior surface of the neck of pancreas:
a. pylorus of stomach
b. transverse colon
c. transverse mesocolon
ANSWER: A
NOTE: The anterior surface of the neck, covered with peritoneum, is adjacent to the pylorus of the stomach.

19. Which of the following is a relation of The Anterior surface of the Body of pancreas:
a. pylorus of stomach
b. Body of stomach
c. transverse mesocolon
ANSWER: B
NOTE: The anterior surface of the body of the pancreas is covered with peritoneum and lies in the floor of the omental bursa and forms part of the stomach bed.

20. Which of the following is not a relation of The Posterior surface of the head of pancreas:
a.IVC
b. Right renal vessels
c. left renal vessels
d. common bile duct
ANSWER: C
NOTE: The pancreatic head rests posteriorly on the IVC, right renal artery and vein, and left renal vein. On its way to opening into the descending part of the duodenum, the bile duct lies in a groove on the posterosuperior surface of the head or is embedded in its substance.

21. Which of the following is a relation of The Posterior surface of the NECK of pancreas:
a.IVC
b. Right renal vessels
c. portal vein
d. common bile duct
ANSWER: C
NOTE: it overlies the superior mesenteric vessels, which form a groove in its posterior aspect.

22. Which of the following is not a relation of The Posterior surface of the body of pancreas:
a. Abdominal aorta
b. splenic vein
c. superior mesenteric vessels
d. left kidney
e. left crus of diaphragm
f. left supra renal gland
e. none of the above
ANSWER: E
NOTE: The posterior surface of the body is devoid of peritoneum and is in contact with the aorta, SMA, left suprarenal gland, left kidney, and renal vessels.

23. The tail of the pancreas lies anterior to:
A. Right kidney
b. left kidney
c. spleen
d. left supra renal gland
ANSWER: B
NOTE: it is closely related to the splenic hilum and the left colic flexure. The tail is relatively mobile and passes between the layers of the splenorenal ligament with the splenic vessels. It also lies against the hilum of the spleen.

24. what is the uncinate process
a. A hook-shaped projection from the lower aspect of the head of the pancreas that extend superiorly to the left and lies between the inferior mesenteric vessels and the aorta
b. A hook-shaped projection from the lower aspect of the head of the pancreas that extend superiorly to the left and lies between the inferior mesenteric vessels and the celiac trunk
c. A hook-shaped projection from the lower aspect of the head of the pancreas that extend superiorly to the left and lies between the superior mesenteric vessels and the celiac trunk
d. A hook-shaped projection from the lower aspect of the head of the pancreas that extend superiorly to the left and lies between the superior mesenteric vessels and the aorta
ANSWER: D
NOTE: The uncinate process, a projection from the inferior part of the pancreatic head, extends medially to the left, posterior to the SMA.

25. Which major vessels course along the pancreas:
a. splenic artery
b. SMV
c. IMV
d. none of the above
ANSWER: A
NOTE: As many as 10 branches may pass from the splenic artery to the body and tail of the pancreas.

26. Which of the following arteries/artery do not supply the head of pancreas:
a. The anterior and posterior superior pancreaticoduodenal arteries, branches of the gastroduodenal artery
b. the anterior and posterior inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries, branches of the SMA
c. splenic artery
ANSWER: C
NOTE: Multiple pancreatic arteries form several arcades with pancreatic branches of the gastroduodenal and superior mesenteric arteries.

27. Which of the following arteries/artery do not supply the body and tail of pancreas:
a. splenic artery
b. the anterior and posterior inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries, branches of the SMA
c. dorsal pancreatic artery
d. great pancreatic artery
ANSWER: B
NOTE: As many as 10 branches may pass from the splenic artery to the body and tail of the pancreas.

28. Which of the following structures is embraced between the neck and uncinate process of the pancreas:
a. Superior mesentric vein
b. Inferior mesentric vein
c. Portal vein
d. Bile duct
ANSWER: A
NOTE: The neck of the pancreas is short (1.5-2 cm) and overlies the superior mesenteric vessels, which form a groove in its posterior aspect.

29. The following statements concerning the pancreas are correct EXCEPT which:
a. The pancreas recieves part of its arterial supply from splenic artery
b. The main pancreatic duct opens into the third part of the duodenum
c. The uncinate process of the pancreas projects from the head of the pancreas
d. The common bile duct lies posterior to the head of the pancreas
e. The transverse mesocolon is attached to the anterior border of the pancreas
ANSWER: B
NOTE: The main pancreatic duct and bile duct usually unite to form the short, dilated hepatopancreatic ampulla (of Vater), which opens into the descending part of the duodenum at the summit of the major duodenal papilla.

30. The pancreas is a soft, lobulated exocrine/endocrine organ containing all of the following parts EXCEPT:
a) Head
b) Neck
c) Back
d) Body
e) Tail
ANSWER: C
NOTE: the pancreas is divided into four parts: head, neck, body, and tail

EXAM FOCUS MCQ ON ABDOMEN-GIT(spleen)#1

2012-03-19T05:24:00.000-07:00

SPLEEN(GROSS)

1.Lienorenal Ligament Extends from:
a. posterior surface to the right kidney of the hilum of the spleen
b. posterior surface to the left kidney of the hilum of the spleen
c. Anterior surface to the left kidney of the hilum of the spleen
d. Anterior surface to the right kidney of the hilum of the spleen.
ANSWER: C.
NOTE: The splenorenal Ligament is also known as Lienorenal Ligament

2. Which of the following is not a Contents of splenorenal Ligament:
a. splenic vessels
b.short gastric vessels
c.Tail of pancreas
d.hepatic portal vein
ANSWER: Both B. and D are correct
NOTE: The splenic hilum is often in contact with the tail of the pancreas and constitutes the left boundary of the omental bursa.

3.Spleen is normally:
a. palpable
b. partially palpable
c. not palpable
d. none of the above
ANSWER: C
NOTE: Normally, the spleen does not extend inferior to the left costal margin; thus it is seldom palpable through the anterolateral abdominal wall unless it is enlarged.

4. The long axis of the spleen lies in the:
a. 12th rib
b. 8th rib
c.9th rib
d. 10th rib
ANSWER: D
NOTE: (its long axis is roughly parallel to the 10th rib) and separated from them by the diaphragm and the costodiaphragmatic recess—the cleftlike extension of the pleural cavity between the diaphragm and the lower part of the thoracic cage.

5. Spleen is:
a. retroperitoneum
b.intraperitoneum
c.interperitoneum
d.All of the above
ANSWER: B
NOTE: It is covered with a layer of visceral peritoneum that entirely surrounds the spleen except at the splenic hilum, where the splenic branches of the splenic artery and vein enter and leave.

6. Gastrosplenic Ligament Extends from:
a. the fundus of stomach to the hilum of the of spleen
b. the pyloric of stomach to the hilum of the spleen
c. the body of stomach to the hillum of the spleen
d. the antrum of stomach to the hilum of the spleen
ANSWER: A
NOTE: The spleen contacts the posterior wall of the stomach and is connected to its greater curvature by the gastrosplenic ligament.
7. Which of the following is not a Contents of gastrosplenic ligament:
a. splenic vessels
b.short gastric vessels
c.Tail of pancreas
d. left gastroepiploic vessels
ANSWER: Both A and C are correct
NOTE: These ligaments, containing splenic vessels, are attached to the hilum of the spleen on its medial aspect.

8. What is the name of the ligament extending from the left colic flexure to the diaphragm:
a.colicphrenic
b.coliccolic
c.phrenicocolic
d.phreniccolon
ANSWER: C
NOTE: these special ligament keeps the spleen in position.

9. Which of the following is not a relation of The diaphragmatic surface of the spleen:
a. 9th, 10th, and 11th ribs of the left side
b. right diaphragm
c. left diaphragm
d. left lung and left pleura above the diaphragm
ANJSWER: B
NOTE: The diaphragmatic surface of the spleen is convexly curved to fit the concavity of the diaphragm and curved bodies of the adjacent ribs.

10. Which of the following is not a relation of The Visceral surface of the spleen:
a. Anteriorly- gastric impressions above and anterior to hilum
b. Medially- renal impression below and posterior to hilum
c. inferiorly- colic impression near the lateral or anterior end
d. All of the above
ANSWER: D
NOTE: The viscerea are all separated by the greater sac except the tail of pancrease which lies in the lienolenal ligament.

11. The arterial supply of the spleen is from:
a. deudenal artery
b. superior mesenteric vessels
c. Inferior mesenteric vessels
d. splenic artery
ANSWER: D
NOTE: Slenic artery is the largest branch of the celiac trunk. It follows a tortuous course posterior to the omental bursa, anterior to the left kidney, and along the superior border of the pancreas. Between the layers of the splenorenal ligament, the splenic artery divides into five or more branches that enter the hilum.

12. The splenic vein unites with the SMV posterior to:
a. the body of pancrease to form the hepatic portal vein
b. the tail of pancrease to form the hepatic portal vein
c. the neck of the pancrease to form the hepatic portal vein
d. the uncinate process of the pancrease to form the hepatic portal vein
ANSWER: C
NOTE: The splenic vein unites with the SMV posterior to the neck of the pancreas to form the hepatic portal vein.

1.Lienorenal Ligament Extends from:
a. posterior surface to the right kidney of the hilum of the spleen
b. posterior surface to the left kidney of the hilum of the spleen
c. Anterior surface to the left kidney of the hilum of the spleen
d. Anterior surface to the right kidney of the hilum of the spleen.
ANSWER: C.
NOTE: The splenorenal Ligament is also known as Lienorenal Ligament

2. Which of the following is not a Contents of splenorenal Ligament:
a. splenic vessels
b.short gastric vessels
c.Tail of pancreas
d.hepatic portal vein
ANSWER: Both B. and D are correct
NOTE: The splenic hilum is often in contact with the tail of the pancreas and constitutes the left boundary of the omental bursa.

3.Spleen is normally:
a. palpable
b. partially palpable
c. not palpable
d. none of the above
ANSWER: C
NOTE: Normally, the spleen does not extend inferior to the left costal margin; thus it is seldom palpable through the anterolateral abdominal wall unless it is enlarged.

4. The long axis of the spleen lies in the:
a. 12th rib
b. 8th rib
c.9th rib
d. 10th rib
ANSWER: D
NOTE: (its long axis is roughly parallel to the 10th rib) and separated from them by the diaphragm and the costodiaphragmatic recess—the cleftlike extension of the pleural cavity between the diaphragm and the lower part of the thoracic cage.

5. Spleen is:
a. retroperitoneum
b.intraperitoneum
c.interperitoneum
d.All of the above
ANSWER: B
NOTE: It is covered with a layer of visceral peritoneum that entirely surrounds the spleen except at the splenic hilum, where the splenic branches of the splenic artery and vein enter and leave.

6. Gastrosplenic Ligament Extends from:
a. the fundus of stomach to the hilum of the of spleen
b. the pyloric of stomach to the hilum of the spleen
c. the body of stomach to the hillum of the spleen
d. the antrum of stomach to the hilum of the spleen
ANSWER: A
NOTE: The spleen contacts the posterior wall of the stomach and is connected to its greater curvature by the gastrosplenic ligament.
7. Which of the following is not a Contents of gastrosplenic ligament:
a. splenic vessels
b.short gastric vessels
c.Tail of pancreas
d. left gastroepiploic vessels
ANSWER: Both A and C are correct
NOTE: These ligaments, containing splenic vessels, are attached to the hilum of the spleen on its medial aspect.

8. What is the name of the ligament extending from the left colic flexure to the diaphragm:
a.colicphrenic
b.coliccolic
c.phrenicocolic
d.phreniccolon
ANSWER: C
NOTE: these special ligament keeps the spleen in position.

9. Which of the following is not a relation of The diaphragmatic surface of the spleen:
a. 9th, 10th, and 11th ribs of the left side
b. right diaphragm
c. left diaphragm
d. left lung and left pleura above the diaphragm
ANJSWER: B
NOTE: The diaphragmatic surface of the spleen is convexly curved to fit the concavity of the diaphragm and curved bodies of the adjacent ribs.

10. Which of the following is not a relation of The Visceral surface of the spleen:
a. Anteriorly- gastric impressions above and anterior to hilum
b. Medially- renal impression below and posterior to hilum
c. inferiorly- colic impression near the lateral or anterior end
d. All of the above
ANSWER: D
NOTE: The viscerea are all separated by the greater sac except the tail of pancrease which lies in the lienolenal ligament.

11. The arterial supply of the spleen is from:
a. deudenal artery
b. superior mesenteric vessels
c. Inferior mesenteric vessels
d. splenic artery
ANSWER: D
NOTE: Slenic artery is the largest branch of the celiac trunk. It follows a tortuous course posterior to the omental bursa, anterior to the left kidney, and along the superior border of the pancreas. Between the layers of the splenorenal ligament, the splenic artery divides into five or more branches that enter the hilum.

12. The splenic vein unites with the SMV posterior to:
a. the body of pancrease to form the hepatic portal vein
b. the tail of pancrease to form the hepatic portal vein
c. the neck of the pancrease to form the hepatic portal vein
d. the uncinate process of the pancrease to form the hepatic portal vein
ANSWER: C
NOTE: The splenic vein unites with the SMV posterior to the neck of the pancreas to form the hepatic portal vein.

Health tips: The benefits of Grapes

2012-03-18T05:45:00.003-07:00

Grapes plays an extremely important role when it comes to preventing numerous health disorders.
Study shows that grape mimic the shape of Human respiratory unit(respiratory unit includes structures inside respiratory tract which are respiratory bronchoiles, alveolar ducts, antrum, alveolar sacs and alveoli).
Thus, grapes are very therapeutic for diseases like restrictive respiratory diseaese(such as pleural effusion, polio, myasthenia gravis etc) and obstructive respiratory disease(such as asthma, emphysema, cystic fibrosis), they have(graves) high assimilating power and increase the amount of moist in the respiratory membrane of the Lungs.
Grapes also is one of the natural source of very powerful antioxidants such as vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin B1 and B6 which significantly lower disorder like fatigue, alzheimers diseases, cancer, and kidney disorder.
Also found to reduce the risk of breast cancer, lab experiment done with rats, given grape juice over a period of time shows a reduction in mammary tumor masses.
©medicalgroupz.com

HEAD AND NECK: Anatomical Terms and direction#2

2012-03-18T05:27:00.003-07:00

Neck region

n Larynx

n Trachea

n Cervical

Splenectomy and Splenomegaly(The difference)

2012-03-18T05:22:00.002-07:00

splenectomy (removal of the spleen), total removal of the spleen usually does not produce serious effects, especially in adults, because most of its functions are assumed by other reticuloendothelial organs (e.g., liver and bone marrow), but there is a greater susceptibility to certain bacterial infections.

Splenomegaly (enlarge spleen), it may enlarge to 10 or more times its normal size and weight। Spleen engorgement sometimes accompanies hypertension (high blood pressure).

HEAD AND NECK: Anatomical Terms and direction#1

2012-03-18T05:21:00.003-07:00

Head Region

n Parietal

n Frontal

n Occipital

n Temporal

n Auricular

n Buccal

n Orbital

n Mastoid

n Nasal

n Mental

n Submental

n Maxillary

n Mandibular

n Zygomatic

IMPORTANT DESCRIPTIVE TERMS AND REGION#3

2012-03-18T05:20:00.000-07:00

DIRECTIONAL terms for beginners:

Appendicitis(causes and position)

2012-03-18T05:17:00.002-07:00

The Acute inflammation of theappendix, Is known as appendicitis,usually is a common cause of severe abdominal pain arising over theMcBurney point registers maximum abdominal tenderness.

Causes:

Appendicitis in older people is usually caused by the obstructionresults from a fecalith , a concretion that formsaround a center of fecal matter.

in young people is usuallycaused by hyperplasia of lymphatic follicles in the appendix that occludes thelumen.

When secretions from the appendix cannot escape, theappendix swells, stretching the visceral peritoneum. Acute infection of the appendix may result inischemia, gangrene (death of tissue), and perforation of an inflamed appendix.

Position of Appendix:

The anatomical position of the appendix determines the symptoms and thesite of muscular spasm and tenderness when the appendix is inflamed. The baseof the appendix lies deep to a point that is one third of the way along theoblique line joining the right ASIS to the umbilicus.

IMPORTANT DESCRIPTIVE TERMS AND REGION#2

2012-03-18T05:15:00.002-07:00

Descriptive REGIONS for beginners:

Volar - palm of the hand.

Vaso – vessels

Thoracic- chest.

Tarsal - ankle.

Popliteal - back of the knee.

Pollex - thumb.

Plantar - sole of the foot.

Peroneal - area of the fibula.

Pectoral - anterior chest.

Nuchae -Back of the neck.

Metatarsal - Foot.

Metacarpal - Hand.

Lumbar - Small of the back.

Hallux - Great toe.

Femoral -Thigh.

Cubital - Elbow.

Cervical -Neck.

Carpal - Wrist.

Calcaneal -Heel.

Brachial - Shoulder to elbow.

Axilla - Armpit.

Antibrachial - Forearm.

IMPORTANT DESCRIPTIVE TERMS AND REGION#1

2012-03-18T05:06:00.000-07:00

Descriptive terms for beginners:

Vaso - refers to vessels

Uro - refers to the urinary system

Reno - refers to the kidneys

Pneumo - refers to the lungs.

Osseo - refers to bone.

Neuro - refers to nerves.

Myo - refers to muscle.

Hepato - refers to the liver.

Gastro - refers to the stomach

Chrondo -refers to cartilage.

Encephalon -refers to the brain

Cardio - refers to the heart.

Cephalo - refers to the head.

What happens if the kidneys fail completely?

2012-03-15T06:30:00.000-07:00

nearly total and permanent kidney failure is called ESRD. If a person’s kidneys stop working completely, the body fills with extra water and waste products. This condition is called uremia. Hands or feet may swell. A person will feel tired and weak because the body needs clean blood to function properly.
Untreated uremia may lead to seizures or coma and will ultimately result in death. A person whose kidneys stop working completely will need to undergo dialysis or kidney transplantation.

Dialysis

The two major forms of dialysis are hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. Hemodialysis uses a special filter called a dialyzer that functions as an artificial kidney to clean a person’s blood. The dialyzer is a canister connected to the hemodialysis machine. During treatment, the blood travels through tubes into the dialyzer, which filters out wastes, extra salt, and extra water. Then the cleaned blood flows through another set of tubes back into the body. The hemodialysis machine monitors blood flow and removes wastes from the dialyzer. Hemodialysis is usually performed at a dialysis center three times per week for 3 to 4 hours. A small but growing number of clinics offer home hemodialysis in addition to standard in-clinic treatments. The patient first learns to do treatments at the clinic, working with a dialysis nurse. Daily home hemodialysis is done 5 to 7 days per week for 2 to 3 hours at a time. Nocturnal dialysis can be performed for 8 hours at night while a person sleeps. Research as to which is the best method for dialysis is under way, but preliminary data indicate that daily dialysis schedules such as short daily dialysis or nocturnal dialysis may be the best form of dialysis therapy.

Hemodialysis
In peritoneal dialysis, a fluid called dialysis solution is put into the abdomen. This fluid captures the waste products from a person’s blood. After a few hours when the fluid is nearly saturated with wastes, the fluid is drained through a catheter. Then, a fresh bag of fluid is dripped into the abdomen to continue the cleansing process. Patients can perform peritoneal dialysis themselves. Patients using continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) change fluid four times a day. Another form of peritoneal dialysis, called continuous cycling peritoneal dialysis (CCPD), can be performed at night with a machine that drains and refills the abdomen automatically.

Peritoneal dialysis

Transplantation

A donated kidney may come from an anonymous donor who has recently died or from a living person, usually a relative. The kidney must be a good match for the patient’s body. The more the new kidney is like the person receiving the kidney, the less likely the immune system is to reject it. The immune system protects a person from disease by attacking anything that is not recognized as a normal part of the body. So the immune system will attack a kidney that appears too “foreign.” The patient will take special drugs to help trick the immune system so it does not reject the transplanted kidney. Unless they are causing infection or high blood pressure, the diseased kidneys are left in place. Kidneys from living, related donors appear to be the best match for success, but kidneys from unrelated people also have a long survival rate. Patients approaching kidney failure should ask their doctor early about starting the process to receive a kidney transplant.

Kidney transplantation

Points to Remember

The kidneys are two vital organs that keep the blood clean and chemically balanced.
Kidney disease can be detected through a spot check for protein or albumin in the urine and a calculation of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) based on a blood test.
The progression of kidney disease can be slowed, but it cannot always be reversed.
End-stage renal disease (ESRD) is the total or nearly total and permanent loss of kidney function.
Dialysis and transplantation can extend the lives of people with kidney failure.
Diabetes and high blood pressure are the two leading causes of kidney failure.
People with reduced kidney function should see their doctor regularly. Doctors who specialize in kidney disease are called nephrologists.
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes.
People in the early stages of CKD may be able to save their remaining kidney function for many years by
- controlling their blood glucose
- controlling their blood pressure
- following a low-protein diet
- maintaining healthy levels of cholesterol in the blood
- taking an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor or an angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB)
- not smoking

insulin May Trigger Weight Gain

2012-03-15T06:27:00.000-07:00

Is your insulin treatment
causing weight gain? If so,
you’re not alone. It’s fairly
common for diabetics to gain
weight after starting insulin
therapy. Insulin is a hormone
that helps your body process
the food you eat. In addition to
keeping your blood sugar
down, it also increases your
ability to store fat.Diabetics can fight weight gain
by adopting a more active
lifestyle. Take daily walks or
add a new physical activity to
your weekly agenda, such as dancing or
tennis. And, of course, stick to a
nutritious meal plan and limit your
intake of fat and total calories.

Amniotic band sequece

2012-03-15T05:55:00.002-07:00

band seuence is a disruption sequence with a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations (The frequency is comprised between 1/1200 to 1/15 000 births) it is ranging from partial amputations to major craniofacial and limb-body wall defects.

This amniotic bands are the result of adhesions between the amnion and embryonic or fetal parts. Their . Amniotic bands cause masive malformations with limb amputations, sever abdominal or cranial wall defects. Two different theories have been proposed: constrictive amniotic bands secondary to early amnion rupture, and vascular disruption events.

The anomalies are characteristically asymmetrical and usually prediposed by:
- familial predisposition
- amniocentesis

Associations:
- short umbilical cord
- early amnion rupture-oligohydramnios disruption (EAROD)
- amniotic deformity-adhesion mutilation (ADAM)

intrauterine amputations
limb constriction rings
pseudosyndactyly
club feet
abnormal dermatoglyphs

This term infant was born with foot and finger anomalies resulting from amniotic bands