Ancient History Encyclopedia

Paper-making Process (Image)

Sun, 19 May 2013 17:13:02 +0100

An image of a Ming dynasty woodcut showing the main steps in the ancient Chinese papermaking process as outlined by Cai Lun in 105 CE.

A Chinese Servant Statue (Image)

Sun, 19 May 2013 17:11:50 +0100

A servant statue, Western Han Period (206 BCE 9 CE). Cernuschi Museum, Paris, France.

Map of the Eastern Hemisphere (1 CE) (Image)

Sun, 19 May 2013 17:10:35 +0100

Map showing the political division in the Eastern hemisphere in 1 CE. The Han dynasty was almost at its peak in terms of geographical expansion.

Marathon (Encyclopedia Definition)

Sun, 19 May 2013 16:35:20 +0100

The Battle on the plain of Marathon in September 490 BCE between Greeks and the invading forces of Persian king Darius was a victory which would go down in folklore as the moment the Greek city-states showed the world their courage and excellence and won their liberty. Although in reality the battle only delayed the Persians in their imperialistic ambitions and greater battles would follow, Marathon...

Roman Frescoed Room (Image)

Sat, 18 May 2013 10:19:50 +0100

A room from the Villa of the Farnesina, Rome, early 1st century BCE. Probably used as a bedroom. The fresco surrounds the whole room and uses trompe-l'oeil effects to create perspective. The central panels shows Dionysos nursed by nymphs, the left panel shows a seated Aphrodite with Eros. (Palazzo Massimo, Rome).

Dionysos or Bacchus (Image)

Sat, 18 May 2013 10:06:01 +0100

A bronze statue of the god of wine Dionysos (Greek name) / Bacchus (Roman name), early 2nd century CE. His head is crowned with vine leaves and fruit. The eyes are from limestone, the pupils would have probably been in coloured glass paste and the lips are in copper. The statue was made using the lost-wax technique. (Palazzo Massimo, Rome).

Alexander the Great (Image)

Sat, 18 May 2013 09:53:56 +0100

Head of Alexander the Great from a smaller than life-size statue, goldleaf on bronze, 2nd century CE. (Palazzo Massimo, Rome).

Roman Sacrificial Altar (Image)

Sat, 18 May 2013 09:43:21 +0100

A marble sacrificial altar dedicated to the Roman gods Mars and Venus, c. 124 CE. Later used as a pedestal for a statue of the god Silvanus. The carvings tell of the founding of Rome with the figures of Romulus and Remus, their adoptive shepherd father Faustulus and a personification of the river Tiber. (Palazzo Massimo, Rome)

Mycenaean Death Mask (Image)

Sat, 18 May 2013 09:17:41 +0100

A gold death mask from a Shaft Grave IV, Grave Circle A, Mycenae, 1600-1500 BCE. (National Archaeological Museum, Athens).

Death Mask of Agamemnon (Image)

Sat, 18 May 2013 09:06:15 +0100

The so-called death mask of Agamemnon - the king of Mycenae in Homer's Iliad. Gold funeral mask from Grave Circle A, Mycenae (mid-16th century BCE). The mask in fact predates Agamemnon by 400 years but nevertheless remains solid evidence of Homer's description of Mycenae as 'rich in gold'. (National Archaeological Museum, Athens).

Apulian Loutrophoros (Image)

Fri, 17 May 2013 21:31:12 +0100

A red-figure loutrophoros from Apulia, 4th century BCE. These tall slim vessels with elongated handles were used during wedding and funeral rites and as grave markers, especially for those who died unmarried. This example depicts women and youths in preparation for a special ocassion. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York).

Attic Louterion (Image)

Fri, 17 May 2013 21:17:49 +0100

An Attic louterion vessel, used for pouring water, wine or in funeral rites and usually wiith a central spout as in this example, 760-735 BCE. (British Museum, London).

Lebes Gamikos (Image)

Fri, 17 May 2013 21:03:57 +0100

A southern Italian lebes gamikos vessel, c. 340-320 BCE. Lebetes gamikoi are distinguished by their high handles and they were associated with wedding and funeral rituals. On this example a lady perhaps prepares for a wedding or festival as erotes fly overhead. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York).

Satyr Kantharos (Image)

Fri, 17 May 2013 20:49:19 +0100

An Attic kantharos (drinking cup) with a head of a satyr, c. 420 BCE.

Attic Pyxis (Image)

Fri, 17 May 2013 20:33:59 +0100

A red-figure Attic pyxis, 460-450 BCE. Pyxides were lidded boxes used for storing small items such as jewellery. This example depicts the birth of Aphrodite with Eros on the left. (Metropolitan -museum of Art, New York).

Corinthian Vessel with Protome (Image)

Fri, 17 May 2013 20:19:10 +0100

A Corinthian vessel depicting animals and carrying a protome of a female head on the handle, c. 570 BCE. (Getty Villa, Malibu).

Attic Lekanis (Image)

Fri, 17 May 2013 19:59:22 +0100

A red-figure Attic Lekanis, 400-300 BCE. (Provenance: Spina Necropolis). Lekanides were often used for serving food where the lid could be overturned and its handle became a foot. The woman depicted here holds a tympanon or drum.

Boeotian Exaleiptron (Image)

Fri, 17 May 2013 19:40:25 +0100

A Boeotian tripod exaleiptron (also known as a kothon), mid-6th century BCE. These vessels were used for keeping fine oils and perfumes and had an inverted lip to reduce spillage.

Sasanian Empire (Encyclopedia Definition)

Fri, 17 May 2013 11:39:15 +0100

The Sasanian Empire (also spelled Sassanian, Sasanid or Sassanid) was the last pre-Islamic Persian empire, established in 224 CE by Ardeshir I, son of Papak, descendant of Sasan. The Empire lasted until 651 CE when it was overthrown by the Arab Caliphate. It is considered by the Iranian people to be a highlight of their civilization, for after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire at the hands of Alexander...

Greek Warfare (Encyclopedia Definition)

Fri, 17 May 2013 11:19:02 +0100

In the ancient Greek world, warfare was seen as a necessary evil of the human condition. Whether it be small frontier skirmishes between neighbouring city-states, lengthy city-sieges, civil wars or large-scale battles between multi-alliance blocks on land and sea, the vast rewards of war could outweigh the costs in material and lives. Whilst there were lengthy periods of peace and many examples of friendly...

Attic Kyathos (Image)

Thu, 16 May 2013 21:19:42 +0100

A black-figure Attic kyathos depicting the Gorgon Medusa, c. 510-500 BCE. Kyathoi were used for serving wine into cups. (Getty Villa, Malibu).

The Egyptian Amulet: Pious Symbols of Spiritual Life (Article)

Wed, 15 May 2013 20:01:00 +0100

Material Objects & Cultures Material objects convey volumes about the people who possessed them. Cultures and societies in every generation are in part classified - either correctly or incorrectly - by the objects or symbols they select and how they are displayed. Typically, the formal study of society is the purview of anthropologists and social scientists who categorize ‘people&rsquo...

Trojan War (Encyclopedia Definition)

Wed, 15 May 2013 12:54:30 +0100

The Trojan War, fought between Greeks and the defenders of the city of Troy in Anatolia sometime in the late Bronze Age, has grabbed the imagination for millennia. A conflict between Mycenaeans and Hittites may well have occurred but its representation in epic literature such as Homer’s Iliad is almost certainly more myth than reality. Nevertheless, it has defined and shaped the way ancient Greek...

Leonidas (Encyclopedia Definition)

Sun, 12 May 2013 13:50:54 +0100

Leonidas was the Spartan king who famously led a small band of Greek allies at the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BCE where the Greeks valiantly defended the pass through which the Persian king Xerxes sought to invade Greece with his massive army. Ultimately, Leonidas and his men were wiped out, but they bought the Greek city-states valuable time and gave an inspirational example, not only of what Greek hoplites...

Hinduism (Encyclopedia Definition)

Sat, 11 May 2013 18:03:13 +0100

Unlike other religious traditions, Hinduism does not originate in a single founder, a single book or a single point in time. It contains many different beliefs, philosophies and viewpoints, not always consistent with each other. These apparent contradictions strike only those who are not familiar with this tradition: the Hindu insight claims that the Oneness expresses itself in many different forms...

Plataea (Encyclopedia Definition)

Sat, 11 May 2013 17:06:23 +0100

Following the resounding Greek victory at the naval Battle of Salamis in August 480 BCE, Xerxes’ planned invasion of Greece met a serious setback but his massive army was still intact, and if the Greeks were to survive as independent city-states they would have to fight and win on land; the battlefield would be near the small town of Plataea in Boeotia in 479 BCE. The Greek hoplite, as at Marathon...

Ostia (Encyclopedia Definition)

Fri, 10 May 2013 14:03:17 +0100

Ostia (or Ostia Antica) lies 15 km from the city of Rome for which it served as the city’s principal port and harbour throughout antiquity. The name derives from ‘os’ or ‘ostium’ which means ‘mouth’ and refers to the city’s location at the mouth of the river Tiber. Although originally situated at the mouth of the river, because of silting, it is now some...

Thor (Encyclopedia Definition)

Wed, 08 May 2013 22:26:13 +0100

Thor (meaning thunder) was one of the most important gods in Scandinavian mythology and the eldest son of Odin and Frigg (sometimes spelt Frigga). Some accounts say that Thor’s mother was the Earth. As a child he was so disobedient and unpredictable that his mother could not raise him and she gave him to the god Hlora and his wife Vingnir to be raised by them: despite this radical decision...

Cave of Letters (Encyclopedia Definition)

Tue, 07 May 2013 20:06:03 +0100

Everyone is aware of the Dead Sea Scrolls, but few realise that these were just one find in a region which continues to yield hundreds of finds significant to our understanding of lives in the first centuries CE, the Jewish revolts and the relationships between the peoples involved in the area. The Cave of Letters is one such site in Israel which has yielded a large number of papyrus letters and documents...

Petra: Wonder in the Desert (News)

Tue, 07 May 2013 14:12:37 +0100

Few places on earth have captivated humanity as much as the ethereal city of Petra, which is located in present-day Jordan. Constructed by the Nabataeans--ancient traders who dominated the export of frankincense, myrrh, balsam, and spices from Arabia to the Greco-Roman world--Petra was a beautiful desert metropolis of theaters, temples, palaces, and immense markets. 'Rediscovered' in 1812 by an eccentric...

Eros (Encyclopedia Definition)

Mon, 06 May 2013 20:12:47 +0100

Eros was the Greek god of love, or more precisely, passionate and physical desire. Without warning he selects his targets and forcefully strikes at their hearts, bringing confusion and irrepressible feelings or in the words of Hesiod he ‘loosens the limbs and weakens the mind’. Eros himself is a carefree and beautiful youth, crowned with flowers, especially of roses which were closely associated...

Salamis (Encyclopedia Definition)

Sun, 05 May 2013 21:21:47 +0100

With defeat at Thermopylae, the inconclusive naval battle at Artemision, and Xerxes’ Persian army on the rampage, the Greek city-states faced an unprecedented attack, one which threatened their very existence. The tide would turn, though, in September 480 BCE at the Battle of Salamis in the Saronic Gulf, a naval battle which would rank as one of the greatest and most significant in antiquity. Overcoming...

Side (Encyclopedia Definition)

Sat, 04 May 2013 18:51:01 +0100

Side (Σδη) (meaning pomegranate) is located in the region of Pamphylia in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) and was both a prosperous Aegean trading centre in Hellenistic and Roman times and a base for Cilician pirates in the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE. One of the first things you notice on arrival at the site is that modern Side is a tourist town. However, it is also one of the best preserved...

The dates of the Buddha (Article)

Thu, 02 May 2013 20:40:08 +0100

Buddhism is one of the most influential traditions of the Eastern world, with about two and a half thousand years of development. It has touched and adorned virtually every single aspect of Asian society: its lore, mythology, morals, art and even metaphysics and religion, despite the fact the Buddha, its founder, does not seem to have had any kind of metaphysical or religious concerns. There are still...

Roman Baths (Encyclopedia Definition)

Thu, 02 May 2013 19:58:30 +0100

Baths for bathing and relaxing were a common feature of Roman cities throughout the empire. The often huge bath complexes included a wide diversity of rooms offering different temperatures and facilities such as swimming pools and places to read, relax, and socialise. Roman baths, with their need for large open spaces, were also important drivers in the evolution of architecture offering the first dome structures...

Trephination (Encyclopedia Definition)

Wed, 01 May 2013 09:04:40 +0100

Trephination (also known as trepanning or burr holing) is a surgical intervention where a hole is drilled, incised or scraped into the skull using simple surgical tools. In drilling into the skull and removing a piece of the bone, the dura mater is exposed without damage to the underlying blood-vessels, meninges and brain. Trephination has been used to treat health problems associated with intracranial diseases...

A Short History of the Buddhist Schools (Article)

Wed, 01 May 2013 08:37:59 +0100

Introduction Like any other religious tradition, Buddhism has undergone a number of different transformations that have led to the emergence of many different Buddhist schools. Analyzing the major Buddhist traditions, we find a great number of topics ranging from moral concerns (which seems to have been originally the number one concern of the Buddha) to doctrinal interpretation, metaphysics, meditation...

The Legacy of Antiquity at the Dawn of the Renaissance (News)

Tue, 30 Apr 2013 19:09:28 +0100

"Of all the art forms, sculpture was the first to give a comprehensive and coherent voice to the new formal Renaissance idiom, the roots of which went back to the classical world. But it was the coherence of the Renaissance visual language that made the difference... These were major works of art, yet when they were cited, it was as fragments, without a comprehensive and coherent vision." Renaissance Florence...

Roman Army (Encyclopedia Definition)

Tue, 30 Apr 2013 10:27:26 +0100

The Roman army, famed for its discipline, organistion, and innovation in both weapons and tactics, allowed Rome to build and defend a huge empire which for centuries would dominate the Mediterranean world and beyond. Overview The Roman army, arguably one of the longest surviving and most effective fighting forces in military history, has a rather obscure beginning. The Greek biographer Plutarch...

(Book Review)

Mon, 29 Apr 2013 21:28:23 +0100

Springtime of the Renaissance: Sculpture and the Arts in Florence, 1400-60 is the exhibition catalogue of an international, retrospective exhibition currently on show at the Palazzo Strozzi in Florence, Italy. Edited by Beatrice Paolozzi Strozzi--Director of Florence's Bargello Museum (and a descendant of the illustrious family that built the 15th century palazzo)--and Marc Bormand--the Louvre's...

Domitian (Encyclopedia Definition)

Thu, 25 Apr 2013 08:47:12 +0100

Domitian was Roman Emperor from 81-96 CE and his reign, although one of relative peace and stability, became engulfed in both fear and paranoia. His death at the hands of those who were closest to him brought an end to the short dynasty of the Flavians and it was those emperors who would follow, at least for the next one hundred years, who would see a rebirth of some of the grandeur and power of old...

Roman Riches in Iron Age Denmark (News)

Tue, 23 Apr 2013 15:28:53 +0100

Danish archaeologists made an unprecedented discovery in the municipality of Ishj, located just 18 km (11 mi) outside of Copenhagen, in October 2007: an intact grave of a high-ranking man or "prince" from the Roman Iron Age (c. 1-400 CE). Hailed as one of the most important discoveries in recent memory, the grave provided a unique glimpse into the material wealth and aesthetic tastes of the ancient Danish...

Salona (Encyclopedia Definition)

Sun, 21 Apr 2013 17:46:05 +0100

Salona was an ancient city located at the estuary of the river Jadro in present-day Solin, a suburb of Split on the Adriatic coast of Croatia. It became the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia in 9 CE. Before the Romans Salona was a settlement of the Dalmatean, an Illyrian people who lived on the shore of the Adriatic. During the 3rd century BCE, Greek colonists from the island of Issa founded...

AHE Collaborates with Kunstpedia (News)

Sun, 21 Apr 2013 17:40:41 +0100

The Ancient History Encyclopedia is pleased to announce that it has joined forces with the Kunstpedia Foundation to bring increased public attention to the fine and applied arts. Kunstpedia is a Dutch non-profit organization established by enthusiasts of art history and the visual arts in 2008. Today, it is recognized by the Dutch Tax Office as an Institution for General Benefit (Algemeen Nut Beogende Instelling...

Prometheus (Encyclopedia Definition)

Sat, 20 Apr 2013 22:31:09 +0100

In Greek mythology the Titan Prometheus had a reputation as being something of a clever trickster and he famously gave the human race the gift of fire and the skill of metalwork, an action for which he was punished by Zeus, who ensured everyday an eagle ate the liver of the Titan as he was helplessly chained to a rock. Prometheus (Forethought) was one of the ringleaders of the battle between...

Constantine I (Encyclopedia Definition)

Fri, 19 Apr 2013 21:43:54 +0100

Realizing that the Roman Empire was too large for one man to adequately rule, Emperor Diocletian (284-305 CE) split the empire into two, creating a tetrachy or rule of four. While he ruled the east from Nicomedia as an “augustus” with Galerius as his “caesar,” Maximian and Constantius the Pale ruled the west. It was the son of Constantius, Constantine, who would one day rise...

Understanding Greek Vases: A Guide to Terms, Styles, and Techniques (Looking at Series) (Book Review)

Fri, 12 Apr 2013 13:43:35 +0100

If you are going to buy one book on Greek vases then this is the one to go for. Cheap in price but high in quality, this is a richly illustrated volume which through its easy to use A to Z format answers all the basic questions one might have about Greek pottery. Especially good on what different types of vessels existed and what they were actually used for, there is almost always a helpful photo...

AHE Joins PELAGIOS Project (News)

Mon, 08 Apr 2013 14:42:47 +0100

It gives us great pleasure to announce that the Ancient History Encyclopedia is joining the PELAGIOS Project. PELAGIOS stands for "Pelagios: Enable Linked Ancient Geodata In Open Systems," and its aim is to help introduce Linked Open Data into online resources that refer to places in the ancient world. This approach permits new modes of discovery and visualization for scholars and the general public. Pelagios...