ancient indian coin collection

Mysterious Coins from Multan before and after the Islamic conquest

2019-01-01T22:14:00.000+05:30

Multan before & after the Islamic conquest

In ancient times Multan was known as "The House of Gold" and was the main religious center for a popular Indian solar cult centered around the deity Aditya. Alexander the Great's quest to conquer the world finished at Multan as he was defeated here and could not re-establish his forces to go further east.

Last coins of the Hindus in Multan before the Islamic conquest - quality silver drachm, SRI PARAKUTA type, Chach of Alor dynasty in Sindh and Multan, ca.632-711 AD

Stylized head right within a dotted border, Brahmi letter "Pra" on the forehead / Stylized Sassanian altar with the shaft replaced with three dots, stylized Brahmi letter "Sri" above, four characters "Ta-Pa/Ku-Ra" (probably should be read counterclockwise from "Sri", giving an inscription "Sri PaRaKuTa"). 12mmx11mm, 0.64 grams, Multan mint. Mitchiner ACW 4905-4909; Mitchiner NIS 269-276.

These coins are fairly common, but ALWAYS appear in a very poor state of preservation. Because of this, these coins were misdescribed both times they appeared in publications - Mitchiner described them as "Guptas from north of Malwa" (and this is the most common attribution for these coins used). In a mongoraph published about these coins LC Gupta and SJ Mangalam attributed them to Sri Gupta, the first Gupta ruler. Both attributions are certainly wrong, since these coins are found in eastern Sindh, and not in Malwa. The misattributions took place because of the poor state of preservation of the available specimens - no coins with a full inscription were known until a small hoard of high quality coins.

Stylized head right within a dotted border, no letters on the small rounded bust (this is a rare variety) / Stylized Sassanian altar with the shaft replaced with three dots, stylized Brahmi letter "Sri" above, four characters "Ta-Pa/Ku-Ra" (probably should be read counterclockwise from "Sri", giving an inscription "Sri PaRaKuTa"). 12mm, 0.60 grams, Multan mint. Mitchiner ACW 4905-4909 (incorrectly described); Mitchiner NIS 269-276 (incorrectly desribed).

The coins in questions are mostly uniface with four or three large dots, two three Brahmi letters and other devices on the observe and a blank reverse. These Multan coins carry a mysterious Brahmi inscription Sri/Pa-Ra/Ku-Ta and can not be attributed to any known ruler.

However, the reverse design, which exhibits a fire alter representaed as three prominent large dots topped by a wide and somewhat stylized Brahmi legend Sri.

These coins are fairly common and are found in a wide area in Pakistan and North Western India. The exact spots of these coins are not easy to determine.

X-Ray Fluorescence analysis has shown that the silver content of the coins is about 85% with the main contaminant being copper at 13% and with trace amounts of gold, lead and arsenic.

The obverse design is most puzzling. It is sometime called a "stylized face" or a "Stylized Horse" but most often a "4 dots design"

The four large dots are flanked with a pair of smaller dots (one on each side) and each of the five upper dots is topped with a rounded line or a bar.

There are two major types - one (by far, the most common one) with two of the upper dots connected to the lower one with lines (type A) and the other with all the dots unconnected (type B). If this design was indeed inspired by the Multan coins as explained above, the original meaning of a Gupta-or Sassanian style alter was completely lost and the design simply devolved into a serious of dots and lines.

AR Unit (Circa 7th or 8th Century CE) Dots and dashes perhaps representing a fire altar, Brahmi letters below; Ha Shi (Ha Si) Reverse blank as made 16mm, 1.24g Fishman, JONS 201, Type 7A .

Pre-Islamic Sind, India, ca.600-700 AD - "HaGu" type.

Four dots and various lines, probably representing the extreme degeneration of a bust of a horse, Brahmi letters "Ha" and "Gu" / Blank. 16mm, 1.15 grams. JONS 201, Fishman type 9A.

The provenance of these coins is uncertain. Most authorities attribute itto 7th century Sind based on the shape of the Brahmi letters and thesimilarity of these coins to the late pre-Islamic and early Islamic coins of Sind.

Pre-Islamic Sind, India, ca.600-700 AD - "HaVa" type

Pre-Islamic Sind, India, ca.600-700 AD - "HaMaVa" type.

Pre-Islamic Sind, India, ca.600-700 AD - "HaKa" type

Pre-Islamic Sind, India, ca.600-700 AD - "Ha Cha" type.

Pre-Islamic Sind, India, ca.600-700 AD - "Ha MaM" type.

Pre-Islamic Sind, India, ca.600-700 AD - "Ha Tha " type.

Pre-Islamic Sind, India, ca.600-700 AD - "Ha Pi " type.

Pre-Islamic Sind, India, ca.600-700 AD - "Ha Ka/ Vaka/ EKa " type.

Silver damma of governor Sa'al (?), bilingual type with Arabic and Brahmi inscriptions, pre-Habbarid Multan, ca.712-856 AD - Ummayad or Abbasid governors of Multan, among the first Islamic coins in India!

Three dots, stylized Brahmi "Sri" above, Brahmi letters "Ta" and "Pa" in fields, below Lillah Sa'al in arabic / Nagari legend SriJaYan / TaRaJa. 15mmx11mm, 0.57 grams. Unpublished and very rare.

The arabic legend gives the name of "Sa'al" - probably the name of the local Ummayad governor of Multan. The Brahmi legend "Sri Jayanta Raja" might either name the local Hindu ruler, or might be the epiphet for the Governor Sa'al, as it translates "Victorious lord King". The name of "Sa'al" has been variously read.

These coins are derived from the earlier "Sri Parakuta" pre-Islamic Multancoins. These probably have the distinction of being among the very first Islamic coins struck in India. They are often attributed to the Habbarid rulers of Sindh and Multan, but the names on these coins do not correspond to the names of the known Habbarid rulers, and these coins are probably pre-Habbarid.

Silver damma of Mihira Deva / Mih, pre-Habbarid Multan, ca. 712-856 AD - Sun-temple issue from Multan.

Three dots, stylized Brahmi "Sri" above, Brahmi letters "Ta" and "Pa" in fields, below Lillah Mih in arabic / Brahmi legend "Sri Mi Hi / Ra De Va". 10mmx12mm, 0.62 grams. Unpublished and very rare.

On this type the name written in Brahmi - Lord Mihira Deva (a completely Hindu name) seems to be repeated on the reverse and "In Allah Mih" ("Mih" almost certainly a short form of "Mihira"). It is possible that a local Hindi ruler embraced Islam (based on "Lillah"...) but issued coins under his old name as well. Interestingly, "Mihira" means "Sun" - probably a reference to the giant and famous sun temple in Multan After the conquest of Multan by Umayyad Caliphate in 8th Century AD, under Muhammad bin Qasim, the Sun Temple became a source of great income for the Muslim invaders. Muhammad bin Qasim 'made captive of the custodians of the budd, numbering 6000' and looted its wealth, sparing the idol — which was made of wood, covered with red leather and two red rubies for its eyes and wearing a gem-studded gold crown — 'thinking it best to leave the idol where it was, but hanging a piece of cow's flesh on its neck by way of mockery'. This coin, with it's reference to "Mihira" in both Hindu and Muslim context, might be a link to these events.

Silver damma of governor Sa'al (?), bilingual type with Arabic and Brahmi inscriptions, pre-Habbarid Multan, ca.712-856 AD - Ummayad or Abbasid governors of Multan.

Three dots, stylized Brahmi "Sri" above, Brahmi letters "Ta" and "Pa" in fields, below Lillah Sa'al in arabic / Nagari legend SriJaYan / TaRaJa. 13mm, 0.52 grams. Unpublished and very rare.

The arabic legend gives the name of "Sa'al" - probably the name of the local Ummayad governor of Multan. The Brahmi legend "Sri Jayanta Raja" might either name the local Hindu ruler, or might be the epiphet for the Governor Sa'al, as it translates "Victorious lord King". The name of "Sa'al" has been variously read.

Silver dramma, sub-governor al-Rabbi, Multan, Abbasid Sindh Province.

Silver-damma-of-sub-governor-Jalam-II-Multan

Silver damma in the name of the Governor Ahmed, pre-Habbarid Multan, ca. 712-856 AD - Ummayad governors of Multan.

Arabic inscription Allah Wali / Ahmed wa/ Nasereh in three lines ("Allah is the friend of Ahmed and his helper") / Three dots, stylized Brahmi "Sri" above, Brahmi letters "Pa" and "Ta" in fields, below Ahmed Lillah in arabic. 14mm, 0.60 grams. Unpublished and very rare.

These coins are derived from the earlier "Sri Parakuta" pre-Islamic Multan coins we also sell on our website. These coins probably have the destinction of being among the very first Islamic coins struck in India. These early Islamic types were first discovered some 10 years or so ago, and were never properly studied or published. They are often attributed to the Habbarid rulers of Sindh and Multan, but the names on these coins do not correspond to the names of the known Habbarid rulers, and these coins are probably pre-Habbarid. The identity of this "Ahmed" is not known, but he probably was the Ummayad governor of Multan.

Completely unpublished! Silver dirham of governor al-Rabbi', pre-Habbarid Multan, ca. 712-856 AD - Ummaya governors of Multan.

Three dots, stylized Brahmi "Sri" above, Brahmi letters "Ta" and "Pa+" in fields, below Lillah al-Rabbi' in arabic / Crude bust facing left within a dotted border. 13mm, 0.61 grams. Unpublished and very rare.

These coins are derived from the earlier "Sri Parakuta" pre-Islamic Multan coins.

"Yashaditya" series silver dammas, Ranavigraha, early 8th century CE, pre-Islamic Sindh.

Crowned head of the King right / Sri Ranavigraha in a circle around a trident. 9mm, 0.54 grams. Fishman/Todd #Y11.

The "Yashaditya" series coins are usually considered to be Hunnic, but it is very likely incorrect. The "trident" coins naming Ranavigraha are known from a single hoard, published in Fishman/Todd's "The Silver Damma" (https://www.numismall.com/acc/A.Fishman-I.Todd-The-Silver-Damma.html) in 2018.

Absolute majority of the coins in the hoard were very poorly struck and were in a miserable condition - this piece is one of the best coins in the hoard, extremely rare in general and especially in this condition. In the book, this "Ranavigraha" is tentatively identified as Jayasimha, the son of Raja Dahir of Chach (the last pre-Islamic King of Sindh). If so, these coins must date to ca.712-715 CE, and these coins were minted in Southern Punjab (north of Multan) during Jayasimha's short exile which followed the Arab conquest of Sindh and sourthern Punjab.

"bull type" damma of Ranavigraha, "Yashaditya" series silver dammas, early 8th century CE, pre-Islamic Sindh.

Blank (with traces of lines) / श्री रणिवग्रह “Sri Raṇavigraha” in late Brahmi around a stylized and disjointed recumbent bull facing right. 8 mm, 0.36 grams. Fishman/Todd "The Silver Damma" #Y12.

These enigmatic little coins were probably minted somewhere in south-western Punjab, but a member of the Sindhi royal Chach dynasty, who is tentatively identified as Jayasimha son of Dahir in "The Silver Damma" book based on a variety of evidence. Ranavigraha" is tentatively identified as Jayasimha, the son of Raja Dahir of Chach (the last pre-Islamic King of Sindh). If so, these coins must date to ca.712-715 CE, and these coins were minted in Southern Punjab (north of Multan) during Jayasimha's short exile which followed the Arab conquest of Sindh and sourthern Punjab.

Coinage of Pratihara Empire

2018-12-17T22:30:00.000+05:30

The Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, also known as the Pratihara Empire, was an imperial power during the Late Classical period on the Indian subcontinent, that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.

The origin of the dynasty and the meaning of the term "Gurjara" in its name is a topic of debate among historians. The rulers of this dynasty used the self-designation "Pratihara" for their clan, and never referred to themselves as Gurjaras. The Imperial Pratiharas could have emphasized their Kshatriya, instead of Gurjara, identity for political reasons. However, at local levels Pratiharas were not wary of projecting their tribal (Gurjara) identity.

Coins of Pratihara Empire, although all struck to a single weight standard, were carefully differentiated by name. However, it is quite uncertain whether the government issued the coins or whether they have been issued privately under official regulation during Pratihara rule.

They display several stages of evolution and reveal that they were issued over a long period, possibly 50 to 100 years. Inscriptional evidences support the existence of a well-regulated currency during the Pratihara rule. The coins of Pratihara Empire enjoyed extraordinary longevity in circulation. This longevity made them an important currency of the succeeding Rajput period.

The Gurjara government had a stable currency system dependent on the agricultural revenue system and the military department, matched by the concurrent needs of both local and export traders for a medium of exchange. The monetary system was rational and there was a standard coinage metrology during the life of the kingdom. However, there is no practical way of estimating the absolute volume of money in the Gurjara dominions. Still, by comparing the rates of recapture in modern Uttar Pradesh versus those of earlier and later periods, a sense of scale for the relative volume of money can be achieved. The survival rate for coins belonging to AD 600-1000 period is appropriate for the lapsed time. Hence, it is concluded that the volume of exchange transactions during this era was comparable to that of other periods in north Indian history, and probably higher than that of the Gupta era.

The distribution of the successive Gurjara drammas shows that these coins did not circulate in the regions of Kathiawad-Malwa of southern Rajasthan. Much of this region was administered by feudatory dynasties acknowledging Gurjara-Pratihara supremacy. The variety of Indo-Sassanian style drammas, which were found in the regions were different from the major currency of the Ganga basin. In Marwar, the coins were broad, thin and generally closer in fabric to the Hun prototypes. The coins on average contained 0.65 g of silver, an amount somewhat lower than the Vinayakapala Dramma. Although the Gurjaras controlled the seaports of Gujarat, their dramma coinage from the Gangetic plains did not circulate in this area where a high-value feudatory coinage was well established, and where foreign currencies were encountered. Further, Gurjara coinage was not a unified fiduciary coinage.

In Gujarat, the feudatory silver coinage was also based on the Indo-Sassanian prototype, although the coins were not as wide and thin as the Marwar coins. In this period, their minimum precious metal content was 3.27 g, which was considerably in excess of the value of coins of Marwar or the Ganga basin. Their stable silver content encouraged their use far beyond coastal Gujarat. This coinage survived the passing of the issuing dynasty, as indeed the passing of the imperial money-forms of the Pratiharas.

Historians believe that after the Gupta period, Gurjara Pratiharas came to India from the central Asian region and settled in Rajasthan. Gradually, they gained political importance.

The bardic tradition of Rajasthan claims that the Gurjara Pratiharas, Chalukyas, Parmaras, and Chahmanas were born out of a yajna done at Mount Abu. Therefore, these four dynasties are also known as agnikulas(fire-clans).
The four dynasties of Rajputs were created for the protection of the country from external aggressions.
The literary meaning of Pratihara is ‘door keeper.’ It is believed that their ancestor Lakshmana served as a door keeper to his brother Rama. Therefore, they were called as Pratihara.

The geographical name of Gujarat is supposed to be derived from Gurjara.

The Gurjara-Pratiharas of North India were one of the first four patrilineal clans of the caste group referred to as the Rajputs.

Although their significance has largely been overlooked by historians and students of history, their influence on art and culture and their political sway over the major part of North India from the 9th to the 11th century cannot be ignored. One of the most debated subjects in relation to the Gurjara-Pratiharas is their origin and identity, a topic that has, over the years, acquired racial, colonial and nationalistic tinge. Study of the archaeological sources, however, reveal that the Gurjara-Pratiharas probably rose from a varied background and not from the “sacrificial fire altar” as their court historians claim and their contribution to art, especially temple art and architecture was a motif of legitimation of power.

The emergence of temples in Indic religions was an outcome of the Indo-Greek rule, that was established as a result of a series of invasions in the north west around 200 BCES

The first temple structures archaeologically found in the subcontinent, thus, were Indo-Greek in nature, mostly located in the area around Sindh (modern day-Pakistan) and it is likely that the concept of a place of worship emerged from the Graeco-Persian influence. Around 300 CE, the concept of Panchayatna Puja mandala appeared in the religious scenario, where a quincunx pattern of worship was employed for the purpose of prayer in Hinduism.

This pattern was subsequently adopted in Hindu Temple architecture, with one of the first such specimens appearing in the temple architecture of the

Gurjara-Pratiharas around the 8th century

While investigating into the temple architecture of the dynasty throuh the archaeological and literary evidence, the author found a definitive pattern and the possible utilitarian motive of large scale construction of these structures under the aegis of the Pratiharas.

This work is a result of the analysis of the available sources and attempts to explain how structures supposedly built for religious purposes acted as a political tool for negotiating identity and wielding power.

Rulers of Gurjara Pratiharas – 650 to 1036 AD.

1. Dadda I-II-III 650 – 750 AD
2. Nagabhata I 750 – 780 AD
3. Vatsaraja 780 – 800 AD
4. Nagabhata II 800 – 833 AD
5. Ramabhadra 833 – 836 AD
6. Mihira Bhoja I 836 – 890 AD
7. Mahendrapala I 890 – 910 AD
8. Bhoj II 910 – 913 AD
9. Mahipala I 913 – 944 AD
10. Mahendrapala II 944 – 948 AD
11. Devpala 948 – 954 AD
12. Vinaykpala 954 – 955 AD
13. Mahipala II 955 – 956 AD
14. Vijaypala II 956 – 960 AD
15. Rajapala 960 – 1018 AD
16. Trilochanpala 1018 – 1027 AD
17. Jasapala (Yashpala) 1024 – 1036 AD

Harichandra is said to have laid the foundation of this dynasty in the 6th century. He created a small kingdom at Bhinmal near about 550 A.D. after the fall of Gupta Empire. The Harichandra line of Gurjara-Pratiharas established the state of Marwar, based at Mandore near modern Jodhpur, which grew to dominate Rajasthan. The Pratihara rulers of Marwar also built the temple-city of Osian.

Development of the Indo-Sassanian drachms into "Gadhaiya Paisa" types

To fully understand these coins, you would need to know the history of the Achaemenid, Persian and Sasanian empires, the early history of Islam, and the history of the Zoroastrian religion. This page doesn't aim to teach those subjects, but will say just enough to put the coins into context.

The Fire Altar and Persis

Zoroaster, or Zarathustra, or Zarthosht, was the prophet who began the religion of Zoroastrianism, of which the fire altar is an important symbol. It represents the enduring energy of the creator, Ahura Mazda, and is the focus (but not the object) of prayer.

Achaemenes, or Haxamanis, founded the first Persian empire in around 700 BCE. Zoroaster probably lived about 100 years later, and Zoroastrianism eventually became the State religion. The Achaemenid empire was conquered by Alexander the Great, and his successor Seleucus I Nicator founded the Seleucid dynasty there around 300 BCE. However, this was soon conquered by the ascendant Parthians, who claimed cultural descent from the Achaemenids, and used the same Pahlavi script. Perhaps in part because of this, they allowed a small part of what is now southern Iran to survive as the semi-independent kingdom of Persis. This kingdom had been a distinct principality since the 8th century BCE and was even able to retain control during parts of the Seleucid period. It was the centre of Persian culture and of Zoroastrianism, and it was where fire altars began to appear on coins.

Many of the names on this page come in two versions. One is a westernised Persian name, the other is a westernised Greek name. Often the two are equally valid, because the Persian ruling class was Greek in origin during the Alexander and Seleucid period.

A silver hemidrachm of Ardashir II of Persis, c. 50-1 BCE. 15mm, 2.0 grammes.

The kings of Persis are not well known, and nor is the order of succession. Their names appear quite differently depending whether you read Greek or Persian sources. This coin is of Darev or Darius the second. The portrait on the obverse shows heavy Parthian influence. The reverse shows the king holding a sceptre over a fire altar. The script is Aramaic rather than Greek or Pahlavi, perhaps to emphasise their apartness from the Greek Seleucids.

A silver hemidrachm of Darev II of Persis, c. 100-1 BCE. 14mm, 2.2 grammes

This is Ardashir II (Persian) or Artaxerxes II (Greek). This crown is less Parthian, and is more like the Sasanian ones, which came later. This coin is clearer than the previous one, but neither of them match the splendid earlier Persis coins from the Seleucid period which show a much more elaborate fire altar. Unfortunately, those coins are also very expensive to buy. Both of the coins shown here are from the later Parthian period.

The Sasanian Empire

The last king of Persis, Ardeshir or Artaxerxes V, revolted successfully against the Parthians and established the Sasanian empire, becoming Ardashir I of Eranshahr (as it was then called). The name "Sasanid" or "Sassanid" was invented by later historians, based on the name of Ardashir's paternal grandfather Sasan. Sasanian coins were distinctive, showing the royal headdress in detail on one side, and a fire altar with attendants on the other.

A billon tetradrachm of the Sasanian Ardashir I, 224-241 CE. 26mm, 9.6 grammes

This rough coin with a corroded surface is a billon tetradrachm of the successful Ardashir. These coins can't have been as useful as the silver drachms shown below, because they were only produced for about 50 years. Their make-up was mostly copper – hence the corrosion. Unlike the drachms, there are only a few glints of silver to be seen on this coin as you turn it in the light. The coin shows Ardashir in a Parthian-style crown, and on the reverse is a fire altar on a short column, with elaborate side supports, and without any attendants.

A silver drachm of the Sasanian Shapur I, 241-272 CE. 27mm, 4.4 grammes.

A silver drachm of the Sasanian Shapur II, 309-379 CE. 23mm, 3.9 grammes.

50 years later, a similar coin, this time showing the bust of Ahura Mazda in the flames. This shows that the flames represent the energy and fire of the creator. The attendants are still richly dressed in royal style, but this time they are focused more on the altar than on showing off!

A silver drachm of the Sasanian Khushrou I, 550 CE. 30mm, 4.0 grammes.

200 years after the last coin, the altar and attendants are becoming more stylised, and the king's portrait is also somewhat less realistic. The coins are thinner, and have a wide rim which is less regular in outline. The thin flan the coins were struch from sometimes led to a lack of detail in the centre of the coin, where there was just not enough metal to fill the hollows in the die.

There is no standard spelling of Sasanian names in European scripts. They are all attempts to indicate the pronunciation. For example, in the name I have spelled "Khushrou," the "Kh" is pronounced something like "ch" in the Scottish word "loch."

The standard reference on these coins is Robert Göbl's "Sasanian Numismatics." In that book, he uses diacritical marks – macrons and háčeks – to indicate pronunciation, like this: Ardašēr, Šāpūr, Xusrō. Because these marks are not so easy to do in most word processors, you often see these spellings reproduced without the diacritical marks, e.g. Sapur, Xusro.

Kushanshahs

The Sasanid empire was large and powerful, and exercised some of its control through vassal states in Bactria and Gandhara, often referred to as Kushanshahs (kings or kingdoms of Kushan). They were allowed their own coinage under Sasanid patronage.

A bronze coin of Hormazd I Kushanshah in the name of Kavad, 276-300 CE. KOBAD on obverse. 16mm, 2.8 grammes.

This coin was minted in Gandhara (eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan) by the Kushanshah Hormazd I, and it is thought that Kavad is the name of one of his governors. This was shortly after the time of the first Sasanian coin above. It is quite crude, and the style of the fire altar is very different to the silver coins, but similar to the billon tetradrachm. This coin shows Zoroastrian influence spreading into the Indian subcontinent – an area where religious history usually focuses on Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam.

A bronze coin of Peroz II (Bactrian) Kushanshah, c. 300-325 CE. 14mm, 2.1 grammes.

This one comes from Bactria, a mountainous area to the west of Gandhara which now forms part of several countries, including Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, but mostly Tajikistan. It was struck for Peroz II Kushanshah. The style is better than that of the coin from Gandhara and shows the ruler wearing a distinctive horned headdress.

The reverse of the coin shows a figure, perhaps Mithra, emerging from the fire of the altar. The odd, extreme angle of the wrist holding the staff is typical of these coins.

Nezak Huns

A billon drachm of the Nezak Huns, 630-711 CE. 25mm, 3.4 grammes.

Here is a fire altar coin from the area that is now Afghanistan. This interesting and elaborate design, produced in Kabul, shows the king wearing a buffalo's head over a winged helm. The reverse shows a fire altar with wheels above the heads of the usual two attendants. The reverse of this particular coin is a mirror-image of the usual, with the control marks reversed and retrograde. This is probably an engraver's error.

You can find the makers of this coin referred to as Hunas, Indo-Hepthalites, Turco-Hepthalites, Nezak Huns or sometimes White Huns. "Nezak Malka," the legend on this coin, is probably a title, not the name of a king.

Kashmir Smast

In Gandhara, now the north of Pakistan, is the Kashmir Smast, a network of caves which formed the center of an independent kingdom in the 4th to 8th centuries CE.

A bronze Kushano-Sasanian unit from Kashmir Smast, c. 305 CE. 15mm, 3.3 grammes.

This intriguing coin shows a ruler wearing a horned headdress – probably representing bull's horns. It is smaller and thicker than the Nezak coin above, but weighs almost the same. The style of the portrait is similar to the Bactrian Kushanshah coin shown above, but in fact it has been identified as a type issued under the Sasanian Peroz II by the satrap Meze in the Indian, rather than Bactrian, Kushanshah area.

A billon Nezak quarter unit from Kashmir Smast, perhaps 7th-8th century CE. 16mm, 1.0 grammes.

This much lighter coin is clearly a similar design to the larger Nezak coin in the previous section, and probably has the same origin, though from a different dynasty.

Both of these small coins were found in the Kashmir Smast caves. The idea of a cave kingdom that lasted several hundred years sounds impossibly romantic, but seems to be real enough!

Turco-Hepthalite Countermarks

A silver drachm of Khushrou II, 591-628 CE, with Turco-Hephthalite countermark dated around 650-700 CE.
33mm, 3.9 grammes.

Some of the Sasanid coins were re-used by the Turco-Hepthalites.

The Sasanid ruler Khushrou II was very expansionist. He re-conquered most of the territory of the old Achaemenid empire. However, he was assassinated in 628 CE, and the Sasanid empire never recovered from the resulting chaos. Coins of Khushrou II are easy to find, but this one is less common. It has a countermark showing that it was given approval to be used as currency by the later Turco-Hephthalites.

Conquest by the Umayyad Caliphate

The Sasanian empire failed to withstand the spread of Islam, and fell to the Caliph Umar in a succession of battles in the mid 7th century CE. Persian culture was not completely repressed, despite some acts of destruction which resulted in a considerable emigration. The Zoroastrians were eventually accepted as "People of the Book" and a policy of tolerance was applied. Though, inevitably, within a couple of centuries most Persians became Islamic, and infused Persian cultural ideas into the Shi'a faith.

A silver hemidrachm of Sa'id bin Da'laj of Tabaristan, 772 CE. 23mm, 2.0 grammes.

Tabaristan – now the province of Mazandaran in northern Iran – remained independent of the Umayyads, and the mountainous regious were independent for some while after that. But their successors, the Abbasid Caliphate, controlled some areas. Here is a coin of an Abbasid governor, Sa'id bin Da'laj, struck by the Tabaristan mint. This coin shows that the Sasanian coin type was retained with little change, and Sa'id was apparently quite happy to depict a human face. However, the attendants on the reverse are here shown as stylised designs.

A silver hemidrachm of Sulaiman ben Mansur of Tabaristan with a lozenge in place of the head, 136-138 CE.
24mm, 1.9 grammes.

This interesting hemidrachm was minted by the only ruler of Tabaristan to heed the Islamic prohibition against depicting the human form, as far as the coinage was concerned. Not only are the two attendants on the reverse still the same stylised columns, but the face on the obverse has been replaced with a neutral lozenge bearing the Arabic word "bakh," meaning "excellent." The shoulders, robes and crown are still in place, which gives a very odd effect.

Bukhara in Sogdiana

A bronze fals of Bukhara, 766 CE. 21mm, 1.8 grammes.

This bronze coin is an Abbasid fals from Bukhara in Sogdiana, currently part of Uzbekistan. Bukhara used a tamgha, or typical symbol, to indicate the origin of the coin. Sogdiana was rich in Persian cultural history, having been an eastern province of Achaemenid Persia, and so the tamgha chosen for this coin was a fire altar, placed on its side so as to fit in with the design of the coin.

To the left of the coin is the tamgha turned the right way up.

A silver drachm from Bukhara, 775-785 CE. 25mm, 2.7 grammes

Bukhara was on the silk road to China that was first established by Alexander the Great, so had increasing Chinese influence. But at the time of these two coins it was under the control of the Abbasid dynasty, the successor to the Umayyads. Even so, as with Tabaristan, their silver coins were in the old Sasanian tradition.

This silver drachm. issued by the Caliph al-Mahdi, has an obverse based on coins of the Sasanian Vahran V, and the reverse has a stylised fire altar with attendants, and with the bust of Ahura Mazda among the flames.

Fire Altars in India

When the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Persia, many Zoroastrians fled, migrating into India and mostly ending up in Gujarat, which lies on the west coast, south of modern Pakistan.

A silver drachm of the Pratiharas of Rajasthan, 780-980 CE. 23mm, 3.7 grammes.

This Pratihara coin comes from the area of Rajasthan in northern India, and clearly shows a Sasanian-style fire altar with stylised attendants. (Though, I have also seen it said that the coin's style is wrong for the Pratiharas, and this coin type is from a later issue of unknown provenance.)

A silver drachm of the Palas of Bengal, after 853 CE. 18mm, 4.0 grammes.

The Buddhist Pala dynasty ruled Bengal in the ninth century. This coin is much more stylised, and the design was much larger than the flan of the coin, making it even harder to make out. The obverse of this one shows the area behind the head, with the circle of dots marking the edge of the design visible to the left, and a stylised hair tie at the top. The reverse is the left side of the fire altar, with one dot of flame visible, and the main part of the visible design is what remains of an attendant.

A silver drachm of the Saindhavas of Saurashtra, 800-950 CE. 18mm, 4.1 grammes.

This coin is from the Saindhavas dynasty, who were eventually conquered in 915 CE by the Abhiras dynasty, who owed alleigance to the Pratiharas. The bust and fire altar are crudely done, but stylised in a different way from either of the two coins above. You will see below that this type of styling continued for some while.

A silver drachm of the Chaulukyas of Gujarat, 900-950 CE. 17mm, 4.0 grammes.

The design of these coins from Gujarat is said to derive from silver drachms of the Sasanian king Peroz, whose coins were brought into Northern India by invading Huns in the 6th Century. That sounds very specific – why not coins of Khushru II, for example? Perhaps because Peroz is said to have paid a heavy ransom to the Hepthalites for the return of his son, in the 5th century CE, and the coins of that ransom could well have been the inspiration for this type.

A silver drachm of the Chaulukyas of Gujarat, 1030-1120 CE. 15mm, 4.0 grammes

But the inspiration was probably second or third-hand, via Hephthalite types like those shown above. Very stylised designs like this were most likely purely imitative, and didn't indicate that Zoroastrianism was a state religion. This example shows the further development of stylisation. Look how the eye, nostril, lips and chin are shown as a row of dots, which is continued decoratively below and round the head. This coin also has a "sun and moon" design above the head.

A bronze drachm of the Vaghelas of Gujarat, 1210-1300 CE. 14mm, 4.6 grammes.

This is a very three-dimensional coin, much different from the flat and thin Sasanian drachms. The design is so stylised here that casual observers don't recognise the head and fire altar motifs at all. But the coin type over several hundred years remained quite consistent, and if you follow the series, the meaning of the design is clear.

A bronze drachm of Gujarat, c. 1300 CE. 11x15mm across, 4mm thick, 3.9 grammes

In the next example of this series, the nose has become completely detached from the head, which is now just a dumbbell-like abstract shape within a semi-circle of dots, with more ornate patterns around. The fire altar is still distinguishable on the reverse. The shape of the coin is irregular and the reverse is quite concave, so it's possible that the reverse die was domed in shape. Like the Pala example, none of these last four show the whole design on any one coin.

Finally, a coin which shows the purity of the design making way for something more informative. The curves to the left of the head are a Brahmi "Ja" symbol. To the right of the head, hard to make out, are an inverted triangle and another sun and moon symbol. The shaft of the fire altar on the reverse has written on it "Sri Omkara," which indicates that it was minted by the Omkara Mandhata Monastery in Malwa.

A billon drachm of the Paramaras of Malwa, 1150-1300 CE. 13mm, 4.1 grammes.

Indo-Greek coinage

2018-12-07T01:14:00.000+05:30

The Indo-Greek coins are very important source of ancient Indian history. The term “Indo-Greek” is generally used because these kingdoms were almost always separated from Bactria and thus differed politically from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Their rule extended over a vast part of central Asia and north western South Asia. It included the modern areas of Afghanistan, north western part of Pakistan, the Indian provinces of Kashmir and Punjab. There were several dynasties and over 40 rulers of the Indo-Greek lineage who ruled over this extended time period. And surprisingly the main sources of information about the rule of these numerous kings are the numismatic evidences.

These kingdoms, in which there were already some Greek settlers called Yavanas or Yona (They are refered to a community in Indian texts and history under western countries along with Sindhu, Madra, Kekeya, Gandhara and Kamboja as per the descriptions in the epic Mahabharata), took more and more Indian characteristics, becoming truly unique political entities with a mix of Greek and Indian culture, at least for the ruling elites. Indo-Greek kingdoms timeline is very approximate. Between 190 BCE and circa 165 BCE, Greek possessions in India were divided between several Euthydemid kings which fought among themselves and their Greco-Bactrian neighbors. These kingdoms extended to Western Punjab and had Indians of Sunga dynasty as neighbors.

South Asia, and more precisely the modern state of India has experienced the incursion of several tribes throughout its history. Many of the famous military generals of the world had made their mark in the territories of South Asia. The Greek military genius Alexander also attacked north western India albeit without much success. The invasion of Alexander took place in the year of 326 BCE. However, he succeeded in establishing several Greek colonies. He left some of his military generals and soldiers to occupy and rule his Indian and Central Asian conquests. These Greek generals came to be known as Indo-Greeks in the history. They ruled roughly during the period between mid-3rd century BCE when Diodotus I established an independent kingdom to early 1st century BCE when they were overwhelmed by the Parthians and the Shakas.

The Indo-Greek coins inaugurated a new phase in the history of South Asian coinage. These coins carried elaborate details about their issuing authority. The name, the issuing year of the coin and a portrait of the reigning monarch was die-struck very precisely on the metal pieces.
We can identify elaborate measures of coin circulation in the Indo-Greek territory. The coins circulated in the north of the Hindu Kush Mountains were mainly made of gold, silver, copper and nickel. They were struck according to Attic weight standard. The obverse of the coins carried the portrait of the issuing monarch. The reverse of the coin was marked by the depiction of Greek gods and goddesses. The name of the monarch and his royal titles were also mentioned in the reverse in Greek.

The coins which were circulated in the south of the Hindu Kush bear more Indian touch. They were mostly made of silver and copper. Most of these coins are of round shape, while some of them are square. These coins were struck according to Indian weight standard. They bear the royal portrait on the obverse. But their reverse was marked by Indian religious symbols rather than Greek. These type of coins also carried bilingual and bi-script inscriptions using the Greek and Prakrit languages; and Greek and Kharosthi or Brahmi porn scripts.
The Indo-Greek coins have been found in large numbers in the modern Afghanistan. The largest number of coins was discovered from Gardez. This hoard is known as the Mir Zakah hoard. It yielded 13,083 coins. Among these large number of coins 2,757 were Indo-Greek coins. Other major finds are the hoard found at Khisht Tepe near Qunduz and the coins found during excavations at the city of Ai-Khanoum.

Out of 42 Indo-Greek kings who ruled, about 34 kings are known only through their coins. Coins of such kings as Menander depicted them slowly progressing from their teenage to old age, which also indicated their long reigns. The high standard of coinage set by the Indo-Greeks worked as a model for several other Indian dynasties for a very long period of time. The representation of Indian religious figures and symbols in the Indo-Greek coins has a greater significance for the cultural history of South Asia. This illustrated the syncretism of the Indo-Greek rulers. A sort of cultural and religious fusion between India and Greece can be traced from these coins.

The last Indo-Greek king Strato II ended his rule circa 10 BCE, vanquished by the Indo-Saka king Rajuvula.

The Indo-Greek kings and kingdoms are absent in the Greek imagination, because of the estrangement from the Greek world and the cut of political links due to Parthian and Sakas presence between India and Greece. However these kingdoms appear to have strongly influenced their Indian subject and Indian or nomad neighbors, as the nature of Indian art from the period, as well as the mention of the Yonas in Asoka's edicts suggest.

Challenges in Analyzing Indo-Greek Kings and their coinage

The principal problem that occurs in the study of Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms is the number of their kings. More than 32 kings in not really more than 250 years.

A lack of information is a common problem for historians of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms.

Most of what we know about those kings is through numismatics. Although Greek and Roman literature speaks of about 6 Greco-Bactrian kings, coins number more than 32 kings.

It is suggested that some Bactrian kings could have been co-opted.

There is proof of fighting between Greco-Bactrian kings soon after they conquered Indian territories in the Punjab. After this we have several kings who issued only monolingual coins (Greek), and others who issued almost only bilingual ones. This shows a geographical frontline between those kingdoms somewhere in the Hindukush, some ruling over the Bactrian territories and the others over the Indian ones. A deep study of the coin legends shows that it seems Greco-Bactrian kings, at least at some point, used titles a different way than other Hellenistic kingdoms. In the memorial coinage of Agathokles (where on the obverse the king is commemorated and on the reverse is Agathokles himself), posthumous titles are added to kings. One of them, Theos (meaning "the God") is added to Euthydemos I, who is called like this in his coins, and to Diodotos I, whom we know that he let his son Diodotos II take part of kingship during his reign.

This, added to a somewhat intriguing title of a later queen, Agathokleia "Theotropos", which can be put in parallel with the usual "Epitropos" title meaning "regent", lets Widemann think about a designation of superiority by the kings who take the title Theos. They were always the ones who made monolingual coins and ruled in Bactria, meanwhile the others, called Sôter ("Saviour") or Dikaios ("The Just"), are always issuing bilingual coins. Note that, since Eucratides' usurpation c. 170 BC, this system no longer applies.

Commemorative coin of Euthydemos from Agathokles of Bactria

Agathokles of Bactria. Circa 185-170 BC. AR Tetradrachm.

Commemorative issue struck for Euthydemos I.
Obverse: diademed head of Euthydemos I right. EYΘYΔEMOY ΘEOY (= "of Euthydemos the God")

Reverse: Herakles seated left on rock, holding in his right hand a club set on rocks beside his knee; monogram to right of rock. BAΣIΛEYONTOΣ ΔIKAIOY AΓAΘOKΛEOYΣ (="Agathocles ruling in a rightfull way")

Holding a large kingdom, with a good half being populated by non-Greeks, with both parts of this kingdom separated by the strong Hindukush mountains, knowing that civil war is just to an end, is a pretty hard thing. All of those can be the reason of a co-opted system, with a king of Bactria ruling nominally all of the kingdom but in fact just the part West and North of the Hindukush, and a co-opted king ruling East of it, but with the Bactrian king having the precedence over the Indo-Greek one. Other parallels exist in ancient times: First we have the obvious diarchies and tetrachies of the Romans, with the idea of several kings for the same state. We also have the "epistrategoi" of late Ptolemaic Egypt, in which those men had such great power on a specific province that they only answered directly to the king himself.

We also have the problem of the Saka invasions in the Ganges area. Bopearachchi talks about a Saka invasion c. 70 BC which led to the rule of the mighty Maues at Taxila. Nevertheless, there is no proof of such an invasion.

Maues is a special case: First he is the only Saka ruler to represent himself by a bust on his coin, the others showing themselves on a horse, like mounted warriors.

Second, there is a rare coinage of him with a certain queen Machènè (she is on the observe with the Greek legend, and he is on the reverse with the kharosthi legend). Machènè seems to be a Greek name, and the character which is at the obverse is usually the most important. If they were married, or if she was regent, they would be on the same side of the coin, like all others did, even Indo-Greek ones (see Calliope/Hermaios, or Agathokleia/Strato for example). So there is probably something different here.

Widemann's thesis is that Maues was the chief of the Sakas settled in the Indo-Greek kingdom. This is highly possible: We have proof that Bactrian kings used Sakas to contain other invaders; many of them probably became somewhat Hellenized and went south to Punjab with their Greek rulers when they abandoned Bactria to the Yuezhei. The kind of representation that is found on Maues' coins supports this argument. Maybe Maues took an important place in a moment of crisis, such as being a vice-regent. We have a certain Telephos, an Indo-Greek king by his name at least, who called himself "son of Maues". Maybe he was the son of Machènè, and as queen she looked for the protection of the Sakas and so found Maues in a time of weakness? We must not forget that in Macedonia, Antigonos Doson, being the vice-regent for Philip, appears in an inscription with the title of king, although Philip gave him no title.

We know far too little to say what is right or wrong, but what is certain is that Maues was not a "Saka invader" from the North of the Hindukush. His coins show him like an Hellenized Saka, probably one of those settled in Indo-Greek Patalene or Surastene.

Following Bopearachchi, there was an almost-consensus that the last Indo-Greek kingdom survived in the Eastern Punjab until c. 10 AD, under the rule of Strato II or III. Nevertheless, taking one hypothesis of Bopearachchi in another way, there are some indications that could show us that there still existed one Indo-Greek kingdom around Alexandria Kapisa (Alexandria of the "Caucasus") until c. 15/20 AD.

The problem is related of the "Hermaios" coinage. Many coins bearing this name have been discovered, but the chronological field of those coins is really too large for only one king. In ancient times, kings never put a number after their name when they were not the first to take the name. For example, Ptolemaios XI issued "Ptolemaiou Basileôs", without any number. Even knowing this, Bopearachchi chose to put some of the "Hermaios coins" in a "barbarous imitations" section, due to their poor style and their belonging to the Hindukush area in the very late 1st century BC, because that is the only really plausible solution that works with his theory on the Saka invasion c. 70 BC.

Nevertheless, the Sakas who settled into independent kingdoms in India in the 1st century BC seemed to have always made coins with their own representations and names. Even the Sakas of Seistan, West of the Hindukush, had at this time their own coinage, so why imitate the series of an Indo-Greek king? In the same way, there is coinage of Hermaios (at the obverse in Greek legend), but with a reverse of the koushan Kujula Kadphises (in Kharosthi).

Coin-of-both-hermaios-and-kujula-kadphises

AE tetradrachm

c. first half of 1st. Century

Weight:7.29 gm., Diam:22 mm., Die axis: 10h

Hermaios-style diademed bust right

Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ ΣTHPOΣΣV EPMAIOV /

Hercules standing facing, holding club and lion skin

Kharoshti legend around:

Kujula Kasasa Kushana Yavugasa Dhramathidasa

Ref: MAC 2844.

More than seeing a simple imitation of a local currency, there is more probably an indication of a diplomatic message to the Greeks: a King named Hermaios allied himself with Kujula, or Kujula claimed to be in the succession of the Greek rulers of this area by minting this coin. Here we are dealing with the least known part of the Indo-Greek history, so for now it is impossible to say why this coin was minted, but what seems rather possible is the existence of several kings named Hermaios ruling an Indo-Greek kingdom centred around Alexandria Kapisa in the Hindukush at most until the invasion of Gondophares II c. 20 AD.

So here are three theses that could, if proven correct, change many of our views on Bactrian history and even also on Indian and Indo-Saka history. The co-opted system of rulership would make those Indo-Greek kingdoms even more exceptional and interesting to study, showing an example of how to deal with the problem of ruling two very different and separate areas in ancient times.

Coinage of Yaudheya or Yaudheya Gana

2018-09-09T01:57:00.000+05:30

Yaudheya or Yaudheya Gana

Yaudheya or Yaudheya Gana was an ancient confederation that occupied the areas between the Indus riverand the Ganges river. The word Yaudheya is a derivative of the word yuddha or from yodha meaning warriors. They principally were kshatriya renown for their skills in warfare, as inscribed in the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman.

Yaudheya were the rulers of South-Eastern Punjab and Rajasthan. Like many other tribes they declared their independence after the death of Pushyamitra Sunga in the middle of the second century B.C.E. The earliest reference to these people is available in the Panini’s Astadhyayf where they have been mentioned as an ayudhajivi sangha, i.e. a people living by profession of arms.

The Junagadh inscription of 150 A.D. indicates the power and prestige enjoyed by the Yaudheyas during the period by describing them as rendered proud as they were by having manifested their title of heroes among all Ksatriyas.

The Bijaygadh inscription of about the third century A.D. speaks of one Maharaja and Mahasenapati who happened to be the leader of Yaudhayas.

The Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta mentions the Yaudheyas as an autonomous tribe and they have been described as acknowledging the supremacy of the Gupta emperor. The Brihatsamhita locates the Yaudheyas in the northern division and also refers to a people called Yaudheyaka. The Markandeyapurana mentions them among the peoples of north India while Garudapurana places their territory in the Madhyadesa.

Kautilya refers to this tribe as ‘sastropajivinah a warrior clan. It finds mention also in Patanjali’s Mahabhasya. They have also been referred in Mahabharata, Brihatsamhita and Puranas. From about 200 BCE to 400 CE they were at the peak of their power. The existence of this powerful clan has come to light from their coins and coin-moulds found in large number in Sutlej, Multan, Bhatner, Sirsa, Hansi and Panipat. Most of these coins depicted the god Karttikeya or also known as Brahmanyadeva. Yaudheya as we know it were an ancient republican city state or tribe of traders and warriors. The name ‘Yudha’ itself means a proficient fighter. Yaudheyas claim that they descended from Yudhishthira. Many ancient texts have mentioned this tribe; also historians of Alexander wrote about people ‘living in exceedingly fertile territory and good at agriculture and brave in war’. Yaudheya had a high social and political status; thus surviving the longest reign. Yaudheya’s were probably at the height of their power and glory during the period extending from circa mid-second century BCE to the fourth century CE when they struck coins as well.

Interaction with the Indo-Greeks (2nd-1st century BCE)

Slightly northwest of Mathura in the region of Haryana, numerous coins of the Indo-Greeks have been found together with those of the Yaudheyas, suggesting periods of overlapping or successive rule. Such coins were found in the ancient villages of Khokrakot (modern Rohtak), and Naurangabad, were Indo-Greek coin molds were also found, suggesting Indo-Greek occupation of Haryana in the 2nd-1st centuries BCE.

Coin of the Yaudheyas with depiction of Kumāra Karttikeya, 1st century BCE, Punjab.

After that period, the Yaudheyas started to mint their own coins in a style highly reminiscent of Indo-Greek coinage, and the Arjunayanas and Yaudheyas mention military victories on their coins ("Victory of the Arjunayanas", "Victory of the Yaudheyas"). It is thought the Yaudheyas had become an independent kingdom at that point.

The coins of the Yaudheyas are known in primarily 3 Classes with sub-varieties within them.

Class 1, the earliest, is known as the 'vrisha-gaja' (bull-elephant) type with the legend reading Yaudheyanam Bahudyanaka. The country of Bahudyanaka comprised of eastern Haryana and portions of Uttar Pradesh.

Obv: Karttikeya (God of War) standing facing, holding a filleted sceptre/spear in right hand, left hand on hip, peacock on left, circular legend around in Brahmi: Yaudheya Ganasya Jaya ("Victory to the Yaudheya People").

Rev: Within a dotted circular border: Goddess standing facing left, wearing transparent garment, left hand on hip, right hand raised in blessing, blank fields.

Class 2 has the Shanmukha (six headed) Karttikeya on Obv and Goddess Shahsthi (or Krittika) on the Rev with the legend reading 'Yaudheya Svamino Brahamanya or Bhagvata Svamino Brahmanyadevasya Kumarasya with symbols of meru (mountain), vedika-vriksha (tree in railing), river, deer/stag etc. appearing on them. These coins closely resemble the Kunindas coins with only the script differing (Yaudheya coins use only Brahmi whereas Kunindas use Brahmi/Kharoshti). The Goddess on the Rev is sometimes replaced by Shiva holding a trident. On some coins, Karttikeya and Shiva are shown wearing the typical trousers of Later Kushanas.

Obv: Same as Type 1 but with addition of the word 'dvi' (two) in the legend.

Rev: Similar to Type 1 but with a 'Kalasha' (pot) with 3 leaves in it on the left, nandipada symbol on the right.

Class 3 is the Karttikeya-Devasena type with the Obv legend Yaudheya Ganasya jaya and 3 Rev varieties discussed in my original thread above. On some coins, the Gupta influence is visible with the standing Karttikeya resembling Samudragupta-Chandragupta and Devasena resembling the walking Lakshmi on Gupta coins.

Obv: Same as Type 1 but with addition of the word 'tri' (three) in the legend.

Rev: Similar to Type 1 but with a conch symbol on the left.

Multan, on the east - Bhatner, Abohar, Sirsa, Hansi, Panipat and Sonipat and on the north - Kangra. These were listed based on the assumptions of coin finds. Even Haryana and Panjab were included in the territory they might have ruled.

The existence of a powerful clan known as Yaudheyas has come to light mainly from their coins and coin-moulds found in large number in this area.

There are several different ways of classifying these Yaudheya coins.

Division One

MACW:4707-4710

Obv: Karthikeya standing facing, holding sceptre: peacock on right; legend around - Yaudheya Ganasya Jaya

Rev: Yaudheya deity standing with one hand on hop. Her feet are along the dotted margin

Division Two

MACW:4711-4715

Obv: Similar: word 'DVI' (two) added at the end of the legend

Rev: Similar: lotus and nadipada symbols in field

Division Three

MACW:4716-4718

Obv: Similar: word 'TRI' (three) added at the end of the legend

Rev: Similar: sankh and chakra symbols in field

Class c coinage - Standard coinage: late series, early 4th century

Division One

MACW:4719-4721

Obv: Normal design without number

Rev: Smaller figure if the Goddess with her feet above the dotted margin; no field symbols

Division Two

MACW:4722-4724

Obv: Similar: word 'DVI' (two) added at the end of the legend

Rev: Similar: lotus and nadipada symbols in field

Division Three

MACW:4725-4726

Obv: Similar: word 'TRI' (three) added at the end of the legend

Rev: Similar: sankh and chakra symbols in field

Yaudheyas (2nd century BC), Copper, 10.42 g, 1½ Karshapana, War God Kartikeya, standing facing front with six heads and holding a spear, Brahmi legend around him, Bhagvato Svamino Brahamanyadevasya on obv. Goddess Devasena standing facing front, a railed tree on her right hand and 10-arched hill surmounted by a Shrivatsa symbol on her left (Mac# 4467).

Though coins are small in size they open up window various aspects of culture, political life, economic progress, trade and commerce of people. Especially the coins of ancient cultures where there are barely any other evidences available. The movement of various tribes can be traced from its coin. The Yaudheya issued their earliest coinage in copper, bronze and potin with the brahmi legend ‘Yoaudheyanam’. Karttikeya being the warrior god was the main deity in temples on Yaudheya coins and also peacock is widely depicted (vehicle of the war-god karttikeya).

Allan extensively studies coins from Indian subcontinent and has segregated the Yaudheya coinage in 6 broad categories. Of which one category is described as the obverse having six-headed Karttikeya with brahmi legend ‘Bhagavata-svamino Brahmanya’ and reverse contains different marks with a deer and the shape of the temple.

The fabric of these coins is very crude so the symbols on the coins are not very clear. The Shadananda-Deer types were struck for a long time from about the close to the first century BCE or the beginning of the next for nearly two centuries. The coins even though with crude fabric had various different varieties of temple like structures were minted on them.

Obverse: Bull standing right with yupa (sacrificial post) to right, with Brahmi legend Yaudheyanam Bahudhanake around

Reverse: Elephant standing right with trunk raised

Ref: Devendra Handa, Tribal Coins of Ancient India, plates XL-XLI

The Bahudhanake type coins are listed by Handa as Class 2.

An exclusive study of Sangam age and its coinage- 300 BC - 200 AD

2018-07-19T12:52:00.000+05:30

The word Sangam is the Tamil form of the Sanskrit word Sangha and in this particular context, the Tamil Sangam is understood as an academy of poets and bards patronized by the Pandyan rulers with its headquarters at Madurai. It is very difficult to precisely date this Sangam age. The period between 300 BC and AD 300 is generally called the Sangam age. Likewise, it is also very difficult to fix the chronology of the works of the Sangam age. N. Subramanyam is of the opinion that the Sangam literature is attributable to pre-Pallavan age.

The Sangam Age constitutes an important chapter in the history of South India. According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu popularly called Muchchangam. These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas. The first Sangam, held at Then Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary sages but no literary work of this Sangam was available.

The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except Tolkappiyam.

The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large number of poets who produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived. These Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam Age.

Many historian consider the First two sangam age as mythical as the traditional dates greatly are not in accordance with the Historical dating and Each sangam age spanned around 2000 Years and the first sangam age according to the traditional dates started before 5000 or 6000 BC, at that point of time the four river valley civilization were in their nascent state or yet to be started.

According to the sangam poems the First Sangam age was based in the city of south Madurai and the Second sangam age was based in the city of the Kapatapurm but these two cities were believed to be destroyed by the floods and rain and the latter sangam age was based in the city of Present day Madurai city in Tamil Nadu. (The Coromandel Coast of the South India are susceptible to Tsunami waves.

The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics – Silappathigaram and Manimegalai. Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature. It is a work on Tamil grammar but it provides information on the political and socioeconomic conditions of the Sangam period. The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu. The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam. Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram (valor).

Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals. The most important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar. Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides valuable information on the Sangam polity and society.

In addition to the Sangam literature, the Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mention the commercial contacts between the West and South India. The Asokan inscriptions mention the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers on the south of the Mauryan empire. The Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also mentions about Tamil kingdoms. The excavations at Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, Kodumanal and other places reveal the overseas commercial activities of the Tamils.

The chronology of the Sangam literature is still a disputed topic among the scholars. The sheet anchor of Sangam chronology lies in the fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and Cheran Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty were contemporaries. This is confirmed by Silappathigaram as well as the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa. Also the Roman coins issued by Roman emperors of the first century AD were found in plenty in various places of Tamil Nadu. Therefore, the most probable date of the Sangam literature has been fixed between the third century BC to third century AD on the basis of literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences.

The chief towns and seaports and the foreign merchandise of the Tamil country, as described in the Tamil poems correspond exactly with those given in the works of Pliny, Ptolemy and in the Periplus Maris Erythrsei. Pliny died in 79 AD; and had completed his Natural History two years previously. The unknown author of the Periplus was a native of Egypt, and wrote his book after the time of Augustus Caesar, and before the kingdom of the Nabathceans was overthrown by the Romans. A more definite indication of his date is furnished by his mentioning Zoskales as the king reigning in his time over the Auxumitae. This Zoskales is identified with Za-Hakale who must have been king of Abyssinia from 77 to 89 AD.

Buddhism was paramount, and non-Aryan races were in power, almost everywhere throughout India. To the Aryans it was a period of humiliation, and to Brahminism one of painful struggle for existence. When, in later years, Brahminism was again favored by royalty, it appears to have exerted all its energy, to erase every trace of the rival faith and foreign dominion. Accordingly the Sanscrit literature of the first century of the Christian era is now a perfect blank. Curiously enough, a considerable portion of the Tamil literature of that very period has come down to the present, almost intact, and reveals the condition of not only the Tamils, but also of other peoples who inhabited the rest of India in that remote age.

There were Buddhists in the Tamil country, but they had set up no images of Buddha and had no priests ; there were Nigranthas who called the Buddhists heretics, but who had not commenced the worship of their Saints or Tirthankaras; there were temples dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Subramanya, but there were also other shrines in which the worship of Indra and Baladeva was continued; there were Brahmins who wore the sacred thread and called themselves the "twice-born" but neither kings nor merchants sought this distinction; there were Tamils living in walled towns and cities, but in some parts of the country they still led the life of nomads and had no settled habitation.

Towards the end of the third century AD, the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline. The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries. There is little information about the Kalabhra rule. Jainism and Buddhism became prominent during this period. The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and established their rule.

Tamilham as described by its literature is the region between the hills of Venkatam and Kanyakumari. This region is a combination of diverse eco-zones of hills surrounded by forests, undulating terrain, wetlands, long sea coast, pastures and arid zones. This region was under the political control of the three principal powers, the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas. These were only chiefdoms and not kingdom.

The Sangam literature or heroic poetry refers to the concept of ‘Aithinai’ or five eco-zones and these five eco-zones are:

(a) Kurunji or hilly backwoods,

(b) Palai or arid zone,

(d) Maruttam or wetland, and

(e) Neital the sea coast.

The occupations and lifestyle the people of these eco-zones is varied. Hunting and gathering was the occupation of Kurunji inhabitants. The people living in Palai depended on plundering and cattle-lifting. Shifting cultivation and animal husbandry were the occupation of the people of the Mullai zone. The people of Marutam pursued plough agriculture, and fishing and salt-making were the occupations of the people of Neital eco-zones. We also notice bartering of goods produced by one eco-zone people with other eco-zone inhabitants. Gradually, these small social groups living in different eco-zones became integrated through interaction and interdependence.

Social stratification based on ‘high’ and low’ groups took shape in course of time. Besides agriculture, there were other professions such as blacksmiths, carpenters and weavers. Most of the people followed old tribal rituals of religious worship and cult practices, and the society was not priest-dominated. Trade and commerce was possible because of surplus production of goods; we come across traders – Unianan or salt merchant, Kogla vanikan or corn merchant, Amvai vanikan or textile merchant and Pon vanikan or gold merchant.

Tolkappiyam, the earliest Tamil grammar text indicates that Varna system entered into Tamilham as the above-mentioned traders were given the status of Vaisyas and the chieftains of the Maruttam region started claiming descent from Suryavamsa or Chandravamsa. Thus, in the agrarian zones, we notice amalgamation of old tribal practice and Brahmanical ideas. The economy of Tamilham depended on trade and commerce besides agricultural production.

There existed three levels of trade:

(1) Local,

(2) Overland, and

(3) Overseas.

In the local trade sphere, barter was the most common mode of transaction to obtain perishable commodities of daily use; paddy and salt were the only two items that had an exchange rate. Long distance overland trade and long distance sea trade resulted in the growth of urban centres as well as seaports. There was a flourishing trade between Rome and Tamilham. Tamilham also had commercial contacts with Sri Lanka and South-East Asia. Roman as well as Sri Lankan trade settlements are in evidence. Growth of trade and commerce led to the use of coins as medium of commerce in this period.

The coins may be divided into local and Roman coins. Sangam literature refers to locally available coins of Kasu, Kanam, Pon and Venpon but coins with these names have not been found so far. Roman coins generally of gold and silver and rarely, copper coins were in circulation.

In Tamilham of this period, ruling chieftains and kings derived considerable income from trade and commerce from toll or Ulka collected by agents from the traders. Revenue was collected in cash and kind as well. Artisans paid a tax knovm as Karukara. Coming to weight and measures, in Tamilham, land was measured as Ma and Veil. Large measure called Ambanam, and small measures such as Nali, Ulakan znd Alakka were prevalent.

Sangam literature and other literary texts refer to rural exchange centres, internal market, towns and port towns. Inland towns like Uraiyur located near modern Tiruchirapalli, Kanchi or Kanchipuram and Madurai developed into rudimentary market centres. Besides, there were port towns like Puhar or Kaveripattinam, Arikamedu, Colobil, Musiri and Tyndis. Bacare and Neleyamda were centres of maritime trade. It is also said that Musiris was a busy centre with a port crowded with large warehouses and markets.

These port towns did not have close links with rural or local exchange centres, as they catered to the needs of the nobility and the ruling group. The vitality of these depended on the success of foreign trade and when overseas trade declined, these centres too declined and disappeared as port tovms or Pattinams.

Until 6th century AD, or the rise of the Pallavas, Tamilham was under the rule of Kalabaras or Kalappalar. We can conclude with the statement of K.A. Nilakanta Sastri that the literature of the Sangam age gives an unusually complex and true picture of the life of the people of Tamilham in the beginning of the historical period.

Trade

The Tamils of the Sangam age had trading contacts with the Mediterranean world (Greece and Rome), Egypt, China, Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. The literary works like Silappadikaram, Manimekalai and Pattinappalai frequently refer to the contact with the Greek and Roman traders. This period marked the height of the Indo-Roman trade. The Periplus of Erythrean Sea and other accounts of foreigners such as those of Pliny, Ptolemy, Strabo and Petronius mention various ports and the articles traded during the period. The archaeological excavations and explorations at various sites have also yielded the artefacts confirming to the trading relations between the Tamil regions and other countries. The discovery of coin hoards at many places also attest this fact.

The Sangam texts mention prominently only the ports of Musiri, Puhar (Kaveripattinam) and Korkai, the three great ports of the three great rulers of the times. However, the Periplus refers to the ports of Tondi, Musiri and Comari (Cape Comorin / Kanyakumari), Colchi (Korkai), Poduke (Arikamedu) and Sopatma. According to Periplus there were three types of vessels in use in South India. These included small coasting vessels, large coasting vessels and ocean-going ships. There is also the mention of large vessels called Colandia sailing from the Tamil Coast to the Ganges.

The commodities exported to Rome fetched high returns. Living animals like tiger, leopard, monkeys and peacocks were exported to Rome. The chief animal products of export included ivory and pearl. Plant products like aromatics and spices (pepper, ginger, cardamom, cloves, nutmegs, etc.), coconut, plantain, jaggery, teak wood, sandal wood, cotton cloth of special variety called argaru (from Uraiyur) were also among the chief exports. Mineral products like diamonds, beryl, steel, semiprecious stones, etc. were also exported from South India.

The main articles of import from Rome consisted of the coins, coral, wine, lead, tin and jewellery. The beads manufactured at many sites in South India in the contemporary period have been found at several sites of Southeast Asia. This suggests the maritime contacts between the two regions. There were settlements of the foreign traders in many towns.

However, it was not only the external trade, which added to the prosperity of the Tamils. Internal trade also flourished in the region with local networks of trade connecting different urban centres. Silappadikaram refers to the bazaar (marked) streets of Puhar while Maduraikkanji describes the market at Madurai, the Pandyan capital.

Besides the coastal ports or towns, the Tamil region also witnessed the growth of urban centres in the inland regions. The prominent among these were Madurai, Karur, Perur, Kodumanal, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram and others. While Korkai on the East Coast was famous for pearl fishing, Kodumanal in the interior part was known for its beryl. However, the trade was not confined to cities alone. The remotest villages were also linked with the trading network. The carts were the important mode of transport for inland trade. These were in use for either carrying goods or people including the traders.

The trade was mostly conducted through barter. The geographical diversity of the Tamil region necessitated the exchange of goods/products between the different regions. However, the use of coins for trading purpose can not be ruled out even in the context of internal trade.

Trade was a very important source of the royal revenue. Transit duties were collected from merchants who moved from one place to another. Spoils of war further added to the royal income. But the income from agriculture provided the real foundation of war and political set-up. However, the share of agricultural produce claimed and collected by the king is not specified.

Society

The earliest phase of Sangam society as described by Tolkappiyam was based on the five-fold classification of the land — the hill, the pastoral, the agricultural, the desert and the coastal. Different kinds of people inhabited these various classified lands and developed certain fixed customs and ways of life as a result of their interaction with respective environment. The ecological variations also determined their occupations such as hunting, cultivation, pastoralism, plunder, fishing, diving, sailing, etc.

Social Composition

Anthropological studies have shown that the earliest social element consisted of Negroid and Australoid groups with mixture of another racial stock which migrated from the earliest Mediterranean region. In its early phase these societies had small population and social classes were unknown. As a result there existed great unity among the people of each region, who moved freely among themselves and their ruler. The only classification Tamil society knew at this time was that of the arivar, ulavar, etc. based on their occupation such as the soldiers, hunters, shepherds, ploughmen, fishermen, etc.

The existence of numerous tribes and chieftains was seen in the later half of the Sangam age. The four Vedic varnaswere distinctly of a later period. But it is interesting to note that though the varna system was brought in by the immigrating Brahmanas (1st c.A.D), it did not include Khastriyas as in the north. Only the brahmins were the dvijas(twice born) who qualified for the sacred thread. There are references to the slaves known as adimai (one who lived at feet of another). The prisoners of war were reduced to slavery. There existed slave markets.

Women

The women like men, enjoyed certain freedom and went around the town freely, played on the seashore and river beds and joined in temple festivals as depicted in Sangam poems such as Kalittogai. However, the status of women was one of subordination to men, which was an aspect of the general philosophy of the contemporary period. This is well reflected in Kuruntogai which mentions that the wife was not expected to love the husband after evaluating his qualities but because of the fact of his being her husband. In other words, it was not possible for a wife to estimate her husband. Though there are references to women being educated and some of them becoming poetesses, this can not be applied to the general mass. They had no property rights but were treated with considerations. Women remained a widow or performedsati, which was considered almost divine. Marriage was a sacrament and not a contract. Tolkappiyam mentions eight forms of marriage of which the most common was the Brahma marriage. However, there are references to wooing or even elopements, which were followed by conventional marriage.

Prostitution was a recognised institution. However, the prostitutes were taken to be the intruders in peaceful family life. But they figure so prominently in the poems and enjoy such a social standing that there could be no doubt that the harlots of the Sangam age were not the degraded prostitutes of the modern times. Though texts like Kuruntogai refer to the harlots challenging wives and their relations, seducing men, the harlots gave their companions more of a cultural enjoyment than anything else.

Dress, Ornaments and Fashion

The upper strata of society used dress of fine muslin and silk. Except for nobles and kings, men were satisfied with just two pieces of cloth — one below the waist and another adorning the head like a turban. Women used cloth only to cover below the waist. The tribal population was not in a position to do that even. The tribal women used leaves and barks to cover themselves.

The men and women of Sangam age were fond of using oil, aromatic scents, coloured powders and paints, while the sandal paste was heavily applied on their chests. According to Silappadikaram women had pictures drawn on their bodies in coloured patterns and had their eyelids painted with a black pigment. The ornaments were worn round the neck and on arms and legs by both, the men and women. The chiefs and nobles wore heavy armlets and anklets while the ordinary women wore various other kinds of jewels. Valuable ornaments of gold and precious stones were used for decoration by men and women of upper strata whereas the poor class used bracelets made of conch-shell and necklaces made of coloured beads. Silappadikaram refers to a ceremonial hot bath in water heated with five kinds of seeds, ten kinds of astringents and thirty two kinds of scented plants, the drying of the hair over smoke of akhil and the parting of it into five parts for dressing. Men also grew long hair and wore the tuft tied together with a knot which was sometimes surrounded by a string of beads. Tamils were very much fond of flowers and women used to decorate their hair with flowers, especially water lily as described by Kuruntogai.

Dwellings

People lived in two kinds of houses – those built of mud and the others built of bricks. According to the Sangam texts the second category of houses were built of suduman, which literally means burnt mud. The poor lived in thatched houses covered with grass or leaves of the coconut or palmyra. Windows were generally small and made like the deer’s eye. The literary works describe the well-built storeyed houses of the rich people, which had gopurams for the entrance and iron gates with red paint to prevent from rusting. Silappadikaram mentions that these houses were lighted with beautiful artistic lamps often from Greece and Rome. They were burned with oil extracted from fish.

Food and Drinks

Non-vegetarianism was the main food habit though brahmin ascetics preferred vegetarian food. The food was very plain and consisted of rice, milk, butter, ghee and honey. Meat and liquor were freely used. Curd was in popular use. Kuruntogaimentions various kinds of sweets made with curd, jaggery, puffed rice, milk and ghee. Spicing of curry and rice is also referred to in the Sangam texts. On the whole the upper class consumed high quality of rice, the choicest meat, imported wine, etc. Thebrahmins preferred vegetarian food and avoided alcoholic drinks. In urban area, the public distribution of food was made by the charitable institutions.

Feasts were organised for collective entertainment. The custom of feeding guests was a common custom and eating without a guest to partake of the food was considered unsatisfying. Poets and learned were always considered as honoured guests and red rice fried in ghee was given to them as a mark of love and respect.

Entertainments

There were numerous amusements and plays in which people participated for entertainment. The sources of entertainment included dances, musical programmes, religious festivals, bull-fights, cock-fights, marble-game, hunting, dice, wrestling, boxing, acrobatics, etc. Women amused themselves with the religious dances, playing the dice andvarippanthu or cloth ball. Playing in swings made of palmrya fibres was common among girls. Narrinai refers to the games played with decorated dolls. Kuruntogai mentions about children playing with toy-cart and with the sand houses made by them on the seashore.

Dance and music were other popular sources of entertainment. The Sangam poems mention various kinds of dances. Silappadikaram mentions eleven kinds of dances, which are divided into seven groups. It also gives minute details about music. There are further references to the different kinds of musical instruments such as the drums, flute and yal sold in shops at Puhar and Madurai. The performing arts also included the art of drama. The dramas were mostly religious in character but sometimes these were enacted to commemorate great event or persons. Bardism and the system of wandering minstrels going from place to place with their musical instruments singing the glory of either a person or a great event commanded great popularity in the Sangam age. Initially, the bard (porunar) began as an individual to whip up the martial spirit of the soldiers engaged in war and to sing of their victory when the battle was won. However, their activities were not confined to encourage the soldiers in the battle-field alone but also to carry messages from there to the people at home. They had high respect in society and were even honored by the kings. Besides the porunar were the panar who performed for the common people.

The Cheras (Sangam Age)

The edicts of Ashoka (Gannjam district, Mysore) mentioned of Keralaputras (Cheras). Likewise, Sangam literature talked about Cheras too. From Aleppy, the graceful Cheras expanded their territory as far as Calicut. There existed another branch of Cheras called "Irumporai Cheras, who had their capital at Karur and the territory included the Palghat pass and the Kongu plain. Perhaps during 150 BC, Cheras began issuing coins. Periplus and the literature of Pliny and Ptolemy mentions of a well established kingdom of Cheras around 1st to 2nd century AD. The coins were generally found in their commercial city of Karur, which had their royal emblem "Bow and Arrow". Irumporai cheras issued coinage even around 250 AD or slightly later.

The Chera dynasty was one of the ancient Tamil dynasties who reigned over south India from early times until the fifteenth century. Their kingdom extended over the Malabar Coast, Karur, Coimbatore and Salem Districts in South India, which now is a part of present day Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The Chera kings were constantly into conflicts with their neighboring kingdoms to established political associations they sometimes inter- married with the families of the adversary kings.
The first Chera ruler was Perumchottu Utiyan Cheralatan who founded the Chera dynasty. He was succeeded by his son Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralatan who converted the Chera dynasty into a powerful one and extended and enriched his kingdom from all aspects. Imayavaramban’s reign was also very important for the development of art and Literature as he patronized art and culture greatly. His poet laureate was Kannanar. However, the greatest ruler of the Chera Dynasty was Kadalpirakottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan, whose reference has been made in the great Tamil epic- Silappadigaram.

Trade and Commerce flourished during the reign of the Cheras. The Cheras traded in ivory, timber, spices and exported precious gems and pearls to the Middle East and these trade contacts with the Middle East established Judaism.

COINAGE

The Punch Marked Coins (PMC) in silver of the Mauryans, circulated well in Cheran territory during 2nd century to 1st century BC. The only difference one may observe in these coinage is the additional local punches they carried in them. Imported Roman silver dinaris circulated and accepted well in the region too. Together with them, there existed another type of coinage issued in Copper by the cheran authority. Being in quadrilateral shapes, sometime they carried several punches (as inspired by the Mauryan coinage) and some carried the image such as elephant, horse etc., The symbols such as Elephant, Horse, Bow and Arrow all shows the interdependency of these "Muvvararasar" (Three Kings, Chera, Chola, Pandya). The smallest of the coins weighed around 2 gms, and the biggest ones were of around 6 gms.

Obv: Elephant to right with Bull above, trident standard in front, tree branch over back of Elephant, Mangala (auspicious) symbols above viz srivatsa, pot, swastika etc

Rev: Chera dynastic emblem of a strung Bow-arrow; ankusa (goad) below.

The above image of this square shape copper coin belongs to the Chera coinage. Its obverse depicts an elephant walking towards the right and in the front, a six arched hill is featured. In the centre, a bow and arrow are depicted with a snake above it and a battle axe is shown on the left. The reverse of the coin depicts a bow-arrow, the symbol of the Cheras. This coin belongs to the Sangam age.

EARLY CHERAS (Sangam Age)	Period of Ruling
Imaya Varamban Nedun Cheral Andan	58 years
Palyanai Selkelu Kuttuvan	25 years
Kalangaikkanni Narmudi Cheral	25 years
Kadal Pirakkottiya Senguttuvan	55 years
Adu Kotpattu Cheral Adan	38 Years
Selvakkadungo Vali Adan	25 Years
Perum Cheral Irumporai	17 years
Ilan Cheral Irumporai	16 Years

Bow & Arrow

Kings of Chera took the title ‘Villavar Kon’, Villavar means archer in Tamil. These archers were the one who founded Chera dynasty.

The bow-arrow was the insignia of the Chera dynasty which was present on their flag. The presence of the bow and arrow on the coins indicated the Supremes of the Cheras.

It is said that Cheran Sengattuvam, the popular king of Chera dynasty had the best navy in the world. The capital of Chera was Vanji which consist of the famous and chief port of Thondi. They had strong trade relations with the Roman Empire.

The Early Pandyas (Sangam Age)

The Pandyas were one of the three small Dhravidian races that occupied the southern extremity of India. Around 700 BC, Dhravidians must have penetrated into S.India and organized themselves into distinguishable communities. Titles such as Solan, Pandiyan, and Keralas proves the existence of such a community. Early Pandyan Kingdom comprised the greater part of modern Madura and Tinnevelly district during 1st century AD. Their original capital was at Kolkoi (on the Thambraparny river in Tinnevelly) and later at Madura. Ashokan edicts of 3rd Century BC mentions of Pandyas. Kongu Ratta inscription of early 5th century AD recorded the conflict of Pandyas with Kongu Rattas. Not much is known about Pandyas then onwards until 7th century AD. Cheras, possibly remained as allies of Pandyas for a larger period than the Cholas. The dependence with Cholas and Cheras allowed them to continue free movement and trade along the coast of SriLanka. Around 940 AD, Rajaraja Chola reduced the Pandyas to a condition of tributary dependence and the position continued for the next two centuries. After Chola dominance, Madura Sultans, Vijayanagara Rayas, Nayakas of Madura, Nawabs of Arcot took turn to rule the once powerful Pandyan Kingdom. Pandyas were restricted to unimportant areas of Tinnevelly district. At the end of 16th century, Pandya dynasty disappeared from Indian scene once for all.

Sangam period (Tamil: Cankakala paruvam) is the period in the history of ancient southern India (known as the Tamilakam) spanning from c. 3rd century BC to c. 4th century CE. It is named after the famous Sangam academies of poets and scholars centered in the city of Madurai.

According southern Indian legends, there were three Sangam periods, namely Head Sangam, Middle Sangam and Last Sangam period. Historians use the term Sangam period to refer the last of these, the first two being legendary. So it is also called Last Sangam period (Tamil: Kaaiccanka paruvam), or Third Sangam period (Tamil: Munam canka paruvam). The Sangam literature is thought to have been produced in three Sangam academies of each period. The evidence on the early history of the southern India consists of the epigraphs of the region, the Sangam literature, and archaeological data.

In Old Tamil language, the term Tamilakam (Tamilakam, Purananuru 168. 18) referred to the whole of the ancient Tamil-speaking area, corresponding roughly to the area known as southern India today, consisting of the territories of the present-day Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh, parts of Karnataka and northern Sri Lanka also known as Illam.

Pandyan or Pandian dynasty was an ancient Tamil dynasty, one of the three Tamil dynasties (the other two being Chola and Chera), which ruled parts of South India until the 15th century AD. They initially ruled their country Pandya Nadu from Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyan was well known since ancient times, with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching the Roman Empire. During the 13th century AD, Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest empire in existence. The Pandyan empire was home to temples including Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai, and Nellaiappar Temple built on the bank of the river Thamirabarani in Tirunelveli. The Pandya kings were called either Jatavarman or Maravarman Pandyan. From being Jains in their early ages, they became Shaivaits after some centuries of rule.

Also, the Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, find mention as one of the three ruling dynasties of the southern region of the then Bharatavarsha in the Hindu epic Ramayana. They are also mentioned in the Aitareya Aranyaka, and the Mahabharata, where they are (along with the Cheras and the Cholas) believed to have been on the side of the Pandavas in the Great War.

As with many other kingdoms around this period (earlier than 200 BCE), most of the information about the Early Pandyas come to us mainly through literary sources and some epigraphic, archaeological and numismatic evidence. The capital of the Early Pandyan kingdom was initially Korkai, around 600 BCE, and was later moved to Koodal (now Madurai) during the reign of Nedunj Cheliyan I.

The kings of the Pandyan Dynasty are frequently mentioned in Sangam literature of the third century BCE and onwards, in works such as the Mathuraikkanci and other early Tamil literary works such as Cilapatikaram, which have been used by historians to identify their names and, to some extent, their genealogy. Nedunj Cheliyan III is referred to as the most popular warrior among the Early Pandyas, winning a battle at Talaialanganam against a coalition of forces from Cholas and Cheras and five other kingdoms. The early Pandyan kingdom extended between Travancore in the west, Vellaru river in the north and all the way to the ocean in the east and the south.

The Early Pandyas had active maritime trade relationships with the west, a fact testified by western classical writers such as Pliny the Elder (1st century CE), Strabo, Ptolemy and the author of the Periplus. The Panydan country was well known for pearl fishery, with Korkai being the principal center of the trade. Some of the exports were pearls, spices, ivory and shells, while the imports included horses, gold, glass and wine.

RELIGION

The Hinduism which was followed by the Aryans along with the demon worship of the local earlier inhabitants would have got mixed well and practiced. It is suggested that Meenakshi may have been a Pandyan princess whom Brahmana immigrants found to be too dear to the hearts of people. The marriage of Meenakshi to Lord Siva was perhaps a method to reconcile and unite the old faith with a new.

During the Sangam age, Hinduism, including Vedic Brahminism, was a popular religion among the people. Siva, Murugan, Krishna, Balarama and Kali were some of the popular deities among the Hindus.

FISH COGNISANCE

The flag of the early Pandyas during 200 BC till 300 AD carried a Fish or fishes on it. The fish referred to is a species of carp or Barbel found in the river and has a Tamil name "Kayal". The very name of the new capital "Kayal" (after Korkoi) was perhaps due to the dynastic emblem of the earlier Pandyas. Even the sovereign had carried the title "Minavan", the Fish one.

The earliest Pandyan or Madurai Pandyan coins were silver Punched Marks but copper coins were chiefly found in Madurai e.g. Copper coin depicting a Horse and Bodhi tree in front with Buddhist shaccram on the reverse.

When Madurai Pandya left Buddhism they changed the horse with Bodhi tree to Fish, a symbol Vishnu. This Fish Symbol became the dynastic emblem of the Pandyan.

Mahavira’s mother had seen 16 auspicious things in her dream and one of them was two jumping fishes.

COINAGE

The earliest coinage in the south consisted of globules of gold with one or two indistinct punches on them. A similar type of copper might have been inducted by the earlier Pandyas alongwith these gold globules. The early copper coins are square in shape and usually carried the symbol of elephant on most of the obverses. The silver currency circulated during Mauryan period. The Bodnayakanur(Tinnevelly District) hoard reveals yet another type of silver currency (could be dated back to 100BC) has a weight of about 1.5gm (closest to half karshapana weight) and has five punches on the obverse. the reverse had a typical Pandyan fish type of punch, that is represented with lines approach as usual in the contemporary copper coinage.

Obv: Elephant to right (coin 1); to left (coin 2)

Rev: Stylized Fish

The dynastic emblem of the Pandya's was the 'Fish' that features prominently on their coins.

Pandya Empire: Anonymous (ca 3rd - 1st century BCE) AE Unit (Krishnamurthy-20)

Obv: Elephant standing facing right with smaller elephant below; in front of the elephant there is a trisula; next to that, a part of tree-in-railing. Above the elephant from left to right, there are four symbols; tree-in-railing, conch, pot with crescent symbol above that and chakra

Rev: Stylized fish symbol

Reference

Krishnamurthy, R., Wickramasinghe, S., A Catalogue of the Sangam Age Pandya and Chola Coins in the National Museum, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Department of the National Museums.

Obv : Various punch mark symbols, Tree without railing, stupa like symbol, sadarachakra, unidentifyable symbol

Rev : Stylised Pandyan fish symbol

Weight: 0.6g

Diameter: 1.1x1.1cm

Silver Punch Mark Coin of Pandya's. Mayuran Punch Mark Coins were in use in South India. Probably, when these PMCs were no longer available, Pandya's started issueing their own Punch Mark Coins. Pandyan PMC of good coinditions are found with worn out Mayuran Punch Mark Coins.

The Early Cholas (Sangam Age)

200 BC to 300 AD is called as the Sangam Age because of the Sangam classical literature which refers to the existence of three Dhravidian communities namely Solan, Pandyan, and Chera. Pandyas were the powerful dynasty that controlled the destiny of other two dynasties namely Chola and Chera.

HISTORY

The reference to Cholas appears in the Mahabharata epic of 7th cent BC. The Sanskrit Grammarian Katyayana of 4th cent BC also mentions of Cholas. Again the name occurs on the Ashokan edicts of 3rd century BC. So it is suggested that the three Dhravidian dynasties namely Chola, Chera, Pandya had sprung up from a common origin and developed three kingdoms in a three well defined region and live in harmony so as to allow free movement and trade. The first historical King was Karikala who is stated to have invaded Ceylon . He is assumed to have lived in the second half of 1st century AD. He was succeeded by his son Nedumuri Killi. It was during Nedumuri Kill's reign, Kaveripattanam is supposed to have been destroyed by the sea. During second or 3rd cent AD, the Pallavas seems to have been in the zenith of their power and the Chola Kingdom was conquered by them (Pallavas). Nothing is heard of Cholas since then until 8th century AD.

COINAGE

The square copper coins similar in fabric to what Cheras and Pandyans introduced, remained the currency in the beginning of 1st century AD. They had both obverses and reverses. The later coinage is a single obverse design issued during 1st and 2nd century AD. No gold coin is heard of early Cholas.

Elephants on Chera, Chola and Pandya Coinage ?

As per retired professor of University of Madras, P Shanmugam - there are at least 1000 different symbols embossed on coins from that period. Elephant, sun and mountain, appeared more often than others. These symbols must have reflected day to day life. Objects that powerfully represented daily life were embossed more often than others on coins.

Punch-marked coins actually come from the pre-Mouria period (before emperor Ashoka). The Chera, Chola, Pandyas of the Sangam period used it. Initially, they printed each symbol separately, but as the demand increased they started printing the symbols together on coins using a single mould. Most Sangam period coins, excavated from various parts of Tamil Nadu, were made of copper. There are some silver coins, but gold coins have not been found so far. Some coins even had legends in ancient Tamil Brahmi embossed on them.

In Buddhist iconography, the elephant is associated with Queen Maya or Mahamaya, the mother of Gautama Buddha. Further according to the Buddhist Philosophy the elephant is associated with the birth of Buddha and the stability of the “Dhamma” too. The elephant symbolises royal authority and majesty.

The appearance of the punch marked coins from c. 4th BCE coincides with the rise of Buddhism in India. Elephants have a special place in Buddhist mythology and religion with them representing the mental strength.

With the Mauryans emerging as an imperial power and exercising control over most parts of the Indian sub-continent, the elephants must be symbolic of the strength and might of the Mauryan Empire.

The elephants had a place so important in Ancient Indian army that, an army without elephants has been compared to a forest without a lion, a kingdom without a king or as a valor unaided by weapons.

Chanakya, the great brahman co-founder of the Mauryan dynasty credited South India with the strongest elephants in the known world.

It is possible that Ashoka entered into friendly alliance with the Tamil kings to provide their elephants for war against Kalinga.

Rajaraja chola is said to have possessed 60,000 war elephants. Compare this with Mauryas or Guptas who could not field higher than 20,000.

Probably the first use of elephants in war, dates back to India only. Even they are mentioned in the great epics of India, Ramayana and Mahabharata. The famous incident of Bhima killing of an elephant named Aswathama, to conquer over Drona is well known.

These huge beasts were the backbone of the any Indian army, often heavily armored from top to bottom.

We can infer that the representation of the elephants on these coins are either suggestive of some religious importance or refer to the royal power and strength.

The Malayamans (Sangam Age)

The hereditary chiefs,MALAYAMAN belonged to Malayaman-nadu (Sangam literature). They had their capital at Tirucoilur, on the river of Ponnaiyar. Tirucoilur was situated on the early trade route from north to the south and enjoyed trade with Satavahanas. Principle port of them was at Arikamedu on the east. Sangam literature mentions of Tirumudikari, a Malayaman chief who fought alongside Perunarkilli Chola to defeat Cheral Irumporai (Irumporai Cheras). Vastly, Cholas, Cheras and even Satavahanas controlled the destiny in times.

COINAGE

The Malayamans issued copper coins of quadrilateral shape which carried their royal emblem "Horse" sometime facing left or sometime to right. In some of the older coins (early coins) a legend "Malayaman" above the horse motif decorated the coin obverse. Most of their coins, on the reverse carried the symbolical map of their territory "A wide curved river with fishes flowing in it, and a rectangular town beside the river". This basically depicts the kind of territory they ruled. The Malayaman coins generally weighed between 2 to 4 gms and are of thin fabric unlike the contemporary Cheras.

Obverse	Horse standing right, altar in front
Reverse	Map illustrating the location of Tirucoilur (the Malayaman capital): three hills in the distance, the river Ponnaiyar flowing from right to left, the town within its curve below, a road (?) at left.

Obv: Horse standing right; altar in front; Trident side of horse

Rev: Map showing wide river with fishes; rectangular town symbol in left bend; three hills above; ankus + spectre

Bull & Horseman Jitals

2018-05-09T02:20:00.001+05:30

The origins of the Hindu Shahis of Kabul is disputed — various sources have suggested Turkic, Tibetan, and Hindu Kshatriya roots. Their predecessors include such groups as Bactrian Greeks, Indo Scythians, Indo Parthians, Kushans, Kidarites, and Hepthalites. Their coinage used many motifs, including a bull and a horseman, but no coin used both a bull and horseman. The artistry of the coinage of their predecessors had been declining for some time; the cruder and more abstract designs on the coins Deven showed us demonstrated the continued decline. Here is the first coin we saw; the bull at rest faces to the left, while the horse and rider face to the right. The rider is wearing a mask — could it be a battle mask?

The Shahi Dynasty Controlled Both Sides Of The Fabled Khyber Pass In Afghanistan And Northern India And Their Lands Included The Province Of Old Gandhara And The Kabul Valley.

Shahi was An Ancient Royal Title Used for a Long Period By many Dynasties Throughout The Northwestern Indian Subcontinent and Was Used by the Warrior Chieftain Rulers. Probably Descending From The Achaemenid Persians Via The Kushanas.
The Buddhist Shahis Of Kabul (Kabul-Shahan) Shifted To Hinduism In the 9th Century AD. Islamic Invasions And The Rise Of The Ghaznavid Empire Led To The Decline And Fall Of The Shahi Kingdom.The Nezak Huns took over power in the Kabul region from the Alchon Huns in the 6th century AD. - Early 7th century they were displaced by the Turk Shahi, of which Sahi Tigin is the best known. - The last of the Turk Shahi was Lagaturman. According to Arab historian Albiruni Tigin was over-thrown from the throne by his Brahmin minister Kallar. Kallar was supposedly the founding father of the Hindu Kabul Shahi dynasty, around the beginning of the 9th century. - At the end of the 9th century the Hindu shahi lost Kabul to the Muslim invaders and had to move their power base east, where they stayed in power for another century.

A	Ananga	1130-1145 A.D.	Delhi	Deyell 187 Tye 44	Intermediate diameter
B	Madana Pala	1145-1167 A.D.	Delhi	Deyell 201 Tye 45
C	Prithvi III	1191-1192 A.D.	Delhi	Deyell 225 Tye 52
D	Mohamed bin Sam Ghori	1193-1206 A.D.	Delhi	Deyell 260 Tye 185
E	Mohamed bin Sam Ghori	1193-1206 A.D.	Budaon	Deyell 254 Tye 187	dies much larger than flan
F	Yildiz	1206-1215 A.D.	Kurraman	Deyell 264 Tye 200	bull only
G	Yildiz	1212-1214 A.D.	Lahore	Deyell 265 Tye 201	horseman only
H	Jalal Mangubarni	1220-1224 A.D.	Nandana?	Deyell 349 Tye 318
I	Iltutmish	1210-1235 A.D.	Delhi	Deyell 311 Tye 386
J	Mahi Pala	after 1266 A.D. ?	?	Deyell 232 Tye 39	flan half die diameter

Catalogue and Account of the Coin Denomination of Daily Use in Medieval Afghanistan and North West India, by Robert Tye and Monica Tye, 188 pages, Publisher: Robert Tye (August 1995).

Living Without Silver, by John Deyell, 369 pages, Publisher: OUP India (April 1999).

Chauhans of Ajmer & Delhi , 10 - 11th Century ADTomaras( Rajputs) of Delhi ,Mahipaladeva ( 1103 -1128 AD ) Copper JittalNarwar Malaya varma of Jajapella dynasty (1223 - 33 AD) Billon JittalThis is an issue of the Ghazni Sultan "Jamal ud daula Farukhzad"(AD.1053-1059)

Bull and horseman jitals coins are from Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India. The Shahi kings from Kabul and Gandhara are credited with a long series of coins to support what must have been flourishing trade from the 8th to 13th centuries A.D.

The type was issued by many authorities over at least five centuries but many, including most of the early ones, lack the names of issuers in a format that we can comprehend today. Above the bull, the earliest ones have Nagari legends reading Sri Spalapati Deva or Honorable Chief Commander. Right of the horse is a legend in cursive Bactrian.

Spalapati Deva

Later Spalapati coins eliminated the cursive legend to the right of the horse and reduced the flowing banner to the left of the horseman to allow room for a single letter. While several letters are known in this position

These later Spalapati issues are not as roundly modeled as the first pair shown but still not as completely line drawings as would come later. They are also a hundred times more easily found than the early ones. Well struck specimens with clear legends remain elusive but coins equal to these are common.

References suggest that the main mint of this period may have been Kabul.

Turk Shahis (2nd Nezak Huns Dynasty), "Spalapati Deva" (="Military Commander"). AR Drachm, c. AD 750-850. Kabul mint. Obverse: Legend in Sarada script, Sri Spalapati Deva. Bull recumbent left, wearing saddlecloth, trisul symbol on rump. Reverse: Brahmi legend, Shahi Deva (?). Horseman right, holding spear, Saruda Gu at left; unidentified symbol between horse's legs. Weight: 3.49gm. Diameter : 19mm.

Comments: "Spalapati Deva" (="Military Commander") seems to be a title rather than the name of a specific ruler. These coins represent the last issues of the Turk Shahis of Kabul which began with the Nezak Malka/ Srio Shaho "trident crown" coins of Barhategin in the early 8th century. The Arab historian Alberuni tells us of the last Turkic king, Lagaturman, who was overthrown by his Brahman advisor Kellar. This usurper Kellar founded a dynasty of seven subsequent Hindu rulers. The first of these rulers is called "Samanta" (="Feudatory Chief") which is the title found on another, slightly later, group of bull and horseman drachms. Thus, Deyell gives the Spalapati coins to the Turk Shahis centered at Kabul and the Samanta coins to the subsequent Hindu Shahis ruling from Ohind in Pakistan."

Samanta Deva

The most common of the Shahi bull and horseman coins are those with the Sarada legend Sri Samanta Deva above the bull. This is also a title rather than a name and could be taken as the same "Honorable Chief Commander" as listed for Spalapati Deva. References suggest that these were made farther east, perhaps at Ohind, after the Shahi influence farther west had been forced out by Muslim conquest. The dates are given as 850-1000 A.D. which overlaps the Spalapati dates but individual coins are not dated within either of those ranges. Ohind was located on the Indus river in the region known as Gandhara (now in northwest Pakistan). Sarada characters Bhi is left of the horseman with another symbol to the right. The most common of these ("Ma"?) is shown on the top left and center coins while "Ta" is shown on the lower left. The top right coin shows a bit of a variation on the character left of the horseman but I believe this is just a 'handwriting' variation of the normal Bhi. The bottom center coin matches the normal Tye 14 coins but is either plated (fourree) or a poorly mixed allow with large areas of copper showing.

Khudarayaka

Other than the above major groups, there are a few less common legend varieties from the early period with spread flans and better silver. Our example is in the name (above bull) of Khudarayaka who ruled c. 870 A.D. These are not really rare but seen much less frequently than the common Spalapati and Samanta coins. There are a few minor variations with different characters right of the horseman or between the horse's front legs. Khudarayaka is an epithet used by the governor of Kabul under Yaqub ibn Layith of Seistan.

Bronzes

Silver jitals of the early period were sometimes accompanied by bronzes of similar size but bearing the images of an elephant and lion. While considerably less common than the silver, the most common bronzes are in the name of Samanta Deva. Coins are usually seen crudely struck which explains why I am showing two examples of the same type, each with different strengths. Again, as I find examples of other types, they will be added to this space but the number of Shahi bronzes available on the market even in the condition of those shown here is not high. There is almost no demand for them in the market so it is hard to know whether they are actually rare compared to the silver or just ignored by the trade.

Late Bull and Horseman types:

Following the Islamic conquest of the Hindu Shahi lands one might expect the end of the bull and horseman coins but that was not the case. The coins were well established in the region as the definition of good money so Muslim rulers continued the issue of bull and horseman varieties for a few more centuries (at least to 1300 A.D.) Our group of ten examples is not by any means a complete set. Most amazing to me is that the weight standard remained rather constant with most coins weighing 3-3.5g. Diameter, however, was reduced mostly resulting in rather thick 14 to 16mm coins. Over time, silver quality fell from the early level around 69% to 18% and finally to a billon with so little silver that the coins appear to be copper. These later rulers were less shy about placing their names on the coins so, unless the language is a barrier, it is possible to attribute at least those coins well enough centered to bear significant parts of the legends. Unfortunately good centering is not a common characteristic of these coins. Flans range from slightly smaller than the dies to less than half the size of the dies. It is next to impossible to find a single coin with all of the detail. My examples are not random selections but were picked for their readable legends. Most of these were struck by the Delhi Rajahs but a few were produced at branch mints. Some late issues (examples F & G above) replaced either the bull or the horseman with Arabic legends. The final step was taken when coins were made in the standard Islamic fashion with legends on both sides and no bull or horseman. These, however, do not fit the theme of this page. As a group, late jitals are common and low priced but it is not always possible to find identified or high quality examples without some looking. The series is ignored by most coin dealers.

It is thought that when Khwarezmshah Mangubarni travelled West in 1224AD he left two of his generals in charge of the region.

The area West of the Indus (with Kurraman and Peshawar) was controlled by governor Wafa Malik. He would later extend his territory and become an independent ruler better known as Saif-al-din al-Hasan Qarlugh.

The governor of the area east of the Indus, including Nandana, is known from his scarce coinage as "Sharaf Beg" or "Khalif Beg". I would read it as "ShaLiPha BaGa". Recent literature suggests that this "Sharaf Beg" could have been Özbeg Bei bin Muhammad Jahan Pahlawan. This Ozbeg Bei was a ruler from Azerbaijan, with Tabriz as capital (now in Iran). The Azerbaijan area was overrun by both the Kwarezmshah forces of Mangubarni and the Mongol army. In the process he became a vassal of Mangubarni and was forced to leave the Tabriz area. Around 1229AD this governor lost control of Nandana and followed Mangubarni westward.

The Jitals issued under Sharaf Beg seem not to have been studied in detail. If one can read the legend they are not that difficult to recognize. A potential pittfall in attributing these coins is the "La" character in front of the head of the bull. Many people select specimen based on the presence of the head of the bull and horse on flan. The easily recognizable "La" may lead people to believe that they have a Jitall issued under Mangubarni. However, the same character is present at this location in the Nandana type jitals of Mangubarni, Sharaf Beg, and Iltutmish. So one has to look at different part of the legend for a reliable attribution ! The first coin supports the assumption that the horseman side has the familiar "Sri Hamirah" as legend.

Apart from the legend, there are also small differences in the design. For example the continuous line that ascends from the trunk of the horseman to the front of his head. In the Mangubarni Jitals these are clearly two separate lines.

After 1224AD, Delhi ruler Iltutmish expanded his power westwards. Around 1229AD Delhi forces fell upon Özbeg Bei and overtook Nandana. It is likely that the typical Nandana style Jitals in the name of Iltutmish were struck between this date and the death of Iltutmish in 1236AD.

Again this type is rare, although the Goron &Goenka catalog describe them as merely scarce.

After the death of Iltutmish, Quarlughid leader Saif-ud-din Hasan took his chances to expand his power in the region.

The Nandana style bull and horseman jitals issued under this ruler are stylistically the least refined of the series. Also these are usually found in billon with a likely very low silver content.

Both Tye#346, G&G SS13, legend "Sri HaSaNa KuRaLaKa"

Above is a specimen of a coin which may look like a common Dehli Raja bull and horseman Jital. It is however, quite rare, and not so well explained. It is a coin in the name of Pipala Deva. This is a bit obscure ruler whom Tye and Dyell place as a Chauhan(Chahamana) ruler of Dehli around 1168 AD.

Dehli was initially ruled by the Tomara dynasty. The Tomaras of Dehli had been producing the well-known bull and horseman jitals. Around 1154AD the Tomaras of Dehli were defeated and forced into a feudatory status by the Chauhans of Ajmer under the rule of Vigraharaja IV, also known as Visaladeva/Bisaladeva.

This Bull and Horseman Jital coin type was now also adopted by the Chahamana. But this type is not known in the name of Vigraha Raja.

Pipala Deva is a bit of a problematic figure. Though we know his coins, his name is absent in most genealogical lists of Delhi rulers. A “Bildev” is named in a manuscript by Abu ‘l-Fazl. Dyell transcribes this as “Pipaladev”. However, if we read the Persian as “بیسلدو “ it might as well be read as “Bisaldev”.

As the style of the Pipala Deva coins closely matches the style of the other early Chauhan rulers (Prithvii Raja II and Somesvara), this raises the question: could Pipala be “Visala Deva”?

Only a frament of the legend on the horseman side is visible. But this fits with the "Sri Pi | PaLa RaJa DeVa" as known from other specimen. However, might the Sharada legend on the horseman’s side be read alternatively ?

The first “Pa” resembles the “Va” as it is commonly written in “Samanta DeVa”. Also the “Ba” of the alternative spelling of “BiSaLa” may be difficult to distinguish from Sharada “Pa” or “Va”. Lastly, there is also a variant of “Sa” in Sharada that resembles “Pa”. Problem though, is that ”विषल“ would translate as “poison” (while “विशाल” means Giant).

The rest of the inscription then again brings doubts. The bull’s side inscription is given by Dyell and Tye as: “Kuntasani / Sri Samanta Deva”. The "Ku" is clearly visible in front of the bull. Dyell translates "Kuntasani" as "spearthrower" but i could not confirm this. In Sanskrit “Kunta”= “Spear”, but “SaNi” = “gift” or “gaining/procuring”.

The term “Spear-gaining” seems cryptic, but presents an interesting association. As stated, Vigraha Raja Deva IV defeated the Tomaras. In Sanskrit there are different words for spear, "Kunta" is one. Now would it be mere co-incidence that "Tomara" in Sanskrit also is a spear

(AR 15 mm, 3.27 gr, Tye#47)

This type was issued by the Shahis from about 750-900 AD. Originally at a 4.3 gram Persian weight standard, these silver pieces, at about 69% fine, soon dropped to an old Indian weight standard of 3.3 grams. The translation of the legend in local script, Spalapati Deva, is generally accepted to indicate a military commander (Deva is usually translated to lord). Although originally based in Kapisa (modern Bagram), the capital was moved to Kabul in 794

The most common type of Shahi coin is the Samanta Deva issued from 850-1000 AD. Samanta is the title appearing on the coin. The coin weighs 3.2 grams and is 69% silver. By 880, the Saffarids from the west had driven the Shahis from Kabul.

This Khudrayaka (which is also some title) was issued after the Muslim conquest of Kabul, and is attributed to the installed governor. It weighs about 2.9 grams, is about 69% silver, and retains the prior basic design. As the Shahis were pushed to the east, and their stuation became more dire, the coin designs became more abstract.

This Bhima Deva from about 950 AD is possibly the only Shahi coin to name a king. Weighing 3.2 grams and at 69% silver, it is the rarest of the Shahi silver coins. As their military fortunes declined, the silver content dropped to 25%. The Shahis also issued bronze and copper coins from 800-1000 AD, but these used lion and elephant motifs as had earlier coins in the region. The shown examples had cruder motifs than the shown silver coins. The Ghaznavids drove the Shahis east of the Indus River, and by 1026 the Shahis were extinguished.

In this area, these were turbulent centuries with dynasties forming, expanding, and then falling to other dynasties. At the same time, Islam was spreading from west. The few and similar designs of the Shahis would give way to a wide assortment of designs that held a few traces of the old motifs. The Ghaznavids used a 69% silver dirham weighing 2.9 grams from 997-1030; it included the profession of faith and had no images. But the following Ghaznavid rulers resturned to a jital — a 3.2 gram coin of about 18% silver, a very crude bull on one side, and the profession of faith on the other. As the dynasty collapsed, the silver content almost disappeared.

The Hindu Kingdoms to the east adopted the bull and horseman motifs on a coin of about 3.3 grams, but the silver was very debased and the motifs were very abstract. The Rajas of Delhi started issuing these coins about 1120, with a silver content of 18% or lower. By the time of the Islamic Delhi Sultanates, the silver content had dropped to 5% and lower.

Multiple dynasties were rising and falling simultaneously in the area; it was not a clean linear progression from one to another. Deven used tables from the Tye book to show how the coin designs from the mints at Lahore and Delhi differed and were similar other; one mint could issue coins of multiple styles simultaneously. In one thread, we saw coins combining an abstract bull will Islamic inscriptions. In another thread, an abstract rider was combined with Islamic inscriptions. And sometimes the coins had only Islamic inscriptions.

The jital spread west to the Khwarazm Dynasty (Persia), and one ruler issued many types during a 20-year span. Then the Khwarazm annoyed Genghis Khan. Deven told us of a saying attributed to Genghis Khan after he had conquered a Persian town and before he destroyed it, “I am the flail of god. Had you not created great sins, god would not have sent a punishment like me upon you.” And so even the Mongols issued some jitals.

Prithvi Raj Chauhan (1149–1192 AD), Billon Jital, Bull-Horseman type

Obverse: Horseman right, with Devanagari legend (Sri) Prithviraja Deva around

Reverse: Bull seated left, with Devanagari legend Asavari Sri Samanta Deva around .

Prithviraj Chauhan is the legendary king of Delhi and Ajmer who decisively defeated Muhammad Ghori (bin Sam) in 1191, only to be defeated and killed by the Muslim invader the following year.

Chahada Deva of Delhi, (1172 - 1191 AD ) Chauhan dynasty ,Billon drachm -3.40 Grams

Chahatadeva – Different writers give different periods regarding Chahatadeva. A.Cunningham says his period was 1234-1255. In the account of A.S.Smith he is said to have ruled Narwar from 1232 to 1260. Nothing much is known now in literature about him. A.S Smith says that he was defeated by Delhi ruler Balban (1266-1287) in AD.1251, when Nasir ud din Mahmud was the ruler and Balban his PrimeMinister. Chahatadeva coins of two varieties, both with horseman obverse .

Mahipala-AD.1103-1128 He was a Tomara ruler of Delhi. The City of Delhi was founded by Tomars in the first half of eighth century. They were subordinates to Kanauj in the beginning and later became independent. Chauhans took over the land from them in twelfth century. In 1043, Mahipal captured Thaneswar, Nagarkot and Hansi. He is said to have contributed a lot to development of Delhi. There is an area called “Mahipalpur” near the Indira Gandhi International airport in Delhi.

Obv: seated bull to left ,above portions of nagari legend "Mahi pala".

Rev: Horserider .

Due to using a big die on small planchat only a small proportion of of the disign appears on the flan ,sometimes the inscription is rendered so large in proportion to the space available that only two letters are visible ..

Shanshabãnî or Ghorid Dynasty (1149-1206)

By the beginning of the 12th century the Shanshabãnî had extended their authority over the other Ghorid chiefs and their power rivaled that of the Ghaznavids on their southern border and the Seljuks on their northern border. Honoring this strength, Malik al-Jibal (meaning "King of the Mountain") laid out the foundations of a great capital city called Firozkoh, which some believe to have been at Jam where a magnificent minaret now stands. Malik Qutubuddin was unable, however, to finish his city for he had a falling out with his brothers (he had seven) and was forced to leave for Ghazni where he was well received and well respected until Sultan Bahram Shah (1118-1152), jealous of his increasing popularity, served him with a glass of poisoned sherbet (1146). His murder led to a relentless enmity between Ghor and Ghazni.

One by one, the brothers left their mountain capital with their armies: the first brother captured Ghazni and afterwards sent his army back to Ghor whereupon the Sultan returned to torture him to death; the second brother died on his way to revenge the new death (1149); the third, Alauddin, defeated the Sultan Bahram Shah in the vicinity of modern Kandahar (1151). The Sultan fell back in retreat upon Ghazni which "Alauddin took by storm, and during seven nights and days fired the place, and burnt it with obstinacy and wantonness. . . During these seven days, the air, from the blackness of the smoke, continued as black as night; and those nights, from the flames raging in the burning city, were lighted up as light as day. During these seven days likewise, rapine, plunder and massacre were carried out with the utmost pertinacity and vindictiveness." (Juzjani). Thus, Alauddin earned the title of Jahãnsûz or "World Burner". Ghazni was, however, occupied by the Seljûks soon after and, later on, by the Guzz Turks. It was only in 1175 that the Ghorids succeeded in reoccupying it.

Ghiyãs-ud-Dîn Muhammad bin Sãm, who succeeded his uncle Alãudd-Dîn Jahãnsûz at Firuz Koh, appointed his younger brother, Shihãb-ud-Dîn Muhammad bin Sãm, as the governor of Ghazni. Shihãb-ud-Dîn (1175-1206) occupied Sindh and Multan, ousted the last Ghaznivid ruler from Lahore, defeated the Chauhãns of Ajmer and the Gahadvalas of Kanauj, and extended his conquests upto the borders of Bengal. His conquests were consolidated mainly by his able general, Qutb-ud-Dîn Aibak. Another general of his, Ikhtiyãr-ud-Dîn Bakhtiyãr Khaljî, ousted the forces of Bengal from Lakhnauti and led an unsuccessful expedition into Assam and Bhutan.

Meanwhile, Shihãb-ud-Dîn had become the king of Ghor on the death of his brother in 1203 and styled himself as Muizz-ud-Dîn Muhammad bin Sãm. He is popularly known as Muhammad Ghori, and regarded as the founder of Muslim rule in India. He was murdered in 1206. There being no children, the empire was divided. Mahmud, son of Ghiyãs-ud-Dîn Muhammad bin Sãm, succeeded in Ghor. The east passed to various generals who had conducted Mu’iz Muhammad’s campaigns. These generals were purchased slaves, hence the terms “Slave kings" or "Slave dynasty". Ghazna and its environs was ruled by slave general Taj Al-Din Yildiz. Sind was administered by Nasir Al-Din Qubacha, while Delhi went to Qutb Al-Din Aybak. Mahmud, meanwhile, was deposed in 1212 by the Khwarezmshah, ‘Ala Al-Din Muhammad.

Mahmud's coins are scarcer than those of his uncle, and most are rare. On the coins of the type shown below (of Lahore fabric), the Nagari letters follow the models of Sindhi or Punjabi alphabets in the reversal of the lower limb of the "Ha" and the open top of the "Ma".

Obverse Al Sultan Al Azim Mahmud bin Muhammad bin Sam (The Sultan, the Magnificent, Mahmud son of Mumammad bin Sam)

Bull and horseman coins of Northwest India constitute a fascinating part of Indian numismatics. These coins are found in profusion and are generally labeled as “bull and horseman coins”. But a closer look into them will bring lots of interesting revelations. These coins were prevalent in a very vast area for a very long period. More than thirty rulers have issued coins with bull and horseman or either one from them in the same pattern. The period of issue of such coins can be seen issued from tenth century to the seventeenth. This variety had been issued over Ohind, Sind, Delhi, Ghazni and Kangra regions now falling in three countries, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Some rulers issued them with both bull and horseman. Some issued retaining bull and replacing horseman with legends and yet some others retained horseman and replaced bull with legends. Many of them issued different varieties among these three.

It is a striking feature of these coins that both bull and horseman are beautifully stylized. Legends can be seen surrounding them in many of them. Bull is always recumbent facing left. Horseman is always holding a spear/flag and horse faces to right invariably. In Kangra issues, the horseman is very crude but the basic pattern is retained. Altogether, this variety of coins is intimidating to numismatics enthusiasts.

Here I wish to post some different Bull/horseman coins and variants, of a few rulers belonging to Ohind, Sind, Ghazni, Delhi and Kangra. Alexander Cunningham in his work “Coins of Medieval India” and A.S.Smith in “The Coins in Indian Museum at Calcutta” have given somewhat clear description of Kangra coins. So their views are generally followed in Kangra coin details and datings. I am unable to conclusively date a few of them though. This is not an exhaustive list of such issues or rulers either. There are several more like Prithviraj, Sallakshanapala, Spalapatideva etc who have similar issues.

Typographically, they can be arranged into three varieties.

1. Bull and Horseman coins

2. Horseman replaced by legend

3. Bull replaced by legend

Bull and horseman coins can be subdivided into those with Bull side obverse and those with Horseman side obverse.

Many rulers have issued coins falling into different varieties. Jalal ud din Mingburnu, Qubacha, Sultanan Razia are a few among them.

Chronologically, they spread over more than eight centuries form middle of eighth century to first quarter of seventeenth century. Spalapati coins and Samanta deva coins are considered to have originated between AD. 750 and 900.

These coins show wide variation in the stylization of both the sides but there is consistency between coins of the same region to a very good extent save for a few crude ones from Delhi. Kangra coins look monotonous on the horseman reverse, but the obverse gives the name of the ruler very clearly.

Average weight of these coins also remains around 2.8-3.8gms. But why there are many rulers who retained the legend “Samanta deva” is obscure. And some varieties have been wrongly attributed, like Chahata deva to Muhammad bin Sam.

Bull and Horseman coins-with Bull side obverse

Muhammad bin Sam-1193-1206

Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad was born in 1149 in the Ghor region of what is now present day Afghanistan. He reigned over a territory spanning over parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Iran, India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan. He ruled along with his brother Ghiyath ad-Din Muhammad from 1173 to 1202, and as the supreme ruler of the Ghurid Empire from 1202 to 1206. In 1186, Mu'izz, along with Ghiyath, ended the Ghaznavid dynasty after having captured Lahore and executed the Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau-Malik. In 1206, Mu'izz left all the affairs in India in hands of his slave Qutb ud-Din Aibak.On his return, he was assassinated on 15th March 1206.

Iltutmash-1210-35

Qutb-ud-din Aibak died in 1206 in a Polo accident in his capital Lahore. Aram Shah acceded to the throne in Lahore in 1211 assisted by some nobles. When Iltutmish claimed the throne in Delhi, Aram Shah marched towards Delhi but was slain in battle at Bagh-i-Jud. In 1215-1216, Yildiz moved towards Punjab and captured Lahore from Qubacha and laid claim to the throne of Delhi. ltutmish defeated Yildiz at Tarain.

By 1220, Jalal ud din Mingburnu fled to the Punjab and captured Lahore and much of the Punjab. Iltutmash marched towards Lahore. Mingburnu retreated from Lahore and moved towards Sind and inflicted heavy defeat on Qabacha. He plundered Sindh and northern Gujarat and returned to Persia in 1224.

Iltutmash captured Sind and Multan defeating Qubacha who committed suicide drowning in Indus river after his defeat. He ruled as a persistent invader of surrounding kingdoms until his death in 1235.

Nasir ud din Qubacha-1206-28

Qubacha was a slave under Muhammad bin Sam just as Iltutmash and Taj ud din Yildiz were. After the death of his master, he came to rule Sind. But when Iltutmash came to rule in Delhi, the picture took a different turn. Qubacha was in conflict with Yildiz and Iltutmash. In 1924, Jalal ud din Mingburnu inflicted a devastating defeat to Qubacha. Iltutmash used this opportunity to invade Sind in 1228. Qubacha tried to flee but failed. He either committed suicide or accidentally drowed in the Indus river.

When Ghaznavi rule fell to Muhammad bin Sam from Ghur, Sindh also went under their power. Then came the Sindh Sultans.

History of Sind sultans

1. Nasir ud din Qubacha (1206-1228.AD)
Nasir ud din Qubacha who was made Governor of a province to north of Sindh by Muhammad bin Sam after his conquest of the Ghaznavid ruler. When Muhammad died, Qubacha became the master. After death of Qutb ud din Aibak, he threw off allegiance to Delhi and invaded South-wards to annex Sindh. Subsequently he lost Lahore to Iltutmish. By around 1220.AD, Jalal ud din Mangubarni carved out a kingdom. He attacked Qubacha and later, fled to Persia in 1224. Four years later, Iltutmish attacked Qubacha who fled for life, but drowned in the river Indus near Bhakkar.
2. Jalal ud din Mingburnu /Mangubarni (1220-1224.AD)
Jalal ud din who fled from Kwarezm when his father lost the empire came to settle in Lahore. He then moved to the south and formed a kingdom of his own. With help from local tribes, he attacked Qubacha and obtained a large booty that he took along when he fled to Persia.
3. Khalif Beg (1224.AD)
Khalif who is believed to be an officer with Mingburnu tried to hold on but in vain.
4. Saif ud din Hasan Qurlugh (1239-1249.AD)
He was an officer under Jalal ud din Mingburnu. He remained in Ghazna when his master fled to the west. He waited until a chance befell him in the form of political turmoil when Sultana Razia was in power in Delhi. He secured Sindh for his territory and ruled until 1249. He ambitious to capture Multan and died in his attempt to do so in 1249.
5. Nasir ud din Muhammad Qurlugh (1249-1259.AD)
He succeeded his father and held Sind until 1259. After this period, Jams (Summas), local tribes and Delhi rulers held Sindh whenever they had a military upper hand. Jams at times were tributaries to Delhi and sometimes independent. Until at last, Akbar the Great annexed Sindh to his empire.

Mingburnu-1220-24

He was the last ruler of the Khwarezmian empire. His empire was a vast area now belonging to Iran, Uzbekistan, partly to Kazakhstan and partly to Turkmenistan. Jalal ud din fled to India with Chengiz Khan following him at his heels in AD.1220. He was denied refuge at Delhi by Iltutmash. He captured Lahore and some land around. When Iltutmash marched to Lahore in 1224, Mingburnu left and attacked Sind, defeating Nazir ud din Qubacha and then retreated to Persia.

Saif ud din Hasan Qurlugh-1239-46

He was ruler of Sind for about a decade. He was was reigning in Ghazna and moved to Sind in about 1239. Nothing much is known about him. He had issued bull-horseman and legend-horseman type coins.

Muiz ud din Bahram-1240-42

He was Delhi Sultan and brother to Sultana Razia(1236-1240). A plot was raised against Razia during her reign. She was captured and imprisoned by Altunia the Governor of Bhatinda. She and Altunia got married later and planned to return to Delhi. But Muiz ud din had plans to the throne of Delhi. He defeated Altunia and Razia and put them to death in 1240. But he became unpopular and was murdered by his own army in 1242.

Ala ud din Masud (1242-1246)

Ala ud din Masud was chosen to rule Delhi after Muiz ud din Bahram was killed in AD.1242. He was son of Rukn ud din Firoz (AD.1235-36) who was brother of Sultana Razia. He was lost to luxurious living that ended up in his replacement in AD.1246 with Nazir ud din Mahmud.

Samant deva

Coins bearing the legend “Samant deva” are the biggest puzzle in Indian coins. Lots of coins bearing this legend on one side and the name of another ruler on the other are often come across. So this must have been a title used by them. But there are a few with “Samant deva” on the bull side with no legend that can be read on the other also.

Anangapala (crowned 1051)

He belonged to the Tomaras who ruled Delhi prior to Muslim rule. There were several Anangapals. This seems to be of the second of them.

Mahipala-AD.1103-1128

He was a Tomara ruler of Delhi. The City of Delhi was founded by Tomars in the first half of eighth century. They were subordinates to Kanauj in the beginning and later became independent. Chauhans took over the land from them in twelfth century. In 1043, Mahipal captured Thaneswar, Nagarkot and Hansi. He is said to have contributed a lot to development of Delhi. There is an area called “Mahipalpur” near the Indira Gandhi International airport in Delhi.

Madanapala deva-1145-67

He ruled Delhi between 1145 and 1167. (A.S Smith places him slightly before at about 1080-1115). His father Chandradeva is said to have acquired suzerainty over Kanauj.

Someswara deva-1169-79

He belongs to the Chauhan rulers of Delhi. A.S.Smith also places his period to approximately 1170-75. His son Prithviraj is famous in history for his gallantry.

Chahatadeva –AD.1234-1255.

Different writers give different periods regarding Chahatadeva. A.Cunningham says his period was 1234-1255. In the account of A.S.Smith he is said to have ruled Narwar from 1232 to 1260. Nothing much is known now in literature about him.

A.S Smith says that he was defeated by Delhi ruler Balban (1266-1287) in AD.1251, when Nasir ud din Mahmud was the ruler and Balban his PrimeMinister.

Chahatadeva coins of two varieties, both with horseman obverse are given below.

Another coin of Saif ud din Hasan Qurlugh with a little more details visible.

Another type-III coin of Iltutmish

This is a type-3 coin that belongs to the category coins of Narwar (along with "Chahatadeva" coins). This is an issue of "Malaya varman" who ruled around 1230-1234.AD.Alexander Cunningham explains this coin where Rajputs of Mewar are discussed.Chahatadeva was the ruler who followed Malayavarman according to him.

This coin bears the name of the ruler "Sri Malayavarma" in Nagari script and the date on the obverse. On the reverse, there is an extremely stylised horseman.

Another Razia coin of third variety. The previously posted coin DS#15-a has "al muazam" legend with refined strike. This coin has "as sultan al azam" legend struck crudely.

One more type 1 coin from the Sind.This is an issue of Khalif Beg (AD.1224 :AH.621)who is believed to have been an officer of Jalal ud din Mingburnu.He ruled the area for a short while when his master fled from India.Bull is mostly off flan on this coin with only the anterior most parts of the fore legs and head visible. Parts of the Sarada script legend on obv in front of the recumbent bull facing left reads "Sri shal(ifa baga)".On the reverse, "sri hamir" will be there in front of the horseman, placed above and to the right of the head of the horse.

Ref:SS8, G&G.

Nazir ud daula Ibrahim-1059-99

He succeeded his brother Farukhsad to the throne of Ghazni. Ibrahim’s tenure of rule was generally peaceful. The main achievement of Ibrahim's reign is that Lahore rose as a great cultural center. Ibrahim died in 1099, having reigned for 42 years.

Ala ud daula Masud-1099-1115

When Ghaznavid Sultan Ibrahim died, his son Masud came to the throne. He was renowned for his love of justice and benevolence. He made Lahore de facto capital of the Ghaznavid empire.

Baha ud daula Malik Arsalan-1115-18

He being son of Masud, came to the throne following his father. But after two years he was driven out of Ghazni. He took refuge at Afghanistan, but his brother Bahram caught him and got him executed.

Yamin ud daula Bahram-1118-52

He came to the throne executing Arsalan and then he finished his other brothers also. He lost Ghazni to the Ghur ruler and so had to shift capital to Lahore.

Muizuddaula Khusru-1152-60

Muiz ud daula Khusru, son of Bahram, reigned in Lahore for eight years from 1152 to 1160. His period was generally peaceful.

D.Rajgor attributed the coin below to the Delhi ruler Muhammad bin Sam as "Muizzi" type. G&G attributes this to Muizuddin Khusru of Ghazni. Muhammad bin Sam legend reads "Muiz" rather than "Muizzi".

Taj ud din Yildiz-1212-14

Taj ud din Yildiz became the ruler of Ghazna following the death of Muhammad bin Sam in 1206. When he lost his Kingdom he captured Lahore from Nasir ud din Qubacha. He claimed Delhi also when Iltutmash was ruling Delhi. He issued coins from Lahore between 1212 and 1214. He was defeated by Iltutmash and executed around 1216.

Here is an addition to Type-2 (horseman replaced with legend and bull retained)

Izz ud daula Abd ul Rasheed of Ghazni(1050-1053.AD)

Coins of Tranvancore

2018-05-05T02:22:00.001+05:30

Travancore

The Kingdom of Travancore was an Indian kingdom from 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Familyfrom Padmanabhapuram, and later Thiruvananthapuram. At its zenith, the kingdom covered most of modern-day central and southern Kerala with the Thachudaya Kaimal's enclave of Irinjalakuda Koodalmanikkam temple in the neighbouring Kingdom of Cochin, as well as the district of Kanyakumari, now in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The official flag of the state was red with a dextrally-coiled silver conch shell(Turbinella pyrum) at its center. In the early 19th century, the kingdom became a princely state of the British Empire.The Travancore Government took many progressive steps on the socio-economic front and during the reign of Maharajah Sri Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma, Travancore became the second most prosperous princely state in British India, with reputed achievements in education, political administration, public work and social reforms.

Below are the ruler of the kingdom of Travancore.

1) Anizham Tirunal Marthanda Varma 1729–1755

Type	Common coin
Years	1600-1860
Value	1 Chuckram (1/28)
Metal	Silver
Weight	0.37 g
Diameter	7 mm
Shape	Round
Demonetized	yes
References	KM# 1

Obverse

Crescent with diamond above and two curved lines and ten pellets below (some off flan) .

The curved lines and pellets are a depiction of 'Vishnupaadam' (feet of Lord Vishnu, a God in Hinduism).

Reverse

12 pellets (some off flan) above a crescent representing the Rasi or the 12 signs of the zodiac

Edge Plain

Comments

Marthanda Varma (Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma) was ruler of the southern Indian state of Travancore from 1729 until his death in 1758. He is most celebrated for crushing the Dutch expansionist designs at the Battle of Colachel in 1741. Varma then adopted a European mode of martial discipline and expanded his domain to encompass what became the modern state of Travancore.

Reign: 1729–1758
Predecessor: Rama Varma
Successor: Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma ("Dharma Raja")

Born: Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma, 1705, Attingal,Thiruvananthapuram
Died: July 7, 1758 (aged 52), Padmanabhapuram, Kanyakumari
Regnal name: Sree Padmanabhadasa Vanchiaala Maharajah Sree Anizham Thirunal Veerabaala Marthanda Varma Kulasekhara Perumal

Father: Raghava Varma, Kilimanur Palace
Mother: Karthika Thirunal Uma Devi, Queen of Attingal
Religion: Hinduism

- KM# 1 does not have flowers/sprays on the reverse

One Chukram of

Ayilyam Thirunal Rani Gouri Lakshmi Bayi

Type	Common coin
Years	1811-1901
Value	1 Chuckram (1/28)
Metal	Silver
Weight	0.38 g
Diameter	6.38 mm
Thickness	1.67 mm
Shape	Round
Demonetized	yes
References	KM# C8

Obverse

Crescent with diamond above and two curved lines and ten pellets below (some off flan) . The curved lines and pellets are a depiction of 'Vishnupaadam' (feet of Lord Vishnu, a God in Hinduism).

Reverse

12 pellets (some off flan) above a crescent representing the Rasi or the 12 signs of the zodiac. Flowers/sprays below. Travancore was a major center of Black pepper exports from India and there are opinions that the flowers/sprays represent pepper vines.

Edge

Plain

Comments

Ruler: Ayilyam Thirunal Rani Gouri Lakshmi Bayi
Reign: AD 1810 - 1815 (ME 986-90)
Predecessor: Avittam Thirunal Balarama Varma
Successor: Uthrittathi Thirunal Rani Gouri Parvati Bayi
Born: 1791, Travancore
Died: 1815, Travancore
Consort: Raja Raja Varma Koil Thampuran of Changanassery
Full name: Her Highness, Sree Padmanabhasevini Vanchidharma Vardhini Raja Rajeshwari Maharani Ayilyom Thirunal Gowri Lakshmi Bayi Maharani Of Travancore
House: Venad Swaroopam
Dynasty: Kulasekhara
Religion: Hinduism

- Two types exist, KM# C8 without dot at center over leaf spray, & KM# 21 with dot over leaf spray (see image)

Kaliyan Panam of Anizham Thirunal Marthanda varma

Type	Common coin
Years	1790-1830
Value	1 Kaliyan Fanam (1/7)
Metal	Gold
Weight	0.36 g
Diameter	8 mm
Shape	Round
Demonetized	yes
References	KM# C1

Obverse

Crescent with diamond, flanked by two beads above and two curved lines and ten pellets below.
The curved lines and pellets are a depiction of 'Vishnupaadam' (feet of Lord Vishnu, a God in Hinduism).

Reverse

12 pellets considered to represent the 12 Rasi (signs of the zodiac), lines and dots below

Edge

Plain

Comments

- This coinage was from the early part of the establishment of the Travancore kingdom, an exact date is not determined
- Weight varies 0.35 - 0.37 grams
- Diameter varies 7 - 9 mm
- Marthanda Varma (Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma) was ruler of the southern Indian state of Travancore from 1729 until his death in 1758. He is most celebrated for crushing the Dutch expansionist designs at the Battle of Colachel in 1741. Varma then adopted a European mode of martial discipline and expanded his domain to encompass what became the modern state of Travancore.
    Reign: 1729–1758
    Predecessor: Rama Varma
    Successor: Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma ("Dharma Raja")
    Born: Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma, 1705, Attingal, Thiruvananthapuram
    Died: July 7, 1758 (aged 52), Padmanabhapuram, Kanyakumari
    Regnal name: Sree Padmanabhadasa Vanchiaala Maharajah Sree Anizham Thirunal Veerabaala Marthanda Varma Kulasekhara Perumal
    Father: Raghava Varma, Kilimanur Palace
    Mother: Karthika Thirunal Uma Devi, Queen of Attingal
    Religion: Hinduism
- Later issues were made of billon, debased metal and even copper (an example in image below)

Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma (1758 - 1798)

Type	Common coin
Years	1758-1798
Value	1/2 Anantaraya Fanam (1/7)
Metal	Gold
Weight	0.19 g
Diameter	6 mm
Shape	Round
Demonetized	yes
References	KM# 2

Obverse

4 pellets above a crescent. 'Vishnupaadam' (the feet of Vishnu - a Hindu God) represented by two curved lines and ten pellets for toes - all within a circle of dots.
Also known as Half Anantharaayan Panam in Malayalam

Reverse

12 pellets above a crescent representing the 'Rasi' or signs of the zodiac. Lines and pellets below - all within a circle of dots

Edge

Plain

Comments

- Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma (1758 - 1798) was also known as Dharma Raja or The Just King
Reign 1758 - 1798

Predecessor: Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma
Successor: Avittam Thirunal Bala Rama Varma
House: Venad Swaroopam
Dynasty: Kulasekhara
Religion: Hinduism

Type	Common coin
Years	1758-1798
Value	2 fanams (2/7)
Metal	Gold
Weight	0.39 g
Diameter	7.5 mm
Shape	Round
Demonetized	yes
References	KM# 3

Obverse

Design evolved from kaliyan fanams of South east India.
Chuckram within a large crescent above vishnupadam (feet of Lord Vishnu) that is represented by two curved lines and 10 pellets,for the toes.

Reverse

Twelve pellets within a curve considered as the 12 Rasi or the signs of the zodiac

Edge

Plain

Ayillyam Thirunal Rani Gouri Laxmi Bayi 1811 -1841

Type	Common coin
Years	1811-1841
Value	Anantaraya 2 fanams (2/7)
Metal	Gold
Weight	0.36 g
Diameter	6.98 mm
Thickness	1.34 mm
Shape	Round
Orientation	Coin alignment ↑↓
Demonetized	yes
References	KM# A8

Obverse

Design evolved from kaliyan fanams of South east India.
Chuckram within a large crescent above vishnupadam (feet of Lord Vishnu) that is represented by two curved lines and 10 pellets,for the toes.

Reverse

Twelve pellets within a curve considered as the 12 Rasi or the signs of the zodiac, flanked by sprays with flowers

Edge

Plain

Comments

- Ruler: Ayillyam Thirunal Rani Gouri Laxmi Bayi 1811 -1841
- Both coin and medal alignments exist.
- On January 3, 1750 A.D., the kingdom of Travancore was dedicated to the deity Sri Padmanabha (Lord Vishnu) of Trivandrum and from then on the rulers of Travancore ruled the kingdom as the servants of Sri Padmanabha (Padmanabhadasan).
- This coin is also known as the 'Puvitta Panam' (fanam with flowers)

Avittam Thirunal Bala Rama Varma (c. 1782 – 7 Nov 1810)

Type	Common coin
Years	1809-1810
Value	1/2 Chuckram (1/56)
Metal	Silver
Weight	0.20 g
Diameter	5 mm
Shape	Round
Demonetized	yes
References	KM# 7

Obverse

Stylized Shanku (conch shell) within a circle of dots

Reverse

Sudarshana chakram (spinning discus used by the Hindu God Vishnu), within a circle of dots.
Also known as the Arra Chakram or Chinna Chakram in Malayalam

Edge

Plain

Comments

- Avittam Thirunal Bala Rama Varma (c. 1782 – 7 Nov 1810) was a ruler of the Indian princely state of Travancore from 1798 to 1810, succeeding his uncle Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma (Dharma Raja) on 12 February 1798. His reign was a time of disturbances and internal and external problems. The revolt of Velu Thampi (who as Dewan negotiated the formal alliance between Travancore and the British East India Company) occurred during his rule.
Reign 1798 - 1810
Coronation 18 February 1798
Predecessor: Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma
Successor: Ayillyam Thirunal Gowri Lakshmi Bayi
Full name: Sripadmanabha Dasa Vanchipala Balaramavarma Kulashekhara kireedapathi Manne sulthan Maharajarajarama Rajabahadoor Shamsherjang Maharaja
House: Venad Swaroopam
Dynasty: Kulasekhara
Religion: Hinduism

Type	Common coin
Years	1809-1810
Value	2 Chuckrams (1/14)
Metal	Silver
Weight	0.76 g
Diameter	9 mm
Shape	Round
Demonetized	yes
References	KM# F8

Obverse

Garlanded stylized shanku (conch shell), crescent above. All within a circle of dots

Reverse

Sudarshana chakram (spinning discus used by the Hindu God Vishnu). Numeral 2 in Malayalam & English above, 'Chuckram' in Malayalam below, all within a circle of dots. Also known as the Double Chakram or (Eratta Chakram in Malayalam)

Lettering:
൨ . 2
ചക്രം

Translation: 2 Chuckrams

Edge

Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma (1832–1880)

Type	Common coin
Years	1860-1861
Value	1 Fanam (1/7)
Metal	Dump Silver
Weight	1.5 g
Diameter	13 mm
Shape	Round
Orientation	Medal alignment ↑↑
Demonetized	yes
References	KM# 22

Obverse

'Chuckram' within a large crescent above vishnupadam (feet of Lord Vishnu) that is represented by two curved lines and 10 pellets,for the toes, all within a wreath and a circle of beads

Reverse

Crescent below twelve pellets considered as representing the 12 'Rasi' or the signs of the zodiac. Below that flower stalks with a dot in the middle Legend in Tamil: Date and 'pa ka' (for panam one) surrounds

Lettering: For lettering on Reverse see 'Comments' below

Translation: 1036 (malayalam era date), 1 fanam

Edge

Plain

Comments

- Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma (1832–1880) was the ruler of the princely state of Travancore in India from 1860 to 1880. His reign was highly successful with Travancore gaining the appellation of "model state of India". Ayilyam Thirunal was the nephew of Uthram Thirunal and Swathi Thirunal and grandson of the celebrated Gowri Lakshmi Bayi.
    Predecessor: Uthram Thirunal
    Successor: Visakham Thirunal
    Born: March 14, 1832
    Died: May 30, 1880 (aged 48)
    House: Venad Swaroopam
    Dynasty: Kulasekhara
    Father: Punartham Thirunal Rama Varma Koil Thampuran
    Mother: Gowri Rukmini Bayi
    Religion: Hinduism
- Also known as 'Tamil panam' (Tamil money) in Malayalam because of the Tamil script on the coin.

Avittam Thirunal Bala Rama Varma (c. 1782 – 7 Nov 1810)

Type	Common coin
Years	1809-1810
Value	2 Chuckrams (1/14)
Metal	Silver
Weight	0.75 g
Diameter	8.5 mm
Shape	Round
Demonetized	yes
References	KM# 8

Obverse

Garlanded stylized shanku (conch shell), crescent above. All within a circle of dots

Reverse

Sudarshana chakram (spinning discus used by the Hindu God Vishnu). Surrounded by legend in Malayalam 'Padhmanabhan'

Lettering: പത്മനാഭൻ

Translation: Padhmanabhan (another name for Hindu God Vishnu)

Edge

Plain

Comments

Image of another coin with variations on obverse

Hindu kingdom of Kashmir

2018-05-01T13:55:00.001+05:30

Hindu kingdom of Kashmir

Kshema Gupta (950-958 AD)

Parva Gupta was succeeded by his son Kshema Gupta in A.D. 950. He was a prince of low habits, and lost a portion of his dominions by foreign invasion. He married Didda, the daughter of Sinha Raja of Lahor, and died after a reign of eight years and a half. His coin was a joint issue with his wife queen Didda.

Abhimanyugupta (958 – 972 AD)

He was the infant son of King Kshema Gupta. His father's death made him the king at a very early age with his mother Didda as the regent. He was king for fourteen years under Didda but then was killed by Didda. He was not the only king killed by Didda and might not be the first one also!
Obverse: Goddess Lakshmi seated facing, with Nagari legend “A” at right “Bhima(nyu)” at left.
Reverse: King standing sacrificing at altar, with Nagari legend “Gupta” at right

NandiGupta (972-973 AD)

Nandi Gupta was a grandson of Queen Didda. This infant was put in throne after untimely demise of the son of Didda, Abhimanyu. At the end of twelve months, when Didda had deceived the people by her sorrow, and bribed the priests by building religious edifices, she put her grandson, Nandi Gupta, to death. Nandi was in throne for the period 972-973 AD.
Obverse. Nandi Gu
Reverse pta.

Didda Rani (979-1003 AD)

Didda was ruler of Kashmir from 958 AD to 1003 AD, first as a Regent for her son and various grandsons, and thereafter as sole ruler in her own right from 979 AD. Kalhana says: “The Lame Queen whom no one had thought capable of stepping over a cow’s footprint got over the host of her enemies just as Hanuman got over the ocean.” Didda ruled for the next 22 years in absolute power until she died in 1003 at the age of 79, quashing rebellions periodically by using her standard combination of bribes, appeasement and ferocious reprisal

Sangrama Deva (1003-1028 AD)

Didda Rani left the kingdom to her nephew Sangrama, the son of her brother Udaya Raja of Lahar. He was an indolent and careless ruler, and highly offended his nobles, by giving his daughter in marriage to a Brahman. The only event worthy of record during his long reign of nearly twenty-five years, is the invasion of a neighbouring state subject to Sri Trilochan Pal, by the Turks under Hamir. Sangrama sent a force to the aid of his brother Raja; but his troops were defeated, and the Kashmirian general fled from the field of battle : for which act, at the instigation of his brother, Vigraha Raja of Lahor, he put the cowardly general to death.
Kalhana Pandit concludes the reign of Sangrama Deva, by stating, that though he amassed great wealth (another proof that Mahmud had not plundered Kashmir), yet he erected no edifices either for private use, or for public convenience.

Obverse. Sangrama Ra-.
Reverse. ja Deva.

Ananta Deva (1028-1063 AD)

Sangrama was succeeded by his eldest son, Hari Raja, who died after a reign of only twenty-two days ; but even in this short time he is said to have collected good ministers about himself. His infant brother, Ananta, then ascended the throne, and was attacked by his uncle Vigraha Raja of Lahor, who was defeated and killed. Ananta afterwards invaded Champa (the present hill state of Chamba on the Ravi), and having slain Raja Sal, he put another prince upon the throne about A.D. 1070.
At the intercession of his queen, Surajmati, he associated his son, Kalasa, in the government ; and this act embittered the remaining years of his reign. Kalasa having attempted to carry off the wife of one of his nobles, Ananta sent for him, abused him, and even struck him. After this, Kalasa openly rebelled; and his father retired with all his treasures, amongst which one packet of jewels alone is said to have been worth seventy lakhs of rupees
The Queen Surajmati frequently made peace between the father and son, which was as often broken by interested persons. The king being at length hard pushed, was ordered by his son to leave the temple in which he had taken refuge. The Queen Surajmati advised him to comply. Ananta, became furious, overcome with rage, despair, and the wickedness of his wife, slew himself with his own sword, after a long reign of fifty-two years, four months, and seven days.
Obverse . Auanta Ra-
Reverse. -ja Deva.

Kalasa Deva (1081-1089AD)

After Ananta's death, the Rani gave a donation to the troops, and declared Harsha (the son of Kalasa), Raja. Surajmati burned herself with the body of her husband.
Ananta's treasures having fallen to Kalasa, Harsha wished to conciliate him ; and though they once met and became reconciled, yet their friendship was soon broken, and differences continued between them until Harsha was imprisoned. The Raja afterwards fell sick, and wished to leave the throne to Harsha; but the nobles who had formerly opposed his son interfered, and the sick Raja willed that the kingdom should be given between his sons, Utkarsha and Harsha.
The coin was called Paddka during this reign.
Obverse. Kalasa Ra
Reverse. -ja Deva.

Harsha Deva (1089 -1101 AD)

After Kalasa, The nobles placed Utkarsha on the throne, but Harsha, having been released from prison by his half-brother, Vijaya Malla, prevailed against Utkarsha, who opened a vein in his arm, and died after reigning only twenty-two days.
Harsha was a prince of some learning ; and to him is attributed the drama called Ratnavali. In the early part of his reign, gold and silver are said to have been very plentiful ; but the extravagant pleasures of the prince at last compelled him to strip the temples of their gold and silver ornaments, and even to carry off the figures of the gods themselves. Afterwards, his generals, Uchchala and Sussala, two brothers, descendants of Sahi Raja of Lahor, and fourth cousins of Harsha, being suspected, rebelled. At first they were unsuccessful ; but Harsha, having put their father Malla to death, they redoubled their exertions, and the Raja, being defeated, hid himself in a Fakir's hut, from whence, after two days of starvation, he was dragged out and killed.
During this reign the gold coin was called Utkosh.
Obverse.Harsha Raja.
Reverse. Deva.

King Jagadeva of the Vuppadevas in Kashmir 1199-1213. AV Stater (18mm, 10.38 g, 12h). Stylized figure of Toramana standing facing; ja in Btahmi to left; ga in Brahmi to right / Stylized figure of goddess standing facing; de[va] in Brahmi to right.

Toramana II was the son of Hunnic king Mihirakula who had been defeated by the alliance of Indian kings in Malwa and had escaped to Kashmir where he deposed the local king who had offered him refuge.

Toramana II was also the grandson of Toramana I, the Hun who had invaded India at the end of the 5th century and inflicted losses on the Gupta empire.

Kashmir kingdom

Toramana II (c. 530-570)

AE stater (19 mm, 6.80 g)

Obverse: King standing, sacrificing at fire altar, with traces of Brahmi legend Sri Toramana at left along circular margin

Reverse: Goddess Lakshmi seated facing, holding a long-stemmed lotus, with Brahmi legend Jaya at right

Kidarite Huns India, Kannauj Yashosvarman of Kannauj (AD 728-745) EL Dinar 22 mm x 7.56 grams Obverse: Formalized Kushan-style king sacrificing left; below arm, Kidara; in left field,Ka. Reverse: Semi-realistic goddess Ardoksho (Tyche) enthroned facing, holding garland and cornucopiae; in right field, Sri Yasova; in left field, Rma. Ref: Smith (1906), Indian Museum Calcutta, Vol. I, Part III, p. 268, 1ff and pl. XXVII, 6; MACW 3649 ("Kidarites", 5th C.). Good Very Fine. Rare

Kushan Empire - Kidarite Huns Bactrian Region Gadahara-Peroz (AD 360-380) AV Dinar 19.5 mm x 7.79 grams Obverse: Formalized Kushan-style king sacrificing left; below arm, Brahmi legendGadahara at right, Piroz under arm; in left field, Kushana Reverse: Realistic goddess Ardoksho (Tyche) enthroned facing, holding garland (diadem) and cornucopiae; in right field, Brahmi letter Sha; in left field, Tamgha.

The Rupee

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Ancient Indians were the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Chinese and Lydians (from the Middle East). The first Indian coins – punch marked coins called Puranas, Karshapanasor Pana – were minted in the 6th century BC by the Mahajanapadas (republic kingdoms) of ancient India. These included Gandhara, Kuntala, Kuru, Panchala, Shakya, Surasena, and Saurashtra.

The Maurya Empire issued one of the earliest coins in the world in 6th century BC. These Mauryan coins were not exactly the rupee, yet the foundations of the currency.

Made of silver of a standard weight but with irregular shapes, these coins had different markings – for example, Saurashtra had a humped bull, Dakshin Panchala had a Swastika, and Magadha had several symbols.

Then came the Mauryas who punch marked their coins with a royal standard. Chanakya, prime minister to the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya, mentions the minting of coins such as rupyarupa (silver), suvarnarupa (gold), tamararupa (copper) and sisarupa (lead) in his Arthashastra treatise.

The word “rūpiye” (Hindi for rupees) is derived from a Sanskrit word “rūpaa”, which means “wrought silver or a coin of silver”. The word is derived from the noun rūpa or “shape, likeness, image”. Arthashastra by Chanakya, who was the prime of the first Maurya emperor Chandragupta Maurya (340–290 BCE), has mentions of silver coins as rupyarupa. Arthashastra also mentions gold coins (Suvarnarupa), copper coins (Tamararupa) and lead coins (Sisarupa).

The origin of the word “rupee” is found in the Sanskrit rūpya “shaped; stamped, impressed; coin” and also from the Sanskrit word “raupya” meaning silver.

The word rūpa is further identified as having sprung from the Dravidian root uruppu, which means "a member of the body.

The word "sura'je" is derived from a Sanskrit word "rūpaalu", which means "wrought silver, a coin of silver", in origin an adjective meaning "shapely", with a more specific meaning of "stamped, impressed", whence "coin". It is derived from the noun rūpa "shape, likeness, image". The word rūpa itself could have Vedic or Dravidian roots.

Vedic origin is more likely, as Sanskrit rūpá, n.,m. a form, beauty (Rigveda), rūpaka adjective and n.,m. a particular coin Pañcatantra, rūpya,*rūpiya-, adj. beautiful, bearing a stamp Pāṇini., n. silver Mahabharata. There is no evidence of transmission to Indo-Aryan from Dravidian and textual evidence dates to well before any references in the later Dravidian.

A 3rd century BC silver coin of the Maurya Empire. The coin called Rupyarupa had symbols of wheel and elephant.

The Indo-Greek Kushan kings who came next introduced the Greek custom of engraving portrait heads on coins. Their example was followed for eight centuries. The extensive coinage of the Kushan empire also influenced a large number of tribes, dynasties, and kingdoms, which began issuing their own coins.

Kushan coins had the diademed, helmeted bust of the king on one side, and the king’s favourite deity on the reverse.

The Gupta coins, with their many varieties and inscriptions in Sanskrit, are among the finest India has produced.

The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of gold coins depicting the Gupta kings performing various rituals. This tradition of intricately engraved coins continued till the arrival of the Turkish Sultanate in North India.

In 1866, when the financial establishments collapsed, the control of paper money also shifted to the British Government. This was subsequently passed to the Mint Masters, the Accountant Generals and the Controller of Currency. In 1867, the Victoria Portrait series of bank notes was issued in honour of Queen Victoria and later many emperors followed suit.

In 1959, a special issue of Rupees 10 and Rupees 100 notes took place for Indian Haj pilgrims so as to ease money exchange with the local currency in Saudi Arabia.

In 712 AD, the Arabs conquered the Indian province of Sindh and brought their influence and coverage with them. The Delhi Sultanate attempted to standardise this monetary system and coins were subsequently made in gold, silver and copper.

By the 12th century AD, the Turkish Sultans of Delhi had replaced the royal designs of Indian kings with Islamic calligraphy. The currency – made in gold, silver and copper – was now referred to as tanka, with the lower valued coins being called jittals. The Delhi Sultanate also attempted to standardise the monetary system by issuing coins of different values.

The commencement of the Mughal Empire from 1526 AD brought forth a unified and consolidated monetary system for the entire empire.

The rupee was first minted by Emperor Sher Shah who reigned from 1540 to 1545. This silver coin weighted 175 troy grains or 11.3 grams. The sub-unit was the paisa copper coin, from 45 to 65 paise to a rupee.

In 1526, the Mughal period commenced, bringing forth a unified and consolidated monetary system for the entire Empire. This was heavily influenced by the Afghan Sher Shah Suri (1540 to 1545) who introduced the silver Rupayya or Rupee coin.

The original rūpaya was a silver coin weighing 175 grains troy (about 11.34 grams). The silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, and later during the British rule.

By the time the British East India Company set itself up in India in the 1600s, Sher Shah’s silver rupiya had already become the popular standard currency in the country. Despite many attempts to introduce the sterling pound in India, the rupaiya grew in popularity and was even exported as a currency to other British colonies.

In 1717 AD, the English obtained permission from Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to coin Mughal money at the Bombay Mint. The British gold coins were termed carolina, the silver coins angelina, the copper coins cupperoon, and the tin coins tinny.

French East India Company–issued rupee in the name of Mohammed Shah(1719–1748) for Northern India trade, cast in Pondicherry

Paper money was first issued in British India in the 18th century, with the Bank of Hindostan, General Bank in Bengal and the Bengal Bank becoming the first banks in India to issue paper currency.

The Coinage Act of 1835 provided for uniform coinage throughout the country. It was only in 1858 when the British Crown gained control of the one hundred Princely states, and subsequently ended the Mughal Empire, that the coin’s native images were replaced by portraits of the Monarch of Great Britain to indicate British Supremacy.

In 1862, the Victoria portrait series of bank notes and coins were issued in honour of Queen Victoria and later, many emperors followed suit. For security reasons, the notes of this series were cut in half; one half was sent by post and upon confirmation of receipt, the other half was sent.

During the British occupation, the rupee still is 11.3 grams of silver. however, new sub-units are used: 1 rupee= 16 annas = 64 paise ou pices = 192 pies.

On August 15, 1950, the new ‘anna system’ was introduced – the first coinage of the Republic of India. The British King’s portrait was replaced with the engraving of Ashoka’s Lion Capital of Sarnath, and the tiger on the 1 rupee coin was replaced with a corn sheaf. One rupee now consisted of 16 annas.

The 1955 Indian Coinage (Amendment) Act, which came into force on April 1, 1957, introduced a ‘decimal series’. The rupee was now divided into 100 paisainstead of 16 annas or 64 pice.The coins were initially called naye paise, meaning new paise, to distinguish them from the previous coins.

India moves to the decimal system in 1957. One rupees is then divided in 100 naya paise (new paise), later called only paise from 1964 on.

In order to aid the blind in the country, each coin had distinctly different shapes – the round 1 naya paisa, scalloped edge 2 naya paisa, the square 5 naya paisa, and the scalloped edge 10 naya paisa.

Also, prior to Independence, the Indian currency was pegged against silver. The silver-based rupee fluctuated according to the value of silver and had a distinct disadvantage when trading against currencies that were based on the gold standard. This was rectified post-Independence.

In 1969, the Mahatma Gandhi Birth Centenary Commemorative Issue was released. It was the only commemorative note issue ever by the Reserve Bank of India.

Later, in 1996, the ‘Mahatma Gandhi Series’ was introduced with prominent new features such as changed watermarks, windowed security threads, latent images, and intaglio features for the visually handicapped. This was replaced in 2005 by the ‘MG series’ notes that had some additional security features.

In 2010, India celebrated its hosting of the Commonwealth Games with commemorative 2 and 5 Rupee coins. One side of these coins features the logo of the Games while the other features the three lions from the pillar of Ashoka. In the same year, India also adopted the new symbol for the rupee ₹, with new coins bearing this symbol being launched in 2011.

Since 2010, other commemorative coins have also been issued – 60th anniversary of the Indian Parliament, 150th anniversary of Swami Vivekananda, and more recently, International Day of Yoga.

India and its Foreign Invaders.

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Coins of Ancient Foreign Invaders. A new phase in Indian history commenced with the coming of Alexander the Great to India in 326 B.C. He crossed the Indus, marched to Taxila and then advanced to Hydespes (Jhelum), where he was strongly opposed by Puru (Porus). The final victory was achieved by Alexander and the victory was commemorated by silver `decadrachms` and `tetradrachms`. These coins were found in Babylonia. The coins manifest a figure which was identified as Alexander, in the form of the Greek god Zeus, was shown on one side. On the other side of the coins were the goddess of victory, Nike was crowning him. Another scene was depicted that defined a horseman with a lance at rest charging upon a retreating elephant, on whose back were two men turning round to face their pursuer.

The coins of foreign invaders include the coins that were issued during the time of Greek, Bactrian and Sakas. Apart from these invaders, several other invaders came to India and issued coins for their trading purpose. After the death of Alexander, the true association of foreign coinage with India took place. During this time the far flung territories that he had conquered were divided amongst the powerful officers of his army. A Greek kingdom was established in Syria under Seleucus in this period. The Greek rulers extended their territory with the progression of time. Later, gold coins were found of this period that proves issuing of gold coins during this time. These gold coins were issued by Diodotus (Seleucid satrap of Bactria), Eucratides (one of the most important Greco-Bactrian kings) and Euthydemus. But these coins were confined to Bactria and were never issued in India. According to the basis of their types, a few legendless gold coins were attributed to Menander. During this period, most of the coins were issued in silver and copper. A few pieces of Pantaleon and Agathocles were found in nickel and they are considered to be the earliest coins in the world issued in this metal. The kings of Bactria adhered strictly to the monetary system of Athens, which had been adopted by the Greek ruler Alexander and his successors in Syria. The silver Indo-Bactrian coins were also issued with exception of certain square coins. The coins were all round and struck to Persian standard. The copper coins were issued in umpteen numbers and believed to have been issued on the standards of the local copper coins of Taxila.

The coins of Indo-Bactrian rulers issued coins by die-striking technique which followed the Greek pattern. They give a new form to the Indian coinage by placing portraits of the king on the obverse side of the coin. A form of coin was common during this period which was the helmeted head or bust. Apart from these, some coins issued during this time manifest the king wearing an elephant scalp, sometimes to commemorate the kings, the heads of the kings were portrayed on the coins. The portraits on the coins were realistic and boldly drawn and represent clearly the facial features of the early foreign invaders of India. They also introduced the effigy of the Greek gods and goddesses or some of the symbols of their worship. The symbols were invariably placed on the reverse side of the coin but occasionally they were also found on the obverse side of the coin. The copper coins issued during this time, bore an image of a deity with superscription `Kavishaye nagara devada` in Kharoshthi. After coming under the Indian influence, the Indo-Bactrian rulers started etching the Indian gods and goddesses were found. Inscription was another feature of the coins that were issued during this time.

The later invaders of India were the Sakas. Two main lines of Saka invaders were known from their coins. Two main lines of Saka invaders are known from their coins. One was Maues in the Punjab and its adjoining lands, and the other of Vonones and his associates in Kandahar (Arachosia) and Baluchistan (Gadrosia and Drangiana). The coins of Maues were minted in silver and copper and those cons were similar to those of the Indo-Bactrian king Apollodotus. In the coins of Maues, no bust or head was seen as he did not use them in his coins. Though most of the coins retain the Bactrian devices, some of the coins show nomadic traits also. Most significant device of the coins was the device of the king with a spear on horse-back and in the later period this trait became one of the important characteristics of Saka coinage.

Many of the coins issued during the time of Maues, the reverse of the coin showed a man seated cross-legged which was identified with the figure of Buddha by some scholars. On another type of coin, a striding male figure with club and trident was seen and the figure was identified as Shiva but this is uncertain. The coins of this period were mostly of copper and bore an elephant`s head on the obverse and caduceus (staff of the god Hermes) on the reverse side of the coin. These types of coins had the Greek legend `Basileos Mayou` on the reverse side of the coin and all the other coins were bilingual. The coins of Vonones, who was contemporary of Maues, were comparatively few. The silver coins issued during this time bore a king with a spear on horseback on the obverse and on the reverse side; the coin bore Zeus standing with a long scepter and thunderbolt. On the obverse of the copper coins, a standing Heracles was shown crowning himself and Palas Athene standing left with shield and spear on the reverse side of the coin.

In the later period silver coins, round and square copper coins bearing the name of the king were issued. As the time advanced, the rulers started incorporating new devices on the coins. Sometimes the nomadic influences were seen on the coins and at5 the same time, some kings introduced some original Indian device on the coins, which was Abhisheka Lakshmi. In the later period, during the ruling period of Saka-Pahlava coins were introduced with the base metal silver and copper. In the later period, even certain small coins were also introduced. The coins issued in the later period reign, followed the patterns of Saka-Pahlava.

http://ancientcoinsofindiaaruns.blogspot.in/?m=1

https://sirimunasiha.wordpress.com/2011/05/

Indo-Bactrian Empire of India

2016-01-02T20:13:00.002+05:30

Bactria was a province of the Persian empire located in modern Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan.

After the defeat of Darius III of Persia, Bactria continued to offer resistance against Alexander the Great, led by Bessus, who had proclaimed himself successor to Darius. Alexander conquered it with great difficulty between 329-327 BCE, largely with the help of local auxiliary forces. During his stay there, Alexander married a Bactrian woman, Roxanne, to aid his effort of controlling the region.

After Alexander's death, Bactria was part of the Seleucid Empire. The many difficulties against which the Seleucid kings had to fight and the attacks of Ptolemy II of Egypt gave Diodotus, satrap of Bactria, the opportunity to declare independence (about 255 BCE) and conquer Sogdiana, founding the Indo-Greek Kingdom.

Bactria (Zariaspa) was an ancient country lying between the mountains of the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya (Present day Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan). Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BCE conquered Bactria and it remained under Persian rule for the next 200 years as a Bactrian Satrapy. Alexander the Great defeated Persian King Darius III and Bactria came under Alexander III. Upon the death of Alexander (323 BCE), Bactria come under the rule of Seleucus I Nicator and Selecid Kingdom. Satrap of Bactria, Diodotus or/and his son Diodotus II rebelled and set up an independent kingdom in 250 BCE. Euthydemus I deposed Diodotus II and became King of Bactria c. 230 BCE. Demetrios I, son of Euthydemus II and grand son of Euthydemus I advanced his kingdom into the Hindu Kush and northwestern India. He established the Indo-Bactrian (Indo-Greek) branch of the kingdom in Indus Valley. History of Bactria was not recorded properly. Most of the history of Bactria was surmised from their coins and other collateral evidence. Bactrian coins were minted in greek style. They were treasure troves of information with names and portraits of the kings. Chronology of the Indo-Bactrian rulers is based largely on numismatic evidence. Bactrian coins were imitations of Greek issues, but gradually acquired a style of their own. Legend of Indo-Bactrian coins were inscribed in Greek, Brahmi and Kharosti scripts. They also used images of indian deities and animals like indian elephants. Menander, later successor to Indo-Bactrian Empire possibly expanded the Indo-Bactrian Empire into Ganges river plain with help of Panchala king. Menander was well known to Indians as the great King Milinda, who debated Buddhist doctrine with the philosopher Nagasena in a question and answer format. Very little is known about the successors of Menander. There was a mention of Antialcidas and his emissary Heliodorus in the form of an inscription on a pillar at Sanchi in India.

Demetrios I
c. 200 - 190 BCE

Tetradrchm of Demetrios I c. 200 - 190 BCE
Obverse: Draped bust wearing elephant scalp headdress.
Reverse: Herakles holding club and lion's skin.

Menander
c.155-130 BC

Square Copper coin of Menander c.155-130 BCE.
Obverse: Helmeted bust of Menander.
Reverse: Nike.

Menander. Silver Tetradrachm . c.155-130 BCE.
Obverse: Helmeted bust of Menander.
Reverse: Athena standing with a shield and thunderbolt.

A short list of Indo - Bactrian Kings.

Antimachos I (c.185-170 BCE) Demetrios II (c.175-170 BCE) Menander (c.155-130 BCE) Plato (c.145-140 BCE) Zoilos I (c.130-120 BCE) Strato I (c.130-110 BCE) Polyxenos (c.100-95 BCE) Demetrios III (c.100 BCE) Epander (c.95-90 BCE)

Meander II Dikaios (c.90-85 BCE) Artemidoros (c.85 BCE) Apollodotos II (c. 80-65 BCE) Hippostatos (c.65-55 BCE) Dionysios (c.65-55 BCE) Zoilos II (c.55-35 BCE) Apollophanes (c.35-25 BCE) Strato II (c. 25-10 BCE)

INDO-PARTHIAN DYNASTY

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INDO-PARTHIAN DYNASTY, rulers over a large part of northwestern India from Seistan (portions of the present-day border provinces of that name of Iran and of Afghanistan) to Sindh on the Indus river at the beginning of the 1st century C.E. They came after the Indo-Greeks and the Indo-Scythians and were, in turn, defeated by the Kushans in the second half of the 1st. century C.E. The main difficulty in studying this period is the lack of firm sources. Very few texts mention the Indo-Parthians, and inscriptions do not refer directly to them. Furthermore, archeological sites have yielded few pieces of information, some of which are controversial. Coins thus remain the main source of information for reconstructing Indo-Parthian history. Five distinct regions can be distinguished by their coin types, the chronology of which will be considered here from west to east.

Seistan. Indo-Parthian issues in Seistan (Drangiana, q.v.) and in the Herat region (Areia; see HERAT ii.) are directly inspired by silver Parthian drachms, as far as types and weight standard are concerned. They depict on the obverse the bust of the king, turned to left, sometimes wearing a tiara, and on the reverse the king seated on a low chair, generally holding a bow, sometimes shown as being crowned by a Nike standing to left (see also INVESTITURE ii.). The surrounding Greek legend is shaped into a square. These are silver drachms, weighing ca. 3.7 g, with a good percentage of silver.
Gondophares (q.v.), founder of the Indo-Parthian dynasty, is depicted in left profile with a simple diadem having a frontal ornament (obverse) and being crowned by a Nike (reverse; Senior, type 210;

He was probably followed by Sases, whose issues are quite rare (five specimens are known so far). His portrait and Greek legend are very similar to those of Gondophares; but on the obverse he wears a tiara, and on the reverse he is called Gondophares; but the Greek legend ends with SAH, except for one coin on which a tiny S can be seen between A and H (Senior, type 240). Thus, the reading must be SASH /sasē/.
Sases was followed by Orthagnes, depicted with a simple tiara (Senior, type 256), and by Ubouzanes, known before as Otannes (Alram, 1983, pp. 69-74; Senior, type 259; coin f). In his Greek legend, Ubouzanes specifies he is Orthagnes’ son.
For the following rulers, from Sanabares onwards, a Pahlavi legend is added on the obverse, and the Nike crowning the king on the reverse is abandoned. Sanabares struck coins in Seistan (Senior, types 261-62) and also bronze drachms of poor style, which perhaps were issued in Iran (Senior, type 266). There is a possibility that there were two Sanabares. Sanabares I, Indo-Parthian, would have struck coins in Seistan and in Arachosia (coin h), while Sanabares II, a Parthian, issued coins in Marv (Alram, 1986, p. 260, n. 930; Chiesa, 1982; coin c). These are to be differentiated from the issues of Abdagases I, who struck coins in northern Arachosia, Gandhara, and Jammu. The depiction of Abdagases II is very similar to that of Pacores, the last Indo-Parthian king in Seistan; the Greek legend copies the well-known, stereotyped Parthian Greek legend. It also seems that Abdagases II struck gold coins, with a specific iconography and Pahlavi legends (Grenet and Bopearachchi, 1996, pp. 219-31; 1999, pp. 73-82); these were prestige issues with poor-quality engraving. Lastly, Pacores issued silver drachms very similar to those of Abdagases II, and a portrait that clearly reminds one of his own Arachosian issues. On the reverse is an imitation of the Parthian monogram

Arachosia. In Arachosia, the coins issued by Indo-Parthian kings are bronze tetradrachms (9.40 g), with the bust of the king (obverse) and a Nike holding a crown (reverse). On the obverse, the legend is in Greek, on the reverse, in Kharoṣṭhī script. Arachosian coins repeat types inaugurated in this area by the Indo-Greeks. Two mints can be distinguished, one in southern Arachosia, in the Kandahār area, one in northern Arachosia, in the Begrām (q.v.) region (coin d).
In Kandahār, seven kings struck coins, often in a poor style; they are depicted on the obverse turned to left. Tetradrachms of Gondophares represent the king with a diadem and a frontal ornament, as in Seistan (Senior, type 212). He was probably followed by Sarpedones, recognizable thanks to his goatee beard (Senior, type 255; coin g). On the obverse, to the left of the king’s bust in left profile, stands a symbolic device or tamga specific to the Indo-Parthian dynasty

The ruler Orthagnes also insisted on his belonging to the Gondophares dynasty by using Gondophares’ name before his own name in the slightly corrupt Greek legend (Senior, type 257). The Kharoṣṭhī legend is less clear, ending with gada or gadana; the meaning of that word has not yet been deciphered. Orthagnes introduced on his coins a large number of mintmark combinations.
Very few coins of his successor, Sases, are known, and those mainly due to hoards (Senior, type 244; coins b, e). The absence of a frontal ornament and the name Sases following the Gondophares title certify the identification of Gondophares-Sases. Therefore the name “Gondophares,” as used by Sases and Orthagnes in Arachosia and by Ubouzanes, Sarpedones, and Sases in Jammu certainly served as a dynastic title; similarly, the tamga was a dynastic mintmark (Cribb, 1985, p. 295; MacDowall, 1991, p. 246).

Among the three last Indo-Parthian kings in Arachosia whose names are known, Sanabares issues are clearly identified, since the king is depicted with a tiara on the obverse and the legend is written in Greek on both obverse and reverse (Senior, type 265). A single coin of Abdagases II is known so far, found in a hoard. The depiction of the king (obverse) is very similar to that of Pacores; and the Kharoṣṭhī akṣaras, with curved lines under the syllabic signs, are the same as on Pacores issues (Cribb, 1985, fig. 36; Senior, type 235). Pacores tetradrachms, by contrast, are very numerous. They provide a chronology for this king, since a good number of them are overstruck on coins of a Kushan King, Soter Megas (Sims-Williams and Cribb, 1995-96, fig. 12, type 5d and e). Pacores was thus contemporary with Soter Megas-Vima Tak[tu] or followed him, probably in the beginning of the 2nd century C.E.

Pacores, Sanabares, and Abdagases coins were subsequently imitated by unnamed kings, in a very poor style and struck on irregular dies (Senior, types 271-73, 275-77; coins i, j). On the obverse a Pahlavi legend was added, and on the reverse the Pacores Kharoṣṭhī legend was progressively abandoned for a Pahlavi legend.
In northern Arachosia only two kings, Gondophares (Senior, type 213) and Abdagases I (Senior, 2001 type 224), struck coins, the latter in a style cruder than that of Gondophares; Gondophares’ issues are the more numerous. Some of these are overstruck on Hermaeus imitations and are also overstruck by the satrap Zeionises and by the early Kushan ruler, Kujula Kadphises. From these it can be inferred that by ca. 50 C.E. the Kushans put an end to the Indo-Parthian power in northern Arachosia.

Gandhara and Taxila. Traces of Indo-Parthian kings in Gandhara and Taxila area are more numerous than elsewhere. In this region they imitated Indo-Scythian bronze coins, with a king mounted on horseback on the obverse and a Greek deity (Zeus or Athena) on the reverse. It seems that there were two mints, one in Gandhara and another one in Taxila.

In these two mints, three kings struck coins: Gondophares, Abdagases, and Sases. In Gandhara, Gondophares reigned first (Senior, types 216-20; coin k). Apparently Abdagases, who specifies he is Gondophares’ nephew (Senior, types 226-230; coin l), initially ruled at the same time as Gondophares, as his title (“king,” and not “great king of kings”) and coin weight suggest. He gradually assumed higher titles and later was followed by Sases (Senior, types 241-42). Sases must have been defeated by the Kushans, probably by Soter Megas or Kujula Kadphises. In the very same area, perhaps during Abdagases’ reign, some local rulers governed under the Indo-Parthian power in northern Gandhara. In the Bajaur area, some fifteen inscriptions (Falk, 1998, pp. 87-108), a few archeological remains, and bronze coins attest the presence of a strategos and local princes of the Apracarāja family (Senior, types 177-85). They imitated the Greek legend and the types of the Indo-Scythian Azes (q.v.), but coin weight, mintmarks, and hoard evidence (Malakand hoard, Rajjar hoard) prove they belong to the Indo-Parthian period.

The Sirkap city site in Taxila, contrary to what J. Marshall (1951, p. 59) thought, was not the place visited by Apollonius of Tyana (in Philostratus, Vita Apollonii), who thus cannot be used to date Gondophares (Bernard, 1996, pp. 505-19). Furthermore, all the coins attributed to Gondophares by J. Marshall with Zeus Nikephorus on the reverse were very probably struck by Sases (Senior, type 243) or even Abdagases (Senior, type 231). Kujula Kadphises and Soter Megas coins found in Taxila and in the Swat valley suggest that Sases was defeated by one of these kings, as an overstrike of Soter Megas over Sases indicate (N. Sims-Williams and J. Cribb, 1995-96, pp. 119-20).
Hoard evidence indicates that in Gandhara Indo-Parthians or their contemporary local rulers imitated Azes drachms and tetradrachms in a very debased and crude style (Senior, types 105, 138-39, 175).
Jammu. In Jammu, on the Indo-Pakistan border, the Indo-Parthian coinage closely imitates that of the early 1st-century C.E. Indo-Scythian satrap, Rajuvula. Small debased drachms of a very poor style, they depict the head of the king (obverse) and Athena Alkidemos (reverse). They all weigh around 2.50 g. The succession is very clearly indicated by hoards (Cribb, 1985, pp. 282-300): the satrap Rajuvula, who is also known in Mathura (Senior, types 151-52), defeated the last Indo-Greek kings, Strato II and his son (Bopearachchi, 1991, pp. 125-32 and series Strato II, 1-2 and Strato II and his son, 6). He was expelled by Gondophares (Senior, type 222) and his followers. It is quite difficult to reconstruct a firm sequence for the Indo-Parthian kings. Five kings are known in this region, some of whom must have had a short reign. Few coins of Abdagases (Senior, type 232), Sarpedones (coin n), and Ubouzanes (Senior, types 254, 260; coin m) have been found; Sases, who is attested in a wider area, seems to have ruled longer, as the number of his coins and the variety of mintmark combinations suggest (Senior, type 246). He was followed by the Kushans, probably by Soter Megas.
Sindh. Few coins struck in Sindh, the lower Indus valley, are known, and all were found in Taxila, but they still represent a clue to the reconstruction of Indo-Parthian chronology. They are silver drachms, bearing the bust of the king wearing a tiara, with a Greek legend (obverse) and a Nike holding a crown and a Kharoṣṭhī legend (reverse). They might weigh around 2.35 g, but their exact weight was not given in publication (Marshall, 1951, p. 160). Three Indo-Parthian kings struck coins in Sindh. Sarpedones, recognizable thanks to his goatee beard (Marshall, 1951, coins nos. 211, 213-16) reigned first. Satavastres (Marshall, 1951, coins nos. 212, 218-21) is known only through six coins. Finally, Sases (Marshall, 1951, coins nos. 201-8, 210) declares he is nephew of “Aspa,” which has been interpreted as a short name for the 1st-century C.E. strategos in Gandhara, Aspavarman. These Indo-Parthian coin types were subsequently imitated by the Kushan Kudjula Kadphises (Cribb, 1992, pp. 131-45).

More importantly for chronology, Satavastres issues were overstruck by a Western Satrap, Nahapana; and Nahapana issues also were overstruck by Satavastres. Later, Sases as well overstruck Nahapana’s coins (Cribb, 1992, pp. 131-35, fig. 17-18 and 20). Nahapana, named in the Periplus Maris Erythraei (ed. Schoff, 41.14.1-4, 8-9) as Mambanos, is known thanks to his coins, inscriptions, and to Greek texts (Bhandare, 1999, pp. 240-69). His date corresponds to the first Kushan invasion, and therefore Satavastres, his exact contemporary, and Sases, who came a little later, have to be placed during the third quarter of the 1st century A.D. This corroborates the evidence given by the Indo-Parthian coinage in other areas.

A brief history Judaea and its Coinage

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Archaeologist Dorothy Garrod's excavations (1929 - 34) of caves on the slopes of Mount Carmel showed that Judea was inhabited by the Neanderthals. The culture and tools of these Neanderthals groups were similar to the ones living in Europe. Excavations at Ain Mallaha and Jericho showed that a culture called Natufian existed during the Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age). Natufians lived in caves as did their Paleolithic predecessors and might have practiced primitive agriculture. During the Neolithic Period (New Stone Age - 7000 BCE) inhabitants there domesticated of animals, cultivated of crops, produced pottery and built permanent villages.

During Copper Age (4th millennium BCE ) the Ghassulians immigrated to Judea. Their origin is probably Jordan Valley. Pottery and copper axes from the excavations near Beersheba linked them to Tulaylat al-Ghassul site of Jordan. In late 4 th millennium BCE a new population immigrated from the north. In time, all these peoples amalgamated into an early Bronze Age (3rd millennium) urban population of Judea.

During early Bronze Age (c. 3000 BCE) the towns of Judea had developed. There were different tribes. Some seminomadic pastoralists of the east hill country were called Amorites. The population of the plains and coast was called Canaanites. A group of people called Hyksos, possibly related to the Amorites, took control of northern Egypt in about 1630 BCE. The Hyksos might have been groups of people of Semitic origin, called the Habiru, or Hapiru (Egyptian 'Apiru). The term Habiru, meaning outsiders, was applied to nomads, fugitives, bandits, and workers of inferior status. It is etymologically related to Hebrew. Egyptians expelled the Hyksos into Judea in the late Middle Bronze Age (c. 1550 BCE). The Habiru had established a military aristocracy in Judea.

Around 1292 BCE, new migrants of monotheistic seminomadic Hebrew tribes called Israelites moved from the east into Judea. Three other peoples were settling in Judea at the time, the Edomites in the south, the Moabites east of the Dead Sea, and the Ammonites near the Syrian Desert east of Gilead. Another group of invaders from the Aegean sea called the Philistines conquered the coastal region of Judea in the early 12 th century. In the next hundred years, they replaced Canaanites from the coastal plains. The Philistines were identified as Peleset, the mercenaries used by Ramses III of Egypt. Constant conflict with their neighbors made Israelite tribes unite under a strong tribal chieftain named Saul. He became King of Israel (c.1020 BCE). He defeated the Ammonites and the Philistines but was killed in battle against Philistines (c.1000 BCE). David became the King and decisively defeated the Philistines around 990 BCE and also conquered the three Hebrew states east of the Jordan River and enlarged Kingdom of Israel.

Solomon became the King after the death of King David. During the reign of King Solomon (mid10th century), control was lost over outlying territories conquered by David. He also built the First Temple (957 BCE), the royal palace in Jerusalem and numerous fortified towns. Israelites were forced to submit to conscription in royal labor gangs. People of northern Israel revolted after King Solomon's death. Kingdom of Israel split into two states. Northern part with ten tribes of Israel became the kingdom of Israel, and southern part with two tribes (Judah and Benjamin) became Kingdom of Judah with Jerusalem as capital.

Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III conquered Israel in 722 BCE which led to the partial dispersion of the 10 northern tribes and their gradual assimilation by other peoples (Legends thus refers to them as the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel). Judah with the two tribes of Israelites survived till 586 BCE. It was conquered by the Babylonian King Nebuchadrezzar in 586 BCE. He destroyed the First Temple of Jerusalem and sent the inhabitants into exile in Babylon.

Cyrus II (c. 590-.529 BCE) of Persia conquered Babylon in 538 BCE. Cyrus II allowed Jewish exiles in Babylon to return to Jerusalem. He also decreed in c. 538 BCE to rebuild the First Temple of Jerusalem. The history of the Jews from that time onward is predominantly the history of the tribe of Judah which also absorbed Benjamin while in exile at Babylon.

Kings of Persia ruled Judaea till Alexander III defeated Darius III in 330 BCE.

Probably Persian Kings were the first to start minting coins in Judea as their use became widespread in Persian Empire.

Judaea under Persian Rule

Cyrus II (c. 590-.529 BCE) of Persia in c. 539 BCE conquered Palestine, Phoenicia and Syria. Cyrus II allowed Jewish exiles in Babylonia return to Jerusalem. He also decreed in c. 538 BCE to rebuild first temple of Jerusalem. The following list is the Kings of Persia who ruled Judaea till Alexander III defeated Darius III in 330 BCE. Cambyses II (529-522 BCE)

Darius I (reign 522-486 BCE),

Xerxes (486?465 BCE),

Artaxerxes I (465?425 BCE),

Xerxes II(425?424 BCE),

Darius II Ochus (423?404 BCE)

Artaxerxes II (Reign 404-359 BCE)

Artaxerxes III (c359-338BCE)

King Arses (338?336 BC)

Darius III (c. 336-330 BCE)

Coins issued by the Persian Kings might have circulated in Judaea. The two coins below are coins issued by Persian Kings.

Silver 1/6 Siglos.

c.450-330 BCE.

Obverse : Persian king kneeling drawing a bow.

Reverse : Incuse punch.

Silver Siglos.

c.450-330 BCE.

Obverse : Persian king running holding a bow and a spear.

Reverse : Incuse punch.

Judaea under Greek Rule

Alexander III

333 - 323 BCE

( From 323 - 303 BCE under Macedonian Empire )

Judea came under Alexander's rule after he defeated Persian king Darius III in 330 BCE. Alexander III attacked and passed through Judea in c.333 BCE on his way to Egypt. Coins were issued between 330-303 BCE in the name of Alexander III at the mints in Tyre, Sidon, Ptolemais, Joppa, Gaza and Ake. After Alexander's death, Judaea came under Macedonian Empire with Ptolemy I as satrap.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 336-323 BCE

Silver Tetradrachm.

Obverse : Alexander as Herakles, wearing a lion's skin

Reverse : Zeus seated holding an eagle in his right hand, a scepter in his left hand

Ptolemies

304 - 200 BCE

Judaea with Syria and Phoenicia came under rule of Ptolemy I who was Alexander's satrap in Egypt .

Ptolemy I declared himself King of Egypt in 304 BCE and Judaea came under Ptolemies till 200 BCE.

Silver Tetradrachm from the time of Ptolemy I. 305-290 BCE

Judaea mint city of Tyre

Obverse : Alexander as Herakles, wearing a lion's skin

Reverse : Zeus seated holding an eagle in his right hand, a scepter in his left hand

Seleucids

200 - 161 BCE

Seleucid King Antiochus III (223?187 BCE) defeated the army of child King of Egypt Ptolemy V Epiphanes at Panion, in Judaea. Thus, Sinai desert and Judaea came under Seleucid Kingdom in 200 BCE. Antiochus the Great (Antiochus III) ruled between 223?187 BCE. Antiochus IV Epiphanes ruled Judaea between 187 - 164 BCE. Maccabean revolt, led by Judas Maccabeus happened during rule of Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Hasmonean rule started in 161 BCE.

Didrachm (1/2 shekel) from the time of Seleucid rule of Judaea.

Mint city Tyre.

Obverse : Bust of Melqart.

Reverse : Eagle standing

Judaea under Hasmonaean Rule

Hasmonean or Hasmonaean name originated from Maccabee family ancestor Hasmoneus or Hasmon or Asamonaios.

Mattathias Maccabeus, a jewish priest from the town of Modein near Jerusalem rebelled against the decree by Seleucid king of Judaea Antiochus IV Epiphanes imposing the Greek religion on the Jews. Judas Maccabeus, son of Mattathias overthrew the Seleucid armies and became High priest and ruler of Judaea. After his death in 160 BCE, his brother Jonathan succeeded him. He was killed in 142 BCE and Simon his younger brother succeeded him. Antiochus VII granted the Hasmonean high priest Simon Maccabeus the right to mint coinage. Jewish symbols were used on these coins. These were copper coins. Simon was assassinated in 134 BCE. John Hyrcanus I, son of Simon succeeded him as the high priest and ruler of Judaea.

John Hyrcanus I

Bronze Prutah issued during the reign of John Hyrcanus I, c.175-104 BCE.

High priest and ruler of the Jewish nation from 134 -104 BCE.

Obverse: Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews inside the wreath written in Hebrew.

Reverse: Pomegranate between two cornucopia.

Aristobulus I

( Judas Aristobulus )

Judas Aristobulus is first hellenized king of Judaea and first to take the title of King or Basileus. He is son of Hyrcanus I. He seized the throne from his mother and killed his siblings. Historian Josephus wrote that Aristobulus conquered the Ituraeans of Lebanon and forcibly converted them to Judaism.

Bronze Prutah issued during the reign of Aristobulus I also called Judas Aristobulus

High priest and ruler of the Jewish nation from 104 - 103 BCE.

Obverse: Yehohanan the High Priest and the Council of the Jews inside the wreath written in Hebrew.

Reverse: Pomegranate between two cornucopia.

Alexander Jannaeus

Alexander Jannaeus103-76 BCE was the first of the Hasmonean high priest denote himself as king on his coins. Coins were struck with his name and title in Greek and Hebrew.

Bronze prutah

Obverse : Anchor with a Greek legend KING ALEXANDER

Reverse : Diadem with eight-rayed star YEHONATAN THE KING between the rays of the star in Hebrew.

Bronze Prutah.

Obverse : Lily with a legend Yehonatan the King in Hebrew.

Reverse : An anchor within a circle and inscription King Alexander in Greek.

Bronze Prutah.

Obverse : Lily with a legend Yehonatan the King in Hebrew.

Reverse : An anchor within a circle and inscription King Alexander in Greek.

John Hyrcanus II

John Hyrcanus II was the last of high priest and Hasmonean dynastic rulers of Judaea from 76 to 40 BCE. He was was appointed high priest after his father Alexander Jannaeus died in 76 BCE. Hyrcanus II became the ruler of Judaea after his mother's death in 67 BCE. Aristobulus II brother of John usurped power in 67 BCE. They fought a bitter war and asked Pompey the Great to help. Pompey helped John Hyrcanus II to regain his kingdom. He lost power again to Aulus Gabinius, a military commander and restored to it by Julius Caesar. Mark Antony appointed Herod and Phasael as rulers of Judaea in 42 BCE. In 40 BCE, his nephew Mattathias Antigonus with the help of Partian invaders disfigured him by cutting off his ears thus disqualifying him to be High priest. He was exiled to Babylon. He later returned to Jerusalem in 36 BCE with the permission of by then King Herod. In 30 BCE, King Herod executed him to avoid any future power struggle with him.

Aristobulus II

Aristobulus II usurped power in 67 BCE from his brother John Hyrcanus II but did not prevail long. Pompey the Great helped John Hyrcanus II to regain his kingdom in 64 BCE. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain power in 56, Aristobulus was sent to Rome as a prisoner and remained there until his death in 49 BCE.

Mattathias Antigonus

Mattathias Antigonus ruled part of Judaea between 40-37 B.C.E. Mattathias Antigonos was son of Aristobulus II, nephew of John Hyrcanus II and great-great-grandnephew of Judah Maccabee. Parthian king Orodes II invaded Jerusalem and help Mattathias Antigonos win the position of High Priest. Rome backed Herod as king of the Jews and aided him in a war against Mattathias. In 37 BCE. Mattathias was defeated and the Hasmonaean Dynasty came to an end. Antigonus was deposed and executed by the Romans under Mark Antony. He was the last of the Maccabees and introduced the seven-branched candlestick on the coins.

Bronze Prutah of Mattathias Antigonus 40-37 BCE

Obverse: Double cornucopia with a Hebrew legend around.

Reverse: Ivy wreath with a Greek legend

Bronze Prutah of Mattathias Antigonus,40-37BCE

Obverse: Double cornucopia with Hebrew legend Mattataya the high priest and coincil of the Jews.

Reverse: Ivy wreath with ribbons with Greek legend King Antigonus.

History of the Indo-Greeks

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The credit of discovery of Indo-Greek coins that had once been struck in India goes to Colonel Tod, in 1824. Probably no class of Indian coins attracted full attention than the Indo-Greek which marked first cultural mix of West and East. It is good to sketch in outline of the events took in Northern India and neighbouring countries from the time of Alexander to the first century AD. Alexander was the son of Philips, King of Macedonia, a small state in south east Europe. A man of remarkable energy became the King in 336 BC and within a span of two years, he formed a army of 3000 foot soldiers and 5000 horse-men to conquer the old Persian empire. Then he occupied Asia minor, Syria, Egypt, Kandahar and finally in 328 BC, Afghanistan too. In 327 BC, he occupied BACTRIA and garrisoned a number of forts in the area as a mark of conquest of India. The fight which took place between Poros and Alexander was remarkable and the toughest which he had ever experienced.

Impressed on the bravery of his enemy Poros, Alexander treated him generous and restored him to his throne. So great was the confidence which Poros inspired that Alexander left him in charge of all his dominions of India when he left back. Alexander then overran petty states in the vicinity and sangla, the capital of the Kathaioi (near modern Panjab) was captured. Finally when Alexander reached the bank of river Beyas beyond which Nandas had their huge empire, the soldiers of Alexander are said to have refused to go far. It was long time since they had left their home. Alexander finally began his retreat in 323 BC.

To commemorate his victories he struck a medal; about the same time an Indian prince, Sophytes (saubhuti), struck a silver coin in the Greek style. Probably, Alexander did not left any trace of his retreat other than these two exceptions. In 323 BC, the king in his youth went down with a irrecoverable fever and died prematurely in Babylon. Alexander's generals fought like dogs to inherit what Alexander had left behind, and the empire split into several kingdoms, four large - Selucid, Ptolemaic, Lysimachid and Antigonid and many smaller ones. About 250 BC, Diodotos-I, Satrap of Bactria proclaimed independence from the Selucids and took the title of King. It was Diodotos-I who founded the new dynasty now called by the historians as Indo-Bactrian or Indo-Greek. Diodotos-II, the son of the former was overthrown by Euthydemos-I who founded a new dynasty by re conquering Bactria and became the king. Thus the fourth Bactrian King Demetrios-I (200 - 190 BC), the son of Euthydemos-I assumed the throne and extended his kingdom as far as Panjab as Maurya's power was declining by then. Soon after Demetrios assumed the title "King of Indians", he became the Indian folk hero called 'Dharma-Mithra' because of his successful campaign. Eventually, the throne was passed onto his sons who governed the kingdom jointly and expanded its boundaries to include modern Panjab (part of Northern India and Pakistan).

In 170 BC, the rival Eukratides-I (177 - 135 BC) overthrew Demetrios-II and Antimachus-II in the name of Selucids and governed the Kingdom. Thus Bactria and a portion of Gandhara was lost to Eukratides-I. Hence forward, there were two rival Greek Dynasties, the house of Eukratides and Euthydemos. The house of Eukratides included Heliokles, Antialkidas, and Hermaious. They mainly ruled Gandara, Kabul and Kandahar. The house of Euthydemos had Appollodotos, Menander, Strato-I, Zoilos and Hippostratos, ruling east Gandhara and the modern Panjab. In 145 BC, Eukratides-I was murdered by his son Eukratides-II.

Menander (called Milinda, 155 - 135 BC) was a Greek general born in India. He is considered to be a contemporary of Pushyamitra. His capital Sagala became very important centre of learning and art. Patanjali was all praise for this great town of trade like that of Pataliputra - old. His campaigns were so great that he could be compared to Alexander. The difference between Alexander the great and Menander is that Alexander begun his retreat just because his army mutinied, but Menander stopped because he became Buddhist and ceded back the conquered territories to Indian rulers. The Milinda Panha (Questions of Milinda) narrates the story of conversion of Menander to Buddhism after a long discussion with Nagasen. Like Gautama Buddha, the ashes of Milinda were said to be divided amongst the representatives of various states and stupas were erected over them. Amongst his successors, the best known was Antialkidas of Taxila.

In around 70 BC, the tribal groupings were paramount : The Sakas east of the Caspian (Often called Scythians), The Sai (further Sakas of the upper Ili river) and Yueh-Chihs. Yueh-Chihs under pressure from Hsiung Nu confederation wandered over to the upper Ili in 175-160 BC pushing the Sakas southward to Kashmir and Swat. In 70 BC, Hermaios was defeated. Heliokles was driven from the country by the Scythians in 40 BC and finally in 10 BC, the last Indo-Greek ruler Strato-II disappeared from the Panjab, the hold of the Greeks over the north-western districts of India gave way.

Coinage:

Striving for realism in sculptural modelling, movement and expression became the major force motivating Hellenistic art. Perhaps there was a desire to impress subjects of the realm with the true appearance of their lawful monarch which led to engrave the portraits on the coins of Bactrian Greeks and Selucids. Alexander was the first emperor to put his portrait on his coins and the practise was inherited by his successors in India. Extraordinary realism of their portraiture and the praxitelean character of the full length images of deities on the reverse were the prime attributes of their coin. Though it is not clear whether Alexander himself has issued any coins in his name during his sojourn in India. But it is fact that his coins are a great rarity in India and it seems that his coins have come from Bactria.

The gold and silver coins with fabulous portraits, which circulated in Bactria were never current in India as they fall under Greek coinage category. The coins with the portrait head and bilingual fall under Indian coinage. The selucid king Antiochus I (293-280 BC) is shown on his coins with all the paths of humanity, the divine power is clearly reflected in Selucus's coins. Demeterios - I was the first ruler to strike square copper coins in bilingual format, Kharoshti on the reverse and Greek on the obverse. Silver coins underwent radical change upon the movement of government to south of Hindu Kush, and the coins were called Didrachm and Hemidrachms. Generally, coins are circular, exceptions are the few square ones of Appollodotos and Philoxenos. The portraits of early Indo Greek rulers such as Euthydemos-I, Demetrios-I (wearing elephant's scalp) and Antimachus (wearing Kausia - a flat shaped cap and with a smily face) are so realistic in appearance that the coin portrait seems to represent the ruler faithfully. The coins of Demetrious-II, Euthydemos-II, Pantaleon, Agathocles, Menander and Strato-I also be assigned to the same class as they express powerful features and every intricate personal details. The portrait of Eucradites-I and the bust of members of the house of Eucradites-I is so realistic that their coins indicate rigid majesty, tendency for idealization and the taste for symbolic ornamentation when compared to the coins of house of Euthedemos. Some of the coins of this house carried the image of the king on horseback. Notably, the Dioskouri, the Greek heroes featured in Eukratides's coins exhibits the horsemanship and prowess in battle through the raised spears. The coins of Appollophanes, Philoxenos and Theophilos are extremely rare and hence leads to suspect that they were the pretenders. Perhaps all the Indo Greek coins may have been the products of a single school of engravers, the realism makes us to believe that they were familiar with the Hellenestic school of Pergamon. Indo-Greeks were excellent coin smiths and the fabric far exceeded than the true Greek coins. Indo-Greeks did not like abstract shapes and so they modified Greek Gods to look like an Indian. Upon the arrivals of Greeks, the sculptural techniques had their influence. Indo-Greek remained very Greek which could be witnessed by the bilingual legends they carried on their coins. Perhaps they spoke Sanskrit than the Greek and India saw a revolution in art and culture. The Gods for whom the Indo-Greek artists laboured had hardly changed for many generations : APOLLO an intellectual God of Arts and Music, ZEUS the King and HERA the consort of Zeus, ARTEMIS a virgin huntress, muscular HERACLES the God of strength, ATHENA of wisdom, APHRODYTES a God of sexuality, DIONYSUS vitality and winged deities NIKE and EROS. HELIOS, POSEIDON, DEMETERARTEMIS, the DIOSKOURI and TYCHE are the other Greek divinities which could be seen in their coinage. Many of these images iconographically influenced Indian pantheon later stage. The vitality of Hellenistic art school is reflected in the coins the Indo Greek engravers engraved. Bold reliefs were employed on large flans to impart three dimensional effect of images and legends; The marginal borders and the legends along with the borders set the boundary. Clearly formed cheeks, broad smooth forehead, deep furrows which divides hair and beard, muscular bare body with every minute anatomical details reflect in their coinage. Though drapery is so thick, the movement is exhibited by the position of the limbs or partial torsion of the body. The figures formulated in a magnificent style that the light and shadow highlights the liveliness of image. On the reverse of Eukratides's copper has the figure of seated Zeus along with the legend in Kharoshti 'The city deity of Kapisa'. The later kings Strato-I and Hermois struck coins with debased silver and even in lead. One of the copper coins of Hermois, the legend Kujula Kadphises appears on the reverse. Probably this could be assumed that the dynasty was succeed by the Kushanas, which is dealt in the next chapter .

Karshapana

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Kārshāpaṇa (Sanskrit: कार्षापण), according to the Ashtadhyayi of Panini, refers to ancient Indian coins current during the 7th and the 6th century BCE onwards, which were unstamped and stamped (āhata) metallic pieces whose validity depended on the integrity of the person authenticating them. Parmeshwari lal Gupta states that there is no proof that such coins were first issued by merchants and traders but adds that they did contribute to the development and spread of coin usage. Kārshāpaṇas were basically silver pieces stamped with one to five or six rūpas ('symbols') originally only on the obverse side of the coins initially issued by the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas, and generally carried minute mark or marks to testify their legitimacy. Silver punch-marked coins ceased to be minted sometime in the second century BCE but exerted a wide influence for next five centuries.

The period of the origin of the punch-marked coins is not yet known, but their origin was indigenous. The word, Kārshāpaṇa, first appears in the Sutra literature, in the Samvidhān Brāhmana. Coins bearing this name were in circulation during the Sutra and the Brāhmana period and also find a mention in the early Buddhist (Dhammapada verse 186) and Persian texts of that period. Patanjali in his commentary on the vārttikas of Kātyāyana on Aṣṭādhyāyī uses the word, "Kārshāpaṇa", to mean a coin

कार्षापणशो ददाति

"he gives a Karshapaṇa coin to each" or

कार्षापणम् ददाति

"he gives a Kārshāpaṇa",

while explaining the use of the suffix – शस् taken up by Pāṇini in Sutra V.iv.43, in this case, कार्षापण + शः to indicate a "coin". The Shatapatha Brahmana speaks about Kārshāpaṇas weighing 100 ratis which kind were found buried at Taxila by John Marshall in 1912. The Golakpur (Patna) find pertains to the period of Ajātaśatru. The Chaman – I – Hazuri (Kabul) find includes two varieties of punch-marked Indian coins along with numerous Greek coins of 600-500 BCE, thereby indicating that those kind of Kārshāpaṇas were contemporaneous to the Greek coins and in circulation as legal tender.

During the Mauryan Period, the punch-marked coin called Rūpyārūpa, which was same as Kārshāpaṇa or Kahāpana or Prati or Tangka, was made of alloy of silver (11 parts), copper (4 parts) and any other metal or metals (1 part).The early indigenous Indian coins were called Suvarṇa (made of gold), Purāṇa or Dhārana (made of silver) and Kārshāpaṇa (made of copper). The Golakpur (Patna) find is mainly pre-Maurya, possibly of the Nanda era, and appear to have been re-validated to make them kośa- praveśya (legal tender); the coins bearing larger number of marks are thought to be older in origin. The Maurya Empire was definitely based upon money-economy. The punch-marked copper coins were called paṇa. This type of coins were in circulation much before the occupation of Punjab by the Greeks who even carried them away to their own homeland. Originally, they were issued by traders as blank silver bent-bars or pieces; the Magadha silver punch-marked Kārshāpaṇa of Ajatashatru of Haryanka dynasty was a royal issue bearing five marks and weighing fifty-four grains, the Vedic weight called kārsha equal to sixteen māshas.

Even during the Harappan Period (ca 2300 BCE) silver was extracted from argentiferous galena. Silver Kārshāpaṇas show lead impurity but no association with gold. The internal chronology of Kārshāpaṇa and the marks of distinction between the coins issued by the Janapadas and the Magadhan issues is not known, the Arthashastra of Kautilya speaks about the role of the Lakshanadhyaksha ('the Superintendent of Mint') who knew about the symbols and the Rupadarshaka ('Examiner of Coins'), but has remained silent with regard to the construction, order, meaning and background of the punched symbols on these coins hence their exact identification and dating has not been possible.

The English word, "Cash", is derived from the Sanskrit word, kārsha. The punch-marked coins were called "Kārshāpaṇa" because they weighed one kārsha each.
Indian merchants, through land and sea routes, have traded with the east African, Arab and middle-east people from 12th century BCE onwards. The term Kārshāpaṇa referred to gold, silver and copper coins weighing 80 ratis or 146.5 grains; these coins, the earliest square in shape, followed the ancient Indian system of weights described in Manu Smriti. Use of money was known to Vedic people much before 700 BCE. The words,Nishka and Krishnala, denoted money, and Kārshāpaṇas , as standard coins, were regularly stored in the royal treasuries.

The Local silver punch-marked coins, included in the Bhabhuā and Golakpur finds, were issued by the Janapadas and were in circulation during the rule of the Brihadratha Dynasty which was succeeded by the Magadha empire founded by the Haryanka dynasty in 684 BCE; these coins show four punch-marks - the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, arrows (three) and taurine (three) which were current even during the rule of Bimbisara (604-552 BCE). Ajatashatru (552-520 BCE) issued the first Imperial coins of six punch-marks with the addition of the bull and the lion. The successors of Ajatashatru who ruled between 520 and 440 BCE and the later Shishunaga dynasty and the nanda dynasty issued coins of five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol and any three of the 450 symbols. The Maurya coins also have five symbols – the sun-mark, the six-armed symbol, three-arched hill with crescent at top, a branch of a tree at the corner of a four-squared railing and a bull with a taurine in front. Punch-marked copper coins were first issued during the rule of Chandragupta Maurya or Bindusara. The Bhīr find includes Maurya coins and a coin of Diodotus I (255-239 BCE) issued in 248 BCE.

The Chola & their coinage

2015-10-28T11:26:00.000+05:30

The Chola Kingdom is an ancient, there has been references made in Mahabharatha and even in Ashokan inscriptions. It is known that Karikala was the Chola ruler who reigned in the 2nd century AD. During Karikala's reign, the capital city was moved to Kaveripattanam from Uraiyur. Nedumudikilli seems to have been the successor of Karikala, whose capital town was set to fire by the sea pirates. The frequent attacks of Pallavas, Cheras and Pandyas declined the Chola power and it was in the 8th century AD, Cholas glory began to shine when the Pallavas power declined.
Vijayalaya

In around 850 AD, Vijayalaya founded the dynasty probably by starting off as a vassal of the Pallava king. With the conflict between Pallavas and Pandyas, Vijayalaya occupied Tanjore and made his capital. He was succeeded by his son Aditya-I. Aditya-I defeated Pallava king Aparajita and also Parantaka Viranarayana, the Kongu ruler.

Aditya-I

Aditya-I was soon succeeded by his son Parantaka-I and ruled between 907 to 955 AD. Cholas power reached supremacy under his reign. He annexed territory of Pandya King and soon conquered the Vadumbas. He swept away all the traces of Pallavas power, but received a set back at the hands of Rashtrakutas.

Raja Raja Chola

The powerful ruler of the Chola kingdom was Raja Raja - the Great. He ruled from 985 - 1014 AD. His army conquered Venginadu, Gangapadi, Tadigaipadi, Nolambavadi, Kudamalai-nadu, Kollam, Kalingam, Ilamandalam of the Singalas. His first triumph was achieved early in his reign by destroying the Navy of Cheras at Trivendrum. He annexed north part of Ceylon to his kingdom and sacked Anuradhapuram. Polonnaruva was made his capital of the Chola province of Ceylon. Political divisions of the Western Ganga's Gangavadi, Tadigaivadi and Nolambavadi were conquered in 991 AD and it remained under them for the next century. Union of Eastern and Western Chalukyas was stopped by helping Eastern Chalukya ruler . Towards the end of the reign, the Cholas was attacked by the Western Chalukyas, but Raja-raja Chola won the war.

One of the greatest rulers of India, who was not only a mighty conqueror, but also a most efficient administrator was Rajaraja I (985-1014). He extended Chola power upto the Tungabhadra in the north and Sri Lanka in the south. Prof. Nilakanta Sastri states, “The thirty years of Rajaraja’s rule constitute the formative period in the history of the Chola monarchy. In the organisation of the civil service and the army, in art and architecture, in religion and literature, we see at work powerful forces newly liberated by the progressive imperialism of the time. A relative small state at his accession that had hardly recovered from the disasters of Rashtrakuta invasion the Chola kingdom had by the end of Rajaaja’s rule grown to be an extensive and well knit empire efficiently organized and administered, rich in resources possessed of a powerful standing army, well tried, equal to the greatest enterprises. More wonderful than the work of this great monarch have been his personality. Rajaraja conquered Ceylon and Maldives islands.”

Rajaraja’s coinage is best known to South Indian numismats. It is found in several thousands. It looks as though for several centuries his coins were the main currencies circulating in Tamilnadu.
Two types of his coins are well known. Type 1, bears on both the sides of the ‘bow-tiger-fish’ emblem and the legend ‘Sri Raja Raja’ written beneath in Nagari characters.The second type carries a standing man on the obverse and a seated figure on the reverse with the Nagari legend ‘Sri Raja Raja’ beneath his left arm. It is the later variety that is found in several thousands. Both these types are found in gold, silver and copper.

Rajaraja’s wars and political annexations have a direct baring on his coinage. First he reduced the Pandyas and Kerala. Then the north-west Gangapadi, Nulambapadi, Tadigaipadi, and Rattaspadi were conquered. In theGengi kingdom he adopted a different policy. He gave shelter to the legitimate successor of Dhanarnava (who was killed by Jata Chola Bhima) Saktivarman and Vimaladitya. He restored Saktivarman to the throne of Vengi and gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to Vimaladitya, the brother of Sktivarman. Vimaladitya ascended the throne around 1011 after his brother. Under Rajaraja the Vengi kingdom enjoyed his protection.

A point of interest discussed in detail by numismatists concerns the abstract standing or seated figure portrayed in the obverse and reverse of this coinage. What does this figure represent? It seems to us that the figure portrays of the king, as found in Kushan coins. This should have been influenced by Roman coins. The object shown in the hand seems to be a flower, also as found in Kushan coins. While Kushan coins figure a portrait of the ruler, the standing and seated figure of the South Indian coins are clearly abstractions. But why is this portrayal found in Kushan coin not used until the 10th century A.D. and why does this figure dominate South Indian coinage till the 16th century? It is not possible to explain this.

There are a number of types with the legend Sri Rajaraja in Nagari characters. Not all the coins were issued by Rajaraja I. It seems that the same type of coins with the same name was minted in subsequent a certain amount of detrioration. But the largest number of coins found in Tamilnadu are of this type; on the obverse the standing royal figure is seen and on the reverse are the seated figure and below its left arm the legend Sri. Rajaraja in Nagari.

SPECIAL ISSUES OF RAJARAJA

There are three types with this name which require special mention. In all the three types one side carries the same device viz. a seated figure, and below is left arm the nagari legend ”Sri Rajaraja.” On the obverse the devices vary. In one type there is the standing figure and below his left arm is a seated tiger. In another type there is the standing figure with under his left arma fish shown vertically. The third variety carris the standing figure and below his left arm is a pada (foot) mark. A slight variation in the type is the presence of a bow in addition to the foot.

The fact that in all these cases the name “Sri Rajaraja” is found shows that these were issues of Rajaraja I. But the various symbols represented show a definite pattern of thinking. I have suggested in a recent article that Rajaraja deliberately introduced these symbols for circulation in the different territories he conquered. For example the coin with a fish was meant for circulation in Pandimandalam. The coin with the tiger was meant for circulation in Chola territory. The coin with a foot was obviously intended for circulation in the Kerala country, called the Thiruvadi country. The presence of the bow also confirms our presumption. In one instance Desikachari refers to a coin bearing a boar in the place of a seated tiger below the left arm of the seated figure. It is significant that this adoption of the royal crest of the respective regions shows the respect the ruler had for the conquered regions and at the same time introduces his name. Such an approach is quite in conformity with Rajaraja’s personalityand character. Rajaraja changed the name off each country. Tondaimandalam was changed of Jayamkonda chola mandalam; the pandya country was called show the innovatie and personal imprint of the great monarch.(19)

MURALIDHARA & HORSE RIDER

There are two other varieties bearing the name ‘Rajaraja’ that show same variation and both the variations are significant. In one there is the seated figure, below whose arm is the legend Rajaraja. On the other side is shown a figure of Muralidhara Krishna. On the other type is seen a rider on the back of a galloping horse. Rajaraja was a great Siva bhakta and was called Siva Cudamani but his benefactions to all faiths are so well known, that under his patronage, Vaishnavism, Buddhism and Jainism flourished alike. But except this one coin showing Muralidhara Krishna, no other coin shows a God or religious motifs. So the ascription of this coin to Rajaraja-I may not go unchallenged. However no other explanation is possible at present.
Rajendra-I

Rajendra-I founded his new capital at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. He set up Vaishnava centre and the Vedic college for teaching Vedas. He had a friendly relationship with the China emperor, and had a peaceful reign of 32 years. He extended the territory inherited from his father, and subdued the power of Pandyas and Keralas. He performed Asvamedha sacrifice too. He was very successful in the beginning but later on he lost his life in the famous battle of Koppam on the Tungabhadra. The next ruler Rajendra-II (1052-1064 AD) just managed to maintain the Chola empire though he had to struggle with the troubling Chalukyas.

The one Chola ruler, who from the time he was crowned as young prince in 1018 A.D. , till his death in 1055 A.D., spent all his time and energy in war, and died in the war front, was Rajadhiraja I., he son and successor of Rajendra I. Rajadhiraja was more a ruthless fighter than his father. In fact he seems to have been mainly responsible for most of the victories of his father. His prasastis refer to his ruthlessness in dealing with his captured monarchs. Among all the Chola rulers of the Imperial line, he was the only ruler, who performed an Asvamedha yaga.

One gold coin with the legend ‘Rajadhiraja’ has come to light. It shows on the obverse a standing figure and the leend Sri Rajadhiraja’. On the reverse it bears the seated human figure in front of a seated tiger(21). This in all probability was an issue of Rajadhiraja I.

A few types of silver coins found in north Canara bearing the legend Rajadhiraja, Maharajadhiraja and simply Raja are assigned to him.(22) While the reverse of the coin has the legend in Nagari reading Maha Rajadhi Raja, the obverse according to V.P. bears the figure of a dagger on top. There are also other types in the same hoard without giving the name, but various sizes. These are also said to be of various sizes. But judging from the illustration reproduced it is seen that typologically these varieties are not the issues of Cholas. The lion depicted with a dagger, even if it is taken to be a tiger has nothing in common with the Chola tiger. After the sangam age, the Cholas, represented their tiger mostly as a seated figure. The figure on the coin under discussion also resemble a lion than a tiger and seems to me an issue of the Western Indian dynasty, than the Chola. The find spot also seems to confirm our suggestion.

Vira Rajendra

Vira Rajendra (1064 - 1070 AD) was the elder brother of Rajendra-II. He succeeded his brother to reign for the next seven years. He met the invasion of Chalukya King and defeated the Chalukya ruler. He reconquered Vengi and foiled the efforts of Vijayabahu of Ceylon who was trying to drive the Cholas out of Ceylon. When Someswara-II succeeded the Chalukyas throne, Rajendra made some incursions but later on built a friendly ties by giving his daughter to Vikramaditya. Soon after the death of Vira Rajendra in 1070 AD, there was a contest for the throne and Adhi-Rajendra, the heir apparent took the throne. He had a short uneventful reign, Vijayabahu assumed independence in Ceylon.

Kulottunga - I (1070 - 1120 AD)

Rajendra-II succeeded Adhirajendra under the title Kulottunga Chola. In about 1073, Kalachuri King Yasahkarana invaded Vengi but did not gain anything. Pandyas and Chera's attack were put down by Kulottunga. The southern Kalinga revolt were put down too. In about 1118 AD, the Viceroy of Vengi - the Vikramaditya VI took control of Vengi from Chola and thus succeeded in separating the Cholas from the Eastern Chalukyas. Gangavadi and Nolambavadi were lost to Hoysala's Vishnuvardhana.

A few gold coins found in the Nellore district Kavaliavalli Village are said to carry the tiger and the fish on the one side, and on the other the legend Sunga in Tamil characters with the numerical figures 27, 31 and 34.(23) In one type of this variety along with the tiger and fish the legend Kanchi is said to be found in Tamil. While the other side carries the word Sunga(24). Another type of the same variety is said to carry the legend ‘Ne’ in Tamil taken to stand for ‘Nellore’.

Kulottunga I was certainly the master of Kanchi and Nellore region. He had a palace at Kanchi. The Tamil work kalingattupparani extolling his greatness, mention that his commander Karunakara Tondaiman conquered the Kalinga country even while Kulottunga was camping at Kanchi. There is a graphic description of he palace of Kulottunga at Kanchi in the same work. In fact all the Chola monarchs had their palace at Kanchi. But if the reading is correct, the word ‘Kanchi’ would indicate that in 12th century A.D., the custom of indicating the place of minting the coin has come into vogue. Similarly the word ‘Ne’ standing for Nellore. Nellore was equally an important centre and the rulers of Nellore of 12-13th century call themselves Nellore puravaradhisvara

Another coin which is attributed to Kulottunga also needs consideration. It carries on the obverse the usual standing royal figure and on the reverse the seated figure with a Tamil legend said to read Kulottu(nga). Biddaulp reads the legend as Kuna. Chattopadhyaya holds the reading as unlikely. It is the same coin illustrated as No. 140 by Elliot who read it as Kuma Pandya. It is seen from the illustration that only two letters are visible which read “Kula”. It is absolutely clear that there is no possibility of reading the second letter ‘lo’ which would require the curved character before ‘la’ if it is to be read as ‘lo’. The reading is only ‘Kula’ and so the coin cannot be attributed to Kulottunga. Further Paleographially the letter ‘Ku’ seems to be later and

Vikrama Chola (1120 - 1135 AD)

The next successor, the son of Kulottunga-I restored the Chola power by reconquering Vengi and by taking control of part of Gangavadi. His reign was somewhat peaceful to his subjects though there were floods and famines in the South Arcot. The Hoysala expansion took control of Chola power slowly and subsequently. The last rulers namely Kulottunga - II, Rajaraja - II, Rajadhiraja - III could not stop the Hoysalas annexation of Chola Kingdom. Cholas hold on Pandyan kingdom had already weakened. In about 1243, the Pallava chief declared independence. The Kakatiyas and Hoysalas partitioned among themselves the territory of the Chola empire and Chola empire ceased to exist for ever.

YUDDHAMALLA

A gold coin, smaller in size, bearing on the obverse the ‘bowtigher-fish device, and on the reverse a two line legend reading “Yuddhamalla” is also noticed. This has been attributed to Rajendra I. It could have been struck at the time of the marriage of his daughter to Chalukya Rajaraja Narendra, the father of Rajendra who was known as Kulottunga, subsequently. Quoting this view of Biddaulp, Chattopadhyaya rightly points out the lack of evidence to support this view point. However, as he rightly points out, it is not unlikely that it was issued by Rajendra I. in belongs to ‘Kulasekhara Pandya’.

COINAGE

In the later part of the tenth century, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Sri Lanka kingdoms adopted coinage once again after a brief break of four centuries. But this time, it triggered off with the gold coinage to initiate major transactions. Soon silver and copper coinage were minted in plenty to meet the day to day needs of commodities.

Raja raja Chola struck coins both in Sri Lanka and India. They differed much in fabric, style and in the gold purity. The monetary economy was well defined with the Imperial Cholan conquest. In Tamilnadu, Cholas introduced coinage much prior to Raja raja's campaign in Sri Lanka. They adopted 'Tiger facing two fishes' as their emblem on the coinage. Having developed a strong navy, they traded with Sri Lanka and soon conquered them too. They also set voyages as far as the islands of Indonesia and Maldives through ocean. Subsequently they felt the need to mint coins to trade!
Chola's coinage issues were in all the three metals Gold, Silver and Copper. Though the coinage was mainly destined for general currency, very few commemoratives could be observed. Uttama Chola struck silver with the royal emblem of "Tiger facing two fishes" on the obverse and the Nagari legend "Uttama Chola". Raja Raja struck gld fanams bearing the legend Yuddha Malla" on the obverse and the usual insignia on the reverse. He also struck silver and gold kahavanus with the standing king on the obverse and the seated king on the reverse. Nagari legend "Raja Raja" surrounded him on the obverse of some types, and the reverse image of some types.

Rajendra Chola struck coins with the legend "Sri Rajendrah" beneath the usual insignia on both reverse and obverse. The copper Kasu of Chola started off with the reign of Raja Raja, which passed onto next generations (even Kulottunga) with the same standard "Standing King on the obverse" and "Seated King on the reverse". Sometime legend "Raja Raja" and sometime the legend "Ku appears on the coinage surroundig the image. These coins can be seen abundantly as the same type of coins with little deformed images were circulated till the Cholas ceased to exist.

The history of the Imperial Cholas begins around 850 A.D. with the advent of Vijayalaya. Till recent times the name of Vijayalaya’s father was unknown. The recently found Velanjeri copper plate of Parantaka Chola gives his name as Orriyuran. He is praised as a great king. Judging from the name assumed by several of his subordinates his claim to greatness is not unwarranted.
Vijayalaya, the great conqueror who established the Imperial Chola line captured Tanjore, fortified the city and consecrated an image of goddess Nisumbasudani. He is praised in later literature as one who had, won several battles. From this time onwards, the Cholas started adopting the titles alternately Parakesari and Rajakesari. Till we come to the time of Rajaraja I, the Cholas mentioned only their title in their epigraphs without giving their names. It makes the identification of the early Chola rulers open to doubt. But at least a few of the inscriptions found in the Tondaimandalam region belong to Vijayalaya.

Vijayalaya’s position remained somewhat subordinae to the Pallavas. But his son Aditya threw off the Pallava yoke, and soon established Chola power upto Tondaimand near Kalahasti (near Madras). In the south he reached the limit of Pudukottai territory, but not beyond. Aditya also conquered the Kongu, and is said to have brought gold to enrich the Chidambaram temple. He built innumerable stone temples, dedicated to Siva all along the banks of the Kaveri. S. R. Balasubramaniam has recently done yeoman service by identifying several of Aditya’s temples.

Parantaka was, like his father a great conqueror. His conquests were at the expense of the Adityas of Madurai, followed by a victory over Sri Lanka. He assumed the title Maduraiyim Ilamum Konda, i.e. the conqueror of Madurai and Lanka. In Sanskrit his title appears as ‘Madurantakan’. After Parantaka many rulers followed with varying fortunes. The immediate predecessor of Rajaraja, the great was Uttama Chola, who also had the title Madurantaka.” The earliest Chola coin which could be definitely attributed to a chola ruler is that of Uttama. His territory extended upto Madras in the north and to Madurai in the south. At least two issues of this ruler are now identified.

UTTAMACHOLA

The first type is a gold coin unfortunately lost. But Elliot has preserved a good illustration of it. His description reads;(2) “No. 151 gold coin lost; facsimile in wood cut; weigh 50 to 60 grains. Obverse and reverse exactly the same; a tiger seated to the left; opposite it a fish etc. The legend running around reads in grantha characters ‘Uttama Chola”. This has been rightly identified with the issue of Uttama Chola.

I have published the other coin with a proper reading in Damilica I. The coin which was imperfectly read all these years bears close resemblance to the earlier one carrying seated tiger and a fish with the legend Matirantakam running around it. As mentioned earlier Matirantakan was one of the titles of Uttama Chola. In early inscriptions the city of ‘Madurai’ was called Matirai. So this coin has also been taken as an issue of Uttamachola.

THE MADAI

“Several inscriptions of the Chola period give the names of coins that were under circulation. From these we gather that the coins were called after the ruling kings either by the names or titles such as Rajarajan Madai, Rajendran Madai. The earliest coin so referred to by name is Madurantakan Madai. It is likely that the coin referred to as Madurantakan Madai is identical with the present coin “Damilica Page 102).
Chattopadhyaya, agreeing with my suggestion, states, “The legend which has so long baffled scholars has now satisfactorily been read as Matirantakam which is the equivalent of Madurantakan. It is thus likely that the type is identical with the Madurantakan Madai of the epigraph and that it belongs to the period of Uttama Chola(16)

UTTAMACHOLA – NAGARI

The third type of coins attributed to Uttama Chola made of silver or copper. On one side the coin bears a seated tiger, two fish and a bow. These are shown on a pedestal. Above this emblem are seen a parasol and two chowris. On the reverse is the legend ‘Uttama Chola’ in Nagari characters. Opinion is divided among scholars about the author of this issue. Prof. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri assigns it to Rajendra I, while Chattopadhyaya holds that it could be an Uttama issue.

BOW-TIGER-FISH EMBLEM

The practice of a ruler adopting all the three emblems was known even in the age of Silapadhikaram. The Chra ruler, Sengut tuvan is said to have carved, these three crests on the Himalayas.(17) In another instance the same ruler is said to have sent an order baring the crests – ‘bow – fish – tiger’ said to be the seal of the Tamil land.(18)
If the ruler was a great conqueror, subduing the two other crowned kings of the Tamil country, he adopted all the three royal crests. In the coin under discussion the three emblems are under the same umbrella. This would suggest that both the Chera and the Pandya had been vanquished. While in the earlier coin of Uttama, only the fish and tiger are seen, in the present case all the three are seen. The conquest of the Chera was accomplished by Rajaraja I, and not under Uttama, his predecessor. It is probably due to this reason that Profesosr Nilakanta Sastri thought that this could be an issue subsequent to Rajaraja I, and assigned it to Rajendra I. The two earlier coins are typologically of the same group, while the later is different. It is not unlikely that the later also was an issue of Uttama Chola.

A point of importance is that for the first time in Tamil coins we find a Nagari legend. Why and how it was introduced? it is not possible to explain at this stage.

SPECIAL ISSUES OF RAJARAJA

There are three types with this name which require special mention. In all the three types one side carries the same device viz. a seated figure, and below is left arm the nagari legend ”Sri Rajaraja.” On the obverse the devices vary. In one type there is the standing figure and below his left arm is a seated tiger. In another type there is the standing figure with under his left arma fish shown vertically. The third variety carris the standing figure and below his left arm is a pada (foot) mark. A slight variation in the type is the presence of a bow in addition to the foot.
The fact that in all these cases the name “Sri Rajaraja” is found shows that these were issues of Rajaraja I. But the various symbols represented show a definite pattern of thinking. I have suggested in a recent article that Rajaraja deliberately introduced these symbols for circulation in the different territories he conquered. For example the coin with a fish was meant for circulation in Pandimandalam. The coin with the tiger was meant for circulation in Chola territory. The coin with a foot was obviously intended for circulation in the Kerala country, called the Thiruvadi country. The presence of the bow also confirms our presumption. In one instance Desikachari refers to a coin bearing a boar in the place of a seated tiger below the left arm of the seated figure. It is significant that this adoption of the royal crest of the respective regions shows the respect the ruler had for the conquered regions and at the same time introduces his name. Such an approach is quite in conformity with Rajaraja’s personalityand character. Rajaraja changed the name off each country. Tondaimandalam was changed of Jayamkonda chola mandalam; the pandya country was called show the innovatie and personal imprint of the great monarch.(19)

MURALIDHARA & HORSE RIDER

There are two other varieties bearing the name ‘Rajaraja’ that show same variation and both the variations are significant. In one there is the seated figure, below whose arm is the legend Rajaraja. On the other side is shown a figure of Muralidhara Krishna. On the other type is seen a rider on the back of a galloping horse. Rajaraja was a great Siva bhakta and was called Siva Cudamani but his benefactions to all faiths are so well known, that under his patronage, Vaishnavism, Buddhism and Jainism flourished alike. But except this one coin showing Muralidhara Krishna, no other coin shows a God or religious motifs. So the ascription of this coin to Rajaraja-I may not go unchallenged. However no other explanation is possible at present.

RAJENDRA I-GANGAIKONDA

Rajaraja was succeeded by his might son Rajendra I, who perhaps was the only ruler of India to carry his arms to the far east across the sea and won several victories. So he assumed the title Kadaram Konda Chola. What other Cholas could not accomplish with reference to Sri Lanka Rajendra was able to achieve. He brought the entire Ceylon under his control. In India itself he raced across eastern coast and conquered upto the Bangaladesh and marked his victory by bringing the sacred river of Ganges and assumed the title ‘Gangaikonda Chola’. This particular victory of Rajendra himself was proved to be of great interest for he built a new capital and named it Gangaikondacholapuram. The Chalukyas in the west were no match to him. From 1012 to 1044, this mightiest conqueror kept the banner of his family flying high over several kingdoms.

Two series of coins which could definitely be assigned to Rajendra are well known. Both the group show the ‘bow-tiger-fish’ emblem on both the sides. The legend in one series reads Sri Rajendra’ and in the other “Sri Gangaikonda Chola.” Though these two varieties are not so frequently met with, yet they are fairly known.

Another type of coin attributed to Rajendra I shows on the obverse the ‘bow-tiger-two fish’ emblem, flanked by lamp stands and topped by the royal parasol and the chowris. Below this is the Nagari legend reading ‘Sri Raja Rajendra’. On the reverse is the seated figure and to his right is shown a seated tiger(29).

RajaRaja Chola : 985 - 1014
Copper massa coins

Six different copper massa of selected from the statistically analysed sample of 100 coins of RajaRaja Chola (985-1014) of Thanjavur in TamilNadu. Most of the coins of the lot were of Indian Type with the four balls with a dot in center and cresent above on the right hand side of the standing king. One was of Lanka type with solid ball is probably from the period of Chola occupation of Lanka.

Obverse : Standing king with head to right. Holds an item in left hand which is bent and held up to his face. The right hand is extended outwards and bent downwards over the temple lamp on left to high alter. A group of four spheres on right, surmounted by crescent.
Reverse : Seated king on left facing right holds a conch shell in left hand which is bent and held up to his face. The right hand is extended outwards and bent downwards over knee. Legend beneath on right in 3 lines. Sri Raja Raja in Nagari script

On obverse Jasmine flower in left hand, alter visible, spheres with dots,
On reverse Ra below Ja.

On obverse Jasmine bud in left hand, fish facing up hanging from right hand rather than alter, filled spheres,
On reverse Ra level with Ja.

On obverse Sphere with dot in left hand, spheres with dots,
On reverse Ra lot below Ja.

On obverse five petal flower or banana in left hand, spheres with dots,
With the two fingers of hand appearing as legs it look like a stick human. Could this be a medieval die-cutter's hidden expression of oppression by an evil Raja On reverse Ra below Ja.

On obverse Sun and Moon symbol in left hand, spheres with dots, lamp off flan
On reverse Ra lot below Ja, appears to be double struck.

On obverse filled sphere in left hand, spheres with dots,
On reverse Ra below Ja.

Each of the coins illustrated above are different varieties of the same basic design, which was later copied by the traditional Lanka type massa.
Except the second from top have text Rabelow Ja which was used by Mitchiner. It seems more natural to classify using the item in left hand on the obverse as is used to classify gold kahavanu found in Lanka.

For 30 of the coins the variety based on what is held in the hand was indeterminate, From the remaing 70 coins in which the item held up to face on obverse was visible within the struck flan, 67 was of Jasmine flower type with a dot visible in center of sphere in 19 of the higher grade coins among them. In lower grade/cruder diecut coins the same symbol appeares as a filled sphere or ball. I found only one clear example each of varieties with the interesting five petal flower and with Sun and Moon symbol.

Rajaraja Chola (985-1014) invaded Lanka in 990 AD and conquered the northern half. Lanka regained independence from Chola occupation in 1070 under Vijaya-bahu (1055-1110).

Years	985-1014
Value	1 Kahavanu
Metal	Gold
Weight	4.38 g
Diameter	20 mm
Shape	Round
Demonetized	yes
References	MNI# 729

Obverse

Seated king facing right with legend on right, beneath his raised arm: Sri Raja Raja.

Lettering: Sri Raja Raja

Reverse

Standing king with lotus on the left a group of spheres on right, surmounted by crescent.

Edge

Plain

Comments

Ceylon type Issue of Rajaraja Chola (After conquest of Ceylon)

Years	985-1014
Value	2 Fanams (2)
Metal	Gold
Weight	0.74 g
Diameter	7.43 mm
Shape	Round
Demonetized	yes

Obverse

King standing looking right

Reverse

Nagari legend 'Jaya Konda' (The Victorious)

Years	840-1295
Value	1 Stater (1)
Metal	Gold
Weight	0.4 g
Shape	Round
References	Fr# 1

Obverse

Ruler standing

Reverse

Ruler seated

Chola Kings, Uttama Chola, (973-985 AD), Silver Kahavanu, 3.94g. Obv: Chola tiger seated right, an umbrella and a pair of upright fish with bow and lamp behind. Rev: Nagari legend Uttama/Cholah in two lines, MCSI-II 323.

Very Fine+, Very Scarce.

Chola Kings, Raja Raja I (985-1014 AD), Base Gold Kahavanu, issued after circa 1007, 4.45g. Obv: King half seated with raised arm on right; Devanagari legend beneath raised arm Sri/Raja/Raja. Rev: Standing man with lamp on left and group of pellets on right, MCIS-II 337.

Very Fine, Scarce.

Chola Kings, Rajendra Chola I (Gangaikonda Chola) (1012-1044 AD), Gold Kahavanu, Uncertain Tamilnadu Mint, 4.4g. Seated tiger with two fish on obverse and reverse, MCSI-II 332; MNI 741.

Extremely Fine, Very Rare.

Chola Kings, Raja Raja I (985-1014 AD), Gold ⅛ Kahavanu, 0.30g. Obv: Dynastic emblem of bow, umbrella, seated tiger and pair of fish. Rev: Nagari legend Yuddha/Malla, MCSI-II 331.

Very Fine, Scarce.

History of India (600 BC - 187 BC)

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By the seventh century B.C., Indian settlements extended in a long uneven strip of Panjab to Bihar with a heterogeneous type of population but with enough of a common language and tradition. The common tradition favoured considerable social intercourse and trade and the society eventually formed their first settlements. But before they could advance to a higher level, soon they broke into smaller segments. It is between 520 B.C (Bimbasara's conquest of Anga) and 360 B.C. (Destruction of Aryan tribes by the Maha Padma Nanda), the necessary steps were taken to form a new type of society. Magadha enjoyed a new development, Buddhism was practised as a religion and Magadhan empire was extended throughout India.
The historical centre of gravity shifted from Panjab to the Gangetic valley by the seventh century B.C. The conquest of Darius in the third quarter of sixth century B.C., had brought him the land of seven rivers, of which Kambujiya, Gandhara and Indus could be mentioned here. Taxila stood between two powerful trading empires of those days, namely Persia and the growing kingdom of Gangetic valley. Rest of the Panjab was ruled by the Purus till Alexandran conquest. The population of Indus valley was armed better that time, with a solid basis of crops production and good trade. The southern peninsula was still in a state of late stone-age savagery ? The pastoral life must have spread down all the way till the Andhra coast. The needy Brahmins from Bihar and the hardy traders penetrated the region by then. The southern region was soon absorbed into the Mauryan empire. Around 600 B.C., in the Gangetic valley there co-existed distinct sets of social groups in various stages of development. Bengal was a dense forest, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh was thinly inhabited by tribals who did not communicate in Aryan language. The developed tribes above them in contact were constantly in conflict. This higher non Aryan groups who spoke their own language were Nagas. The Aryans were divided into caste-classes. The leading frontier city in the north-west was Taxila. The unidentified city Kukkutavati, where a Maha-Kapphina ruled was near Kamboja (or perhaps Kashmir). A Gandharan king is said to have exchanged gifts with Bimbasara of Magadha and travelled on foot to see Gauthama Buddha. The kingdom in the south near Godhavari was Asmaka and adjacent to was the county Alaka. Both of these were Andhras. The important kingdom was Avanti with its well known capital Ujjain. Pradyota seems to have ruled this place with Kosambi to Ujjain as his trade route. Some historians have shown Ajatashatru repairing his forts in anticipation of Prajota's raid. Of the rest, the Surasena kingdom with capital at Mathura was known to Greeks. Three Aryan tribal kingdoms of Kuru, Panchala and Matsya were known to the epic tradition. Following thumbnail takes you further on the history of :

The Rise of Magadha

The Brihadratas

Magadha embeds the districts of Patna and Gaya of the south Bihar. The rivers of Ganges on the north, Son on the west, Champa on the east, the mountain Vindhya on the west embraced Magadha. From the capital city of Girivrija, Haryanka dynasty ruled Magadha, but the history commences with the ascension of Bimbasara. The earlier dynasty, the Brihadratas (founded by Jarasandha's father, the son of Vasu) ended when Pradyota asserted the throne of Avanti. The latter was a contemporary of the Buddha.

The Haryankas

Being ambitious, Bimbasara expanded his territory through policy of matrimonial alliances and annexations. The sister of Prasenjit bought him the land of Kosala, Chetaka's youngest daughter bought him the land of Vaisali. Through his son Bhattiya, the Anga was conquered by killing Brahmadatta. Thus the territory of Bimbasara measured about 300 leagues which in turn equates to approximately 80,000 villages. Bimbisara and the Prince Gautama were friends, Gautama had not attained the enlightenment when Bimbasara had visited him the first time. On the other occasion after the enlightenment of Gautama, it is stated that Buddha was fed with Bimibasara's own hands. Bimbisara was put to death by his son Ajatasattu. There are different accounts on the death of Bimbasara. According to the Jain chronicle, Bimbasara decided to anoint Ajatasattu as his successor in preference to his other sons. But the latter became impatient, imprisoned Bimbasara and ascended the throne in no time. Ajatasattu is stated to have ruled from about 551 to 519 BC, the Haryanka dynasty reached its zenith during Ajatasattu's rule. It was this time, the Vaishali was ruled by the Licchavis and war broke between Vaishali and Magadha due to the dispute of sharing the gems obtained through the mines bordering Vaishali and Magadha. Though Ajatasattu finally won the war, sixteen year had lapsed which disturbed the economy and peace of Magadha. The Mahavamsa states that Ajatasattu's son Udayabhadra succeeded Ajatasattu and ruled for the next sixteen years. He moved his capital to the bank of Ganges which was known as Pataliputra. The succession was followed by Udayabhadra's son Anuruddha and his son Munda in the same family tradition by slaying the father. Munda's son Nagadasaka slew his father and continued reigning through this dynasty of parricides'. The citizens angered by the rule of Haryankas, revolted against Nagadasaka and anointed Shishunaga as the king. Magadha embeds the districts of Patna and Gaya of the south Bihar. The rivers of Ganges on the north, Son on the west, Champa on the east, the mountain Vindhya on the west embraced Magadha. From the capital city of Girivrija, Haryanka dynasty ruled Magadha, but the history commences with the ascension of Bimbasara. The earlier dynasty, the Brihadratas (founded by Jarasandha's father, the son of Vasu) ended when Pradyota asserted the throne of Avanti. The latter was a contemporary of the Buddha.

The Shishunagas

Shishunaga was an Amatya. He destroyed the glory of the Pradyotas of Avanti. After a successful reign of sixteen years, he was succeeded by his son Kalashoka to reign for the next twenty eight years. The dagger thrust into his throat in the neighbourhood of his city. The ten sons succeeded him and ruled from Pataliputra for the next twenty two years simultaneously. By then, century and a half had passed by since the Parinirvana of the Buddha.
The Nandas
The Nandas were the successors of Shishunaga dynasty. The first Nanda, the Mahapadma Nanda has been described as the destroyer of all the Kshatriyas. He defeated Ikshvakus, Panchalas, Kasis, Harhayas, Kalingas, Asmakas, Kurus, Maithilas, Surasenas, Vitihotras, etc.,. He expanded his territory till south of Deccan. The last of the Nandas was Dhana Nanda. Plutarch tells that Chandragupta Maurya had stated that Nanda was hated and despised by his subject on account of the wickedness of his disposition. The bloody fight between the Nandas and the Mauryas overthrew the dynasty of Nandas. The advent of Mauryan dynasty marks the passage from darkness to light to the historians.

The Mauryas

The name Maurya probably a sanskrit word Mayura. The Jain tradition describes Chandragupta Maurya as a grandson of the chief of a village of Peacock tamers. The Mauryas emblem Mayura seen in their coinage and monuments provides further evidence to it. With the discovery of the book on Kautilya's Arthashasthra by Shamasastri in 1909, the Maurya chronology became very definite though the dates are still controversial. Another source of information for the Mauryan period is the Mudrarakshas. This gives us the clear details of the revolution by which Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nandas. Chandragupta and Kautilya (his minister) joined together with the Pauravas against Nandas. The enemies of Chandragupta Maurya were thus disposed one by one by Kautilya, and soon Paurava prince got killed too.

Chandragupta Maurya The Buddhist tradition tells us the death of Chandragupta's father left his mother destitute and she took shelter in Pataliputra. The baby was deposited for safety with a cowherd, but the latter sold the child to a hunter who employed him to tend cattle. The boy was always fond of playing the king's role with his companions. It is stated that during this time Chanakya was the elected president of the Dhanasala, a charity school run by the Dhana Nanda. The manners and features of Chanakya made Dhana Nanda to dismiss Chanakya and the latter took vow to ruin the Nandas. Chanakya encountered this ambitious kingly character in a boy and used him to take revenge on Dhana Nanda. After the death of Alexander in Babylon (323 BC), the India could not be held together. It is the same time, Chandragupta Maurya collected recruits from different places and organized them into a powerful army with which he played an important part in the liberation of India from the Greek rule. Soon he overthrew the Nandas and captured the capital city Pataliputra. On the other hand, the ambitious Selucus had crossed Indus with the ambition to recover the lost conquests of Alexander. His expedition was mutilated by Chandragupta Maurya and Selucus entered a treaty with Chandragupta Maurya. Kabul, Kandahar and part of Herat and Beluchistan were absorbed into the Mauryan territory through the treaty. Chandragupta Maurya eventually pushed his conquests to as far as Saurashtra in the west and Deccan in the south. He adopted Jainism, renounced the worldly affairs, became deciple of Jain Muni Bhadrabahu Swami and followed him to South India (Karnataka). He spent his last days, (298 B.C.) in the hill of south India which is called after him as CHANDRAGIRI, where the tallest statue of Gomateshwara was carved by the Gangas later during their rule.
Bindusara Bindusara (299 - 274 BC) succeeded Chandragupta Maurya . It is stated that Chanakya survived his master and continued to work as Bindusara's minister. Though there is no evidence of the conquests which Bindusara achieved, it is well known that the people of Taxila revolted twice. The first revolt was due to bad administration of Susima the eldest son. Though the cause for the second revolution is not known, it could not be suppressed by Bindusara due to his untimely death.
Ashoka Ashoka was the second son of Bindusara and was the viceroy of Ujjain during Bindusara's reign. Due to untimely death of his father, he had to suppers the rebellion of Taxila, and by doing so, he ascended the throne taking his ministers into confidence. The fact that his formal coronation was delayed for some years until 269 BC may be due to the bloody dispute between his other brothers (100) for the power, but there is no evidence of such a struggle. In the 13th year of his reign, he conquered Kalinga. It is said that during the war of Kalinga 1,00,000 persons were slain, 1,50,000 held captive and many times that number died in the battle field. The Kalinga war opened a new epoch in the history of Magadha as well as India. Ashoka could not see the sufferings of the people who survived in the war, and turned Buddhist. Lord Siva seems to have been his favourite deity till then. He propagated his new religion by engraving his Dhamma, Law of Piety through the rock edicts throughout his empire which spread till Deccan in the south. The mighty empire of the Mauryas soon began to decline after the death of Ashoka and disappeared from the scene by 187 BC when the last ruler Brihadratha was killed by his commander-in chief. The successors of Ashoka were not able to rule such a huge empire, and several disintegrating forces seems to have been active after the death of Ashoka. Various parts of the empire became independent and soon the Mauryan empire gave birth to more smaller segments.

INDIA'S EARLIEST COINAGE

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It is evident that the first coins were minted in India just before 5th century BC. Few scholars/historians have suggested that India had her coinage in the 8th century BC (much earlier than Lydia/Ionia). The archaeological evidence reveals that Indians invented coins around 500 to 400 BC. Panini (500BC), in his treatise Ashtadhyayi has written about coins and its fractions - Satamana(sata=100 mana=units), Nishkas, Sana, Vimastika, Karshapana. Each unit was called 'Ratti' weighing 0.11gram, a mass of Gunja seed (black tipped bright red seed). Satamana typically weighed 11 gms, and Karshapana weighed 32 rattis.

It is in 500 - 600 BC, silver became abundantly available of which most of it came from Afghanistan and Persia as a result of international trade. Silver for coins were available in three types, namely Tuthatat of Tutha mountain, Gandika from Burma, and Kambu from Afghanistan's Kamboja. Kambu silver was used for earlier coins more than the other two types. Certain small ingots of silver whose mark is three circular dots, often known as pulley, represents probably the earliest form. The heavy bent bars of silver and copper with heptha radiated symbol stamped on the two ends of concave surface seems to be the next in order. These two categories are computed to have been in circulation as coins atleast as early as 600 BC.

On the other hand, from every ancient Indian sites, from Kabul till the modern Tamilnadu, thousands of pieces of silver alloys have been recovered and they are numismatically known as Punchmarked coins due to the manufacturing techniques used in them. These coins were made of much alloyed silver, not of gold or electrum that were used in Lydian and Ionian coins. The silver in the form of thin sheets were clipped to adjust them into proper weights. These rectangular, square, oval and sometimes curious shaped sheets were then impressed with one to six symbols by means of separate punches mostly on one side. Of these symbols, sun and six armed wheel are most consistent which leads us to believe that they are the descendants of Surya dynasty (Surya Vamsi). The other varying symbols were probably to guarantee the weight and purity.

Until 19th century, they did not draw much attention, it is only during 1890, when W. Theobald took a special attention in analyzing the symbols, it was understood to have varieties of forms such as hill, animal, reptile, human figures and other objects. Two well known numismatists, D. R. Bhandarkar and Dr. DB Spooner put forward their theory saying that punching of various symbols followed a definite pattern and these were the royal issues. They further sparked later investigations into the fabric, mass, area, period of circulation, metrology etc., Yet, due to lack of inscriptions, punch marked coins are not clearly assigned to a particular king/dynasty. Perhaps, the punchmarked coinage is conjectured as a natural development like that of Paper Hundi or note of hand, originally struck by gilds or private merchants and subsequently passed under royal control.

The origin of symbols which are found on the punch marked coins could be traced back to the culture since prehistoric times. Only drawings conveyed meanings those days. A simple representation of cow or bull on a precious metal of cow's worth probably has made their trade much easier than physically exchanging cow with other essential commodities. The prominent symbols such as SUN, six armed wheel explains why royal authorities punched them to transform into a newer unit of wealth.

It is apparent that these punch marked coins belonged two distinct periods - the coins of the first period contains one to four symbols and they are characterized by a specific weight though the symbol varied significantly from type to type. These coins belonged to a period when India had many janapadas and few Mahajanapadas (small and large states). Janapadas namely Uttara Panchala, Rohilkhand, Dakshina Panchala, Daob, Saurashtra, Malla, Kamboja and Kuntala had only one symbol in their coinage. Gandhara produced the curious bent silver bar with heptha radiated symbols on its both ends on the obverse. Janapadas such as Kashi, Magadha, Koshala, Sadanira, Chedi, Avanti, Dakshina Koshala, Ashmaka, Vanga and Prachya produced Four-Symbol coinage.

Between mid sixth and fourth century BC, the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas were gradually absorbed into the rising Magadha empire, and coinage further evolved into five symbol form but in conceivable shapes. During Ashoka's reign, the empire covered most of the country and coins also spread with imperial Maurya expansion. These coins were termed by numismatists as Imperial series of punch marked coins. The imperial series coins weighed 32 rattis in weight and termed as Karshapanas. The coins are pieces of silver metal sheet of varying thickness, but they weighed almost the same (50 to 52 grains) except for varying shape and size. They can be as broad as 30 mm and as small as 8 to 10 mm. The thickness varies from fraction of mm to 2 mm. In the new system, the coins were grouped based on the symbol grouping. A symbol SUN is almost present in all symbol groups and hence coins bearing sun is assumed to have issued without break. The second more complex symbol - six armed wheel places several varieties in the same group. The third symbol in the classification table shows strong affinities among themselves, and they are formed of hill, animal, taurine etc. They have seven such categories and are termed as class symbol . The fourth place is assigned to symbols within the above class. The fifth varied largely and there are more than one group whom they associated. They represented a hide and seek pattern and are the largest. The coins hence may be assigned with a series number based on the fabric. The series one and two hence takes thin fabrics. Medium fabrics occupies second and third series. The series five is occupied by both medium and thick fabric. The series six and seven are entirely of thick fabric. The first four series have either minute reverse punch marks or just blank. The series five has minute as well as bold punch mark. The series six and seven reverses have bold punch marks.

LAST OF THE INDO-GREEK KINGS

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The Indo-Greek kingdoms descended from Alexander the Greats conquest of Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India in 327BC. Though they were cut-off from Greece for some 300 years, they continued many Greek traditions, including aspects of the Greek religion, language and Greek style coinage. One of the last of the Indo-Greek kings was Hermaios (Hermaeus). The exact dates of his reign are unknown, though numismatic sources list it as 40BC to 1BC. Some Biblical scholars believe that he may be one of the Three Kings from the East who visited Jesus’s birth. He was defeated by the Kushan ruler Kujala Kadphises, though his coins continued to be struck after his death. This silver Drachm features the diademed bust of Hermaios on one side and Zeus seated on the other.

Silver and bronze coinage of the Kunindas

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Silver and bronze coinage of the Kunindas

Very) brief history of the Kunindas:

The Kingdom of Kuninda (or Kulinda in ancient literature) is a North-Indian native Kingdom stretching along the foothills of the Hymalayas eastwards from the borders of Audumbara, Vemaka and Vrishni to the borders of Nepal. The Greek historian Ptolemy linked the origin of the Kuninda to the country where the rivers Ganges, Yamuna, and Beas originate.

The history of the kingdom is documented from around the 2nd century BCE and it was mentioned by the ancient authors, notably in Indian epics and puranas. The most famous king of the Kunindas was Amoghbhuti, who ruled in the valley of the Jamuna, Beas and Sutlej rivers (in today's Punjab in northern India). His date is variously dated to the late 2nd century BC or early 1st century AD, though the exact dates are unknown.

One the Edicts of Ashoka on a pillar is also present at Kalsi, in the region of Garhwal, indicating the spread of Buddhism to the region from the 4th century BCE.
The Kuninda kingdom disappeared around the 3rd century, and from the 4th century, it seems the region shifted to Shaivite beliefs.

The coinage of the Kunindas:

Until the reign of Amoghbhuti it seems that the coins circulating among the Kunindas were the silver drachms and tetradrachms of the Indo-Greeks. The first native coins of the Kunindas were produced during the reign of the King Amoghbhuti (late 2nd century-early 1st century BC), though some numismatic authorities consider them to be later issues and date them to ca.20 BC-80 AD. The coins, silver drachms, were influenced by the numismatic model of the neighbouring Indo-Greek kingdoms, but the design was purely native, incorporating Buddhist symbolism such as the triratna, deer, Lakshmi, swastika etc. These coins typically follow the Indo-Greek weight and size standards (drachms, of about 2.1 to 2.2 grams in weight and 19 mm in diameter), and their coins are often found together with Indo-Greek coins in hoards, such as those of the Yaudheyas, or the Audumbaras. They represent the first effort by an Indian to produce coins that could compare with those of the Indo-Greeks.

The coins are among the most beautiful cons of the early India, in my opinion. The design is complex, resulting in crowded dies, but it is very attractive, with the full-breasted, wide-hipped Lakshmi holding a long lotus flower possessing a lot of charge. The bilingual inscriptions indicating the clash of the Indo-Greek and native cultured just added to the charm of these coins.

All the silver drachms of the Kunindas are rare - they rarely make it to the Western market, unsurprisingly, and are not well-known among collectors, though a few examples appeared recently on CNG and Spink. The retail price (as of 2007) for the coins of "common" types varies, but the usual range is 150US$ to 200US$ for coins in VF-EF condition. I have never seen the coins of rare types (with swastikas, standards or other symbols on obverse fields) for sale, but I would estimate the retail price for them to be 200-300$ for coins in VF-EF.

This webpage:

Because of the obscurity of these coins, it is difficult to find any comprehensive information about them. While all these silver drachms have similar inscriptions on both sides and an identical design, the design and location of the control marks on obverse (and a standard on reverse) can vary. Some types were published previousely - Boppearachchi reports two types (one of them probably misinterpreted - see catalogue, below), Mitchiner (Ancient & Classical World) reports five varieties, and most other catalogues report only one or two varieties. I have listed 18 types, at least 10 of which were never previousely published. No collector or dealer that I've known put together a collection of these coins, so I thought creating a webpage listing the unknown and (previousely) unpublished types would be of help to the collectors of Indian coins. Along with the pictures of different varieties, the drawings of the symbols for both the obverse and the reverse are shown, and the relative rarities for the different types are indicated. If you ever encountered any types not listed here, please drop me an email - I would love to hear from you.

Corrections for Mitchiner ACW catalogue:

I wanted to list, very briefly, the few errors appearing in the Mitchiner catalogue in the "Kunindas" section (not really of much importance, but thought I would mention it)

1. The "two cobras" symbol appearing above the deer NEVER have a dot between them

2. The "standard" symbol on the reverse comes in two different varieties (with a straight shaft and one that splits into two curves).

3. The coins were not struck to a 2.35 gram standard - the weight of about 20 specimens I weighed ranged from 2.05 grams to 2.31 grams, with most coins (even in an uncalculated condition) weighing about 2.15-2.20 grams.

4. The Prakrit inscription is incorrectly transcribed in Mitchiner (letter "h" in "Rajnah" omitted) (corrected below).

Symbols:

This is the list of some of the symbols encountered on the silver drachms of the Kunindas.

"Tree-in-railing" - the common ancient Indian symbol. Appears on the reverse of this type only.

"Swastika" - an ancient Indian symbol. Always appears on reverse, and very rarely on obverse.

"Two cobras" - always appear between the horns of the deer. I am not sure about this symbol, but this is how it is described in all references.

"Hill" - "three-arched hills" and a "five-arched hill". ncient Indian symbols. The five-arched hill always appears on the reverse of this type and (doubtfully) on the obverse of one type. The three-arched hill appears on the obverse of many of the varieties of the silver Kuninda coins.

"The Y-symbol" or "the standard" - a very common ancient Indian symbol, usually described as a "standard", but the precise meaning of this symbol is unclear.

"The lotus flower" - appears on the obverse in two varieties, with a dot in the middle and without (see catalogue).

"The Peacock" or "the Chalice" - uncertain tiny symbol appearing on the obverse of some very rare coins. I think it is a drawing of a small peacock, but it might be a depiction of a cup or a chalice.

Uncertain symbol, appearing on some Indo-Greek coins. Reported as a "vase", but I am not sure anyone knows what this one is, exactly.

Silver Coins:

The type without any additional marks on obverse. "Straight shaft standard" on reverse. Comes in both a neat style and a very crude style, thought to be of later manufacture (?). 18mm, 2.2 grams. Surprisingly rare, published in Mitchiner ACW, but nowhere else, it seems. (Image courtesy CNG).

Mitchiner ACW #4445.

The type without any additional marks on obverse. "Split shaft standard" on reverse. 18mm, 2.2 grams. (Image courtesy ACC).
Completely unpublished, much scarcer than the preceeding type.

The type without any additional marks on obverse with with a "Vase" split in two by a prominent horizontal stroke. "Straight shaft standard" on reverse. 18mm, 2.2 grams. (Image courtesy ACC).

Completely unpublished, much scarcer than the preceeding type.

Same as ACC #1, with the exception of a dot between deer's legs. 18mm, 2.2 grams. Unique? The coin pictured is the only one published or known (?). (Image courtesy ACC).
Unpublished.

Three-arched hill without a crescent. 18mm, 2.2 grams. Rare. (Image courtesy ACC).
Unpublished, but coins of this type are easily confused with the similar ACC #4 is not examined closely. They might actually be the same as the next type, but with an unengraved crescent on top of the hill.

Three-arched hill with a crescent and without any additional symbols. 18mm, 2.2 grams. Rare. (Image courtesy ACC).
This type is the most "common" type for this issue (although, please keep in mind, all these coins are still very rare).

They are usually neatly engraved - I have never encountered a very crude example of this type.
Mitchiner ACW #4440-4441

Same as above, with the exception of the "split" standard on reverse.18mm, 2.3 grams. Unique? The coin pictured is the only one published or known (?). (Image courtesy ACC).
Unpublished.

Same as above, but with an additional "lotus" symbol below Lakshmi (within the inscription).18mm, 2.2 grams. Unique? The coin pictured is the only one published or known (?). (Image courtesy ACC).
Unpublished.

Three-arched hill below the deer and an "apple" between Lakshmi and deer. Unique? The coin pictured is the only one published or known (?). (Image courtesy S. Kumar).
Unpublished.

Same as above, but with a five-arched hill on obverse. This type is reported in W.Pieper, Kuninda, #2, the second coin known is pictured here. (Image courtesy ACC).

With a "lotus" symbol below the deer.18mm, 2.2 grams. Unique? The coin pictured is the only one published or known (?). (Image courtesy ACC).
Unpublished.

With a "lotus" symbol below Lakshmi (within the inscription).18mm, 2.2 grams. Very rare. (Image courtesy ACC).
Mitchiner ACW #4443

With a "lotus" symbol in the left lower field (within inscriptions) on obverse.18mm, 2.2 grams. Very rare. (Image courtesy ACC).
Mitchiner ACW #4444.

A unique example, sent in by an anonymous collector. With a "lotus" symbol in the upper central field on obverse and upper right field on the reverse.

With a "standard" symbol between the deer and Lakshmi.18mm, 2.2 grams. Unique? The coin pictured is the only one published or known (?). (Image courtesy ACC).
Unpublished.

With a "swastika" symbol between the deer and Lakshmi.18mm, 2.2 grams. Unique? The coin pictured is the only one published or known (?). (Image courtesy ACC).
Unpublished.

With a "swastika" symbol beneath Lakshmi. Unique? The coin pictured is the only one published or known (?). (Image courtesy Hans Sanders).
Unpublished.

With a "peacock" (or "chalice") symbol between the deer and Lakshmi.18mm, 2.2 grams. Extremely rare. The coins pictured are the only ones published or known (?). (Image courtesy ACC).
Unpublished.

The symbols are reported in Mitchiner ACW (#4442) as "swastika and three-arched hill". The Swastika is unambiguous, but the hill is tiny, and unclear on the Mitchiner plate coin - to me, it looks more like a small peacock (like on the previous type). 18mm, 2.3 grams. Extremely rare type, one of the scarcest in the series. (Image courtesy ACC).

Published in Mitchiner ACW (#4442).

With swastika under deer, lotus under Lakshi and a nandipada symbol between the deer and Lakshmi.

Unpublished and very rare.

The obverse is of the common type 1a, but the reverse has two additional cobras over swastika. I know only of one coin of this type.

Unpublished and unique.

Coins of Gandhara Janapada

2015-09-20T10:50:00.002+05:30

Coins of Gandhara Janapada

The Gandhara janapada was located in north-western India, in an area stretching from Kabul in Afghanistan, through much of Pakistani and Indian Punjab. Its capital was the great city of Taxila, renowned for its size and its great university.

GandharGandhāra (derived from Sanskrit word literally meaning "perfumed"; also known as Waihind in Persian) was one of the major ancient Indian Kingdoms (Mahajanapadas) in northern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. Gandhara was located mainly in the vale of Peshawar, the Potohar plateau (see Taxila) and on the northern side of the Kabul River. Its main cities were Purushapura (modern Peshawar) and Takshashila (modern Taxila).
The Kingdom of Gandhara lasted from the 6th century BC to the 11th century AD. It attained its height from the 1st century to the 5th century AD under Buddhist Kushan Kings. After it was conquered by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1021 AD, the name Gandhara disappeared. During the Muslim period the area was administered from Lahore or from Kabul. During Mughal time the area was part of Kabul province.

The Gandharas were settled since the Vedic times on the banks of Kabul River (river Kubha or Kabol) up to its mouth into Indus. The region is known as Peshawar Valley. Later the Gandharas crossed the Indus and included parts of north-west Punjab of Pakistan. Gandhara was located on the grand northern high road (Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international commercial activities. It was an important channel of communication with ancient Iran and Central Asia. The boundaries of Gandhara varied throughout history. Sometime the Peshawar valley and Taxila collectively referred to as Gandhara. The Swat valley was also sometimes included. However, the heart of Gandhara was always the Peshawar valley. The kingdom was ruled from capitals at Pushkalavati (Charsadda), Taxila, Purushapura (Peshawar) and in its final days from Udabhandapura (Hund) on the Indus.

The Persian influence:

Cyrus the Great (600 or 576 – 530 BC, king of Persia, was the monarch under whom the Babylonian captivity of Jews ended) built first universal empire of the world stretching from Greece to the Indus River. Both Gandhara and Kamboja soon fell a prey to the Achaemenian Dynasty of Persia during the reign of Cyrus the Great or in the first year of Darius I. The Gandhara and Kamboja had constituted the seventh satrapys (upper Indus) of the Achaemenid Empire.

When Achamenian took control of this kingdom, Pushkra-sakti a contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha was the king of Gandhara. He was in power struggle against kingdoms of Avanti and Pandavas.

The inscription on Darius' (521-486 BC) tomb at Naqsh-i-Rustam near Persepolis recorded GADARA (Gandhara) along with HINDUSH (West Punjab) in the list of satrapies. The Greek historian Herodotus (490-420 ? BC) in his book The Histories gave list of twenty provinces of Persian Empire. He reported Gandhara as Paktuike (3:93) and in another passage identified this territory with Peshawar Valley (4:44). The word Paktuike is interesting since present inhabitants of Gandhara are known as Pakhtun.

Under Persian rule system of centralized administration and bureaucratic system introduced to the region. Influenced by the Persians and access to Western Asians civilization, the great scholars like Panini and Kautilya born in this cosmopolitan environment. Kharosti alphabet derived from Aramaic (official language of Achaemenians) alphabet developed here and remained national script of Gandhara until third century AD.

By about 380 BC Persian hold weakened. Many small kingdoms sprang in Gandhara. Around 327 BC Alexander the Great invaded Gandhara and Indian Satrapies of Persian Empire. His stay in this area was merely less than a year. This did not have any immediate administrative or cultural effect. The expeditions of Alexander were recorded by Arrian (around 175 AD) in Anabasis and other chroniclers many centuries after the event. The names of places and personalities described in these chronicles are difficult to identify.

The companions of Alexander the Great did not record the names of Kamboja and Gandhara and rather located a dozen small political units in their territories. Alexander conquered most of these political units of the former Gandhara and Kamboja Mahajanapadas.

The rock inscriptions of Darius "The Great" (540 BC) indicate Gandhara as the 20th and richest satrapy of the Persian Empire. The peculiar "bent bar" silver coins found in Gandhara with a prominent solar symbol punched on extreme ends of the bar are so radically different from the silver 'sigloi' coins of the Persian Empire featuring the King (or an archer) as sitting/kneeling that it is now commonly accepted that such a radically different coinage in the shape and form of the bent bar would not have been introduced by the Persians for a particular region alone (Gandhara) but that it points to a much earlier existence of the coin type which, for purposes of trade and continuity of tradition, was continued by the Persians. The coins, based on the date of Darius rock inscriptions, are therefore attributed to 600 BC although their origin may have been earlier.
The bent bars are of various types:
Later bent bar issues include the short debased series followed by silver plated and copper issues.

According to Greek chroniclers, at the time of Alexander's invasion, hyparchs Kubhesha, Hastin (Astes) and Ambhi (Omphes) were ruling lower Kabul valley, Puskalavati (modern Charasadda) and Taxila respectively, while Ashvajit (chief of Aspasios or Ashvayanas) and Assakenos (chief of Assakenois or Ashvakayanas) (both being sub-units of the Kambojas) were ruling upper Kabul valley and Mazaga (Mashkavati) respectively.

At some point in the sixth century BCE, Gandhara was conquered by the Persian emperor Darius, who refers to it as one of his satrapies in an inscription dated to c. 520 BCE. It was the richest of the twenty satrapies in Darius's empire. The Achaemenid kings ruled Gandhara up until the time of Alexander.

The coins here are often attributed to the Achaemenids. Even if they were Achaemenid issues, it is highly probable, however, that the basic design of these coins dates back to the time of the independent Gandharan janapada. The reason is that they are completely unlike any coins that circulated in Persia, such as the running king type, obviously inspired by Greek coins. Indeed, the Gandharan coins form the strongest proof that coinage originated in India prior to the spread of Greek influence. For coins so radically different from the Greek-inspired Persian coinage to circulate in a satrapy of the Persian empire, it must have been the case that they already had a long history of commercial use in the area. The Persians must have discovered, as did the Greeks after them, that Indian merchants did not take easily to new styles of coinage; they liked to stick with tried and true designs with which they were familiar.

The bent bar coins follow the Satamana (100 ratti) standard with a weight range of approx 11g. The length of the coin ranges from 35-50 mm and the width from 8-20 mm. The coins bear at each end a deeply punched septa-radiate solar symbol with a dot within the central circle with six radiating arms outwards. As the die was bigger than the flan, the die impression is rarely fully visible on the coin.The bent bar coins follow the Satamana (100 ratti) standard with a weight range of approx 11g. The length of the coin ranges from 35-50 mm and the width from 8-20 mm. The coins bear at each end a deeply punched septa-radiate solar symbol with a dot within the central circle with six radiating arms outwards. As the die was bigger than the flan, the die impression is rarely fully visible on the coin.

These coins, found in Gandhara of which Taxila was the capital, are also termed as 'Bent Bars' or 'Double Sigloi'.

1) Coin 1 on the extreme left is the "broad long" type with a flattened slightly uneven surface
2) Coin 2 & 3 are the "thick medium" type with slight bend and display the best die impressions
3) Coin 4 is the "narrow long" type which is the earliest in the series and relatively scarce/rare

4) Coin 5 on the extreme right is the "thick long" type that displays the maximum curve/bend

An important coin from Ancient India however it is an ongoing struggle to manage these 'beauties' within the coin flips as they seem to have a mind of their own and the plastic cover keeps getting ripped!

Long silver "bent-bar" shatamana

c. 600-300 BCE

Weight:10.88 gm., 8 x 43 mm.

2 six-petalled flowers ? at each end,

smaller punches in between / blank

Ref: Rajgor, 540-541.

Long silver "bent-bar" shatamana

c. 600-300 BCE

Weight:11.20 gm., 9 x 42 mm.

2 six-petalled flowers ? at each end,

smaller punch (Taxila) in between / blank

Ref: Rajgor, 540-541.

Medium silver "bent-bar" shatamana

c. 600-300 BCE

Weight:11.53 gm., 13 x 27 mm.

2 six-petalled flowers ? at each end / blank

Ref: Rajgor, 546.

Medium base silver "bent-bar" shatamana

c. 600-300 BCE

Weight:11.90 gm., 12 x 28 mm.

2 six-petalled flowers ? at each end / blank

Ref: Rajgor, 547.

Silver 1/4 shatamana

c. 600-300 BCE

Weight:2.77 gm., 13 x 14 mm.

Six-petalled flower ? / blank

Ref: Rajgor, 561-63.

Silver 1/8 shatamana

c. 600-300 BCE

Weight:1.31 gm., 12 x 14 mm.

Six-petalled flower ? with dot / blank

Ref: Rajgor, 569.

Silver 1/8 shatamana

c. 600-300 BCE

Weight:1.41 gm., 13 x 16 mm.

Six-petalled flower ? with countermark ? / 2 banker's marks

Ref: Rajgor, 572.

Note that this coin appears to be counter marked on the obverse (at around 10 and 11 o'clock of the image), besides having two banker's marks on the reverse.

Base silver 1/16 shatamana

c. 600-300 BCE

Weight:0.43 gm., 9 x 11 mm.

Six-petalled flower ? with dot / blank

Ref: Rajgor, 579.

These fascinating large coins, equal to about 3 karshapanas, are the most likely candidates to be the very first Indian coins ever struck. During the 6th century BC Gandhara was a subject of the Persian Empire (as known from an inscription dating to the times of Darius, ca.520-518 BC). The Persians are likely to have introduced the native Gandharans to the idea of a struck coinage. The earliest Gandharan coins - shatamanas (=100 manas, the meaning is unknown, also known as "bent bars") , were probably based on a Persian siglos standard, since the average weight of these shatamanas equals to the weight of 2 Persian sigloi. From Gandhara, the idea of struck, or punchmarked, coinage spread south and soon the punchmarked coins were produced in many other regions of northern and central India.

This theory concerning the first coins in India is quite widespread, though it is not accepted by everyone (some people prefer an idea of independent invention of coinage, and are against the idea of the foreign introduction).

These shatamanas were issued over a long period of time, though it is uncertain when their production ended (Chandragupta Maurya conquered Gandhara around 300 BC, and the production of the independent Gandharana coinage did not continue pass that point). The good silver shatamanas were replaced by the short debased issues and then by silver plated and copper bars (which are much more common and retail for about 100$ each). The early good silver shatamans are very rare - although a few hoards of these coins were unearthed in the last century, very few coins reached the numismatic market.

1.1.1: Pure silver wide long type

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.
Long concave silver bar, 48mm long, 9mm wide, struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each end. 11.4 grams. Rajgor 542.

SUPERB for these, rare this nice! Long narrow type is very rare.

1.2.2: Silver-plated or copper narrow long type

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.

46mm long, 9.8 grams. Quite a bit lighter than the "normal" silver shatamanas. Traces of dark silvering on reverse (?). Rajgor 552var.

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.
Long and narrow bronze bar with smooth red patina, usually with a lot of flower-shaped and sun-shaped bankers' marks. If you see high quality bronze bars with smooth patina (and without traces of silvering), there is a good chance that the piece is fake.

MODERN FAKE!!!

Some modern fake bronze bars of this type can be found in the numismatic market.

1.3.1: Silver medium type

Type of high-purity silver bars, usually 36-39mm long, 10-13mm wide - falling in size right between the long type and the short type. Never seen debased. Probably one of the earlier types

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.

High quality silver concave silver bar, 37.5mm long, 12mm wide, struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each end. 11.1 grams. Rajgor 552.

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two different symbols.
Long concave silver bar, 33mm long, 12mm wide, struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each end. 11.5 grams. Rajgor unlisted.

SUPERB for these, rare this nice! This particular piece has two DIFFERENT punches - something that seems to be unpublished for these shatamanas (the published examples always depict an identical symbol struck on both ends of the piece). This coin is of numismatic significance, suggesting that different punches were employed in Gandhara at the same time.

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.

High quality concave silver bar, 36mm long, 11mm wide, struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each side. 11.3 grams. Rajgor 546 (with the symbol wrongly depicted, as described above).

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.

40mm long, 10mm wide, struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each side. 11.5 grams. Rajgor 546 (with the symbol wrongly depicted, as described above).

1.3.2: Silver-plated (fourée) medium long type

This type is not likely to have been manufactured by the authorities for general circulation. The silver coating indicated that the coins were made by the ancient counterfeiters in order to deceive. Some bars appear to be made out of copper, like the one pictured below. I don't think any specimens (especially of the early types, like the one pictured) were officially produced - the coins that look like they are made out of copper were probably once silver-coated fourees which lost all (or most) of their silver coating. All such coins are fairly scarce.

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.

38x9mm, thick coating of silvering that came off on one side, exposing the copper core. Originally the piece was probably slightly longer. Notice the light weight of the piece.

1.4.1: Pure silver wide short type

A scarcer shatamana variety. Usually quite short (25-30mm) and wide (15-18mm), allowing for the entire symbol to be stamped on the bar. All these coins are made of high quality silver, but they probably belong to the middle of this issue, right before the silver in these bars started getting debased.

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.

29mm long, 16mm wide, struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each side. 11.5 grams. Rajgor 540-545 var.

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.

29mm long, 16mm wide, struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each side. 11.5 grams. Rajgor 540-545 var.

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols - identical to the previous type, but the circles are incomplete.

Struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each side. 11.5 grams. Rajgor 540-545 var.

These coins are rare, and might be of unofficial manufacture (?).

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols with the dot located right in front of the bar. These are extremely rare and are found only on later silver issues (though not on debased issues). These coins exhibit very slight debasement.

Struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each side. 32x13mm, 11.5 grams. Rajgor 540-545 var.

1.4.2: Fouree short wide type

This type is not likely to have been manufactured by the authorities for general circulation. The silver coating indicated that the coins were made by the ancient counterfeiters in order to deceive. Some bars appear to be made out of copper, like the one pictured below. I don't think any specimens (especially of the early types, like the one pictured) were officially produced - the coins that look like they are made out of copper were probably once silver-coated fourees which lost all (or most) of their silver coating. In fact, all the "bronze" bars I've seen have small patches of silvering remaining, though they are not always apparent. The coin pictured is completely devoid of silvering on obverse, but has a small, but thick patch of silver o reverse. All such coins are fairly scarce.

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.

Short concave silver bar, 27mm long, 13mm wide, struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each end. 10.0 grams. Rajgor 550.

Late debased type. Scarce this nice!

1.5.1: Billon short narrow type

In the later period, the shatamanas started getting more and more debased - the short bars were struck from a progressively lower and lower quality silver. The quality of the metal varies widely (some representative examples are shown below). The earliest pieces were struck of fair silver with grayish tint, but the late pieces were struck from metal that resembles copper much more than silver. The quality of the strikes also went down - the punches usually overlap and are poorly struck. In most cases it is impossible to identify the punchmark variety.

The coins struck in decent silver are fairly rare, but the debased crudely struck pieces are much more common. Also, the coins with clear and well-struck impression of the punch are much more rare than the poorly struck pieces.

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.

Short concave silver bar, 26mm long, 11mm wide, struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each end. 11.4 grams. Rajgor 551.

Late debased type. Scarce this nice!

24x13mm, 11.41 grams.

1.5.2: Very late debased silver (billon) short narrow type

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.

30mm long, 13mm wide, 11.44 grams. Relatively early type, made of decent silver. Rajgor 552.

1.5.3: Very late copper short narrow type

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.

Short concave bronze bar, 22mm long, 11mm wide, struck with a 6-armed Gandharan symbol on each end. 10.6 grams. Rajgor -.

Late debased type.

"Bent bar" flan, uniface, two identical symbols.

"Taxila Bent Punchmarked Bar c. 450 BC. Billon Debased Early Type. Crude fine, with some adhesion. Size: 24 mm.Weight: 11.20 grams."

Shatamana fractions

The Shatamana fractions were probably not produced along with the earliest silver shatamanas, but some probably entered circulation around 500 BC. Various fractions were introduced - the denominations were 1/2 shatamana (4 shana), 1/4 shatamana (2 shana), 1/8 shatamana (1 shana), 1/16 shatamana (1/2 shana) and 1/32 shatamana (1/4 shana). All the fractions were minted on round concave flans, and were stamped with a single punchmark on one side. With the exception of the small denomination (which correctness of attribution can be argued) were stamped with the same "6-armed" symbol used on shatamanas. These coins are generally somewhat more common than the full shatamanas, but the larger denominations (like 1/2 and 1/4 shatamana) as well as the smallest denomination (1/32 shatamana) can very difficult to find.

Just like the silver shatamana, the fractions underwent significant debasement. The earlier coins were made of high quality silver, but silver content kept decreasing and the latest coins (mostly 1/4 karshapanas) made out of very base silver and struck with crude dies.

Type 2: Silver 1/2 shatamana (4 shana)

Round scyphate flan, uniface, single symbol.

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol without a bar and dot between two of the arms) / blank. 16-17mm, 5 grams. Rajgor PMC 560.

I have never handled 1/2 shatamana from Gandhara, though, at least according to Rajgor, they are not any scarcer than the smaller fractions (I would say that they are scarcer and (certainly) more expensive). One single type is listed, with a plain 6-armed symbol, without a bar or the dot.

Round scyphate flan, uniface, single symbol.

MODERN FAKE!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a bar and dot between two of the arms) / blank. Artificially patinated. 16-17mm, 6 grams. Unpublished.
All 1/2 shatamanas with this punchmark come from a single issue of modern fakes.

Type 3: 1/4th shatamana (2 shana, about 2.8 grams)

Rare silver 1/4th shatamana (2 shana) from Gandhara Janapada, early issue, before 400 BC

Round scyphate flan. Punchmark (5-armed Gandharan symbol with 3 bars and one dot in the middle / blank. Rajgor -.
This type is unpublished.

are silver 1/4th shatamana (2 shana) from Gandhara Janapada, early issue, before 400 BC

Round scyphate flan. Punchmark (5-armed Gandharan symbol with 3 bars and no dot in the middle / blank. Rajgor -.
This type is unpublished.

Rare silver 1/4th shatamana (2 shana) from Gandhara Janapada, early issue, before 400 BC

Round scyphate flan. Punchmark (5-armed Gandharan symbol with 5 bars and one dot in the middle / blank. Rajgor -.
This type is unpublished.

Rare silver 1/4th shatamana (2 shana) from Gandhara Janapada, late issue, ca.400-350 BC

Round scyphate flan. Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a bar and no dots / blank. Rajgor 561.

Rare silver 1/4th shatamana (2 shana) from Gandhara Janapada, late issue, ca.400-350 BC

Round scyphate flan. Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a bar and no dots / blank. Rajgor 562-563.

Rare silver 1/4th shatamana (2 shana) from Gandhara Janapada, late issue, ca.400-350 BC

Round scyphate flan. Punchmark (5-armed Gandharan symbol with a bar and dot between two of the arms) / blank. 13mm, 2.54 grams. Rajgor 564-565.

Very rare, known to me from only a few specimens. This type also exists in billon (reportedly), though I've never seen one.

Rare billon 1/4th shatamana (2 shana) from Gandhara Janapada, late issue, ca.400-350 BC

Round scyphate flan. Punchmark (5-armed Gandharan symbol with a bar and dot between two of the arms) / blank. 13mm, 2.7 grams. Rajgor 565 var (unlisted for a 5-armed symbol).

Rare 1/4 shatamana, from a late debased issue (not quite copper yet, though). Rarely seen (scarcer than the 1/8th shatamana).

Bronze or copper 1/4th shatamana (2 shana) from Gandhara Janapada, late issue, ca.400-350 BC

Round scyphate flan. Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a bar and no dots / blank. Rajgor 567.

I have never encountered a bronze 1/4 karshapana. They probably exist and are probably a very-very debased late billon issue. My bet is that Rajgor was wrong when depicting a 6-armed symbol (this type probably carries the 5-arm symbol, as the preceding type)

Type 4: Silver 1/8th shatamana (shana)

These coins are fairly scarce, but a hoard of these hit the market in 2006, and right now they are available in the numismatic market. The size ranges from 14 to 17mm, and the weight ranges from about 1.3 to 1.6 grams.

Silver 1/8th shatamana (shana) from Gandhara Janapada, ca.500-400 BC

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a dot between two of the arms) / blank. 15mm, 1.5 grams. Rare without the dot. Rajgor 574.

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a dot between two of the arms) / blank. 15mm, 1.5 grams. Rare. Rajgor 570.

Silver 1/8th shatamana (shana) from Gandhara Janapada, ca.500-400 BC

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a dot between two of the arms) / blank. 15mm, 1.5 grams. Rare. Rajgor 570var.

Silver 1/8th shatamana (shana) from Gandhara Janapada, ca.500-400 BC

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a dot between two of the arms) / blank. 15mm, 1.5 grams. Rare. Rajgor 570var.
Considerably scarcer than the preceding types

Silver 1/8th shatamana (shana) from Gandhara Janapada, ca.500-400 BC

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a dot between two of the arms) / blank. 13mm, 1.2 grams. Rare. Rajgor 577.
Debased silver, later type. Fairly scarce.

Silver 1/8th shatamana (shana) from Gandhara Janapada, ca.500-400 BC

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a dot between two of the arms) / blank. 15mm, 1.42 grams. Rare. Completely unpublished.
I know of only one specimen of this type (the coin pictured).

Billon 1/8th shatamana (shana) from Gandhara Janapada, ca.500-400 BC

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a dot between two of the arms) / blank. 12mm, 1.2 grams. Rare. Rajgor 578.
Extremely debased type, seems to be made out of copper. A very late type. Rare.

Some coins are made in a very crude style, like the coin pictured. It is impossible to know which of the above types it is supposed to be.

Silver 1/8th shatamana (shana) from Gandhara Janapada, ca.500-400 BC

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a dot between two of the arms) / blank. 11mm, 1.2 grams. Rajgor -
Extremely rare!

Silver 1/8th shatamana (shana) from Gandhara Janapada, ca.500-400 BC

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a dot between two of the arms) / blank. 11mm, 1.2 grams. Rajgor -
Extremely rare!

Type 5: Silver 1/16th shatamana (1/2 shana)

Silver 1/16th shatamana (1/2 shana) from Gandhara Janapada, ca.500-400 BC

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a dot between two of the arms) / blank. 12mm, 0.7 grams. Rare. Rajgor 579var.
The small half shana is much scarcer than the larger silver 1 shana. The symbol usually looks a bit awkward because it is so small and was (presumably) hard to engrave.

Silver 1/16th shatamana (1/2 shana) from Gandhara Janapada, ca.500-400 BC

Punchmark (6-armed Gandharan symbol with a dot between two of the arms) / blank. 8mm, 0.5 grams. Rajgor 577.I am not sure if this type exists - this is the only type listed for 1/16th shatamana (1/2 shana) listed in Rajgor (citing Bhir Mound hoard). I have never encountered a 1/16th shatamana with a symbol without dot. It may exist, or it might be a simple misattribution or accidental omission of the dot.

Type 6: Silver 1/32nd shatamana (1/4 shana)

Round scyphate flan, uniface, single symbol.
Punchmark / blank. 7-9mm, 0.20 grams. Rajgor PMC 579a.
I have never seen a 1/4 shana of this type from Gandhara, but it is listed in Boppearachchi 1995 (numbers 47-49) and in Rajgor (who cites the Boppearachchi coins) #579a. I doubt this type actually exists - it is probably the next type, struck on a small flan. All coins of this type are very rare.

Round scyphate flan, uniface, single symbol.
Punchmark / blank. 9mm, 0.28 grams. Rajgor PMC -. Extremely rare, with only 2 confirmed specimens known.
In a hoard of about 2000 Gandharan silver 1/8th and 1/16th shatamanas, a single coin of this type was found. It is not published elsewhere, but it is possible that the previous type is simply the misdescribed coin of this type.

Type 7: Blank flans, sometimes with bankers' marks

Blank flans of 1/4 and 1/8th shatamanas are sometimes found in hoard of Gandhara coins. These are quite rare. Interestingly, some of them have bankers' marks, showing that the coins probably circulated as normal coins.

Blank 1/4 shatamana (2 shana) blank from a hoard of Gandharan coins. Blank, a single banker's mark / Blank. 13-12mm, 2.85 grams. Rajgor

Blank 1/4 shatamana (2 shana) blank from a hoard of Gandharan coins. Blank / Blank. 14-11mm, 2.90 grams. Rajgor

Blank 1/8 shatamana (shana) blank from a hoard of Gandharan coins. Blank, a single banker's marks (?) / Blank. 11-10mm, 1.38 grams. Rajgor

ancient indian coin collection

Mysterious Coins from Multan before and after the Islamic conquest

Multan before & after the Islamic conquest

Silver damma of Mihira Deva / Mih, pre-Habbarid Multan, ca. 712-856 AD - Sun-temple issue from Multan.

Silver damma of governor Sa'al (?), bilingual type with Arabic and Brahmi inscriptions, pre-Habbarid Multan, ca.712-856 AD - Ummayad or Abbasid governors of Multan.

Silver damma in the name of the Governor Ahmed, pre-Habbarid Multan, ca. 712-856 AD - Ummayad governors of Multan.

Completely unpublished! Silver dirham of governor al-Rabbi', pre-Habbarid Multan, ca. 712-856 AD - Ummaya governors of Multan.

"Yashaditya" series silver dammas, Ranavigraha, early 8th century CE, pre-Islamic Sindh.

"bull type" damma of Ranavigraha, "Yashaditya" series silver dammas, early 8th century CE, pre-Islamic Sindh.

Coinage of Pratihara Empire

Indo-Greek coinage

Coinage of Yaudheya or Yaudheya Gana

Yaudheya or Yaudheya Gana

An exclusive study of Sangam age and its coinage- 300 BC - 200 AD

Bull & Horseman Jitals

Coins of Tranvancore

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Reverse

Edge

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Obverse

Reverse

Edge

Comments

Obverse

Reverse

Edge

Comments

Obverse

Reverse

Edge

Obverse

Reverse

Edge

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Obverse

Reverse

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Obverse

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Edge

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Hindu kingdom of Kashmir

The Rupee

India and its Foreign Invaders.

Indo-Bactrian Empire of India

INDO-PARTHIAN DYNASTY

A brief history Judaea and its Coinage

History of the Indo-Greeks

Karshapana

The Chola & their coinage

RajaRaja Chola : 985 - 1014Copper massa coins

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Reverse

Edge

Comments

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Obverse

Reverse

History of India (600 BC - 187 BC)

INDIA'S EARLIEST COINAGE

LAST OF THE INDO-GREEK KINGS

Silver and bronze coinage of the Kunindas

Coins of Gandhara Janapada

Coins of Gandhara Janapada

RajaRaja Chola : 985 - 1014
Copper massa coins