I would like to examine how Leonardo Da Vinci’s The Last Supper unites a personal interpretation of the event with a display of some general Renaissance aesthetic principles. On the one hand, we are confronted with an idiosyncratic vision, on the other with a generalist, if not dogmatic, principle.

As Da Vinci narrows in on the faces of the apostles, their features, highly agitated, become vehicles of emotional expressions as the artist understood them. Here he may be giving the viewers a glance into his own emotional realm. Via their behavior he pours out his own sentiment.

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As we let go of examination of separate figures or the three-figure groups, and shift towards the overall organization – the long table, the hall space, the receding perspective – we transpose into a plane where intimacy and private experience give way to compositional concerns. Broadly speaking, Renaissance “takes over.”

Consequently, the schematic linear disposition of the actors becomes a straightforward and powerful compositional tool, as it imposes on observers a certain way of viewing. The air and light in the room and the landscape beyond it appear to absorb, and perhaps diffuse some of the tension developing at the table. The micro level can do the same, as discussed further in this review.

The Last Supper (detail), 1495-97 Leonardo da Vinci Buy From Art.com

Back to Da Vinci’s vision: at the table, the immediacy of the gestures exposes heartfelt, genuine, piercing emotions – and here, I think, lies the work’s chief strength. Overall, the sense of irrevocable loss that persists in the atmosphere of the image seems at once bittersweet and monumental.

For comparison, Michelangelo could rarely, if at all (perhaps with the exception of Pieta), delve into such intricate details of responses: he preferred to hover in heroic and symbolic spheres. Leonardo impregnates the actors with unrest that literally lingers forever, enveloping viewers, percolating through our eyes into the depth of our souls.

Composition

The painting divides into five distinct groups: four clusters of three apostles, which flank a fifth central figure of Jesus of Nazareth. According to this Wikipedia article on the Last Supper, the apostles are as follows: Bartholomew, James, and Andrew; Judas, Peter, and John; Thomas, James, and Philip; and Matthew, Jude, and Simon.

The Last Supper (detail), 1495-97 Leonardo da Vinci Buy From Art.com

Da Vinci relies on a classic linear formula, but enhances it with as much sophistication and elegance as possible to avoid any formulaic traps. The systematically granulated set-up adheres to the ideals of Renaissance by employing triangular/pyramidal shapes, and maintaining symmetry between the apostle clusters.

While Christ acts as a central axis, the two groups on the left mirror their counterparts on the right. Already here a compositional solution serves to support the theological idea behind it – Jesus as a central axis of Christian faith.

Protagonist and Antagonist

The protagonist, occupying the center of the composition, grabs the attention immediately, his expression revealing resignation and acceptance. Christ’s isolation (he is the only character not to come in contact with any other of the sitting) reaffirms the melancholy appearance. His features bespeak an air of the supernatural, of being removed from earthly concerns.

The Last Supper, 1495-97 Leonardo da Vinci Buy From Art.com

Recognizing Judas the antagonist is made easier by his clenched fist (where he apparently holds a salt shaker, salt literally being the equivalent of money, as the word “salary” indicates), a gesture contrasting with Christ’s open palms. Taken aback by the fact that his betrayal is already known, Judas goes on to betray more: his bulging eyes show a mix of fear and disbelief.

Jesus Christ becomes the figure where the composition and its emotive content converge and mature, achieving a full measure of development. Towards him everything flows, and at the same time, he acts as an agent, or source, from whence energy emanates.  It’s possible to suggest that this dual quality tentatively reflects the theological precept of the twofold, co-existing nature of being both man and God.

The Apostles React

As opposed to Jesus, the apostles demonstrate decidedly human behavior. Grief, surprise, denial, anger, disbelief – they are all there, creating an intense wave that seems to break, as if magically, at the rock which is the shape of the savior.

The Last Supper (detail), 1495-97 Leonardo da Vinci Buy From Art.com

The way in which the prophet’s detached, ethereal disposition suspends the turmoil of his adherents, right at the epicenter of the image, creates a clash of immense psychological force. A full scale tragedy unfolds: some already begin to mourn, Christ already communicates catharsis.

Interlude

Reading closely, one by one, the apostles’ responses may diffuse some of the narrative tension, just as the atmosphere around them may do the same . Lacking the shocking purity of their leader, their reactions intermix. Observing and deciphering their conversations offers some entertainment value, as viewers (and especially believers) can more easily identify with these emotions.

There’s a touch of mundane in the details of feet and sandals, gesticulation, intricate changes in facial musculature – all of which hark back to da Vinci’s interest in observing faces and recording typical and atypical traits.

The Last Supper (detail), 1495-97 Leonardo da Vinci Buy From Art.com

Eventually, the time it takes to go over the four groups, to take note of all the subtle characterizations, deflects somewhat the thrust of the first reaction. It allows us to enjoy the artwork on a level of portraiture, and return to the center equipped with more context and meaning.

Conclusion

While close-ups half-open a door into Da Vinci’s own emotional landscape, zooming out shuts such vistas, placing the focus on various technical, global aspects, on contours rather than what they delineate. In the latter instance we are given a chance to admire the painter, in the former, the man behind the painter.

Can the two be truly separated is a question that’s bound, so it seems, to remain open.

Arcadian Shepherds, circa 1650 Nicolas Poussin Buy From Art.com

A universally accepted meaning of the phrase suggests that it’s Death’s proclamation – “even in Arcadia I exist” — that is, even in the most paradisaical of places (read full text Britannica article on Arcadia) there’s demise and decay.
The leap from this pastoral (even if dramatic) scene to the art of painting as such can be traced by focusing on the bearded kneeling shepherd. First, by touching the words he acknowledges the message and its meaning. Second, by the same gesture he comes in contact with his own shadow, thereby appearing to paint it. Why? Because there is only one way to cheat death, and that is by continuing to live in art – of painting in this case. Therefore, by the second effect he tries to symbolically overturn the first one – both, of course being part of a single action.

The Shepherds and Shepher… Nicolas Poussin Buy From Art.com

Shadow is often associated with death, which adds an ironic touch to the image. Escaping death by painting its symbolic representation might seem like a cruel joke that bares the hopelessness of even the most noble of endeavors. Poussin might have wished to present his views on the absolute inevitability of the end, and the futility of any resistance, even the most sophisticated – perhaps the futility of “everything” – suggesting a deeply philosophical, contemplative insight.

On a different note
When I look at this painting I recall, strangely enough, BBC documentaries on elephants. When these large beasts encounter the bones of their dead relatives, they too gather around in dramatic fashion, touch and feel the remains, clearly disturbed by the findings.

*this article was edited at a later date

Eliezer and Rebecca Nicolas Poussin Buy From Art.com

Similarly to The Death of Germanicus, this is a linear (frieze) composition where the main event takes place slightly off center to the right. As a result, both Rebecca and Eliezer are difficult to recognize immediately. The viewers have to search for them, which prompts the examination of the faces of the other girls – how they react to the conversation between the protagonists. This process generates anticipation and encourages active emotional participation. Eventually, when we look at Rebecca, we already know how her friends perceive the occurrence, and can hypothesize what goes in Rebecca’s mind.

Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well, circ… Ottavio Vannini Buy From Art.com

The composition progresses from left to right in line with the mountainous ascent. The two girls on the far left are not yet aware of the proceedings in the center; the following group, obviously in haste, reveals a few cursory signs of acknowledgment. To the right of the protagonists we witness three girls who openly watch the interlocutors, implicitly judging them by their postures and facial expressions. This visual progression creates a narrative structure that encompasses a range of emotional responses, arranging them from left to right, according to levels of intensity and involvement.

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In order to tie this long horizontal composition together, Poussin cements it with a matrix of arms and amphorae. Arms, usually white or pinkish in tone, appear here and there, creating a chaotic scheme that evokes a sense of bustle, an almost auditory experience. Eliezer’s hand offers the gifts in an inconspicuous fashion, and blends with this general trend. The amphorae, however, appear in a more or less equal intervals, and impart a sense of rhythm that acts as a compositional glue of a different sort.

Eliezer and Rebecca at the Well, 1562 Maarten de Vos Buy From Art.com

Architectural motifs play a background role, though unlike in The Judgment of Solomon, they interact with objects in the foreground. For instance, Eliezer’s turban, the attribute of his masculinity, is repeated in the marble ball. While Eliezer communicates his interest to Rebecca – the topic of their discussion being masculine-feminine relations – the large marble ball overlooks the young ladies on the right, perhaps disclosing their line of thought.

The Judgement of Solomon, 1649 Nicolas Poussin Buy From Art.com

The composition is transparent and geometrically obvious: two groups frame a central scene consisting of two women, all overlooked by the king. There are five action areas, and the entire configuration encourages the mind’s eye to trace a pentagonal star. The crowded framing groups mirror each other – sometimes approximately, as in the case of the woman with the white turban and the guard with the naked sword – sometimes almost perfectly, as in the case of the silhouettes near the columns. This compositional effect creates a sense of closure, in a way echoing the judicial process. The king’s hands restate the mirroring effect, indicating that it is he who overlooks the process from start to finish.

Moses Saved from the Floods of the Ni… Nicolas Poussin Buy From Art.com

Similarly telling is Solomon’s face: divided by a shadow into two profiles, it reveals the twofold consequence of the verdict – sad for one, happy for another. Furthermore, it might hint at the king’s inner doubts concerning this notorious judgment. The faces of the plaintiffs continue the visual theme of light and shadow, essentially transcending it into one of justice and injustice, respectively. The fact that the roles are reversed – the shaded woman is the just, the illuminated is unjust – serves to prove how precarious the whole notion of justice is. Can anyone be sure what would have happened if it were not for the king’s ingenuity?

The Rest on the Flight into Egypt Nicolas Poussin Buy From Art.com

As in other Poussin’s works, architecture plays the role of a metaphysical counterbalance. The two big black columns and the rectangular niches, when inspected closely, impart a sense of the vanity of the entire scene (alluding, in a way, to the kings famous “vanity of vanities” saying) – and quietly neutralize the dramatic proceedings.

Arcadian Shepherds, circa 1650 Nicolas Poussin Buy From Art.com

The painting acts as a moral and intellectual catalyst – which, according to biographers and critics, was Poussin’s intent. The image’s clarity encourages quick visual processing – and further contemplation on the content, on the original narrative ideas. Poussin makes himself a servant of the text, avoiding idealization or mannerism many Renaissance artists utilized – yet he authoritatively generates a veritable sense of drama. He is a virtuoso of a different sort: one of precise balance, of grace and clarity of compositional conception – qualities that became the hallmarks of classicism.

The Gathering of Manna, circa 1637-9 Nicolas Poussin Buy From Art.com

The people are divided into several groups, each including actors that either collect, wonder, examine, or even fight for the Manna. The most consistently reappearing sentiment is of praising God with a characteristic thankful folding of the hands. By showing a range of emotions and activities Poussin credibly anchors a divine act in concrete reality and action. Regardless of what the people are doing, they are busy, and even the expressions of surprise seem as a matter-of-fact, inevitable reactions; this is a drama but not a melodrama.

The Gathering of Manna, c… Nicolas Poussin Buy From Art.com

Contrasts of small and enormous – more concretely of people and nature around them – constitute the “engine” of the scene. Most contrasts consist of oppositions of color – the small bright red patches of the cloaks and the dark, spreading ambiance, and of form – small human figures against oversized landscape masses of stones and trees. The red spots also refer to blood, and the fragility of human life – as opposed to the sombre, immovable and imperious landscape masses. It becomes obvious that the life of the depicted people (and life itself) is at the mercy of nature – and God, as the bible narrates.

Gathering of the Manna, f… Dieric Bouts Buy From Art.com

Interestingly, Poussin makes the Manna almost invisible (minuscule white dots), effectively forcing many of the actors to grab air. This method of depicting the Manna may have several interpretations and meanings. First, this could be an ironical/parody device that expresses doubts in the miracle. Second, this (the entire painting) could be a test of the viewers’ faith – did the Israelites themselves imagine the whole thing, did the bible say the truth, or, perhaps, is it the viewers who cannot discern the Manna, but must believe? Third, this simply could be an ingenious pictorial solution to portray a substance of which was, and still is, little known.

The Death of Germanicus, 1627 Nicolas Poussin Buy From Art.com

Heroic gestures and stoic facial expressions, including that of Germanicus himself, decide the emotional current of the central scene, where the general and his officers are having a last words moment. Two less forceful, though just as passionate scenes, enframe the central act with poignant resignation and sorrow – and diffuse the intensity in the center. Each of the groups contains its own dynamic and emotive tone; the women and the children near the bedside are particularly notable for adding a shade of naïve surprise (by the children) and compassion. The resulting visual-emotional scheme of an enclosed A-B-A structure provides compositional harmony and completeness. Both eventually translate into an aesthetic quality.

Nicolas Poussin, Self-Por… Nicolas Poussin Buy From Art.com

Pikes play manifold roles in the composition. Bursting from the single-block group of mourners, they resemble, as a visual metaphor, solar ejections: the telling signs of the tremendous heat and pressure within. On the other hand, their sharp and edgy tips also become a sublimation of the suffering below – and yet the same instruments deal and bring death, the very same theme of the painting. The slender shafts may further allude to the precariousness of the future political situation (which, once again, is decided by the same spears). Finally, the way they pierce the space above the legionnaires is abstractly suggestive of the inflicted pain on the dying man.

Apollo in Love with Daphne, 1664; Pou… Nicolas Poussin Buy From Art.com

The spacious and hollow grandeur of the interior seems to alienate itself from the tragic proceedings. But, this empty monochrome space calmly overseeing the scene also adds a touch of objectivity necessary to bring out the historical significance of Germanicus’ death – or, indeed, its historicity on the whole.
Poussin (read Britannica full article on Nicolas Poussin) is known to had deliberately replicated ancient costumes, furniture and architecture. By giving these props a special attention in this painting he reminds us of the strict factual data – the time and era of the depicted occurrence – which may have become blurred in the emotionality and the chamber-intimate atmosphere (perhaps echoing Rembrandt) immediately inside the crowd.

Deposition, 1602-4 Caravaggio Buy From Art.com

An imaginary arch ensuing from the head of Mary of Cleophas and ending with Christ’s forehead marks by its edges several corresponding extremes: life vs. death, total desolation vs. absolute peace, standing vs. lying. Starting from her face, the imaginary line sweeps through the small crowd, touching the heads of all participants, establishing a link between them – a religious kinship. The overall emotional range covered can be difficult to apprehend at the first glance; each actor represents an independent character and way of dealing with sorrow; some appear to avoid grief, or, perhaps, appear as if grief avoided them.

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A diagonal dissecting the piece from the left upper corner roughly towards the right lower corner – essentially a perpendicular to the mentioned arch – offers another view of the scene. This particular line draws a border between the men and the women in the painting. Though this arrangement makes practical sense due to a tradition-dictated obligatory custom (that male dead be tended by men), the division is bound, I think, to beget symbolical interpretations. Women overlook the men: Caravaggio might have wanted to convey the church’s lofty ideal of the Virgin by physically placing her above the rest. A modern, feminist-inspired interpretation may even imply female superiority.

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The descending lines and rhythm of the composition, combined with tears of sorrow allude to a waterfall scenery, or water cascading down from a mountain. This visual allegory, in turn, gives rise to a series of Christianity and Jesus related associations: baptism, stigmatization of saints (Anne’s open palms appear to be preparing to receive the stigmata – she already signals her readiness to imitate Christ), and flowing blood (or wine).

Indeed, even Christ’s hand, as it touches the slab and points downward to the ground, may symbolically refer to the fertile soil that might absorb these fluids – this ground would be the hearts and minds of neophytes. The green plant emerging from below may symbolize the yield of new religion, which would literally grow out of the body of Christ – an idea now echoed by the Eucharist. The robe coming in contact with the plant indicates linkage and continuation and closes this notional cycle.

The Sacrifice of Isaac, 1603 Caravaggio Buy From Art.com

The knife and the ram’s horn contribute to the tense atmosphere as objects of war and offense. Together with the hands, they electrify the air, generating a broad sense of utmost intensity on the verge of implosion. These principally anonymous items support the composition’s harsh conception on an underlying level. The overt level is that of the human drama — Isaac’s terrified, paralyzed with fear face on one side, and Abraham’s visage, grim with determination, on the other. Gradually we begin to discern what is going on — and to get caught in the event.

The piece proceeds from left to right, starting with the angel and his pointing hand, and ending with the ram. These two also bring the much needed emotional relief. Caravaggio created a pleasing rhythm between the four heads in this painting: first he divided them, coupling Abraham’s head with the angel’s and Isaac’s with the ram’s, second, he countered the stress of the forefathers with the (Olympic) calm of the heavenly creatures (the ram, according to legend, waited for thousands of years near that place, having been put there by divine hand). By framing the composition with the serene angel and ram, the artist foreshadows the positive outcome (as well as intent) of the action.

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At this point of his career, Caravaggio already employed the powerful light effects (tenebrism, Britannica) for which he became so famous. Yet this piece is relatively tame when compared to his other work during that period, denoting a seeming regression in style. Perhaps the painter left out his most radical stylistic touches because the painting was a private commission. Sacrifice of Isaac also includes a rare landscape by the artist.

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Yet this piece, though realistic in conception, shows some elements of theatricality and artificiality, especially when compared to Caravaggio’s late religious paintings with more defined interiors and exteriors. For instance, the dupe’s face shows exaggerated saintliness and innocence — no doubt intended by the artist to epitomize just these qualities — while the man who peeks at his cards seems overly agitated. The resulting tension may seem so vivid as to distract us from the overall composition, in other words, too vivid. The extreme psychological contrasts blur somewhat the compositional unity — but they evince a distinct charm of their own.

Le Tricheur a l’As de Tre`fle Georges La Tour Buy From Art.com

I think that we can soundly hypothesize that this charm originates not only from the theme or from the actors, but also from the artist himself. While the notion of the loss of innocence takes the center stage in the painting, we are allowed to guess as to what place the painting itself was taking in Caravaggio’s life — could he have been taken emotionally by the theme, could he have seen in it some elements of his own situation? Indeed, could he be the missing link in this drama, having experienced it first hand, absorbed it and transferred it on canvas? Though the answers to the questions regarding the meta realm of this masterpiece are destined to remain in guessing land, the inquiry in itself adds another dimension to our understanding of the painting.

The Fortune Teller, circa 1594 Buy From Art.com

To get back to the technical details, it is the interplay of light and dark colors that supports the tension in this busy composition. Consisting mostly of black, brown, wine and dark, heavy yellows, it is incised with stripes and patches of white, which destabilize the entire set-up, generating a sense of precipice, or collapse. In this “mess,” the duped youth submerges into a very dangerous place — he is in the center of a whirlwind, without noticing it. The overall effect makes me want to scream “Watch out!”

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The composition contains a subtle hint on the motif of Knowledge. The roundly shaped head of the boy is repeated symmetrically in the vase, which serves as a mirror — an object known to represent knowledge. The composition encourages us to draw an imaginary Cartesian coordinate system, one axis spreading between the two (also symmetrically mirror-like reflected) twisted hands, and the other between the two buds. The imaginary coordinates again suggest the clash between experience and innocence, perpendicularly opposing each other like the two axes. In a way, we witness the gaining of experience when viewing the painting from left to right, and of knowledge from down up, all in a allegoric continuous motion. The point where the boy is being bitten is locate somewhere in the lower left area, where both parameters carry the negative sign.

The geometrical framework encourages to envisage with more confidence a link between the mirror-like convex glass surface of the bowl and the boy’s face. The bitten victim would also have to process the event — to upraise it from the negative parts of the coordinate system to the positive ones; he would have to undergo realization and internalization after the initial shock subsides. While presenting us with this psychological evolution, the artist stands out not only as a painter, but also as a humanist — a sage and a visionary who truly understands human nature.

A Young Boy Peeling an Apple Buy From Art.com

Considering the abundant flora and edible fruits on the table, a leap to the notion of tree of knowledge and thus the erotic (or homoerotic) viewing is more than reasonable — but in no way should be the the principal one. Perhaps it may serve as a point of departure, not as a decisive, final interpretation. Overall, I think that this painting testifies to the artist’s intellectual prowess — his ability to manipulate symbols and images to not only allude but also recreate a wider context that appeals to human condition.