Anna Purna's Biology Blog

Vedantham Sadasiva Murthy- A man who turned his tradegy into love for society

2023-09-01T20:37:00.000+05:30

“Challenges in life can either enrich you or drown you. You are the one who decides.”

Every human being has to face certain destiny-driven challenges in his life. These challenges turn into obstacles and miseries only when we bow to them. This is the strong belief of “The Pride of India” honoured Mr. Vedantam Sadasiva Murty. Even after an accident impacted his physically mobility, nothing could stop him from achieving his goals. He uses his exemplary innovative skills to design user friendly, cost-effective artificial limbs and rehabilitates physically challenged people with a good quality of life.

Mr Sadasiva hails from a small village in Andhra Pradesh called Abbirajupalem. He completed his graduation in Arts and holds a Diploma in Automobile Engineering. Like any common youth, his life was moving smooth with all happiness around until he was 25 years old, when destiny gave a harsh blow to him. In 1981, he was getting down from a train which had just started to move. Unfortunately, he lost his balance and fell down. He had to undergo “below knee bilateral amputation” for both the legs. This unexpected event left him with many questions. Initially, he felt his future to be dark and was searching for avenues to make it meaningful. As he was from a very small village, he had no idea about the availability of artificial limbs In India.

Mr. Sadasiva turns his tragedy into love for the society

The news of availability of artificial limbs in Defence Artificial Limb Center, Pune, was almost like a silver lining in the darkness of his life. Even after getting his artificial limbs from Pune, his life was not that easy, as he could attain only a limited mobility and most of his daily activities were restricted. The limbs were heavy and a prolonged use of these limbs had created intensive abrasions leading to deep wounds. His positive attitude and challenging personality did not allow him to bow down to these difficulties. He started to study anatomy and physiology from various sources with an intention to improvise the usability of artificial limbs. As he was a passionate mechanic, he started experimenting and improvising various aspects of artificial limbs so that they could meet the personalised needs of physically challenged people. He experimented his innovations on himself. After meeting a considerable success in his own life, his next thought was to help others by providing them customised artificial limbs. To meet this end, he met several orthopaedic doctors to gain knowledge. Simultaneously, he carried many social activities in his village, Abbirajupalem. Due to its geographical location, this village was separated from adjacent major towns by a small rivulet. During medical emergencies, it was very difficult to transport people over this water body. He understood the problems of his village and due to his altruistic nature, he took initiative to construct a bridge over this waterbody, build good roads and provide minimum electrical infrastructure in the village. Mr. Sadasiva was born with a silver spoon. Being a philanthropist, he used his financial sources to do good to the society, expecting no gains in return.

Mr. Sadasiva establishes Chaitanya Artificial Limb Centre

He moved to a town called Pallakollu in Andhra Pradesh with the intension of establishing an artificial limb center. Initially, he faced several challenges like difficulty in getting a dealership for raw material from good companies, getting proper machinery etc. He kept looking for alternatives. His grit and family support never allowed him to give up at any step. Finally in 1999, he established “Chaitanya Artificial Limb Center” in Palakollu, helping him realize a long-cherished dream. This was the first rehabilitation center covering two states Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. He collaborated with an orthopaedic surgeon and diabetologist, Dr. C.M. Sarma. Usually, in trauma situations like accidents, patients need remedial amputations, so that the artificial limbs can be fitted properly. These surgeries are conducted by Dr. C.M. Sarma. The good gesture and generosity of Mr Sadasiva is incomparable. He has rehabilitated several poor people at his own cost. After discussing with the patient, if he feels that the person is poor and the sole bread earner of the family, he provides him cost-free prosthetics and also bears the expenditure related to the remedial amputations in some instances.

Exceptional qualities of Mr Sadasiva’s artificial limbs

He uses hi-tech materials imported from companies like Ottobock of Germany, which are light in weight. He personally monitors all the mechanical improvisations so that it adds more life to the limbs. After providing the limbs to the patients, he ensures that the person does not suffer from any kind of abrasions, and discharges the patient only after he is completely satisfied. His ideology is to provide cost-effective treatment to those who can pay, and cost-free treatment to poor people. Ever since he established his own limb center, he has never looked back and successfully rehabilitated almost 8000- 10,000 persons.

Felicitations to Mr. Sadasiva

Mr Sadasiva started his center with a single motto that no one else should suffer like him. His selfless service to the society was recognised and he was honoured with the following awards:

· Gold medal in State Orthopaedic conference held at Warangal in 2001, for “Evolution of cost-effective Hi-tech artificial limbs”

· Gold medal by State Indian Medical Association

· Honoured by Sri Satya Sai Baba, Puttaparthi, for his service to mankind

· Cavin Care Ability National Award for Eminence in 2010

· Conferred with an honorary doctorate by Common Wealth Vocational University, Australia for his contribution to innovation in artificial limbs technology in Feb 2023

· He has been awarded with “Pride of India Award” in 2023

Since his youthful days, he always believed in finding innovative solutions to all sorts of practical problems in his day-to-day life. He never looked for external technical support to repair household appliances. He always had a knack in understanding the mechanics behind any working machine. Perhaps this inborn talent in him has proved to be a blessing for him. After being rehabilitated with the artificial limb from Pune, he surprised many people by riding a Bullet motorbike in his village. A vehicle like Bullet needs to be controlled by the senses in legs, but he proved to people that he can control this vehicle through his determination and immense mind power.

Currently he attends many seminars with doctors where he speaks about solutions that can be offered to limb amputees. He is also a motivational speaker. He visits schools and colleges around his place and interacts with young students and motivates them to put their knowledge to practical applications. He desires to see the younger generation coming up with innovations that can lend a helping hand to the needy in the society. Salutations to this blessed child of India.

An article regarding this hero was published in the March-April 2023 edition of Gyan Vitranam magazine Exerpt

Cybercrimes - Can we control them by providing right education to our students?

2023-02-12T15:47:00.000+05:30

The fast-paced technological advancements have pushed us into the digital age which is marked by the use of super computers, mobile phones of latest technology, unlimited information and potential of utilizing the available data in multiple ways. Gone are those days when people used to stand in ques in banks to withdraw money or carry cash for purchasing purposes. People enjoy online marketing from the comfort of home and also have an option to return the items in case they do not like them. Proportion of cash transactions have reduced considerably. People rely on credit cards/debit cards, online banking channels or other payment gateways like Paytm etc for making their purchases or receiving funds. The information about anything is easily available upon a single click from internet. Students of the current generations depend more on the search engines for their doubts rather than searching the books or interacting with their teachers or mentors to get their doubts resolved.

The economic and social changes instigated by the industrial revolution were gradual and took several years to get imbibed into the society. The outcomes of the digital era are very rapid and give no time for some members to learn or adapt to the new technology. By the time one learns and gains mastery in a particular technological aspect, there is a change in the whole technology. In countries like India, where the literacy rate is very low in some states, people are facing difficulties in keeping pace with the technological changes. Every change comes with its own merits and demerits; same is with technological changes too. On one side, people appreciate the ease in all sorts of money operations, whereas the other darker side points towards the rampant increase in the number of cybercrime cases.

We have a number of mobile apps that encourage banking transactions from home. Even bank employers encourage their clients to use internet banking. A simple device like mobile is connected to our bank accounts. In case, it is hacked we have the potential to lose our deposits or savings in a few seconds. The information about our phone number is circulated to many databases. We often keep getting calls from unknown persons about paper-free bank loans, property sales, or about some goods that have been ordered or about making easy money in a couple of days or weeks. Many of them could be from cyber criminals. In many of the cybercrimes, it has been noticed that the victim has innocently passed the information about the OTP that he/she has received. Sometimes, well-educated people also become a victim to such fraud. The master mind criminal tries to hack the phone and then the victims bank account through the phone. In some of the cases, the personal computers have been hacked by the criminals to get access into the mail account and get all the valid information like bank details and related credentials. The question that often bothers the current generation is that: “Is my information secure”?

Whatever may be the risks associated with the technological changes, we are now forced to learn the new developments and keep ourselves safe. Our future generation, that is, the students, should be properly trained in schools to understand the technological advancements and make right use of it. Unfortunately, in some of the cybercrime cases, students have misused parent’s money in some gaming apps and have made their parents paupers within no time. Now-a-days, such gaming apps are shamelessly advertised by some celebrities, which lure the young minds towards the idea of making easy money.

Almost all the schools have started computer science as one of the subjects starting from the school level. Usually, our school children are taught about a few basics of some computer languages and initials of cyber security as a part of the school curriculum. Most of the students also opt computer science as one of the subjects, as it is scoring and easy to cram. It is time to ponder how is such education going to help students in their future life. Will they be able to handle technological advancements? Are they being sufficiently taught about data privacy and the impacts of losing data? Can a tenth-class student guide elders at home about the areas in which one has to be cautious so that the personal information does not get misused? Does our education system provide information about various gaming apps that lure students towards illegitimate money earning behaviour?

There are loopholes in our cyber education system. If we can correctly identify them, our education will become more meaningful. Our students will not be left in search for job after they pass out of schools and colleges with advanced degrees. As a parent, I feel that some amendments are necessary in computer science subject. My objective in writing this article is to draw attention of several parents or students towards these amendments. As the saying goes “Little drops make the mighty ocean”, perhaps several common views put together can bring about a revolution in our education system.

Unlike earlier generations, students of the current generation have ready access to tabs, mobiles and laptops. Most of them are aware of password security, but all of them might not be aware of the information that can be downloaded and what is apt for their age. It is true that students search for all possible queries related to their subjects through search engines like Google. Teachers and educated elders should teach them about validating the authenticity of the information and when to limit their search.

Earlier it was a practice in many schools to have banks associated with schools and colleges. Students used to carry money and pay the school and college fees through these banks. In this process, they used to learn all the steps related to banking transactions and at the same time how to keep money safe in banks. The students of the current generation should also be trained about e-banking. Students can be encouraged to open their own account with minimal balance. They can be asked to make some transactions under the guidance of elders so that they understand the importance of password security and the correct time to disclose the information about OTP.

There was a time when sex education had become very essential to reduce the spread of HIV/ AIDS. Currently, cybercrimes are also spreading in our society like a strong virus. In order to fight with this, we need to instruct students about certain dangerous gaming apps that can captivate the young minds and control them. Some basic ethical concepts like “easy money doesn’t last long” should be deeply ingrained in the young minds, so that they strongly say a “no” to such apps that encourage gambling.

The syllabus should be thoroughly revised to meet the current demands. Instead of learning some old programming languages, students can be encouraged to learn concepts related to artificial intelligence. They should be given an opportunity to experiment and exhibit their knowledge.

I was able to touch only a few areas where changes can be incorporated. My blog is open for comments and ideas with respect to the amendments that can prepare our students for the upcoming technological developments in the right way.

Your Opinion

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There are a large number of gaming apps available. Please share your experiences with the negatives of such gaming apps in the comments section.

In schools a revised syllabus of computer science is needed to meet the challenges of cybercrimes. According to you, what additions in the syllabus will be helpful to students.

Below is the link for class 9 CBSE computer applications syllabus for the year 2023 for reference.

https://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_material/CurriculumMain23/Sec/Computer_Applications_Sec_2022-23.pdf

There is no hope of doing perfect research (griffiths,1998,p97). Do you agree?

2023-02-06T11:46:00.004+05:30

About the article - To do a perfect research is a dream of every scientist. An unbiased research carried with an intention to do good to the society can do wonders in the society. History reveals that a true scientist had always struggled to prove his facts. Scientists of the modern world have lesser liberty to carry research in their fields of interest. This makes research biased and less beneficial to the society.

Man is the most curious animal on this earth. He constantly struggles to find something new which is beneficial to him. When this struggle is streamlined and supported with proper evidences, it takes the shape of research. He uses a set of materials and experimental protocol to come to a new conclusion. Research is done by the scientists to discover a new fact, to solve a predefined problem, to disapprove a previous statement etc. A true scientist starts with a motivation and it is well known that some scientists have struggled for their whole life to prove certain facts.

The phrase “There is no hope of doing perfect research” reflects a sense of depression and unsatisfaction. We never know the actual situations which forced Griffiths to come out with this statement. In case of many results obtained from research we land up with a question - Can the result be generalized to the whole population? Modern world is fast and to compete with others, people don’t mind climbing the steps of corruption. The areas of research are also being biased by few wealthy people and their passions or economic considerations. This can be well explained with the help of two examples cited below:

Case 1: There is a lot of hype created by the media about the usage of probiotic drinks. A lot of manufacturing companies promise that good health can be maintained by a regular intake of probiotic drinks. What exactly are these probiotics and why are they important for us?

Probiotics are a set of live microorganisms which include Lactobacillus bacteria, bifidobacteria and some varieties of yeasts which are beneficial for the health of human beings. These probiotics have a capacity to alter the harmful microorganisms and improve the host microbial balance. These are particularly used in case of infants who suffer from acute diarrhea or in case of healthy children who suffer from acute gastroenteritis due to various reasons. Many companies which produce the infant formula or other food items claim that they have probiotics added to their product. Scientists are forced to prove and advertise that a daily consumption of these probiotics in the form of infant formula or yakult drinks is good for heath. This kind of biased research will promote these products. There is no clinical trial which supports that the regular use of probiotics is beneficial, although it appears that regular usage does not harm an individual (Academy of Pediatrics Reviews Use of Probiotics, Prebiotics). The pressure created by these companies will force a scientist to walk away from perfect research and produce manipulated results

Case 2: We find a variety of fortified food items in the market being sold at very high prices. Prevalence of certain diseases like goiter, anemia, night blindness etc has been found to be endemic. The reason for this was traced to be the lack of certain vital micronutrients in local foods. For example, in some parts of the world, the soil is deprived of iodine. Hence, the crops grown in that area lack this nutrient. As a solution to this problem, science has come up with food fortification technology. During this process certain vital nutrients are added to food substances to complement the nutrient inadequacy. The market now is flushed with all kinds of fortified items which are sold at higher price e.g., fortified bread, fortified margarine, fortified wheat flour etc. This is increasing the consumption of processed foods which are not considered to be good for heath. A proportion of scientific research is working in favor of these companies. Can we not find a cheaper alternative for this? Certain alternative measures or complementary forms of intervention can help to remove the nutritional inadequacy (FAO TECHNICAL CONSULTATION ON FOOD FORTIFICATION: TECHNOLOGY AND QUALITY CONTROL ROME, ITALY, 20-23 NOVEMBER 1995). As a part of these alternative measures people can be encouraged to develop home gardens. Kitchen gardening of green leafy vegetables can provide a cheap alternative to iron-rich foods and help reduce iron deficiency to a large extent. Research should be promoted to find cheaper alternatives to food fortification rather than promoting it as the only alternative to remove nutritional inadequacy.

Apart from scientists working in the field of science few social scientists work in the real world laboratory and assess the impact of education systems, social media, nutritional status of pre school children etc. If the results of such research are skewed by economic considerations, the consumers of the research (Governments being one of them) could come to conclusions and policies which are not beneficial to society. A true scientist understands the pleasure in discovering something novel and seeing the society getting benefited out of it hence his prime focus should be to do good to the society rather than filling his pocket.

References

1. “Academy of Pediatrics Reviews Use of Probiotics, Prebiotics.” Medscape Medical News. Medscape. Medical News, 2 December. 2010. Web. 21 September. 2011.

2. “FAO TECHNICAL CONSULTATION ON FOOD FORTIFICATION: TECHNOLOGY AND QUALITY CONTROL ROME, ITALY, 20-23 NOVEMBER 1995.” fao.org. fao.org, 20-23 November. 1995. Web. 21 September. 2011.

Pathogenesis of Type I Diabetes Mellitus

2022-11-30T14:34:00.002+05:30

Abstract

Type 1 Diabetes mellitus is a multi-factorial metabolic disorder in which insulin secretion is completely disturbed. An autoimmune destruction of the pancreatic β-cells that produce insulin creates this disturbance. This disease is the cause of premature mortality and several other health risks. The increased prevalence of this disease in children and adolescents is a cause of concern. These factors encourage research towards the understanding of the pathogenesis of this disease. Research has identified three different types of factors that can either contribute alone or in combination, towards the pathogenesis of the diseases. These factors have been identified to be environmental factors, genetic factors and abnormal functioning of the immune system. Out of the several genetic factors, the contribution of Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) class II genes towards the pathogenesis of the diseases is considered to be very high. A variation in these genes hampers the regulated immune responses and promotes anti-self-reactivity. The discovery of autoantigens has helped to place this disease under the pathogenetic category of autoimmunity. Environmental factors like reduced concentration of vitamin D, early introduction of cow’s milk to the infants and use of certain drugs have been associated with an increase in the incidences of type 1 diabetes mellitus. A clear understanding of the role of various factors and better diagnostic methods that can identify the disease in its initial stages can help in reducing the incidence of type 1 diabetes mellitus to a significant extent.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Diabetes Mellitus 4

2. Different Forms of Diabetes 5

3. Physiology of Glucose Regulation_ 6

4. Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus 7

5. Symptoms and Effects of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus 8

6. Pathogenesis of type 1 Diabetes Mellitus 10

7. Genetic Factors and Pathogenesis of type 1 Diabetes Mellitus 11

8. Autoimmunity and Pathogenesis of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus 14

9. Role of Environmental Factors in the Pathogenesis of the Disease 17

10. Combined effect Of All the Three Types of Factors 20

11. Summary 21

List of Figures

Figure 1: Physiology of Glucose Regulation_ 23

Figure 2: Mechanism of Pathogenesis of Type 1 DM_ 24

Figure 3: Role of autoantibodies in Type 1 DM_ 25

Pathogenesis of Type I Diabetes Mellitus

1. Introduction to Diabetes Mellitus

The word “Diabetes Mellitus (DM)” refers to a group of metabolic disorders in which the fuel metabolism in the human body is disturbed. These disorders are mainly caused by defective insulin action, insulin secretion, or both, leading to a hyperglycemic condition and dyslipidemia. DM is a chronic disease currently affecting people of all the age groups. DM is a major cause of heart diseases and stroke, hence increasing the rate of morbidity and mortality. Under chronic situations, DM leads to damage and abnormal functioning of the various organs of the body like, kidneys, eyes, nerves, brain, heart and limbs. Unfortunately, the incidence of diabetes is increasing at an alarming rate, almost reaching epidemic proportions. According to predictions made by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2003, a 64% rise in the number of people suffering from diabetes is expected by 2025. The number of adults suffering from diabetes across the world in 2010 was 285 million, and it is expected that, by 2030, this number would rise to around 439 million (Ozougwu et al. 47) (Pittas). Apart from being a major health risk, DM also affects the economy to a significant extent as it demands huge medical expenditure. According to the economic data provided in 2007, the direct medical costs due to DM in the form of medicines and hospitalization expenditure is expected to be around $116 billion, and indirect medical expenditure due to disability, work loss, premature mortality is expected to be around $58 billion. Thus, this disease proves to be a huge burden for individuals and the economy of any country as a whole (Triplitt 1) (Holt s55). The asymptomatic nature of the disease and the subtle onset with many harmful effects creates an impediment in the detection of the disease at an early stage. This puts many people at risk of developing vascular complications that can also prove to be life threatening (Holt s55). An understanding about the different forms of DM, their pathophysiology and the factors that enhance the rate of this disease can help in reducing the frequency of this disease.

2. Different Forms of Diabetes

The common characteristic of all the metabolic disorders categorized under DM is the disturbance of the delicate glucose homeostasis in the body. The levels of glucose in the blood are well regulated by the proper balance between utilization of glucose in liver, muscle and white or brown fat, and the release of glucose into the bloodstream by the liver. DM disturbs this regulation and hence the balance. Diabetes is a very old disease and the evidences of its existence can be obtained from the ancient literature of China, Egypt and India (Khardori and Pauza 106). Classic symptoms of this disease include polyuria, polydipsia, increased appetite, weight loss and blurring of vision. In acute conditions, even the growth can get impaired and the patient shows increased susceptibility to infections. Vascular damage leading to end organ failure is noticed in chronic cases of diabetes (Pittas). The American Diabetes Association classified the disease diabetes based of the etiology of the disease, into Type 1 Diabetes, Type 2 Diabetes, gestational diabetes and a fourth group consisting of other types of diabetes, Type 1 Diabetes and Type 2 Diabetes were previously known as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus respectively (Khardori and Pauza 106). Usually, diabetes is detected by the presence of hyperglycemia in blood. If the casual plasma glucose level is greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL and the patient complains of the classic symptoms of diabetes, a person is considered to be diabetic. Thereafter the patient is subjected to further testing to understand the etiology of the disease. Clinical findings help to differentiate between the various forms of DM. Presence of classic symptoms of diabetes along with a high concentration of ketone bodies in the blood (diabetic ketoacidosis) is observed during Type 1 DM. These patients also show low levels of HDL (High-density lipoprotein) and high levels of triglyceride rich particles (such as very-low-density lipoprotein, chylomicrons). This condition is also termed as diabetic dyslipidemia and is corrected through insulin therapy. Patients suffering from type 2 diabetes usually do not present the symptoms of severe hyperglycemia during the initial stages and are often clinically detected during screening tests for other diseases. These patients usually show impaired glucose tolerance initially, as they are resistant to the action of insulin even though they have high levels of insulin in their plasma. This form of diabetes progresses slowly and the early stages of the disease are marked by hyperinsulinemia and hyperglycemia, followed by a reduction in the levels of insulin. These patients also exhibit dyslipidemia.

3. Physiology of Glucose Regulation

Glucose is the primary source of cellular energy. It passes through various metabolic cycles to release energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). This energy is utilized in various biochemical reactions of the cells. Glucose is obtained through food and this dietary glucose gets absorbed across the gut wall after digestion, and gets distributed to various tissues through the blood. A portion of glucose acquired from the diet enters the liver through the hepatic portal vein and is converted into glycogen by liver cells. Under normal conditions, glucose is released by the breakdown of the glycogen reserves in the liver. An increase in the concentration of blood glucose triggers the secretion of insulin. The hormone, insulin, is secreted by the β-cells of the Islets of Langerhans in pancreas and performs multiple functions in our body. It stimulates the peripheral uptake of glucose by muscles and other cells that utilize it as a source of energy or convert it into glycogen. The uptake of glucose by skeletal muscles is increased dramatically during physical exercises. The binding of insulin with the insulin receptors stimulates the cells to increase the number of glucose transporters as GLUT4. These transporters increase the transport of glucose from the blood to the cells. Apart from increasing the usage of glucose, insulin stimulates the storage of glucose in the liver through the process of glycogenesis. It also suppresses the endogenous glucose production primarily from the liver. This ultimately decreases the glucose levels in the blood. Glucagon, secreted by the alpha cells of the Islets of Langerhans, is the second hormone that helps in glucose homeostasis. The action of Glucagon is opposite to that of insulin. Glucagon is secreted as a response to hypoglycemia and increases the blood glucose levels. This hormone primarily acts on the liver and hastens the process of glycogenolysis (conversion of glycogen into glucose). It also promotes gluconeogenesis (synthesis of new glucose from lactic acid and other metabolites). Some other hormones involved in the glucose regulation are somatostatin, gastrin and cholecystokinin. The hormone, somatostatin, reduces gut motility, affecting the absorption of nutrients from the small intestines. The hormones, gastrin and cholecystokinin released by the gastrointestinal tract, stimulate the pancreas to secrete insulin (Pat and McFadden 56) (Triplitt 2). Figure 1 shows the overall physiology of glucose regulation in the body.

4. Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

Type 1 Diabetes was previously known as either juvenile diabetes, because of the early onset of the disease, or as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, because of the clinical need for insulin. It is more prevalent among children and adolescents as compared to adults. The susceptibility to the disease is high in girls belonging to the age group of 10 to 12 years and boys belonging to the age group of 12 to 14 years (Pittas). However, half of the cases of this disease are also diagnosed in adults. An absolute deficiency of insulin is noticed in this disease. Almost 5% of the patients suffering from DM show Type 1 diabetes, and the incidence of this disease is increasing in all countries. This disease is not uniformly distributed across the world. The incidence rates of Type 1 DM are the highest in Scandinavia and Mediterranean islands of Sardinia in comparison to the rest of the world. The incidence rate is 40 per 100,000 people in Finland. The incidence is low in oriental and equatorial populations (0.1 per 100,000 in china) (Khardori and Pauza 106) (Holt s56). The reason behind this geographical variation is not clear. It is speculated that decreased exposure to sunlight and consequent deficiency of vitamin D might be the reason behind this unequal geographical distribution of the disease. However, high incidence of this disease in areas receiving ample amount of sunlight as Kuwait, Rico and low incidence in Lithuania contradicts this explanation (Poretsky 181).

There are two major subtypes of Type 1 DM. Type 1A is an immune-mediated form and arises as an outcome of organ-specific autoimmune reactions. This subtype is very common and is observed in almost 95% of the cases. Type 1B is idiopathic as the cause of its origin is unknown. This non-immune mediated form is rare and presents diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) as observed in Type 1 DM, but other characteristics match with that of type 2 DM (Vlad and Timar 67) (Pittas). The deficiency of insulin observed in type 1 DM is mainly due to the autoimmune destruction of the pancreatic β-cells that produce insulin. This disease is characterized by a prolonged subclinical prodromal phase that lasts for years together. During this phase, several immunologic abnormalities are observed that can be used to identify the individuals having a tendency to develop type 1 DM. Almost 60–80% of the β-cells are destroyed by the time of appearance of the clinical symptoms. Some of the features that help in categorizing Type 1 DM as an autoimmune disorder include, presence of autoantibodies specific to islet cells, variations in the T-cell mediated immunoregulation and being responsive to immunotherapy (Vlad and Timar 68) (Ozougwu et al. 48).

5. Symptoms and Effects of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

Most of the symptoms observed in patients suffering from type 1 DM are similar to that of type 2 DM as hyperglycemia is the result of both types of DM. Some of these symptoms include feeling extremely thirsty, increase in appetite, unexplained fatigue, increase in the frequency of urination, feeling lethargic, abnormal weight loss, presence of sugar in the urine, blurring of vision and numbness or tingling sensation of feet. These symptoms show an almost sudden appearance. Some people experience a sudden upsurge in the levels of blood sugar leading to diabetic ketoacidosis. These patients express a few additional symptoms that act as warning signs. These symptoms are sweet, fruity odor of breath, dryness of the skin and mouth, rapid breathing, flushing of face, nausea and vomiting (Baruchin). Children with type I DM express gastrointestinal symptoms. A gastrointestinal autoimmune problem known as celiac disease (CD) has been identified in these children. Individuals with CD are often detected with other autoimmune disorders including type 1 DM (Narula e489).

Type 1 DM causes premature mortality as it decreases the normal life span by an average of five to eight years. It also affects other organs of the body, hence increasing the complications. It has a major effect on the heart and increases the progression of atherosclerosis and blood pressure. Coronary artery disease, stroke and heart attack are observed as a secondary effect of Type 1 DM. The functioning of the nerves gets hampered, leading to a condition called neuropathy. This affects the sensation in arms and legs. This is observed in the form of tingling sensation or numbness in arms and feet. Problems related to the erection of penis leading to impotence in men are a secondary effect of neuropathy. Chances of blood vessel injury are high in people with diabetes. This leads to the damage of the tissues in the legs and feet. Even minor infections prove to be dangerous for these people as it develops into deep tissue injury. Numbness from neuropathy aggravates this problem as the patient fails to feel the injury. Diabetes is the leading cause of new cases of blindness amongst people belonging to the age group of 20 to 74. The blood vessels supplying blood to the retina are injured, leading to a condition called retinopathy. It also increases the chances of developing cataracts and certain types of glaucoma. Diabetes also impacts the normal functioning of the kidneys. Presence of hypertension, coronary artery disease along with diabetes hastens the process of kidney damage or Nephropathy. People with diabetes are at a higher risk of developing respiratory and urinary tract infections. This disease affects the brain functioning also, hence affecting the mental ability (What are the long-term complications of type 1 diabetes and how are they treated?).

6. Pathogenesis of type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

Type 1 DM is a complex multi-factorial disorder. It is an outcome of the effects of multiple genes along with environmental and lifestyle factors. Because of its polygenic nature, this disease cannot be classified under diseases caused by dominant or recessive genes. Switching on or off of a single gene is not enough for the development of the disease, rather, a complex interaction of multiple genes leads to the development of type 1 DM. This makes the identification of susceptible genes difficult. Nearly 50 loci have so far been found to be impacting susceptibility to the disease. Out of these susceptible loci, the contribution of Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) complex towards the overall genetic susceptibility is very high (~60%). Out of the three classes of HLA genes, class II genes encoding for molecules that participate in antigen presentation are strongly associated with the development of the disease. A variation in these genes increases the risk of type 1 DM, as the presentation of β-cell antigens is altered. This alteration in presentation is triggered by the failure to impart regulated immune responses, or by promotion of anti-self-reactivity (Atkinson 7). A significant discordance in monozygotic twins proves that the alteration in the genetic factors alone does not explain the etiology of the diseases. The auto-immune nature of the diseases shows that bone marrow derived elements are involved in the pathogenesis of the disease (Khardori and Pauza 106). Accumulation of T cells within affected islets has been observed in these patients. An increased expression of MHC near the sites of β-cells destruction suggests that active antigen presentation might take place within the islet tissue. These factors confirm the role of the immune mechanism in diabetes development (Khardori and Pauza 108). However, the specific mechanism behind insulin-producing β-cells damage is yet to be elucidated.

The rise in the global incidence of this disease, variation in geographical distribution and rapid upsurge in the disease incidence rates when individuals migrate from low- to high-incidence countries, suggest that environmental factors also have the potency to develop type 1 DM. Various environmental factors that contribute towards the development of the disease include the attack by microbes (bacteria and viruses), early weaning off breast milk, introduction of cow's milk proteins, low serum concentrations of vitamin D and association with toxic nitrosamine compounds. The combined effect of the trio (environmental factors, genetic factors along with the immune system) is responsible for the development of type 1 DM (Atkinson 11).

7. Genetic Factors and Pathogenesis of type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

The incidence of type 1 DM is 15 times more in siblings, suggesting that genetic factors and family history play a strong role in the development of the disease. This disease does not adopt simple inheritance patterns as observed with the diseases involving single gene defects. The involvement of single gene defects in the development of the disease is extremely rare, but not unknown. IPEX (immune dysfunction, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked) and APS-1 (autoimmune polyendocrinopathy syndrome type 1) are two rare syndromes that involve single gene defects and increase the susceptibility to type 1 DM. FOXP3 gene is mutated in IPEX syndrome affecting the major population of regulatory T lymphocytes. This favors overwhelming autoimmunity that leads to the development of type 1 DM. AIRE (autoimmune regulatory gene) is mutated in APS-1 syndrome and affects the expression of the peripheral antigens in thymus. The ultimate effect of this mutation is enhanced autoimmunity (Poretsky 185).

The human histocompatibility (HLA) complex is located on the short arm of the chromosome 6 and influences the risk of the development of the diseases to a great extent. This complex is divided into three main regions: class I, class II and class III. These regions harbor genes involved in the regulation of immune response and antigen presentation. Several loci located within the HLA complex independently contribute towards the development of diabetes. These loci are usually inherited together in the form of extended haplotypes. Hence, these loci function as multi-gene susceptibility locus. HLA-A*0101, HLA-B39 and HLAA*3002 are the HLA class I alleles that are independently associated with a susceptibility to the disease. An allele of HLA-A24 gene influences the rate of destruction of β-cells and the age of onset of the disease. Hence, this allele increases the risk to the disease (Pugliese 102).

Further, research has shown that out of the various regions of HLA complex, HLA-DQ and HLA-DR class II alleles are strongly associated with the development of the disease. The majority of type 1 DM patients carry HLA-DR3 or -DR4 class II antigens and some of them (30–50%) are DR3/DR4 heterozygotes. The heterozygotes are at a higher risk (1 in every 15 individuals) of developing this disease in comparison to the individuals without this genotype (I in every 300 individuals). The heterozygous individuals are followed by DR4 and DR3 homozygous individuals in terms of risk (Pugliese 102). HLA-DQ8 and HLA-DQ2 heterodimers are considered to be the main susceptibility determinants amongst the HLA class II genes. Both, class I and class II antigens, of HLA complex are involved in the antigen presentation. Thus, allelic variation at the HLA- DR and -DQ loci of class II, and HLA- A and –B loci of class I will effect the presentation of islet peptide antigens to CD4 and CD8 T lymphocyte cells. Ultimately, the effect of the modulation of antigen presentation is observed on the T cell tolerance and the activation of the immune response. Individuals with type 1 DM were detected with the presence of alanine instead of aspartic acid at the 57^th position of the beta chain in HLA class II molecules. This alteration in the amino acid along with other residues provides structural and functional distinctiveness to these molecules. As a result, these molecules favor the escape of the autoreactive Tcells from negative selection (Khardori and Pauza 107) (Pugliese 103).

There are certain HLA haplotypes as DR2DQ6 that are associated with the resistance to the disease. Presence of these haplotypes decreases the risk of development of the diseases even in the presence of high-risk HLA alleles. These haplotypes encode certain protective HLA molecules that show an increased affinity towards some islet autoantigen peptides. As a result, presentation of autoantigens is enhanced in thymus, leading to effective deletion of autoreactive Tcells (Khardori and Pauza 106) (Pugliese 103).

A genome-wide analysis was carried out on large datasets from several populations across the world to identify additional susceptibility loci. Apart from HLA, almost 20 non-HLA loci were found to make a significant contribution towards the disease. These loci include CTLA-4, PTPN22, insulin (INS), IL2RA and IFIH1. Amongst them, INS that maps to the chromosome 11p5.5 contributed significantly towards the disease. Variations in the VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats) located upstream to the INS gene modulated the levels of insulin mRNA in thymus. The number of these repeats is directly associated with the increased thymic expression of insulin. Class III VNTRs are large and associated with high levels of expression of mRNA. Hence, they are considered to be protective alleles. Polymorphisms in the T-cell regulatory gene CTLA-4 located on the chromosome 2q22 were also found to be associated with type 1 DM in several studies, but not in all populations. Due the expression of CTLA-4 in activated Tcells and its association with several autoimmune diseases like thyroid disease, it is expected that CTLA-4 could also be associated with type1 DM. The normal function of CTLA-4 is to down regulate the T cell responses. Polymorphisms in CTLA-4 decrease the synthesis of an alternatively spliced transcript that translates into a soluble form of CTLA4 (sCTLA4). The reduced levels of sCTLA4 disturb the immune regulation, thereby promoting the autoimmunity (Pugliese 104).

The gene PTPN22 encodes Lyp protein that negatively regulates the T cell receptor (TCR) signals. The binding of Lyp with the signaling molecule Csk, down-regulates the TCR signaling. A change in arginine to tryptophan at position 620 of Lyp protein due to missense mutation suppresses TCR signaling and favors the survival of autoreactive Tcells. The genetic basis of the disease is multi-factorial. Hence, a correct understanding about the genetics of the diseases can improve the diagnosis and treatment of the diseases significantly (Pugliese 105).

8. Autoimmunity and Pathogenesis of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

Type 1 DM is characterized by insulitis or inflammation of the islet cells and autoimmune destruction of the insulin producing pancreatic β-cells. Many theories have been postulated to explain the specific β-cell autoimmunity. One such theory is molecular mimicry. According to this theory, the sharing of the antigenic properties between β-cells and environmental agents like viruses leads to an alteration in self-antigens that triggers autoimmunity (Atkinson 8). The direct evidence for the role of autoimmunity was obtained when the sera from type 1 diabetic patients was incubated with the pancreas tissue sections obtained from normal patients. A group of antibodies known as islet cell autoantibodies (ICAs) were identified in the sera of type 1 DM patients with polyendocrine disease in 1976. These antibodies were used to study the clinical course and pathogenesis. Further, these antibodies also helped in the discovery of islet autoantigens (Notkins and Lernmark 1248) (Roep and Peakman 1).

The two principal autoantigens recognized with the help of ICAs were glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65) and protein tyrosine phosphatase–like molecule (IA-2). Insulin was the third antigen to be recognized. The auto-antibodies are targeted to the B chain of human proinsulin or insulin. IA-2 is a member of PTP (protein tyrosine phosphatase) family that is expressed in both α and β-cells of the pancreatic islets. Certain other autoantigens recognized were carboxypeptidase H and IA-2β (also termed phogrin). The intracellular domains of IA-2 and IA-2β are the targets for autoantibodies. IGRP (islet-specific glucose-6-phosphatase catalytic subunit-related protein) and imogen-38 are targets of CD4 T-cells, and also act as β-cell autoantigens in type 1 DM. The identification of the β-cell autoantigens through cell biological strategy also confirmed the involvement of IA-2, IA-2ß, imogen-38 and IGRP in the immunopathogenesis of type 1 diabetes. In addition, zinc transporter 8 (ZnT8) and ICA69 were also identified as novel autoantigens (Roep and Peakman 2).

Usually, the T cells reactive to the self-antigens die by the process of apoptosis in the thymus. This process is also known as central tolerance. Some self-reactive T cells that escape this process are eliminated by the peripheral tolerance. Under peripheral tolerance, the autoreactivity is regulated by certain naturally occurring, autoantigen-specific regulatory T cells. The factors involved in the loss of tolerance to β-cell antigens are unclear. However, the auto-reactive CD4 T cells and β-cell-specific CD8+ T cells have been found to play a key role in regulating the immune attack on the β cell. That is why this disease is also known as T cell mediated organ specific autoimmune disorder. The insulin producing β-cells of the pancreas are targeted by activated cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs). The release of the cytokines triggered by the CTL activity stimulates the proliferation of the activated macrophages and autoantibodies. These autoantibodies get attracted to the site of immune activation (inflammation) and trigger the process of complement-mediated lysis. This is responsible for the overall destruction of the pancreatic tissue (Type I Diabetes: Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus).

These T lymphocytes not only promote the destruction of β-cells but also contribute to insulitis to a significant extent (Mona). It is suggested that the abnormal immunogenicity of β-cells arises as an outcome of viral infection or endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Sometimes, even direct damage to the β-cells stimulates autoimmunity. Under these conditions that act as danger signals, a hyper expression of HLA class I is triggered. This leads to the expression of the cytokines and chemokines. Interferon-α, a cytokine whose expression is triggered by a viral infection and chemokine CXCL10 attract immune cells into the islet microenvironment. The net result is the infiltration of leukocytes (insulitis), which is the first observed abnormality in pancreatic islets. After the presentation of particular islet antigens to the immune system, a set of additional T cells having different islet antigen specificities become activated. The exact islet antigen that leads to the pathogenic autoreactivity is not known. Macrophages also invade the islet cells and produce Interleukin 1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor (TNFa). These cytokines induce structural changes in the β-cells and suppress their insulin releasing capacity (Mona). Figure 2 depicts the general mechanism of the pathogenesis of type 1 DM.

Autoantibodies against β-cells are being studied in laboratories across the world, as they help in the diagnosis of the disease several years before the onset of the actual clinical symptoms. They help in the prediction of the risk of the development of the diseases. For example, antibodies against GAD, IA-2, T8Zn are found to be significantly associated with clinical cases of type 1 DM (Mona) (Vlad and Timar 68). Islet specific autoantibodies are produced by even normal individuals. Hence, the screening test for the autoantibodies is limited to first degree relatives of a proband. If two or more distinct antibody specificities are detected in this group, the prediction of future type 1 diabetes is confirmed. Studies have shown that the presence of GAD65 and IA-2 autoantibodies together increase the risk of developing type 1 DM by 50% within 5 years. The presence of GAD65 and IA-2 autoantibodies along with the antibodies against insulin increases the chances of developing this disease by 70%. Figure 3 represents the effect of multiple autoantibodies on the risk of developing type 1 DM. Further, autoantibody screening along with HLA typing can also be used for the prediction of the diseases in the general population (Khardori and Pauza 108).

The nature of autoantibodies and their specificities depends on a variety of factors like age of onset of disease, duration of the disease and even the ethnic groups. Usually, the antibodies against GAD65 tend to remain stable throughout the disease. On the other hand, IA-2 autoantibodies tend to decrease with the progress of the disease (Notkins and Lernmark 1248).

Studies have shown that autoreactive T cells can be easily suppressed. Hence, local inflammation triggered by monocytes and antigen-presenting cells (APCs) might be essential for the initiation and maintenance of auto aggression. This finding has helped to streamline the research towards the understanding of the role of APCs in triggering autoimmunity in type 1 DM patients. Studies in animal models have shown that APCs drive the local inflammatory process that is necessary for the activation of the autoreactive T cells. After the initial destruction of some islet cells, the β-cell antigens are presented at a higher rate by the local APCs. This leads to the epitope spreading to the non-tolerant T cells. Further, the autoreactive lymphocytes cannot cause chronic inflammation and disease without the presence of activated APC. Both animal and human studies have shown that a general immune dysregulation might be an underlying cause of type 1 DM. Both environment and genetic factors might aggravate this dysregulation (Vlad and Timar 69).

9. Role of Environmental Factors in the Pathogenesis of the Disease

It has been observed that only a small proportion of genetically susceptible individuals actually develop the disease. Studies conducted on monozygotic twins have shown that, in only 13%–33% of individuals, a pair-wise match is observed for type 1 DM. The geographical distribution of the disease also varies in the different parts of the world. Moreover, the recent increase in the incidence rates among children cannot be due to increase of the genetic susceptibility to the disease in the population. Rather, this change can be attributed to the changes in the lifestyle habits and environmental factors. Many hypothetical theories also point out that certain environmental stresses accelerate the rate of prognosis of the disease. These studies imply that there are certain additional factors that trigger and impel the disease process in genetically susceptible individuals. These additional factors have been identified to be the environmental factors that trigger and accelerate the prognosis of type 1 DM (Knip and Akerblom 2).

Infectious microbial agents are considered to be very strong environmental influencers of type 1 DM. There are no direct evidences to prove the role of infectious agents in the pathogenesis of the disease. However, the association of enteroviral infections and β-cell autoimmunity can be ascertained through indirect evidences obtained from seroepidemiological human studies. There are two mechanisms through which viruses can trigger the disease. Viruses can either trigger a direct cytolytic effect or trigger an autoimmune process leading to a gradual destruction of β-cell. The structural homology between β-cell antigens and viral structures has further ascertained the role of molecular mimicry in the pathogenesis of the disease (Knip and Akerblom 4).

Enteroviruses (EV) are a group of small non-enveloped RNA containing viruses that cause many common human diseases. Infections by these viruses are very common in new -born babies and young infants. Studies have shown a close association between first diabetes-associated autoantibodies and enteroviral infections. Moreover, these autoantibodies are also detected to be at high levels during the fall of winter when the chances of infection by enteroviruses are very high. These observations suggest that a diabetogenic EV infection can mostly trigger β-cell autoimmunity in a majority of cases. Neutralizing antibodies were used to analyze which virus had better chances of triggering autoimmunity. CBV1 (Coxsackie virus B1) showed high chances of triggering β-cell autoimmunity thereby leading to the clinical manifestations of type 1 DM. Some other viruses that can be associated with this disease include mumps, rubella, rotavirus, cytomegalovirus, retroviruses and Ljunganvirus. A molecular homology between VP7 protein of rotavirus and T-cell epitopes of the autoantigens like 65 kD isoform of GAD and IA-2 molecule has been detected by researchers. The significant rise in the rotavirus antibodies was associated with diabetes-associated autoantibodies in genetically predisposed infants. This indicates that an infection by rotaviruses can induce β-cell autoimmunity in infants showing genetic susceptibility. Further research is required to ascertain the role of other viruses in the pathogenesis of the disease. Animal studies have shown that the natural gut microbiome can protect from the development of type 1 DM as they promote intestinal homeostasis (Knip and Akerblom 3).

Observations from the birth cohort studies indicate that the early signs of β-cell autoimmunity make their appearance during the first year of life. In the majority of clinical cases of childhood type 1 DM, autoimmunity was observed before the age of 3 years. These observations indicate that the environmental risk factors for type 1 DM or β-cell autoimmunity should be present during the stages of early nutrition itself. Even though prolonged breast feeding might not inhibit the development of type 1 DM, breast feeding for a short period might trigger the emergence of β-cell autoimmunity. Early weaning from breast feed and introduction of cow’s milk (infant formula) has been observed to be closely associated with an increased risk for developing β-cell autoimmunity and subsequent clinical disease. Introduction of foreign foods to the babies varies amongst the different parts of the world. The foods provided to the infants during the early stages are of different types like cereals, extensively hydrolyzed formulas or pure milk formulas. Hence, ascertaining the clear association between the introduction of cow’s milk and the pathogenesis of the disease becomes difficult. The exact molecular mechanism behind this association is yet unknown. However, there are multiple reports suggesting the role of a variety of constituents of cow’s milk such as casein, bovine insulin and bovine serum albumin (BSA) in the development of type 1 DM (Atkinson13).

As the incidence of type 1 DM is found to be very high in northern Europe where sunshine is limited, low serum concentrations of vitamin D (sunshine vitamin) was suspected to be associated with the pathogenesis this disease. Various studies were conducted to understand this association. It was observed that supplementation of vitamin D during infancy played a protective role against this disease as it reduced the risk of developing this disease. Recent studies have also correlated the polymorphisms in the vitamin D metabolism gene with the disorder (Atkinson 13) (Knip and Akerblom 9).

Some other environmental factors that influence the pathogenesis of the disease include toxins, food constituents and drugs. Toxic doses of N-nitroso derivatives trigger the generation of free radicals that cause diabetes. Certain factors like an accelerated linear growth, overeating and weight gain increase the work load on β-cell. They get activated to match the insulin secretion required by the body. Cytokine induced damage is noticed more in the active β-cells rather than in the resting β-cells. This increases the chances of developing insulin resistance, further leading to both type 1 and type 2 DM. Obesity during the early childhood life puts one at a greater risk of developing the disease. Hence, modifications in the lifestyle habits through diet control and physical activity can reduce the risk to a certain extent (Knip and Akerblom 10) (Atkinson 14). Research has suggested that Interferon-alpha, which is normally used as an injectable drug to cure hepatitis C, has a tendency to initiate type 1 DM. Normally, interferon-alpha fights against different viruses and some forms of cancer. The mechanism behind its association with type 1 DM is the upregulation of the genes that are under its control (Digitale).

10. Combined effect Of All the Three Types of Factors

The three essential prerequisites of the pathogenesis of type 1 DM are activation of β cell-reactive T cells, proinflammatory response and failure of immune regulation of autoreactive responses. Extensive studies have shown that a collaborated action of the trio, that is, genetic factors, environmental factors and autoimmunity, decide the pathogenesis of the disease. Various environmental factors act on the developing immune system. This action can begin from the womb and continue throughout childhood. These factors can also effect in adulthood, bringing changes as immunosuppression, allergic responses, inflammation and autoimmunity. Such disturbances in the immune reaction during the early childhood usually get suppressed in a normal person. But individuals who are genetically more susceptible, for example, those having polymorphisms in HLA class II genes or those who show mutations in FOXP3 gene and ARE gene, fail to suppress this autoimmune reaction. Non-tolerant lymphocytes are produced in the peripheral lymphoid organs due to the autoimmune reaction. The thymic negative selection that suppresses the autoreactive T lymphocytes fails and the lymphocytes bearing the T cell receptors starts reacting with the islet antigens. Certain local intra-pancreatic events also contribute towards the systemic activation of the autoreactive T lymphocytes. Maternal antibodies, viral infections or APC dysfunction can play the role of a local precipitator that triggers systemic activation. These factors can act either alone or along with a genetic predisposition. Once the APCs driving the autoreactive lymphocytes reach a particular level in the islet cells, the development of type 1 DM begins its course. More antigens get targeted as the islet cell destruction progresses. This appears in the form of increased level of autoantibodies. Some factors that are detrimental to β-cells include cytotoxic T cells, tumor necrosis factor α, type 2 interferon, Interleukin -1β and nitric oxide. Even though the exact etiology might not be confirmed during many cases, the current research has helped to ascertain the crucial effector pathways of islet destruction.

11. Summary

There are several hurdles in the pathway of identifying the pathogenesis of type 1 DM disease. Some of these hurdles include difficulty in biopsying the pancreas, identification of the proportional contribution of the environmental factors and other predisposing factors like genes, etc. Out of the several factors contributing towards the development of type 1 DM, environmental factors offer a potential means for intervention. As these factors are exogenous, they can be targeted to prevent the disease from spreading at an epidemic rate in many parts of the world. Primary prevention targets new born children in those areas where type 1 DM is more prevalent. The effect of increasing the duration of the breast milk, along with the delay in the introduction of the cow’s milk or cereals is being currently tested under various clinical trials. Supplementation of vitamin D, omega 3 fatty acids and cod liver oil to the infants and pregnant women is also being tested. The secondary prevention of the disease aims to stop the destructive autoimmune process after the initial diagnosis. This can be achieved with the help of certain drugs like immunosuppressants. Depending on the age of diagnosis (ranging between 10-20 years) a portion of β-cells may remain unaffected and intact. These unaffected cells have shown chances of survival even after 30 years of initial diagnosis. Immunosuppressants like cyclosporine can arrest the autoimmune destruction, hence preserving the unaffected β-cells. These drugs can help in prolonging the life of an individual, but are associated with many side effects (Poretsky 196). Identification of the autoantigens (β-cell proteins) was a breakthrough achievement, as it helped in the understanding of the role of autoimmunity in the pathogenesis of the disease. All autoreactive lymphocytes do not trigger the destruction of the β-cells. In fact, certain cytokines like IL-4 or IL-10 show positive effects when they are expressed in correct quantities at the right time. For example, their introduction prior to the massive loss of the islet cells can help to prevent the disease to some extent. Hence, an ideal intervention program aiming at augmentation of regulatory responses and control of aggressive anti-islet activities can help to arrest the β-cell destruction. Systemic modulators like vitamin D3 analogs and islet-antigen specific DNA vaccines that increase the concentration of the regulatory T lymphocytes are being tested in this line. However, further research is required to define the contribution of environmental factors and the interaction of the environmental factors with the predisposing genes or protective genes. This research would provide a holistic picture of the development of type 1 DM.

Figure 1: Physiology of Glucose Regulation

An image showing overall physiology of glucose regulation (Clinical Pathophysiology Of The Endocrine System).

Figure 2: Mechanism of Pathogenesis of Type 1 DM

This image shows the role of environmental factors, genetic susceptibility and ineffective immune response in the pathogenesis of type 1 DM (Ozougwu et al. 49).

Figure 3: Role of autoantibodies in Type 1 DM

This figure represents the effect of multiple autoantibodies on the risk of developing type 1 DM. The effects of GAD65, IA-2, or insulin autoantibodies were tested. It shows that the risk of developing diabetes increases with the increase in the autoantibody types (Notkins and Lernmark 1249).

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“What Are The Long-Term Complications Of Type 1 Diabetes And How Are They Treated?” Injectionlocator.com, n.d. Web. 14 Feb. 2014.

Atkinson, A, Mark. “The Pathogenesis and Natural History of Type 1 Diabetes.” Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2.a007641 (2012): 1-18. Print.

Baruchin, Aliyah. “A Life-Changing Diagnosis: Type 1 Diabetes.” Nytimes.com, The New York Times, 18 June. 2013. Web. 14 Feb. 2014.

Digitale, Erin. “Early trigger found for type-1 diabetes in mice, Stanford scientists report.” Stanford.edu. Stanford School of Medicine, 26 Aug. 2008. Web. 14 Feb. 2014.

Holt, G,I, Richard. “Diagnosis, epidemiology and pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus: an update for psychiatrists.” The British Journal of Psychiatry 184. (2004): s55-s63. Print.

Khardori, R, and Pauza, M,E. “Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: Pathogenesis And Advances.” INT. J. DIAB. DEV. COUNTRIES 23. (2003): 106-119. Print.

Knip, M and Akerblom, H,K. “Environmental factors in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes mellitus.” Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 107.3 (1999):S93-100. Print.

Mona, Landin-Olsson. “Autoimmune mechanisms in the pathogenesis of Type 1 diabetes mellitus.” Research.med.lu.se. Lund University, n.d. Web. 14 Feb. 2014.

Narula, P, et al. “Gastrointestinal Symptoms in Children With Type 1 Diabetes Screened for Celiac Disease.” Pediatrics 124. (2009): e489-e495. Print.

Notkins, L, Abner, and Lernmark, Ake. “Autoimmune type 1 diabetes: resolved and unresolved issues.” J Clin Invest 108.9 (2001):1247–1252. Print.

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Lumpy skin disease spreads like wild fire in India – Are humans one of the causes of its spread?

2022-11-05T11:21:00.004+05:30

Introduction about Lumpy skin disease

Lumpy skin disease is a contagious viral disease affecting cows and water buffaloes in almost 15 states in India. The rampant spread of the disease has given a serious blow to the Indian economy as we largely depend on agriculture for our economic returns. India accounts for almost 23% of the global milk production and 3% of the total meat production in the world. There has been a drastic dip in the milk production as the infected animals cannot produce enough quantity of milk in the infected state. The plight of the diary farmers is worrisome as they are unable to earn their livelihood by selling milk or by trading live animals and animal products.

The characteristic symptoms exhibited by the viral infected animal are: fever, anorexia, and characteristic nodules on the skin mucous membrane of mouth, nostrils, udder, genital areas and rectum. Depending of the severity of infection swelling of the lymph-nodes and abortion in females is observed. There is a dip in the milk production. Infertility in both males and females is also a common feature.

News in social media

Videos showing milkmen throwing milk recklessly on roads had become viral on the social media in the recent past.

Videos showing milk being recklessly thrown out

People were scared that the virus can get transmitted to humans after milk consumption. After thorough study at ICMR’s Indian Veterinary Research Institute, scientists have confirmed that milk from the infected animal is safe for human consumption as the virus does not get transmitted to humans.

In several situations, farmers were not able to manage the cost for the treatment of animals. In such cases, live infected animals were ruthlessly buried beneath the earth. Such activities question our humanity. How can a human being be so insensitive to a living organism which had been serving you? How can we forget our recent past when we were facing the pandemic situation of Covid-19. Did we ever think about burying our live relatives when they were infected? We made our utmost effort to offer best treatment against covid even-though our financial reserves were limited. Then why can’t we struggle hard financially and physically to save our cattle? There are arguments in favour of and against such activities. Every person seems to be justified in his situation. The best thing that can be done is to learn from our current mistakes so that this scenario is not repeated.

Why did Lumpy skin disease virus become a superpower in 2022?

Did lumpy skin disease originate suddenly in 2022. The answer is no. The first case of Lumpy skin disease was reported from Zambia in 1929 and then it gradually spread to other African countries. For several years, it remained endemic to African countries. However, with the increase in the international trade for livestock, the disease intruded into European and Asian countries too. Cases of lumpy skin disease were observed in India in the year 2019 and 2021 too. However, the virus did not create a havoc during these times. According to the earlier reports submitted by World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), the mortality rate is expected to be between 1-5%. In India, the virus outbreak in 2022 proved to be more lethal, increasing the mortality rate to as high as 15%.

What are the new factors that boosted Lumpy skin disease virus?

Faster rate of mutations in virus

Scientific studies suggested that the genetic material of Lumpy skin disease virus is relatively stable and does not mutate fast. However, beyond human expectations, the virus proved itself to be a super-genius and underwent faster mutations to evolve into a new strain, posing a challenge to human brains. After genomic sequencing, scientists have confirmed that the current strain observed in 2022 is different from the strains prevalent in earlier years.

Sudden change in the climatic conditions

Lumpy skin disease is a vector borne disease that spreads through arthropod vectors like biting flies, mosquitoes and ticks. The year 2022 has been witnessing heavy rains through out the year. These conditions are favourable for the breeding of vectors. The increase in the number of vectors invariably leads to a high infection rate. Initially it began with sporadic cases but after monsoons, the disease spread rapidly.

Improper grazing facility for animals and small goshalas

In Indian villages, the practice of open grazing is a conventional practice. Dairy farmers allow the cattle to graze in open farms. The farmers collect their cattle just before the sunset. Sadly, the farmers are ignorant about the fact that an infected animal might be grazing adjacent to a healthy animal. Even-though transmission of the disease through arthropod vectors is well ascertained, direct transmission of the virus has not been negated. Recent studies have shown that the infection can be transmitted if animals share the same troughs for feed and water. When a healthy and infected animal graze together, it is difficult to curtail the spread of disease. When the animal is sick it needs rest, but unfortunately, it has to walk several kilometers to get its feed. Swelling of the feet during infection and pain does not allow the animal to stand comfortably. This makes recovery slow. The goshalas have a space limitation. People cannot afford to quarantine an infected animal due to limited resources. The chances of spread of disease are high when animals share a small space.

Open disposal of carcasses

During the initial days of outbreak, people used to leave the dead remains of the infected animals in the open fields. The vectors and scavengers preyed on the infected remains and spread the disease simultaneously. The open fields are the grazing places for stray cattle. The burial pits dug for the cattle were so shallow that the dogs could dig the animals out, attracting flies and insects.

The keen study of these factors definitely points a finger to our poor management of cattle. However, there are certain examples of well researched care of cattle leading to less infection rates in India. The impact of Lumpy skin disease was minimal in the milk capital of India, Anand district of Gujarat. According to R.S. Sodhi, Managing Director of the Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd or Amul, proper care of animals was taken in terms of nutrition and disease management to curtail the spread. Veterinarians guided the farmers in keeping their cowsheds clean and animals pest-free. India has proudly announced the release of its first indigenous vaccine called Lumpi-ProVac to safeguard the animals. The pitfalls faced during the management of this disease should be considered as a lesson so that we do not repeat them and keep ourselves in such a position that our humanity is not questioned.

What do you know about Hepatitis A Infection?

2022-10-21T12:33:00.000+05:30

Abstract

Hepatitis A Infection is caused by or hepatitis A virus (HAV). It is one of the most frequently occurring food-borne or water-borne diseases. Even though it is usually non-fatal it might lead to acute liver failure leading to high mortality. Infection by this virus during the early child hood is usually asymptomatic and leads to the development of life long immunity to this virus. The rate of this infection depends largely on the socioeconomic conditions of a place. The rate is very low in developed countries with good sanitary and hygienic conditions and more in developing countries with very poor sanitary conditions. However, people living in developing countries with transitional economies are considered to be at a higher risk of developing this infection Thus, conducting large-scale immunization programs against HAV is essential in these regions. This virus gets transmitted through the oral fecal route and can be prevented by adopting personal hygiene practices.

Introduction

Hepatitis is characterized by the inflammation of the liver and is caused by various factors like, attack of viruses, overconsumption of alcohol, as a side effect of certain medicines and trauma. Out of the four major types of viruses causing hepatitis, HAV or hepatitis A virus, causes acute, usually self-limiting infection of the liver. The attack by this virus is followed by the sudden and sharp rise of symptoms which persist for a short duration (less than two months) with no long-term impacts. Even though this infection is not fatal, it can cause debilitating symptoms and acute liver failure leading to high mortality. Hepatitis A infection is one of the most frequently occurring food-borne or water-borne diseases and occurs both sporadically and epidemically across the world. For example, an epidemic of hepatitis A was reported in Shanghai in 1988 which affected about 300,000 people. Approximately 1.4 million clinical cases of hepatitis A are reported across the world every year (Hepatitis A, 2013). This infection causes jaundice-like or flu-like symptoms. People suffering from this infection often need hospitalization and cannot continue with their normal work until a month. This leads to substantial medical and economic burden. The frequency of death due to this infection is approximately 3-6 deaths per 1000 reported cases (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). The aim of this research paper is to provide information about the epidemiology, mode of transmission, symptoms, diagnosis and management of the disease. This paper also provides information about the efficiency of vaccines in prevention of the disease.

Epidemiology of Hepatitis A Infection

The rate of hepatitis infection depends on the socioeconomic development of a particular area. This disease usually does not lead to any symptoms in children and induces lifelong immunity in them, if affected by this disease during childhood. In the areas of low endemicity, for example, developed countries with good sanitary and hygienic conditions, the occurrence of this infection is noticed only in high risk group persons or as outbreaks involving a small number of people. This infection shows intermediate levels of endemicity in developing countries with transitional economies, where the sanitary conditions vary. Even though people living in these areas escape the infection during their early child hood due to the improvised sanitary conditions, they succumb to this disease during their older ages because they haven’t acquired adequate immunity. This leads to large outbreaks of HAV infections in these areas. High endemicity of HAV infection is noticed in developing countries with very poor sanitary conditions. Most of the children in these areas are affected with HAV infection with no upsurge of symptoms and acquire life long immunity, hence making clinical cases of hepatitis A uncommon (Hepatitis A vaccine, 2003).

HAV virus is a non-enveloped virus which belongs to the Picornaviridae family. Currently, four vaccines are internationally available, which are safe and effective in providing long lasting protection from this microbial disease (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011).

Mode of Transmission

HAV infection gets transmitted through the oral fecal route when a healthy person consumes food or drinks contaminated by the feces or stool of HAV infected person. This usually happens when an infected person does not adopt healthy hygienic habits such as washing hands after using the toilet, washing hands and food ingredients before preparation of food etc. Travelers are usually infected when they consume infected water or chilled beverages. Having sex with an infected partner or illegal drug use can also spread the disease. Casual contacts, as observed in schools or office, do not spread the disease (Hepatitis A: Questions and Answers, Information about the disease and vaccines, 2012).

Symptoms of Hepatitis A Infection

The prodromal phase or the onset of the disease is marked by flu-like symptoms including: gastrointestinal problems like nausea, vomiting, anorexia and abdominal discomfort, occasional headache, constipation, diarrhea, itchiness, cough and pharyngitis. There are no specific symptoms for the identification of this disease during the initial stages. It generally takes 15-50 days for the symptoms to appear after a person comes in close contact with an infected person. This phase is followed by jaundice, which is marked by yellowing of the skin and eyes, dark urine and pale stools. Symptoms like fatigue, nausea, and vomiting increase with the progression of jaundice. Abnormal enlargement of the liver, spleen and lymph nodes is often observed during examination. These symptoms usually last for two months but, in rare cases can also continue till 6 months. Symptoms observed during the convalescent stage include physical discomfort, hepatic tenderness, and irregularities in liver functioning (Hepatitis A -Summary, 2010) (Hepatitis A: Questions and Answers, Information about the disease and vaccines, 2012).

Diagnosis of Hepatitis A Infection

The diagnosis of this disease is based upon symptoms observed and laboratory tests. A blood test is carried to test the presence of IgM antibodies to hepatitis A virus (anti- HAV antibodies). This test is known as “IgM class antibody to hepatitis A virus”. Blood tests also help to detect if the person was infected with this virus in the past. This test is known as “total hepatitis A antibody test”. Hence, infection by this virus in the past or a mere suspicion due to exposure to the virus can also be ruled out by this test. Elevated levels of Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in serum, due to jaundice can also be detected through liver function tests. The levels are usually higher than 1000 IU/L. An elevated level of Bilirubin (up to 500 micromoles/L) also indicates the presence of infection (Hepatitis A: Questions and Answers, Information about the disease and vaccines, 2012) (Hepatitis A –Investigations, 2010).

Treatment of Hepatitis A Infection

HAV infection cannot be directly cured as there are no medicines available which can treat this disease. An infected person is managed with only supportive care, which includes bed rest, pain relief medications like ibuprofen and treatment of nausea and itch. Therapy also focuses on rehydration and nutritional support as water and nutrients lost through vomiting and diarrhea should be replaced. The liver function and prothrombin time (time taken by plasma to clot) needs to be monitored from time to time. The patient needs to be hospitalized when symptoms become very severe (Hepatitis A: Questions and Answers, Information about the disease and vaccines, 2012) (Hepatitis A -Summary, 2010).

Why is prevention of hepatitis A infection through vaccines essential?

Even though hepatitis A is usually self-limiting and case-fatality rate is generally low, the suffering of the patient as a result of the infection is a point of concern. Moreover, an individual is put to a huge economic burden as, direct and indirect medical costs including the infection control measures are high. This infection imposes huge economic burden on the society, especially in countries showing low or intermediate endemicity. The chances of infection being spread to healthy individuals from an infected person are more during the first two weeks before the infected person develops symptoms like yellowing of skin and eyes. This makes it difficult to arrest the transmission of the infection from the infected person, as the person does not even realize that he/she has been infected. None of the currently available drugs have the potency to cure HAV infection and an effective antiviral medication which can arrest this virus has not yet come up as a realistic option. Socioeconomic development can control the transmission of this disease to some extent, as it is associated with improved sanitation and health education. But socioeconomic development is relatively low in some parts of the world (Hepatitis A vaccine, 2003) (Hepatitis A: Questions and Answers, Information about the disease and vaccines, 2012).

The above discussed factors make the prevention of hepatitis A infection through immunization very essential. The protective role of anti-HAV antibodies developed in response to infection which persist for life has been well studied. These antibodies protect an individual from the re-occurrence of the disease for the rest of the life. Hence, immunization through vaccines along with improved sanitation and food safety are highly efficient in combating HAV infection. Both pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis of the disease is possible with the help of immunoglobulins. For example, a person can be immunized shortly before entering a disease-endemic area or after being exposed to hepatitis A virus (Hepatitis A vaccine, 2003).

WHO’s Recommendations on Hepatitis A Vaccine

According to WHO, all the currently available vaccines against hepatitis A are absolutely safe as they contain an inactivated virus and none of the parts of the vaccine is live. However, these vaccines cannot be administered to children below one year of age. This vaccine can be safely injected to children between their first and second birthdays. Children and adolescents living in highly endemic areas should be essentially vaccinated. Apart from this, people who are frequent travelers, men who have sex with men, people who use injectable or non-injectable illicit drugs, people suffering from chronic liver diseases, people suffering from blood clotting disorders, persons treated with clotting factor concentrates and persons handling hepatitis A virus in research laboratories should get immunized with hepatitis A vaccine. Under special situations like outbreaks of hepatitis A infection or exposure to the virus, unvaccinated children and adolescents are recommended to get hepatitis A vaccine. WHO recommends two doses of hepatitis A vaccine with a 6 months gap between the two doses of vaccine. People who show severe life-threatening allergic reaction to hepatitis A vaccine should avoid the second dose of vaccine. Pregnant women should take the opinion of the doctor before getting vaccinated. The risks associated with this vaccine are very mild like soreness, loss of appetite, headaches and tiredness (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). These problems persist for 1 or 2 days, hence making this vaccine much safer.

Criteria behind Large-Scale Immunization Programmes against HAV

Large-scale immunization programs against HAV should be carefully planned based upon factors like endemicity of the diseases in the targeted area and number of people susceptible to this infection. In highly endemic areas, almost everyone gets infected during the early childhood without showing any symptoms. As a result, they acquire natural immunity against this infection hence preventing clinical hepatitis A during adolescence and adulthood. In these areas, large-scale immunization programs or inclusion of the vaccine in routine childhood immunizations is not recommended. The risk of hepatitis A infection in adults is relatively high in the areas of intermediate disease endemicity, making it a significant public health burden. Large-scale childhood vaccination is considered to be the apt method of prevention along with health education and improved sanitation in these areas. Hence, countries like U.S., Israel, China, etc have introduced this vaccine in routine childhood immunizations.

Conclusion

Hepatitis A is a preventable disease and in case of out breaks, the transmission of the virus can be arrested by taking care of few factors like, supply of safe drinking water, providing education about personal hygiene practices and proper disposal of sewage within communities.

References

Centers for Disease Control And Prevention. (2011) Hepatitis A Vaccine, What You Need to Know. Vaccine Information Statement. U.S. Department of health and human services.

Hepatitis A. (2013). Who.int. Retrieved Aug 26, 2013, from

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs328/en/

Hepatitis A vaccine. (2003). Who.int. Retrieved Aug 26, 2013, from

http://www.who.int/vaccines/en/hepatitisa.shtml

Hepatitis A: Questions and Answers, Information about the disease and vaccines. (2012). Retrieved Aug 26, 2013, from. www.immunize.org

Hepatitis A - Summary. (2010). Nice.org.uk. Retrieved Aug 26, 2013, from

http://cks.nice.org.uk/hepatitis-a#!topicsummary

Hepatitis A - Investigations. (2010). Nice.org.uk. Retrieved Aug 26, 2013, from

http://cks.nice.org.uk/hepatitis-a#!diagnosissub:2

Impact of Nanotechnology on Medicine

2022-10-11T13:55:00.001+05:30

The curiosity of the human brain knows no limits, and fabrication of materials at the nanometer scale (One meter = 1 billion nanometers) is an outcome of such supreme power of the human brain. Ever since the concept of nanotechnology has been introduced by Richard P Faynman in 1959, various nanoparticles of dimensions ranging from 1 nm to 100 nm have been designed and used in multiple areas related to human life. Nanotechnology involves the use of nanoparticles made by the perfect arrangement of molecules in such a way that these dwarf particles gain all the desired chemical and physical properties. High precision and functional perfection of these devices make them very helpful to mankind (Khan, 2007) (Patil et al., 2008). Applications of nanotechnology in the form of cheaper solar energy collectors, environmentally-friendly batteries and supercapacitors that store energy help us to protect our precious environment. Nanobiotechnology refers to the use of nanotechnology in the field of health and medicine to promote earlier detection and better diagnosis of diseases. The application of nanomedicine has made it possible to carry out a highly targeted delivery of drugs making the concept of personalized medicines a dream come true (Wojnicz, 2011).

Disadvantages of Conventional Medicines

The major limitations of the current medicines are their non-specific action and decreased efficacy. Anticancer chemotherapeutic drugs are a good example of non-specific action of drugs as they damage the adjacent healthy cells along with the cancerous cells, leading to adverse effects like bone marrow suppression, cardiomyopathy, hair loss, etc. This decreases the efficiency of these drugs. Sophisticated techniques to detect the presence of disease at an early stage are not available for all known diseases. These diagnostic techniques are very lengthy in some incidents, as they involve the extraction of a sample and its analysis at a different location. Some conventional surgical procedures are intensive and demand a long stay of the patient in the hospital affecting the patient’s life in multiple ways (Surendiran et al., 2009).

Advantages of Nanobiotechnology

Nanoscale-structured materials promise to revolutionize multiple sub-disciplines of medicine. Nanoparticles made up of tiny fluorescent 'quantum dots” make the early detection of diseases feasible. As these quantum dots fluoresce brightly, the precise area of the diseases can be pinpointed at a very early stage with the help of sophisticated imaging techniques. Devices like 'lab-on-a-chip' are nanotechnological devices that make the instantaneous diagnosis of certain diseases feasible. Nanorobots can facilitate the targeted delivery of the drug precisely at the cellular or molecular level, hence increasing the efficacy of the drugs (5).

Applications of Nanotechnology

Some of the current applications of nanotechnology in the field of medicine include:

Targeted drug delivery system. Nanorobots can target the drugs to a precise area of the human body and reduce the chances of side-effects. The amount of drug and the time of the drug release can also be controlled with the help of an electric pulse. These robots can also monitor the sugar levels in blood (Khan, 2007). Liposomes are spherical nanoparticles made up of bi-layer membranes. They can be used in the delivery of liposomal drugs. Nanoshells, which absorb the infrared radiations of the electromagnetic spectrum, prevent the destruction of the healthy tissues during cancer treatment. Fullerenes, also known as “bucky balls”, act as free radical scavengers as they contain a large number of conjugated double bonds at the core. They help in the transport of anticancer agents and antibiotics, and protect the mitochondria from injury. Nanopore devices can act as semi-permeable membranes. They can be designed to allow the entry of oxygen and glucose to protect the transplanted tissues from unwanted host immune responses. At the same time, immunoglobulin and cells are blocked by this device.

Regenerative medicine. Manipulation of the cell proliferation and differentiation has become possible due to nanotechnology. Nanoparticles similar to the human tissues can be designed. For example, bone-like nanoparticles can be introduced to supplement the degraded bone tissues (Khan, 2007). Experiments are being carried out to replace the damaged nerve cells also.

Prevention of disease. Unwanted fat deposits in the arteries and veins are the cause of heart attacks. Specialized nanorobots capable of removing these unwanted fats can help in the prevention of heart diseases. Iron nanoparticles, which specifically attach to the tumors, help in the treatment of cancer. When magnetic field is applied these particles, they get heated up due to which the tumor cells get cooked and die (Khan, 2007).

Use of nanorobotics during surgery. A programmed surgical robot can replace the necessity of the conventional invasive techniques of traditional macro-surgery. They can guide the surgeon in detecting the site of pathology. These nanorobots can also correct lesions by manipulating them in a minimally invasive manner. A supervising surgeon is guided by ultrasound signals and an onboard computer during these manipulations (Patil et al., 2008) (6).

Use of microbivores against pathogens. Microbivores are artificially designed phagocytes that have the potency to circulate in the blood stream and engulf various foreign pathogens like bacteria, viruses, or fungi. They function like white blood cells (WBCs) and possess a greater efficiency than WBCs. These devices can clear septic infections in less than an hour (Patil et al., 2008) (Surendiran et al., 2009).

Application of nanotechnology in gene therapy. Gene therapy uses viral vectors to deliver desirable DNA to the host. These viral vectors are often considered non-self and a host immune response is triggered against them, due to which they get rejected. Under such conditions, the delivery of genetic material with the help of nanoparticles can act as an effective gene delivery system. Liposomes target the liver cells and can be used to cure various liver disorders (Surendiran et al., 2009).

Limitations of Nanotechnology

Even though nanoparticles have immense potential to revolutionize the field of medicine, their application is very limited as they pose a serious threat to the environment when produced in large quantities. Upon disposal into water bodies, these nanoparticles can kill the bacteria impacting the base of the ecosystem. They also affect the ozone layer. As these particles are very small in dimension, they can also affect the health of the lungs. Further research is required in this line so that healthy, environmental friendly nanoparticles are created which can prove to be efficient solutions to many diseases.

References

Coombs, R. (1996). Nanotechnology in Medicine. Informa Healthcare.

Khan, A (2007). NANOTECHNOLOGY: Applications in medicine and possible Side-Effects. Faculty.kfupm.edu.sa. Retrieved January 28, 2014, from http://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&ved=0CCcQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.kfupm.edu.sa%2FMATH%2Fsdkhan%2FARCHIVE%2Fnanotech-214.pdf&ei=F3HnUoPOCsTRrQemuoHwDA&usg=AFQjCNExFSnNyk3SzUH1TwK2vtInbN0aUQ&sig2=WeiztTQ-UU5e3hmFu1Jj-w&bvm=bv.59930103,d.bmk

Nanotechnology for Medical Applications and Environment. (2014). Nano.org.uk. Retrieved January 28, 2014, from http://www.nano.org.uk/nano/what-is-nanotechnology-2

Patil, M., Mehta, S, Dhoom., Guvva, Sowjanya. (2008). Future impact of nanotechnology on medicine and dentistry. Indian Soc Periodontol, 12(2), 34–40.

Surendiran, A., Sandhiya, S., Pradhan, C, S., and Adithan, C. (2009). Novel applications of nanotechnology in medicine. Indian J Med Res, 130, 689-701.

Wojnicz, R. (2011). Nanomedicine as the basis of personalised medicine. Kardiol Pol, 69(10), 1107-8.

Science puzzle time -01

2022-10-11T10:52:00.027+05:30

The life that we live today has become very easy in comparison to the lives of early men. With the progression of human evolution, man has always tried to understand the problems around him and find solutions to many such problems. There was a time when man knew nothing about his own existence or his origin on earth. During those early days, the discovery that meat tastes better when it is cooked (than when it is raw), was also a breakthrough achievement of their time. Gradually, as the human evolution progressed, human minds became more curious and intelligent. They tried to question everything around them. Some of these curious people worked hard to explain the life and the natural phenomenon around us, and they are known today as scientists. A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, to make hypotheses and test them, to gain and share understanding and knowledge. The term “Scientist” was coined first in 1834 by an English polymath, William Whewell.

During the initial days, people used to struggle with very raw scientific equipment to explain the basic structure of a simple cell. Gradually, as time passed, we have developed sophisticated laboratories with modern equipment. Like other fields of science, there have been remarkable achievements in the field of life-science and medicine. Gone are those days when life was very uncertain and mortality rate was very high. Research and development in life science and medicine have decreased the mortality rate to a significant extent. There are many people who dedicated their life to science and research. We come to know about the achievements of a few of them, but many scientists remain as unsung heroes. Our salutations to all sung and unsung heroes who have taken a step ahead towards the establishment of a disease-free society.

Let us remember such pillars of science by solving the puzzles given below and identify the names of the scientists with their achievements.

One common clue —The questions asked in these puzzles are about the scientists who made significant achievements in the field of medicine and life-science.

So here goes the quiz 👍 All the best

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How climate change is affecting Kashmiri apples?

2022-10-06T15:03:00.005+05:30

Apple is probably the most ancient fruit. We find the mention about this fruit even in The Holy Bible (the forbidden apple of the Garden of Eden). Since time immemorial, apple has been a component of our diet in various forms. People of the current time appreciate the nutrient content of an apple and thus consume it raw, include it in salads or even cook them to make apple cakes, pie, baked oatmeal etc. Kashmir, also known as the “Paradise on Earth”, is the major producer of this temperate fruit, apple, in India. Climate, soil, and environment make Kashmir a highly favourable place for the growth of apples in India.

There are mainly seven types of apples grown in Kashmir on a commercial scale. They include Ambri Kashmir, American Trel, Delicious, Maharaji Apple, Hazaratbali Apple and Golden delicious apple. Although each variety of apple is bestowed with a distinct taste, they are commonly appreciated for their fleshy, juicy and sweet tasting pulp that has a crunchy texture. We all are aware of an old saying “An apple a day keeps the doctor away”. Perhaps this saying is based on the immense therapeutic potential of apples as they are rich storehouse of fiber, Vitamin C, antioxidants and Flavonoids. Unfortunately, the production of these apples is threatened as the climatic change takes a big bite.

Climatic changes have been quite erratic in India in the recent past. People have noticed untimely heat waves with increased frequency and intensity than in the past. Monsoons have become untimely, causing heavy unexpected rainfall in some regions leading to floods. There has been an overall increase in the temperature. This year, the valley of Kashmir also had to face the wrath of Nature. Apple orchards are the main plantation crop in Kashmir. The traditional apple plants take almost a decade to grow and start bearing fruits. Since the past few years, Kashmir has been witnessing an early snowfall. In the year 2021, the first snowfall of the season took place in the month of October. The apples on the trees were not ready for harvest and they got completely destroyed when they were submerged under the weight of snow. Late winter or early spring is considered to be the best time for pruning of apples, as the tree is still dormant, and the active growth does not begin for the season. Cut wounds have a chance to dry up before insects come out in the spring. When pruned in late winter, the trees are able to bear the injury caused by the low temperatures during winter. This enhances the growth of the trees and increases the productivity.

Due to the early snow fall, farmers of Kashmir did not get time to prune the tress or collect the products. An untimely dip in the temperatures due to early winter resulted into the general fall of fruit buds, and also inhibited the movement of bees which help in pollination.

Usually, average day time temperatures in the month of March vary by around 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit). However, gradually year after year, people of Kashmir are noticing an increase in the temperature during March. This increases the incidences of infectious diseases, thus decreasing the crop productivity.

Farmers sad to see the apples getting destroyed due to untimely snowfall😢

The farmers of Kashmir report that the changing climatic patterns since the past four years has given night mares and affected their livelihood to a great extent. Even after the use of standard pesticides, farmers are not able to protect the quality of apple crop. This is leaving them in a huge debt. In order to feed their families, several farmers have opted to grow alternative crops in their fields. Some of these crops include wheat, mustard, maize and legumes. If most of the farmers shift to these alternative crops, there are chances of increase in the number of rodents in that area. The rodents can damage the roots of the apple trees causing their silent death. This will bring a permanent change in the plantation of Kashmir and we are going to miss the taste of juicy apples from Kashmir.

Before becoming scarce, buy Kashmiri apples from amazon at

Significance of Autonomic Nervous System to Psychologists

2022-09-15T11:44:00.016+05:30

Significance of Autonomic Nervous System to Psychologists

The complex human nervous system is divided broadly into two major parts based upon the location of the nervous tissue. The central nervous system (CNS) is the first part which has a centrally located nervous tissue and consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The second part is the peripheral nervous system (PNS) which includes the remaining nervous tissue of the body. The PNS contains 12 pairs of cranial nerves and their branches which arise from the brain stem and 31 pairs of spinal nerves which transmit messages between the spinal cord and the body. The nerves which form a part of the PNS can transmit messages to the CNS, and send instructions from CNS to the end organs like muscles and glands. The peripheral nervous system is further divided into two sub systems which are the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Out of the two, the ANS controls some of the vital involuntary jobs like maintenance of homeostasis, digestion, breathing, maintenance of posture, etc, which are not noticed by us (The Nervous System (Chapter 11), n.d.). This article provides information about the components of the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.

The Somatic Nervous System

This system consists of nerves which carry sensory information from skin to the CNS and instructions from the CNS to the end organs like skeletal muscles and sensory receptors located in the head and extremities.

Sensory neurons. They are the afferent neurons which carry information from the receptors present on the skin to the brain or the spinal cord. They have short axon and long dendrites (which bring information to the cell body) and the cell body is located in the dorsal root ganglion.

Motor neurons. They are the efferent neurons which carry messages from the brain and the spinal cord to muscles and other end organs. These neurons contain long axons and short dendrites. The cell body and the dendrites are located in the spinal cord, whereas the axon lies outside to the spinal cord. One motor neuron can be connected to many muscle fibers through collateral branches of the axon forming a “motor unit” (Swenson, 2006) (The Human Nervous System, 2004).

Interneurons are the third type of neurons which transmit the messages from the sensory neurons to the motor neurons. Upon activation of the sensory receptors, the sensory information gets carried by the sensory neurons to the CNS where it synapses to the interneurons, which in turn synapse on motor neurons. Finally, the motor neurons carry the instructions to the effectors organs like muscles, which respond by contracting. This simple monosynaptic pathway involving the flow of information is known as the reflex arc (The Human Nervous System, 2004).

The Autonomic Nervous System

John Langley was the first person to give the name “autonomic nervous system” to the complex network of peripheral nerves and ganglia which control the functioning of the smooth muscles and the glands of the viscera. This involuntary control system can regulate the functioning of the cardiac and smooth muscles and control the glandular secretions (Berntson, Sarter, & Cacioppo, n.d.). The somatic nervous system helps in connecting the external sensory organs to muscles through brain whereas, ANS controls the direct connection between the visceral organs/glands and brain or the spinal cord. ANS is controlled by the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata, containing neurons bundled together with somatic system neurons in the spinal and cranial nerves. ANS consists of two main divisions which work in opposition to each other while regulating the involuntary processes of the body and they are the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems (The Nervous System (Chapter 11), n.d.).

The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)

The primary function of this system is to mobilize the body during stressful situations to generate fight-or-flight response. The central origin of this system lies in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, hence is considered to have a thoracolumbar outflow. The neurons of this system release a neurotransmitter known as norepinephrine, which can excite its target muscles as a part of neuronal response. These nerves can also trigger the adrenal glands stimulating the release of hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine during stressful situation under hormonal response. This system raises precise organ specific reactions. For example, during a situation of emergency, it stimulates the acceleration of the heart rate, constriction of blood vessels, increase in blood pressure, etc. These activities meet the demand for extra energy by the skeletal muscles. But a few other processes which are not immediately required under stress are suppressed. For example, digestion takes place at a slower rate; sphincter controlling the bladder gets constricted, etc (The Nervous System (Chapter 11), n.d.). The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is released by the preganglionic sympathetic neurons which stimulates the action potential in the postganglionic neurons. However, the final transmission of messages to the end organs through the sympathetic nerves takes place in the presence of norepinephrine released by the postganglionic neurons. This system maintains a bidirectional flow of messages and controls various internal organs like heart, blood vessels, lungs, eyes, kidney, sweat glands, penis and the digestive system. Sensations like heat, cold and pain are felt through this system. Disorders in sympathetic nervous system can lead to symptoms like slurred speech, headache, hypertension, loss of muscle strength, breathing problems, etc. It generally counteracts the parasympathetic nervous system. The diseases caused by the malfunctioning of SNS are sympathicotonia, complex regional pain syndrome or reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome, fibromyalgia, Parkinson’s disease and diabetic neuropathy. (Berntson, Sarter, & Cacioppo, n.d.) (Sympathetic Nervous System & All About It, n.d.). Some drugs like Caffeine can stimulate the SNS.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)

This system gets activated when the body is in a resting state. The main purpose of this system is to restore and conserve energy. It allows the body to recover from a stressful situation as it stimulates the release of endorphins, a hormone that is called “feel good” hormone. This system stimulates the rest-and-digest response. PNS consists of 4 cranial nerves originating from the brain stem. PNS is also termed as craniosacral branch as its activity originates within the head to the sacral region. PNS also contains peripheral ganglia similar to SNS, but they do not get collected into coherent ganglionic chains. Instead, they lie near the visceral organs. Hence PNS is considered to raise a more localized response. Vagus nerve is mostly involved in the PNS activity. The afferent fibers of the vagus nerve convey the stimuli associated with the entry of food into the stomach to the vagus in the brain (which acts like a command station or nucleus). Later, the efferent fibers of the vagus nerve convey the messages from the brain to stomach to stimulate digestion. Both preganglionic neurons and post ganglionic neurons of PNS release the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine. PNS antagonizes the action of SNS and performs functions like lowering the heart rate, decreasing the blood pressure, constriction of the pupils, promotion of the digestion of food and functioning of the reproductive organs by dilating the blood vessels reaching the genitals (Berntson, Sarter, & Cacioppo, n.d.) (Sympathetic Nervous System & All About It, n.d.)

Opposing Versus Synergistic Actions of SNS and PNS

Many visceral organs are innervated by both PNS and SNS branches which are opposing in their actions. For example, sympathetic nerves stimulate the β-adrenergic receptors and increase the heart rate whereas, acetylcholine is released due to parasympathetic innervation, which acts on muscarinic receptors situated on the SA (sinoatrial node) and stimulates the lowering down of the heart rate. A perfect balance between these two systems leads to a balanced autonomic control of the target organs. These two systems perform synergistic action in some organs. For example, co-activation of sympathetic system along with parasympathetic system stimulates the salivary secretions when we eat something potentially noxious, like hot chilies. Even the penile erection and ejaculation requires the co-activation of both the systems (Berntson, Sarter, & Cacioppo, n.d.).

Conclusion

Changes in the activities of ANS can lead to diseases. Examining of the ANS is of special significance to psychologists, as ANS responses can be correlated with shifts in emotion, motivation, preferences and attention. They may also be linked to mental and physical health vulnerabilities. Autonomic nervous system responses can be measured with the help of electrodermal activity (EDA) (which measures the responses in the eccrine sweat glands), Electrocardiogram (ECG) (which measures the electric signal produced by the heart), impedance cardiography (which estimates the blood flow changes in the heart) and blood pressure detecting devices (Mendes, n.d.). ANS helps the body to respond to different stimuli and recover from it with time. A perfect functioning of the ANS is very essential for the maintenance of our day-to-day life.

References

Berntson, G, G., Sarter, M., Cacioppo, T, J. (n.d.). Autonomic nervous sytem. Retrieved July 12, 2013, from http://psychology.uchicago.edu/people/faculty/cacioppo/jtcreprints/bsc.ans.03.pdf

Mendes, B,W. (n.d). Autonomic Nervous System. Retrieved July 12, 2013, from http://www.wendyberrymendes.com/cms/uploads/Mendes%20-%20Autonomic%20nervous%20sys.pdf

Swenson, R. (2006). Chapter 3 - Peripheral nervous system. Dartmouth.edu. Retrieved July 12, 2013, from http://www.dartmouth.edu/~rswenson/NeuroSci/chapter_3.html

Sympathetic Nervous System & All About It. (n.d.). Retrieved July 12, 2013, from http://www.sympatheticnervoussystem.net/

The Nervous System (Chapter 11). (n.d.). Retrieved July 12, 2013, from http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0070960526/323541/mhriib_ch11.pdf

The Human Nervous System. (2004). Biologymad.com. Retrieved July 12, 2013, from http://www.biologymad.com/nervoussystem/nervoussystemintro.htm

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How Does DNA Help To Solve Crimes?

2022-09-12T12:37:00.011+05:30

How Does DNA Help To Solve Crimes?

Forensic science, alternatively known as legal medicine in many countries, aims to help the jury members to solve both criminal and civil cases. Advancements in the technologies of analysis of DNA have revolutionized this discipline of science. DNA or the Deoxyribonucleic acid is universally present in all the living beings. DNA is also known as the genetic blue print, as it stores information about an individual’s entire genetic makeup. It determines the physical features of an individual and various other attributes. This information stored in the DNA gets passed down from one generation to another. The unique nature of DNA in each individual (except identical twins) makes it to act as a powerful tool for law enforcement investigations. Apart from this, it can be extracted from various sources like blood, teeth, saliva, semen, hair, etc. DNA extracted from biological specimen acts as a lead to the investigators, especially in cases where there is no eyewitness (Butler, 2005). It is a very powerful tool, as the evidence collected form the scene of crime can be used as evidence even after decades, if it is properly preserved (Hart, 2002). Selected DNA sequences, called loci, are used to create a crime profile in the crime laboratory, which is later used for the identification of the suspect. Currently, DNA evidence is used to resolve criminal cases in two ways. Firstly, if the culprit is known, the DNA obtained from the crime scene can be matched with that of the culprit to establish that the culprit is involved/not involved, in the crime. Secondly, in cases where the suspect is unknown, the DNA obtained from the scene is matched with offender profiles obtained from the existing DNA databases. This helps to identify the culprit. This technology helps to link the evidence obtained from one crime scene with another, so that the same criminal responsible for both the crimes can be identified (James, 2012).

History of the Evolution of DNA Technology in Forensic Science

A forensic geneticist aims to identify the source of the biological specimen with high accuracy. Since the discovery of the human ABO blood group polymorphism by Landsteiner, it has been used to solve criminal cases. The main limitation of this system was that it can be used to prove an exclusion (that the specimen did not come from a particular individual), but cannot be used to ascertain the exact source of the material. Serological and protein electrophoretic methods were the only methods available till 1980s and the diversity in blood groups and polymorphic proteins were the only markers studied.

The application of DNA in forensic science began after the discovery of DNA fingerprinting by Alec Jefferies in 1984 (The History of DNA, n.d.). Detection of hypervariable loci, known as “minisatellites”, through hybridization of probes, increased the chances of finding an exact match. During the same period, differential lysis method, which enriches the sperm concentration in the vaginal fluid or semen mixture, was developed. This method facilitated the access of investigators to a surplus of suspect’s DNA, especially in the cases of rape. DNA fingerprinting technology was helpful in solving many paternity cases and criminal cases for some years. Later on, the focus shifted to the use of single-locus probes (SLPs), wherein each probe targeted a single, highly polymorphic, RFLP, making the interpretation highly specific. Development of PCR (polymerase chain reaction) methods in 1988 was another break through achievement, in the field of forensic science. Discovery of PCR technology which enables the rapid multiplication of a small fragment of DNA, made the analysis of minute quantities of degraded DNA possible. PCR based methods are currently widely used for all forensic DNA typing (Jobling and Gill, 2004). The practical application of DNA as an evidence was first noticed in 1987, when UK forensic investigators solved the ‘Black Pad’ murders and identified Colin Pitchfork as a killer. The launch of the national DNA database by FBI in 1998 was another major achievement (The History of DNA, n.d.).

Advancements in DNA Technology and Increased Forensic Applications

Since the discovery of polymorphism in certain areas of DNA (polymorphism is a character of DNA which means certain areas of DNA take different forms in different individuals), by Alec Jeffreys, these variable areas were used to differentiate one individual from another. Forensically important polymorphism is noticed in the non-expressed or junk DNA. The DNA present in the non-coding region of DNA exhibits high variability in length, as certain base sequences are repeated several times within these regions (Lyle, n.d.). Initially, only restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) technology was used to solve forensic cases. In this technology, enzymes known as “restriction endonucleases” were used to cut DNA in a specific pattern. DNA fragments of variable lengths were generated due to the presence or absence of certain recognition sites in DNA tested. However, this technology is not widely used currently, as large quantity of DNA required for testing may not be available or degradation of the sample due to environmental factors may have rendered the DNA unfit for RFLP analysis. The newer technological advancements in DNA analysis have proven to be more efficient in solving cases (Hart, 2002).

STR analysis- Currently, a forensic scientist generally looks for two kinds of repeats, which are, variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) or short tandem repeats (STRs). VNTRs are hundreds of base-pairs long and repeat along the length of the DNA. The number of repeats of these sequences differs from one person to another. STRs are very short, usually three to seven base-pairs long, which repeat in a fragment of DNA as long as 400 bases. Hence, STRs can be used to analyze very short fragments of DNA including those obtained from degraded samples (Lyle, n.d.). Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has identified 13 specific STR loci and the chances of finding two different individuals (except identical twins) with same 13-loci DNA profile are very low (one in one billion). These 13 specific STR loci are universally used by all the forensic laboratories so that a uniform DNA database can be established across different regions (Hart, 2002).

PCR analysis - Minute quantities of DNA obtained as biological evidence can be enhanced using PCR as it produces exact copies of DNA present in the evidence. It does not affect the original sample during this process. As it has the potency to replicate very minute quantities of DNA, this technology can be used to multiply degraded samples obtained from the crime scene. However, care should be taken while collecting and preserving the sample as this technique can multiply the DNA of unwanted contaminants also (Hart, 2002).

Mitochondrial DNA analysis - Evidences which cannot be analyzed through RFLP or STR are subjected to mitochondrial DNA analysis. Evidences like hair shaft, bones or teeth lack nucleated cells; hence DNA obtained from mitochondria is used for analysis as STR, and PCR can multiply the DNA obtained from the nucleus. The limitation of this technology is that, all the maternal relatives have identical mitochondrial DNA, hence making the investigation difficult. However, the other supporting evidences obtained can help to solve the cases.

Y- Chromosome analysis - Y-chromosome contains many genetic markers which can be used for forensic purposes. Analysis of these markers targets only the male suspects and it can prove to be a very valuable technique especially when the evidence contains a complex mixture containing the contributions from two or more male individuals. It can be used to trace family relationships amongst males, as the Y chromosome gets directly transmitted from father to sons.

A cooperative effort of police and crime laboratories will help to decide which method will suit better for a case.

Steps Involved In DNA Aided Investigation

FBI was authorized by Federal law to maintain a national DNA database, that is, National DNA Index System (NDIS), which works along with Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) software. Initially NDIS started with 9 participating states, but later it extended to almost 50 participating states (The FBI and DNA, 2011).

Collection of DNA samples - In order to establish such large database containing over 10 million DNA profiles, the first step is to obtain DNA samples legally. DNA sample can be acquired through any of the four fundamental legal strategies.

Voluntary - The suspects are asked to undergo DNA analysis voluntarily. Earlier, blood was drawn, but now-a-days buccal swab obtained from a tooth brush is used for analysis.

Court order - Depending upon the case, the court determines whether it is necessary to authorize a law enforcement agency to collect DNA sample from a particular suspect.

Law - Collection of a DNA sample from a defined group of individuals, like a group of arrestees or offenders, is made mandatory by the statute. This authorization is given when it is felt that the DNA samples of these criminals should be kept in a permanent record, that is, State or national DNA database.

Abandonment - The suspect himself handovers an item which contains his DNA sample during crime, unknowingly. For example, the suspect drinks beer and leaves the glass (Dale, Greenspan, and Orokos, 2006).

Storage of DNA profiles - The obtained DNA sample is subjected to the DNA analysis techniques mentioned above to achieve a DNA profile, which is just a series of numbers. Specific identification markers on the individuals DNA decide the numbers of the DNA profile (The FBI and DNA, 2011). These DNA profiles of different offenders are collected in a DNA database which is maintained by every state of the nation. The DNA databases can be maintained at three hierarchical levels, that is, local, state and national levels. The profiles obtained from the local cases are entered into the local databases (LDIS) and also recorded in the state level database (SDIS). A DNA profile obtained from a recent scene of crime may or may not match with DNA records obtained from the state level database. Hence, the state level information is uploaded into NDIS (national level database) on a weekly basis (The FBI and DNA, 2011).

Use of CODIS software - CODIS is a computer software which allows the law enforcement crime laboratories at national and state levels, to compare DNA profiles obtained from the crime scene with that of the profiles obtained from convicted offenders, electronically. Many criminals show recidivist nature and have a tendency to get involved in cases of sexual assault and burglary repeatedly. Hence, there is a high chance of existence of the DNA profile of such criminal in the database and can be used to match through CODIS (Hart, 2002). CODIS can be used to link one crime scene with another and can be helpful in identifying serial offenders. CODIS operates at three hierarchical levels, which are, local, state and national levels (Hart, 2002). Only criminal justice agencies meant for enforcement of law and identification of criminals, are authorized to use CODIS according to the federal law. The information in the database is not associated with any personal identifiers like name, date of birth, etc, to ensure that perfect confidentiality is maintained (The FBI and DNA, 2011).

Achievements of DNA Aided Investigation

The success of DNA aided investigation can be understood from the fact that a large number of criminal cases are presently being solved with the help of CODIS. A remarkable example of the application of DNA aided assistance is the identification of the victims of the September 11, World Trade Center attack, in 2001. It was a massive attack claiming the lives of a very large number of victims. Only bones or the tissue fragments were the remnants of many victims of the attack and identification of the victims was a biggest challenge. Professionals from the National Institutes of Health and other institutions were assigned the job of identification of victims from the degraded samples. Profiles were developed using SNPs and mitochondrial DNA and entered into the database of the victims. By the end of 2005, out of 2792 people claimed to be dead in the attack, 1585 people could be identified. The remaining cases were abandoned as the samples were highly degraded. In 2007, this case was reopened with the help of more sophisticated technology to enable further identification (DNA Forensics, 2009).

The results obtained from a five-city field study, conducted by the National Institute of Justice in 2008, showed that use of DNA was effective in the investigation of ordinary property crimes also. Almost twice the number of property crime suspects were caught when DNA was used as evidence. As the rate of suspects being caught increases, the rate of crime tends to decrease, and hence, the DNA technology ultimately proves to be cost effective (DNA and Property Crimes, 2010). Crimes like burglary, assault, and larceny were not generally associated with DNA analysis. Under a pilot project conducted by New York City Police Department (NYPD), officials were trained to identify the items which might contain biological evidence like cigarette butts, drink glasses etc. These evidences were subjected to DNA analysis. The aim of this project was to determine the extent to which these cases can be linked to more serious offenses like rapes or homicides. This study shows that offenders committing fewer offensive crimes can be linked to cases of rapes or homicides (in more than 30% of incidences). The success of this pilot project redefines the methodology of solving serious crimes (Dale, Greenspan and Orokos, 2006).

The Missing Persons DNA Database, created in Texas using mitochondrial DNA, has helped in the search of missing persons. This database targets the identification of the skeletal remains of unidentified human beings, kidnapped children, etc. This database is managed by FBI and the DNA profiles of the missing persons are matched with unidentified human remains, for example, those obtained from uncovered graves, crime victim remains etc.

Two hijackers of American Airlines Flight 11, involved in the attack of World Trade Center, were investigated to be brothers through near-match searching, using DNA. Apart from human crimes DNA testing has also been used to protect endangered species of animals and to prevent animal poaching.

Limitations of the use of DNA Technology in Forensic Science

DNA database can act as an efficient tool in the course of law enforcement only when it has more data of the offenders. But many jurisdictions are still in the process of developing their database. Because of this and several other reasons, many cases remain unsolved, creating a backlog. This DNA backlog may prevent the prosecution of the actual culprit or imprisonment of wrongly convicted individuals. This might increase the chances of crime as the offender is left free. Moreover, as the DNA database expands, there is an increased demand for the experts who can analyze DNA and create profiles of a large number of offenders. Space limitations of the laboratories allow the processing of the samples obtained from the most serious crimes only.

Overcoming the Technological Hurdles through New Developments in Molecular Biology

There have been major developments in the field of forensic science due to the developments in the field of molecular biology. Gone are the days when investigators used to rely on only physically observable large evidences. Now, it is possible to analyze samples obtained from a single strand of hair. Now-a-days, scientists are motivated to analyze more difficult samples like trace samples, termed touch DNA. Recent developments in molecular biology help the scientists to face tougher challenges. The use of mini-STRs, can enhance the efficacy of detection, especially when the DNA sample obtained is highly degraded. Because of the small size, the amplification products of mini-STRs have a tendency to overlap more in comparison to conventional STRs. Hence, reconfiguration of STR kits into mini STR kits, can promote betterment of the routine analysis. SNPs can be used as genetic markers to predict the appearance of the culprit in cases where the suspect is unidentifiable. These markers can be used to identify the individual’s facial features, height complexion, etc. This makes the investigation processes more focused. Post mortem analysis can be improved if genetic variation and its effects on metabolism are also considered. This will help to solve the cases which are usually considered as suicides or are categorized under unexplained deaths. The deaths in these cases can be due to various reasons like poisoning of the victim, making the victim incapable of performing any action, forcible intoxication of the victim by alcoholic drinks, etc. Present DNA typing techniques can only identify the source of the sample but, with the help of expression analysis, it is also possible to identify the tissue from which the source was obtained. Stains noticed in the crime scenes can be from both organic and inorganic sources and this technique might help to screen the samples from the human origin. This will prevent the unnecessary effort of subjecting all the stains to DNA typing (Budowle and van Daal, 2009).

There is no doubt that use of DNA in solving cases has significantly affected the speed and accuracy of investigation of criminal cases. A collective effort of the forensic scientists and police can help in catching criminals, hence reducing the crime rate. Due to the current advancements in this area, we might expect to see a group of highly trained and educated scientists with ultramodern devices meant for DNA profiling in their hand, at the scene of crime.

References

Butler, J, M. (2005). Forensic DNA typing : biology, technology, and genetics of STR markers. Amsterdam, Boston: Elsevier Academic Press.

Budowle, B and van Daal, A. (2009). Extracting evidence from forensic DNA analyses: future molecular biology directions. Biotechniques. 46(5), 339-40, 342-50. doi: 10.2144/000113136.

Dale, W,M., Greenspan, O and Orokos, D. (2006). DNA Forensics: Expanding Uses and Information Sharing. Retrieved April 17, 2013 from http://bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=774

DNA Forensics. (2009). Retrieved April 17, 2013 from http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/forensics.shtml

DNA and Property Crimes. (2010). Retrieved April 17, 2013 from http://www.nij.gov/topics/forensics/evidence/dna/property-crime/

Hart, S, V. (2002). Using DNA to Solve Cold Cases. Retrieved April 17, 2013 from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/194197.pdf

Jobling, M,A and Gill, P. (2004). Encoded evidence: DNA in forensic analysis. Nat Rev Genet, 5(10), 739-51.

James, N. (2012). DNA Testing in Criminal Justice: Background, Current Law, Grants, and Issues. Retrieved April 17, 2013 from http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41800.pdf

Lyle, D, P. (n.d.). Forensics: Fingering Criminals Using DNA. Retrieved April 17, 2013 from http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/forensics-fingering-criminals-using-dna.html

The FBI and DNA. (2011). Retrieved April 17, 2013 from http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2011/november/dna_112311

The History of DNA. (n.d.). Retrieved April 17, 2013 from http://www.forensicscience.ie/Services/Forensic-Areas/DNA/The-History-of-DNA/

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An interesting story about how DNA helps in solving crime

Biotechnology - A boon or a Burden for Indian Research scenario

2012-02-17T16:06:00.006+05:30

Biotechnology-A boon or a Burden for Indian Research scenario

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction:

2 LOOPHOLES IN INDIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM

2.1 Biotechnology and Indian Education System

2.2 Lack of Proper Application Orientation in Students

3 Impact of Government Policy on Biotechnological Research

3.1 Scenario of biotechnological research in India

3.2 Why does the Government of India limit its expenditure on Biotechnology?

3.3 Chances of flourishing in other areas

4 Where does biotechnology talent fizzle out?

5 Conclusion

6 References

1 INTRODUCTION:

The fascinating word ‘Biotechnology’ is framed from two words – Biology and technology. It is an applied field of biology which explains the technology involved in modifying the living organisms in order to fulfill the human needs. Simultaneous research in the areas of molecular biology and genetic engineering led to the development of this branch as a separate area of biology during the 1970s. This branch of biology comes up with some high-end promises like altering the genetic material for the advantage of the common man. These promises and the hype created by the media created a false concept within human beings that an in-depth knowledge in this area can make him/her earn a lot of wealth. With this hope, Biotechnology emerged as a profession across the world. Biotechnology was introduced in India during the mid-1980s. The establishment of “Department of Biotechnology” in India during 1986 further boosted commercial interests and research in the biotechnology field. It was during this time that it was introduced as a regular course at the Masters level to ape the improvements in the developed countries. But does biotechnology really have a promising future in India?

2 LOOPHOLES IN INDIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM:

2.1 Biotechnology and Indian Education System -

The development in biotechnological research across the world made one to foresee a bright future for the biotech industry. This created an urge to learn the techniques of biotechnology. Many universities cropped up in India, with a promise of teaching these techniques during the normal curriculum at the Masters level. Later, seeing the craze, many academic institutions started the course even at the graduate level (Lakhotia, 2010). To understand this subject, one has to have hands on experience during the laboratory sessions. It is very sad that many institutions in India cannot afford to have such costly equipment. They also lack trained experts who can handle sophisticated biotechnological equipments. The student is the ultimate scapegoat in this whole situation who comes out with a formal degree but lacks practical knowledge. Every year a large section of students come out with degrees in Biotechnology, but with the absence of practical knowledge, can they carry further research in this area?

2.2 Lack of Proper Application Orientation in Students -

Biotechnology is not a totally new subject which rose de novo. In fact, its roots can be traced back to the beginning of human civilization. The art of domestication of animals or farming which involves the selection of the best breed is nothing but the application of the concepts of biotechnology. Very intricate and sophisticated concepts of genetic engineering are taught to the student during the course. As a result he feels he can be placed only in some industry or research organization. He fails to realize that he can utilize the biotechnological development in day-to-day life also. He lacks the capacity to start some small scale industry and create self-employment. Establishment of a sophisticated biotechnological industry cannot be a choice of every student due to the heavy requirement of economic resources for this.

3 IMPACT OF GOVERNMENT POLICY ON BIOTECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH:

3.1 Scenario of biotechnological research in India -

An ongoing research and development is very essential to acquire new knowledge and to synthesize more improvised products. Research should be oriented to meet the upcoming challenges in the society. Generally, the research and development programs are covered by three primary sectors in the society. They are government, industries and the academic universities (Deloitte, 2011). In order to carry out in-house research, an industry needs to be considerably rich so that it can part with a section of its profits and promote research. The numbers of biotechnological industries which can carry out independent research in India are very limited. Hence the maximum responsibility lies with the government. Considerable efforts were made to promote the development of science and technology since the 11^th Five-year plan. Under 11^th Five-year plan, two organizations – CSIR and DSIR were established. These organizations were responsible to undertake research and development in various areas of science across the country. Upon thorough analysis of the spending pattern of CSIR and DSIR on various sectors of science, under 11^th Five-year plan, we can draw the following conclusions -

· A significant amount of money was invested in sectors like Aerospace science & engineering (approx 1300 crores, one crore is equal to 10 millions), Engineering materials, Mining/Minerals & Manufacturing technology (approx 900 crores), Pharmaceuticals, Healthcare & Drugs (approx 1000 crores), Information technology Resources and products (approx 800 crores) (Deloitte, 2011:10).

· In comparison to these sectors, a smaller amount (approx 800 crores) is allocated to the research in the area of biotechnology (Deloitte, 2011:10).

The inference drawn from this analysis is that there is a greater scope of research in other above-mentioned areas. It is really an astonishing fact but it is the truth of biotechnology in India. Many upcoming biotechnological projects within India are actually funded by industries or few wealthy individuals (Maria, Ruet, Zerah, n.d). In such a case the research is bound to be biased. The primary objective of doing good for the society, is lost and the individuals try to orient the research in such a way that they can fill their pockets.

3.2 Why does the Government of India limit its expenditure on Biotechnology?

Many people feel that the sky is the limit for Biotechnology and it can create anything. But the truth is that, there had been many mistakes related to recent Biotechnological research. A conspicuous example is the invention of genetically modified foods. The developed countries have realized the pitfalls associated with it and started dumping them in India and other third-world economies. The golden rice or GM rice had come up with a promise of fulfilling the vitamin A requirement of an individual. But when actual statistics were drawn, it was found that only a part of the daily requirement of this vitamin A is actually met with GM rice. In fact, there are some cheaper sources of vitamin A available. This analysis made this crop a failure in India (Bhargava, 2003). Similar is the case with Bt cotton. This product was truly an outcome of the greed of one company, that is, Monsanto. This crop had come up with a promise of producing its own pesticide hence controlling the primary pest – Boll worm. But in Indian conditions, Bt cotton failed to control secondary pests like lygus bugs, cotton aphids etc. Some of these pests became primary pests damaging the growth of the crops (Bhargava, 2003). These mistakes make one to ponder whether biotechnological research should be promoted or not. Why should money be wasted in a research which can prove to be a mistake after a few years? Some of these questions limit the expenditure of government on development of biotechnology.

3.3 Chances of flourishing in other areas -

According to the budget announcement for the year 2009-2010, the largest amount (71.7 billion rupees) was allocated for the development of atomic energy. This was followed by space program and defense research. The amount allocated for research in the areas of health, industrial research and Biotechnology was increased nominally by 4–12% in the same year (Jayaraman, 2009). It is very clear from these statistics that it is better to choose a career in other areas rather than pursuing higher studies in Biotechnology. There will be a greater number of Government-funded projects in the above mentioned areas; hence, chances of getting recruited are more. Greater research in focus areas has a direct correlation with greater job opportunities in that industry. Hence students pursuing higher studies in these areas have better chances of settling in jobs in those industries.

4 Where does biotechnology talent fizzle out?

In India, every year, a large number of students come out with various degrees in Biotechnology like MSc, B,Sc, B.Sc.-B.Tech. and M.Sc.-M.Tech. They join this course with a hope of carrying out innovative research in this area, but unfortunately, end up into some unrelated activities. Some students try to enter the pharmaceutical industry as the opportunities are high in this area and many settle down as teachers in various Universities. In India, teachers have hardly any chance to perform research or publish their own papers within the universities. Hence, these people are bound to teach only the theoretical concepts, ultimately producing another chunk of students with undefined destiny.

5 Conclusion:

The subject, Biotechnology, can prove to be a boon in Indian society only after a large number of changes are made. These changes include enhancing the Laboratory facilities so that the students come up with good practical knowledge. The students should have the knowledge of those biotechnological applications which will help them in their day-to-day activities, for example, how to increase the crop yield in a limited area, how to practice terrace farming in order to get a good output etc. However the present education system in India does not support this. It can only produce degree-holders who search for a job in an industry with no bent for future research. The bent of government spending patterns towards atomic energy and defense is justified as safeguarding the well being of the country is its primary responsibility. Its investment in the areas of pharmaceuticals, health and information technology yields promising monetary benefits. Keeping this expenditure pattern of the government in mind, it is better to opt for certain other courses like information technology, aerospace engineering, Pharmacy, atomic science etc rather than investing the time and talent in Biotechnology.

6 References:

1. Lakhotia, S.C 2010, Hype and the Reality of Biotechnology, viewed 25^th January 2012, <http://www.indiabioscience.org/article/lakhotia>.

2. Deloitte, 2011, Research & Development expenditure, A concept paper, viewed 25^th January 2012, <http://www.deloitte.com/assets/DcomIndia/Local%20Assets/Documents/Whitepaper_on_RD_expenditure.pdf>.

3. Maria, A, Ruet, J and Zerah, M.H n.d., Biotechnology in India, viewed 25^th January 2012, <http://www.cerna.ensmp.fr/Documents/AM-JR-MHZ-BiotechReport.pdf>.

4. Bhargava, P.M 2003, Indian biotechnology needs truth, not hype, viewed 25^th January 2012, < http://biospectrumindia.ciol.com/content/columns/103102001.asp>.

5. Jayaraman, K.S 2009, India hikes science budget despite slowdown, viewed 25th January 2012, <http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090708/full/news.2009.652.html>.

Predictive Breeding - A New Milestone on the Road of Agricultural Success!

2011-09-27T11:53:00.005+05:30

With the advent of genetic engineering, there has been a drastic change in the agricultural techniques. Gone are those days when man used to depend solely on nature for rainfall, soil fertility etc. Modern-man can toy with the genetic sequence and identify the part of genome which is beneficial for him.

An attempt to improve the crop varieties began almost simultaneously with the agricultural practices. Around ten thousand years ago, man started to alter the genetic make up of crops without his knowledge. The conventional plant breeding practices began when early farmers selected the plant with desirable traits and saved its seeds for the next generation. Later with the knowledge of genetics, plant breeders were able to select the crops with desirable traits like faster growth, pest and disease resistance, sweeter fruits, larger seeds etc. Two plants having two different desirable characters were cross-pollinated artificially to obtain an offspring containing a mixture of these characters (hybrid variety). As a net result of these techniques new varieties of crops have developed which are significantly different from their wild relatives. Conventional breeding techniques largely depend on selection of superior varieties of crops and incorporation of desirable traits into future generations.

Genetic engineering has brought quantum change from conventional breeding practices and has introduced combination of genes which do not exist naturally. Sequencing of genomes of various plants has now become feasible with the faster progression in genetic engineering. Predictive breeding is an advanced technique which comes up with a promise of identifying the beneficial genes out of the entire genome. Genetic markers like SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphism) or minisatellites are used to construct linkage maps. The linkage maps help to identify the traits which are inherited together. The knowledge of genome sequence along with the linkage maps helps to associate the beneficial traits of the plant with specific parts of genome sequence.

Complicated genomes of polyploid crops pose a serious problem to predictive breeding. A cell of a polyploidy organism has more than two sets of homologous chromosomes and each set contains all the genes responsible for the biological traits of that organism. Professor Ian Bancroft took this as a challenge and identified the sequence of rapeseed (Brassica napus). This crop has been found to originate from two related species that is Brassica rapa and Brassica oleracea. Rapeseed (Brassica napus) was declared as a third leading source of vegetable oil in the world in the year 2000. Canola is the name given to Canadian oil that is extracted from certain varieties of Rapeseed. This oil is a rich source of essential fatty acids (omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in the ratio of 2:1). Apart from these it is also an important source of Biodiesel which can power motor vehicles. This oil is generally combined with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% of biodiesel. This does not damage the engine. Isn’t it an eco-friendly plant?

Sequencing the DNA of this plant directly was difficult because of its complicated genome. Hence they adopted a different strategy. Transcriptomes were sequenced from young juvenile leaves. Transcriptome is a set of all RNA molecules, including mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, and other non-coding RNA. It represents a small percentage of the genome. The sequence of a transcriptome mirrors the sequence of the DNA from which it was transcribed. This study gives an idea about all the genes which get expressed into proteins in that tissue. Sequence of transcriptome will act like a raw material for scientists struggling to locate the human friendly genes within the entire genome of the polyploid plants. Based on this improved varieties of seeds can be produced.

A large number of crops like potato, wheat, oat, sugarcane, cotton etc are polyploid and few crops amongst them are staple crops in certain parts of the world. Transcriptome sequencing will help the scientists to identify the desirable genes even in the absence of complete genome sequence. This new technique will make predictive breeding of crops with complicated genomes feasible.

Reference:

Bancroft I, Morgan C et al. Dissecting the genome of the polyploid crop oilseed rape by transcriptome sequencing. Nat Biotechnol. 2011 Jul 31.

Honey! Why do you have such long life?

2011-09-27T11:52:00.004+05:30

Honey is fructose rich sweet syrup, which is naturally prepared by honey bees. Honey bees collect the sweet nectar from the plants, refine it with the help of their saliva and regurgitate into the honey comb cells of the beehive. Fanning by the honey bees reduces the water content of honey.

Food substances have a restricted shelf life beyond which they tend to get decomposed and spoilt. Bacteria, fungi and yeasts are the main culprits behind food decay. There are many factors like, temperature, amount of water, pH of food substances etc which decide the rate of growth of these micro-organisms.

Honey is one of the miracle foods and it has been used by human beings since ages. Its world wide use is because of its multifarious benefits with an added longer shelf life. Honey in its raw form is pure and can stay for centuries together. During the excavation of Egyptian pyramids, honeycombs, sealed jars of honey were detected which were not decayed. This is a clear evidence for the fact that pure honey can be preserved for a considerably long period.

A sufficiently long life of honey is by virtue of its unique composition and its physical properties. Chemically honey is made up of 82% of carbohydrates. Fructose (38.2%) is the major monosaccharide in it. Other carbohydrates present in honey are glucose (31%), maltose (7%), and sucrose (1%). It is rich in amino acid proline, vitamins and antioxidants. Moisture content of pure honey varies between 14%-18%.

Properties which prevent honey from decay are:

Purity of honey is assessed by its moisture content. Water content below 20% indicates a good quality of honey. This concentration of water is insufficient for the airborne micro-organisms to breed and multiply.
Honey has a very low pH ranging from 3 to 4.5. Acidic pH inhibits the growth of many micro-organisms.
A higher concentration of sugar is another primary factor which curtails the growth of micro-organisms. The combination of high sugar concentration and low water content prevents it from getting fermented. Micro-organisms fail to sustain as they get dehydrated by the process of osmosis due to a high concentration of sugar. The same principle is used in the preservation of fruit jams.
Hydrogen peroxide is produced by the enzyme glucose oxidase present in honey which is competent in inhibiting the microbial growth in honey.
The percentage of proteins is relatively low. Microorganisms fail to live in such low nitrogenous content.
Many microorganisms fail to digest fructose which is the major component of honey.

Honey finds a widespread application in our day to day life ranging from food to medicinal and therapeutic use. Its increased shelf life is like an added flavor. Pure honey properly stored in glass or ceramic containers with tight lids can be relished for ages together.

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Biological Water Purification - Some More Techniques

2011-09-07T08:32:00.002+05:30

Palatable clean drinking water is becoming scarce in the present day world. Water table is decreasing day by day and the river water, even after treatment on a community basis, contains many contaminants. The levels of many pollutants like selenium, chromium, cadmium and arsenic have increased in water to dangerous levels. A long-term consumption of these pollutants may damage kidneys, liver and our nervous system. These also could lead to deadly diseases like cancer.

Off late we have different kinds of purifiers available in the market which are available at a very wide range of prices. These purifiers are associated with their own disadvantages, like, some of them consume energy in the form of electricity, some are made up of non biodegradable materials, some are very costly etc.

Some plants have been proved to be excellent for water purification. Plants like the Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) or Moringa (Moringa oleifera) have the capacity to purify water. The Prickly pear cactus was used for water purification by Mexican communities long back during the 19th-century. As man marched ahead on the roads of civilization these facts were forgotten by him. He started his hunt for high technology methods of water purification.

A group of scientists from the University of South Florida in Tampa rediscovered the natural method of water purification using prickly pear cactus in 2010.

Norma Alcantar and her colleagues have used sophisticated microscopic analysis to prove the effects of cactus on dirty water.

Mucilage is glue like gummy substance secreted by plants which acts as a flocculant in water. It can precipitate substances into flakes and hence can remove substances like heavy metals (selenium, chromium, cadmium and arsenic) and even bacteria from water [1]. This thick gum is used by the plant to store water. When this magical mucilage is added to water, it sticks to the sediment particles and bacteria, which later drops down to the bottom of the water samples. According to Alcantar 98% of added bacteria, Bacillus cereus, was removed from the water sample. However, experiments are yet to be carried in natural water.

Apart from cactus there are some other plants also which help in water purification.

Drumstick (Moringa Oleifera) – It is a drought resistant tree which can grow on a large number of poor soils including barren land. The seeds of this tree have coagulant properties and can purify turbid contaminated water. The seeds have to be crushed and the paste has to be mixed with water. The water has to be left undisturbed for an hour. The paste coagulates suspended impurities like bacteria, dirt etc and make water ready for domestic consumption. Dust and bacteria settle down which can be later be separated from pure water lying on the top. The protein component of these seeds acts as polyelectrolyte which can cross-link with charged particles.
Nirmali (Strychnos potatorum) – The seeds of this plant are commonly used to clean water in India.

Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum) – It is a famous medicinal plant and finds a widespread application in India. The seeds of this plant are also known for their water purification properties. However these seeds can purify water up to a certain extent and make it palatable for domestic purposes.

Many rural and underdeveloped countries have no access to the conventional water purification devices due to which people dwelling there are forced to drink contaminated water. Cactus plant and other plant products can be grown at many places at a lower cost. These plants can serve as a natural and renewable material for water filtration and at the same time save the lives of many people. It is a cost-effective alternative and also saves a lot of energy.

Reference:

Buttice AL, Alcantar NA et al. Removal of sediment and bacteria from water using green chemistry. Environ Sci Technol. 2010 May 1;44(9):3514-9.

Role of Salt in Hypertension

2011-08-08T17:12:00.003+05:30

Hypertension or high blood pressure has become a common problem for the modern man. Modern lifestyle habits, nature of work, lack of exercise and poor dietary habits are some of the factors which are leading to hypertension in the present generation. A persistent high pressure increases the risk of a heart attack, stroke or congestive heart failure thus affecting the longevity of life. High blood pressure may even damage eyes and kidneys.

Hypertension or high blood pressure

Blood gets circulated throughout our body through arteries and veins. Our heart acts like a pumping machine which collects the deoxygenated blood and supplies the oxygenated blood to the body. The increase in blood pressure is noticed during two conditions, that is, during the increase in the volume of blood or when there is a constriction in the blood vessels. These two conditions lead to an elevation in the systemic arterial blood pressure.

How does the salt intake affect hypertension?

Table salt or sodium chloride is one of the main constituent of our diet. Apart from adding taste to our food it performs vital functions like water regulation in our body. It gets absorbed by our gastrointestinal tract and is excreted out by our kidneys. The excess of salt is flushed out by the kidneys to maintain the balance in our body. But if the salt intake is too high and if kidneys fail to cope up, the excess of salt gets accumulated in our bloodstream. Salt draws more water by the process of osmosis and leads to water retention in the blood vessels. This excess volume of blood creates pressure on the walls of the blood vessels leading to hypertension.

Dietary recommendations for the salt intake

We require 500 milligrams of salt every day for the normal functioning of the body. Our sodium intake should be kept between 2-3 grams.

Richness of sea salt

Research shows that hypertension is noted more in the cases of people consuming table salt which has 99.9 percent of pure sodium chloride. On the other hand sea salt which contains about 95 percent of sodium chloride, 4 percent of potassium chloride and the rest being a mixture of vital minerals like magnesium, iodine and trace elements has found to be a better option for hypertensive patients.

Sea salt is manufactured by the evaporation of sea water and usually exists in the form of crystals. The sea salt has a refreshing taste and is lightly flavored than the table salt.

Our body requires a perfect balance between the minerals like sodium and potassium. In fact a higher intake of sodium accompanied with a lower intake of potassium may lead hypertension. So the intake of sea salt is advisable for hypertensive patients.

Suggested measures to reduce salt intake

Salt intake has been directly associated with hypertension. Hence it is a common advice of all the doctors to reduce the salt intake. Slight modifications in our cooking practices help us to lead a better life. For example salt should be added during the process of cooking and not after the cooking is complete. Actually food should be cooked along with salt for at least 10 minutes.

Processed foods like chips, have a very high salt content. Salt is sprinkled over these items for better taste and this is harmful for our body. Even pickles and canned foods contain a higher content of salt. So it is advisable to avoid such processed foods.

Fresh fruits and vegetables are rich in nutrients and antioxidants. Eating these fruits and vegetables is good for our health.

Natural food items cooked in a lesser amount of sea salt are ideal for hypertensive patients.

Salts which when consumed in moderate quantities might control Bp. Buy on amazon

Natural Food Preservatives

2011-08-08T17:11:00.000+05:30

Preserving food for long time was a necessity of mankind since time immemorial. The availability of certain food items was limited to a particular season. Man's desire to use them throughout the year motivated him to invent certain methods by which food items could be stored for a longer duration without a significant change in taste.

Food items can be categorized into perishable and non-perishable food items. Perishable items are those which get spoilt soon and are more prone to the attack of micro-organisms. Examples of some such items are vegetables, fruits, meat, eggs, milk etc. These items have a very short shelf life. On the other hand non-perishable foods are those which take a long duration to get spoilt like rice, wheat, oils, dried pulses etc.
The aim of using preservatives is to convert these perishable food items to non-perishable ones or extend the shelf-life. Food gets spoilt due to the attack of micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi, yeast etc. They bring some undesirable chemical changes in the food. Food preservatives inhibit these chemical changes through various ways.

Food preservatives are of two types: natural and artificial; and both try to maintain the quality, edibility and nutritive value of the foods.

Classification of Natural Food Preservatives

Depending on their mode of action, food preservatives are broadly classified into three kinds.

Antimicrobial preservatives which inhibit the growth of the microorganisms
Antioxidant preservatives which inhibit the oxidation of food ingredients like fats, lipids etc
Preservatives which target the enzymes within the food stuffs and hence prevent the natural activities like ripening of food or post harvest ageing of food stuffs.

Some of the natural food preservatives include substances like salt, sugar, rosemary extract, essential oils, vinegar etc. Out of these, substances like salt, sugar and oils are used in our day-to-day life. Ongoing research is targeted towards the search of some new natural food preservatives. Let us discuss about a few preservatives in detail.

Salt: Salt has been used to preserve food items like meat and fish since ages. At very high concentrations of salt, the cells of the micro-organisms loose water and dehydrate by the process of osmosis. It inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeasts and molds by the process of osmosis. Salting of meat preserves it for years. During pickling, raw mangoes, tomatoes etc are treated with considerably large amounts of salt. Even some vegetables like cabbage cauliflower and cucumber can be preserved by pickling them with salting.

Sugar: Sugar is a carbohydrate and the mechanism by which it stores food is same as that of salt. This substance also dehydrates the microorganisms by the process of osmosis. There are two ways in which the food stuffs can be stored in sugar.

Thick concentrated sugar syrup can be prepared and the food substances can be immersed in it.
The food items can be cooked in sugar until sugar reaches the point of crystallization. A higher concentration of sugar sweetens the food and either inhibits the growth of microorganisms or kills them by the process of osmosis. Sugar is generally used to preserve fruits like apple, peach, pear, plum etc in the form of jams and jellies.

Vinegar: This acidic solution is prepared by the fermentation of sugar and water solution. The process of fermentation is carried beyond the alcohol stage. Vinegar contains acetic acid which kills the bacteria due to its acidity or lower pH. Vinegar is used to preserve meats and vegetables during pickling. Even during the process of canning vinegar is used to increase the shelf life of the food items.

Rosemary Extract: This is prepared by the distillation of rosemary leaves and is known for its pleasant aroma and flavor. This substance has been used as a preservative since ages because of its antioxidant properties. It prevents the oxidation of food stuffs thus retaining the flavor and color of the food. The natural compounds present in the Rosemary extract like phenolic diterpenes, rosmarinic acid, carnosol are responsible for its antioxidant properties.

Some Traditional Practices of Food Preservation

With the advancement in technology, man has conquered many difficult situations. In olden days, means of transport were not that efficient and moreover crops and vegetables grown in a particular area were very much dependent on the seasonal conditions in that area. These conditions encouraged people at that time to adapt certain practices which helped them to preserve food throughout the year. Some of these traditional practices are as follows -

Indian plums, commonly known as ber in Hindi and regu pandu in Telugu, is a seasonal fruit which is generally seen in the market between January and March. A dish called regu adaa helps to preserve it for the whole year. To prepare this, seeds are removed and the fruits are beaten into a semi-solid paste. After adding salt, the paste is made into small biscuits and then sun dried.

Cluster beans, commonly known as Guar-ki-phalli in Hindi and goru chikkudu in Telugu, is a nutritious vegetable. In order to preserve it, it is cut into medium size pieces, about one to one-and-a-half inch in length and soaked in buttermilk along with salt. This has to be soaked for a span of 24 hours and then sundried. These sundried pieces can be fried in oil and eaten along with rice.

Coccinia cordifolia, commonly known as kundru in Hindi and dondakayi in Telugu, can be cut into pieces. After applying salt to these pieces, they can be sun-dried and later these pieces can be stored for a long duration. Whenever required they can be fried and taken along with rice.

Brinjal, commonly known as baingan in Hindi and vankai in Telugu, is a very commonly used vegetable across India. Even this vegetable can be cut into pieces and dried in sun after applying salt. Before cooking, the dried pieces have to be soaked for half-an-hour in water and then can be used to prepare a tasty curry along with tamarind water and jaggery.

Mango - Good raw mangoes are available only in the summer season. They can be preserved in different forms of pickles. Apart from that small mango pieces can be sundried after application of salt. These mango pieces can be added to dhal through out the year.

It is true that nowadays we get all the food stuffs throughout the year with a variation in price. Fruits are no longer seasonal and they are ripened with the help of chemicals like ethylene. A few months back around November 2010 there was a heavy increase in the market price of all the vegetables. This crisis situation stayed for a span of three months but it affected many people. If we can adopt these traditional practices in our day to day life we can be ready to face any sort of odd situations. Not only this, we can prevent the wastage of huge quantities of food items also.

Acknowledgements:

The information in this article is primarily sourced from discussions on preservation techniques with the author's mother-in-law, Mrs. Haimavathi, who has used the techniques in the past and still continues to follow some of these practices.

Pollinator Shortage Affects the Global Health

2011-08-08T14:11:00.000+05:30

Pollinators play a central role in the reproductive propagation of flowering plants. Tiny insects or animals which act as pollinators include honey bees, butterflies, hummingbirds, bats, and ants. Plants yielding nutritionally rich fruits and vegetables are dependent to a large extent on pollinators.

Since past 50 years production of staple crops like rice, potato, wheat, yam etc has almost doubled. These crops mainly supply energy to our body and they are mostly wind-pollinated, self-pollinated, or vegetatively propagated. However our diet is incomplete without certain vital nutrients like vitamins and minerals and they are supplied by animal or insect pollinated plants.

According to the recent research conducted by Eilers et al. (2011) majority of oil produced from the plant sources comes from the plants which are animal pollinated. Vital nutrients like vitamin A, C and E come from animal pollinated fruits and vegetables. It has been estimated that approximately 70% of vitamin A and 98% of key nutrients like

Carotenoids, lycopene and ß-cryptoxanthin are obtained from plants which yield red, orange and yellow vegetables and fruits. These nutrients help us to fight cardiovascular diseases and cancer and are a source of antioxidants to the body. Plants like beans and dark green leafy vegetables are rich in folic acid which is very essential during pregnancy.

Eilers and his team have noticed a direct correlation between the increases in the yield of these plants with the increase in the number of pollinators. Apart from this the supply of certain vital minerals like calcium and fluorine and iron, increases with an increase in pollination of plants like beans, almonds and nuts.

Human intervention has reduced the number of pollinators to a very large extent. Deforestation over a vast area destroys the habitat and depletes the source of food for pollinators. This automatically reduces their number. Monoculture-based agricultural production that is planting similar crop year after year with a support of chemicals in the form of fertilizers and pesticides not only depletes the soil of its natural fertility but also reduces the number of pollinators. Some other factors which effect the pollinator population include, pesticides, insect and animal diseases and parasites.

A large number of nutrient supplements are available in market. But are they affordable to a common man belonging to the developing country? Moreover the synthesis of these supplements involves huge expenditure. Should we go ahead with the rampant use of chemicals to increase the food production or revert back to traditional eco-friendly farming practices? The choice is left to us.

References

Eilers EJ, Kremen C et al. Contribution of pollinator-mediated crops to nutrients in the human food supply. PLoS One. 2011;6(6):e21363

Manipulation of Plant’s Defense by Herbivores Poses Challenge to Entomologists

2011-08-08T14:07:00.000+05:30

Plants have inherent defensive mechanism which protects them from their predators and phytopathogens. Their inability to move is largely complemented by the defensive adaptations which help the plants to survive and reproduce successfully. One of the most important defensive mechanisms is production of secondary metabolites. These metabolites are the chemical substances which are not involved in the normal photosynthetic process of the plants. They are alternatively known as allelochemicals and they can influence the behavior, growth, or survival of herbivores. Allelochemicals act as toxins to herbivores and in some cases also reduce the digestibility of plant cell wall.

Some external structural features on the stem and the leaves (prickles, spines, thorns etc) discourage herbivory to a very large extent. These mechanical defensive mechanisms deter, injure, or kill the grazer. Some defensive substances like wax, resins, lignins, etc. are released on the plants’ epidermis and prevent the herbivores from feeding on them. Apart from these, sensitivity to touch shown by Mimosa pudica is another example of defense mechanism in plants.

Herbivores form a primary link in the food chain, as they are the source of energy for organisms ranking higher in the food chain. Plants are the only source of food for herbivores and this led to the co-evolution of adaptations, which help them to acquire their food, irrespective of the defense mechanisms in plants. Some of these adaptations are:

· synthesis of enzymes which can reduce the effect of secondary metabolites

· existence of internal symbiotic bacteria, fungi, or protozoa which help to break down the plant cellulose so that it can be digested by the herbivore

· mechanical adaptations like incisors in moths which helps them to eat soft leaves.

Amongst these adaptations, host manipulation is the most important mechanism by which herbivores feed on the plants in a better way. According to the recent research conducted by Renato Almeida Sarmento and his team, invasive spider mite Tetranychus evansi, manipulates its host (tomato), by interfering with signalling pathways involved in its defense mechanism [1].

Primary hosts for T. evansi are solanaceous crops like tomato, potato, tobacco etc. These mites puncture the leaves while feeding, leading to yellowing or whitening of leaves. Subsequently the leaves fall down and in case of severe attack the plant dies. The study conducted by Sarmento, suggests that T. evansi, manipulates the host defense mechanism by suppressing the induction of the salicylic acid and jasmonic acid signalling routes which are involved in plant defenses in tomato plant [1]. Salicylic acid and jasmonic acid play a vital role in plants immunity. Spider mites reduce the levels of inducible defense compounds and volatiles (example, proteinase inhibitors) which play a crucial role in plants defense.

Crops like tomato and potato find a widespread use across the world. Control of pathogens affecting these crops is a vital area of research. The result of the research by Sarmento, provides a better understanding of the plant–herbivore interactions. It opens the gateway for further research in two directions:

· Biological control of Tetranychus evansi at an affordable cost to the farmer.

· Developing crop varieties which are able to combat the manipulations by herbivores.

Reference:

Sarmento R, Lemos F et al. A herbivore that manipulates plant defense. Ecol Lett. 2011 March 14(3): 229–236.

Organ Donation – Saves another Life

2011-08-08T13:56:00.000+05:30

During organ donation, solid organs like kidney, heart, pancreas, liver, bone marrow, eyes and limbs, are removed from the body of the donor and transplanted into the body of the recipient. Some of these organs can be preserved and utilized for future transplant. Vital organ like heart cannot be removed from a living person. Hence such organs are acquired from cadaver donors, who have died recently. Organs are separated from live donors in two cases

1) When the organs are present in pairs. Example kidney

2) When the removal of a portion of an organ does not effect the functioning of organ. Example liver, bone-marrow, pancreas

Legalization of transplantation of human organs has given rise to the concept of brain dead. Brain death is state of legal death. In this state the heart continues to beat and all the vital organs are kept alive and functional with the help of mechanical ventilation. This is a state during which the brain is dead and in an unrecoverable state – meaning – cannot be brought back to life. This condition is optimum to remove the organs for transplantation.

Consent of the Donors

Organ donation should happen only with the consent of the donor, if alive. In most cases, the donor registers himself or herself as a donor where he agrees to donate specific organs on his death. This is very common in the case of eye-donation and there are multiple organizations catering to this. After getting registered, the donors are issued a card which certifies their wish to donate organs. It is the donor’s responsibility to keep his family informed of his decision so that in case of death, the family can notify the organization that registered him. The organizations try to reach the person in the earliest possible time to retrieve the organs after death. In some cases, the family of a victim of an accident may decide to donate the organs of the brain-dead victim.

National Marrow Donor Program maintains a list of people willing to donate bone marrow to a stranger and here are some links given below where we can register ourselves as organ donors

http://www.medicareaustralia.gov.au/public/services/aodr/register.jsp

http://www.sgrh.com/subcat.aspx?id=51

http://www.organdonation.nhs.uk/ukt/roadshow.jsp

http://www.iaod.org/donor-registration-card-organ-donation.htm

Regulation of Organ Donation

Organ donation and transplant has always had a lot of regulation surrounding it.

The reasons behind intense regulation are many, primary reason being exploitation and corruption. Seeing the high demand of organs, doctors and organ vendors try to exploit a common man by taking out his organs without his consent. Organ selling is legally banned in India but there are many areas where poor people are encouraged to sell their organs in return of money. On the ethical side, questions like - can a person who is mentally retarded be allowed to donate, can infants be donors, and so on have necessitated the stringent regulation of organ donation.

Does organ transplantation bring an end to the treatment procedure?

Once an organ is implanted into the body a long journey of recovery with intense medication begins. The body recognizes an implanted organ as a foreign body and the immune system wakes up. It tries to produce antibodies against the implanted organ and hence rejecting it. The patient is kept on strong immunosuppressant drugs for a long duration to allow the implanted organ to work properly.

Milestones Covered on the Road of Organ Transplant

Transplantation of kidney was only feasible in the beginning but now transplantation of heart, liver, pancreas, skin, bone marrow, limbs intestines etc is also feasible.
Now we have a wider choice as we can collect organs from both living and dead people.
Discovery of strong immunosuppressant drugs has increased the success rate of organ transplants.
Xenotransplantation or use of animal organs for human transplantation has takes us a step ahead. Example Chimpanzee kidneys were transplanted into patients with renal failure. A baboon heart was transplanted into a newborn infant.
Syntheses of artificial organs for transplantation – Examples in this line are bionic eyes and ears, artificial heart.
Organ from a single donor is being used for more than one patient by splitting it. Example split liver transplant where liver from a single donor was used for implantation into multiple recipients.
Pioneering research – Stem cells have an enormous capacity to develop into any kind of tissue within the body including organs. Scientists aim to synthesize organs using the stem cells.

A large number of deaths have been reported to be due to the lack of organs ready for transplantation. Many patients live years together on expensive dialysis as they do not get a kidney donor. Lack of public awareness and inclination towards organ donation are main hurdles in this line. Galore of controversies and ethical issues surrounding organ donation accompanied by unawareness have made this procedure difficult. A voluntary organ donation saves another life.

Preservation of Suji or Semolina

2011-08-08T11:37:00.000+05:30

Suji is vital ingredient in many Indian foods like upma, halwa, vada, laddoos, rava dosas etc. A porridge made of suji is a good weaning food for toddlers. Suji rava is prepared from wheat. The wheat grains are fed into rollers to remove the bran and germ. The remaining starchy part or the endosperm is broken down into pieces. A sieve made of net or mesh is used to separate the lighter part which is bran. The semolina pieces are further crushed to obtain fine flour.

Suji is a high calorie diet which provides energy for long period after consumption. It provides complex carbohydrates to our body. It is a processed food and vital components of grains like bran (fiber rich part) and germ (rich source of vitamin B complex, vitamin E, and minerals like Iron and calcium and magnesium) are lost during processing.

However nutritional value of any food item depends a lot on the method of preparation also. Many dishes like suji roti, rava-ragi rotis, rava idlis, rava dosas etc can be prepared using very less amount of oil. This will reduce the fat intake and also reduce the cholesterol levels. We can also add some grated vegetables in these dishes to supplement other nutritional requirements. We can prepare a wide variety of yummy dishes by slightly changing the formula of cooking. Isn’t that great about suji!

Porridge of suji with milk and sugar is cherished by infants. This gets easily digested and can be supplemented with smashed vegetables and fruits for a wholesome diet. Suji is generally stored in containers on the shelf and does not require refrigeration. Rava can be considered to be good until the rava granules are separate like that of sugar. However upon infestation, it starts forming threads. We can increase the shelf life of suji. All we need to do is fry siji for a few minutes over a low flame. After frying for few minutes the colour of rava turns out to be light brown accompanied with nice aroma. This should be cooled properly and then packed in air tight containers. This technique extends the shelf life of suji. Even after this if we find any signs of infestation it should be sun dried and used as soon as possible.

Introduced Species – Effect on Biodiversity

2011-07-15T12:26:00.000+05:30

Introduction of an exotic, non-native species into the distributional range, either deliberately or accidentally by human activity many-a-times poses a serious threat to the local habitat. A habitat containing all indigenous varieties tries to balance and control each species living within its limits. An introduced species has no enemies to control it; hence they slowly out number the native species and compete with them for the available resources.

Threats to biodiversity are many like habitat destruction by forest clearing, release of poisonous gasses due to industrialization etc. Out of all these threats introduction of exotic species ranks second. In fact, native biodiversity is affected more by introduced species rather than by pollution, harvest, and disease combined.

Some of these species are also being used as biological weapons as they cause mass destruction of ecosystem.

Examples of Damage to Biodiversity

Species are habitat-specific and can thrive only in a particular habitat but introduced species change the entire habitat and cause a major threat to biodiversity.

Australian paperbark tree was introduced which replaced native plants, such as sawgrass, over a wide range of about 400,000 acres of south Florida. Australian paperbark tree had a combination of traits like flammable leaves, spongy outer bark and litter which can increase fire frequency and intensity. The uncontrolled spread of paperbark made many birds and mammals extinct as they were adapted to the native plant community.

Some other invasive species, do not change a habitat, but pose a threat to a single species. Sometimes they even destroy the entire groups of them in various ways.

Brown tree-snake, is a predator which was introduced from Admiralty Islands in cargo. This brown tree snake has affected forests of Guam by eliminating ten of the eleven native bird species.

Some times the impact of invaders is subtle but destroys the native species at the same time.

In North America native red squirrels are being driven to extinction by gray squirrels. Both these species compete for nuts and gray squirrels are more efficient than the native species. Such competition for resources is difficult to observe, but loss of a native species is the end result.

An interesting example amongst plants is that of acacia and the eucalyptus. These species were brought from Australia as a part of afforestation programmes. These are quick growing plants and were encouraged as the demand for wood had also increased. But these plants are known for their large number of disadvantages like:

These trees shade the ground and the leaves that are shed do not allow other plants to grow.
These trees do not decompose easily
During the rains there is heavy erosion and poor percolation in the areas rich in these trees.

Only a few Introduced species are beneficial. Like most of our food crops (rice), onion, chilies and pets. The statistics of damaging introduced species is startling. The solution to this problem is stringent quarantine rules at all entry and exit points like airports, harbours, border crossing areas etc.

Such proactive measures to check this problem will allow the existing plants and animals to flourish in their natural surroundings and habitat.

Control Measures of Soil Pollution

2011-07-15T12:20:00.000+05:30

The natural resource, soil, is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earth's rocky surface. Soil formation involves a large number of factors and is a time taking process. Mechanical weathering of rocks due to temperature changes, wind, moving water, lichens are a few of the contributing factors.

Pollutants like toxic compounds, radioactive materials, salts, chemicals, when added to the soil, deteriorate the quality, texture and mineral content of the soil. This leads to soil pollution. Soil pollutants disturb the biological balance of the organisms in the soil. The adverse effect of this contamination is reduced soil fertility affecting plant and animal growth.

Major causes of soil pollution are:

Random use of fertilizers
Random use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides
Disposal of large quantities of solid waste
Deforestation and soil erosion
Addition of industrial contaminants
Dumping of radioactive wastes

Control of soil pollution

Various steps suggested in order to control soil pollution are as follows:

Reducing chemical fertilizer and pesticide use

As the soil erosion has become a major cause of concern we need to adopt the three R's: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle in order to minimize the usage of fertilizers and pesticides.

Biofertilizers are the best alternatives for chemical fertilizers. They are microorganisms which are used to increase the fertility and growth capacity of soil. This process of Biofertilization also reduces the need for pesticides and fungicides.

Practice of crop rotation – Leguminous plants can fix atmospheric nitrogen and hence enhance the soil fertility. These plants can be grown in between the crops which absorb a lot of soil nutrients.

Recycling of materials

Recycling and reusing of materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper, cloth etc. at domestic levels rather than disposing, reduces the solid waste pollution. Use of plastic bags has increased drastically. Paper bags or jute bags can be a good alternative for them. Toys made up of clay can be a good source of amusement for kids. A complete ban on the use of plastics is advisable.

Reforestation

Wastelands, soil erosion and floods can be controlled by reforestation. Huge forests have become prey to man’s greed. It takes years together to reform a forest. Every individual on earth should decide to plant trees to save our planet earth.

Treatment of waste

Biological treatment of the waste using anaerobic microorganisms, such as methanogens and acetogens is advisable as it helps to break down the soil wastes into a less toxic and biodegradable form. Industrial and radioactive wastes should be properly treated before leaving them to soil.

It is high time the man realizes the importance of the rich top soil and takes necessary steps to protect it from pollutants. Soil is an asset and there is no substitute for this. Wide stretches of desserts created by human beings are laughing at us. When we cannot create tanks and tanks of natural fertile soil should we not stop destroying it?

The Cry of a Hungry Child

2011-07-15T12:10:00.000+05:30

Food is the basic necessity of human being and it is sad to know that at least 925 million people across the world are deprived of it. According to the statistics provided by worldhunger.org among these 925 million people, at least 578 million people are from Asian and Pacific region. A maximum number of people suffering from undernourishment are from developing countries.

It is sad that children are most liable victims of malnourishment. Children deprived from food for a sufficiently long span of time suffer from serious forms of Protein Energy Malnutrition. This situation arises due to the insufficient supply of nutrients especially proteins and energy to the body to meet its demands. A malnourished or undernourished child falls prey to many diseases like malaria, measles, diarrhea etc. Most of the deaths of children below 5 years of age are reported to be due to Protein Energy Malnutrition.

Reasons behind hunger from the economic point of view are many, like poverty and uneven distribution of money which is a primary cause of hunger. Poverty means lack of resources and ability to purchase food. Since ages it has been seen the rich people have access to all resources and tend to become further rich whereas the poor become poorer.

Some other reasons include economic crisis across the world and inadequate supply of food due to neglect towards agriculture. Another major factor which adds to all these is the wastage of food across the world. Food wastage statistics are quite saddening. The trend of wasting food has crept slowly from rich countries like America to developing countries.

Wastage of food begins at the producer level (farmer) and continues through the distribution channel till the house hold level. If we add up the wastage at each level it shows a considerable amount which can perhaps save many children from malnourishment. Vegetables are stored to increase the price in the market and if in this process they are spoilt they are simply thrown away. A vegetable seller throws away huge quantities of vegetables at the end of day rather than selling them at a lower price just because he has to maintain the market price. Similarly distribution channels, publicize the damage to stored food to artificially increase the prices. Tons and tons of packed food just go as waste. The reason behind this is the expiry date. How nice it would have been if they could have planned and distributed them amongst the people living in slums just before reaching their expiry date.

Did you ever think before throwing food into the dustbin at the restaurant or at home? Now-a-days it is common to see heaps of wasted food dumped outside a reception hall or a restaurant. Food wastage at the house hold level has also become common these days. The wasted food is not only a problem to the environment but it also increases the number of street dogs, rats, bacteria etc thus spoiling the balance of ecosystem. Are we not contributing to hunger and imbalance in ecosystem?

Back in the olden days our grandparents used to teach us not to leave even a single particle of food. Evidence of this can be found in one of our great epics Mahabharata where Lord Krishna fills up his stomach with a single rice grain and asks Draupadi not to waste that. Social and moral values have vanished away as the earning capacity of a few people has increased. Can we not take steps to stop food wastage and save a child who is crying because of hunger?

Relaxation of Abdominal Muscles

2011-06-30T11:57:00.000+05:30

A group of muscles located on the front side of the body which lie between the ribs and the pelvis region are known as abdominal muscles. These muscles support the movement of the trunk and hold the vital organs of the abdomen in place together.
Body muscles are responsible for the movement of the whole body or its parts. They are able to covert chemical energy to mechanical energy. Fundamental properties of muscles are flexibility, excitability, conductivity and summation.

Various Abdominal Muscles

The four major abdominal muscles are as follows:

Transversus Abdominis - These are the deepest muscles which influence the body posture. These muscles are found wrapped around the torso.
The Internal Oblique Muscles - A pair of muscles which reside on either side of the torso are said to be internal oblique muscles. These muscles modulate the body posture to a large extent. Some vital functions like rotation of the spine and lateral flexion are performed by these muscles.
External Oblique muscles - This pair of muscles like internal oblique muscles are also present on either side of torso. These muscles are located superficially and have less effect on maintenance of body posture. These muscles help the Internal Oblique Muscles in rotation of the spine and lateral flexion.
Rectus Abdominus muscle -These muscles are the most superficial muscles of the abdomen which maintain the fitness of the abdomen.

Conditions of Stress

Professional athletes are usually subjected to abdominal muscle strain when their muscles are subjected to high amount of stress. In fact a situation of abdominal strain can arise to any common man. Simple daily activities like repeated lifting of heavy weights may also lead to abdominal strain. Such adverse situation can be treated by proper medication. However as the common saying goes "prevention is better than cure", it is better to subject our muscles to proper relaxation than getting used to medication.
Abdominal muscles are naturally stressed out during pregnancy. It is good to keep the muscles in good condition for easy delivery. In addition to this proper relaxation and abdominal exercises help the mother to regain her strength after delivery.

How to relax abdominal muscles?

According to Harvard professor of medicine, Herbert Benson, a relaxed state is just opposite to the state of stress. Our body has the capacity to achieve this relaxed state which is a deep state of rest. This state is associated with decrease in breathing rate, heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen consumption, muscle tension, and active thinking. There are various methods by which we can relax our abdominal muscles.

Breathing exercises
These exercises include abdominal breathing which is quite different from shallow chest breathing. Abdominal breathing involves diaphragm which is the large muscle located between the chest and the abdomen. They increase the lung capacity and at the same time relax the abdominal muscles optimally.

Yoga
Some basic yoga poses like Virabhadrasana, Bhujangasana, Marjarasana, Navasana etc help to strengthen our abdominal muscles and provide them with proper relaxation.

Advice to the modern man

Present day man is subjected to various kinds of stressful conditions. Due to his busy schedule he often feels that there is no time left for relaxation techniques. By setting aside 20-30 minutes and practicing the relaxation techniques daily he can improve his general health and longevity of life.