AFRICAN CULTURE

A Civilization - African and Arab

2020-04-09T04:05:00.000-07:00

From early beginnings in the pre-Aksumite period (during the early part of the first millennium BC) the town of Aksum (or Axum) became the central focus of a trading civilization that grew to combine elements of Semitic (South Arabian) culture with an indigenous African economy, which may originally have had similarities with the more recent southern African iron-age settlements at Mapungubwe and Zimbabwe. There were also more exotic (and presumably less important) influences on this civilization from the Persian Achaemenid, Greek, Egyptian and Nubian (Kushite) civilizations. In time, the full-blown Aksumite civilization had trading links as far off as Rome, Byzantine Constantinople and even India.

Aksum itself is an existing town situated at an altitude above 2000 metres, at the northern end of the extensive Ethiopian plateau. It is close to the source of the Atbara Nile and is some 150 kms south of the current regional centre of Asmara and is 200 km west of the Red Sea coast. Due to the high altitude it is relatively well watered, with a warm healthy climate, able to sustain cereal farming as well as cattle herding. It stands astride an ancient trade route, connecting the central Ethiopian plateau with the harsh, dry, low-lying Eritrean plain. This route reached the Red Sea coast at the port of Adulis, in ancient times an important link with the coastal towns of Southern Arabia just across the narrow gulf and the maritime trade route northwards up the Red Sea to Egypt and the Mediterranean. Another important caravan route led off the plateau heading westward down the Atbara valley and Wadi Hawad road, reaching the Nile valley at the kingdom of Meroe in the Sudanese (Nubian) hinterland. Local routes also led northwards to organised settlements in the Gash delta area and southwards to remote centres spread out across the extensive Ethiopian plateau.

That it became a great international trading centre is well established. Besides the ubiquitous South Arabian relics, numerous ancient imported trade-goods, pottery, manufactured artefacts and coins from far-flung areas, such as Greece, Egypt, Byzantium and India have been found in the Aksum region. In addition to the many inscriptions in South Arabian Sabean script there are others in the local language using Greek characters. Extant manuscripts from the Mediterranean civilizations, written in historical times have left us references to Aksum and Adulis. These include works by the Roman author Pliny the Elder; the well-known Roman/Byzantine historian Priscus; Agatharchides of Cnidus who wrote: On the Erythrean Sea, and the unknown author of Periplus Maris Erythraei and even a fiction story of Heliodorus, the Ethiopian Story. (Connah, 1987). There were also later Islamic historians who recorded earlier oral traditions. These diverse sources give some evidence of the type of goods exported from the region (ivory, gold, skins, aromatic oils, slaves etc) they also tell of Aksum's trading links and something of the history of its rulers. However the historic, epigraphic, linguistic and (very limited) archaeological evidence for the Pre-Aksumite phase is to some extent conflicting and thus difficult to reconcile into a clear and coherent picture of how this trading state and its unique culture actually may have evolved.

Conventional wisdom has long held that the prosperity and strategic importance of Aksum derived entirely from its connection with South Arabia, to the extent that the civilization was a mere "transplant from South Arabia", (Phillipson: 1990: 55-59) The accepted position was that Aksum's entire raison d'etre was to be a kind of trading emporium for the Arabians, such as Shanghai was in the late 19th century for the Europeans. A further proposal, considered by some, is outright colonization by an Eritrean group with South Arabian cultural ties, moving up from the coastal plain. However Phillipson makes a very convincing case for an indigenous African basis for the initial growth in importance of the pre-Aksumite region. Firstly he points out that if the trade with Arabia was all-important, a site actually on the coast, or at least closer to the eastern edge of the plateau, with consequently shorter routing, would have been far more appropriate than Aksum itself. Phillipson maintains that it was actually the intra-regional trade between rich localities of the central and western Ethiopian plateau and the Sudanese lowlands, coupled with an viable well-established local agricultural basis for settlement, that pre-determined Aksum's suitability to be the main regional growth point.

An agricultural surplus is always a pre-requisite for supporting the formation of the elitist power group, necessary for transforming a loosely connected indigenous society into an organised state of any kind. Once there is a structured environment to provide security, any remaining agricultural surplus can be used to barter with the area's immediate neighbours in order to make up specific deficiencies or shortfalls of the local crop production or to improve the herds. In time the network would be expanded in search of more exotic goods and luxuries, possibly originating from more technically advanced areas. In the mature phase of its existence, if the location is suitable, the state or its private citizens would utilize their facilities and marketing skills to act as middlemen, trading non-indigenous products in both directions, with the intention of making a substantial profit on the exchange. If all goes well the model becomes self-sustaining. Applying this logic to the case of Aksum the Arabian and international trade via the Red Sea could have only grow in importance after Aksum had already established it's pre-eminence as an important local centre for agriculture and intra-regional indigenous trade. The initial phases of this process probably took place over several centuries. However at some point the existence of flourishing local markets attracted the attention of foreign merchants and once started the Arabian and international trade added further impetus to the general prosperity and promoted strong state formation and the cultural growth of the Aksum area. Unfortunately little archaeological evidence has yet been accumulated for establishing what the true basis of this original wealth actually was. Recent political instability between Ethiopia and Eritrea has been delaying the necessary archaeological research for some time.

However there is considerable architectural, ceramic and epigraphic evidence showing very close ties between the urban ruling elite and the kingdom of Saba (Biblical Sheba) and certain other South Arabian cities during the middle of the first millennium BC. During this period, known as the Middle Pre-Aksumite era, impressive monumental structures such as the Aksum obelisk (stolen by Mussolini) and also Sabean style temples and inscriptions at Aksum, Yeha, Kaskase, Marib, Kohairo, Matara and Adulis are clear evidence of a complex prosperous society, The strategic and cultural connections between the elite leadership group and the South Arabians, whether the result of conquest, trading ties, political alliances or strategic marriages, resulted in the area being consolidated into a kingdom run on the Sabean model (the D'mt=Daamat kingdom), which endured through the middle centuries of the first millennium BC. The region copied the use of the plough, written script, architecture and irrigation techniques from the Arabians. Many of the gods known at Aksum at this time were of Arabian origin and their cult was worshipped in a similar manner as at Saba. Pre-Aksumite Kings took the titles mkrb as in the Sabean mukarib (Fattovich:1990 pp 1-14) although sometimes also used the more common ancient Semitic title for king mlk or malik (as inUgaritic or Hebrew).

However it seems that the local indigenous culture re-asserted itself by the late pre-Aksumite phase and the kingdom split up and much of the Arabian cultural influence disappeared from the Aksum region (Fattovich, 1990). Yet language is not so easily lost and linguistic evidence shows that the Semitic languages still used throughout this region have their roots in the Arabian Peninsula. Opinion is divided as to whether the Sabean language was commonly spoken by all the inhabitants of the mid Pre-Aksumite state, or just by a ruling elite. It is also not known whether the adoption of the language was due to an early pre-historic migration of peoples from across the Red Sea or due to acculturation as a result of Arabian conquest of the pre-Aksumite state or some other close association. In time the language became less like South Arabian and evolved through an intermediate language called Ge'ez into the modern languages of Amharic, Tigre and Tigrinya (Connah, 1987).

Whatever the reason for its initial growth and the cultural components making up its society, Aksum was able to prosper as a strong trading entity for more than a thousand years. This was because it had a good agricultural basis for feeding its citizens and its trade caravans could source African commodities, much needed by the wealthy civilizations of the Mediterranean basin. In exchange it brought back manufactures such as fabrics and metal weapons that were in demand by the African tribes of the interior. So successful was it in these enterprises that Aksum probably caused the downfall of Meroe in the early 4th century AD, by diverting most African trade from the long established Nile route to its own Red Sea fleet. It was also admirably positioned through its port at Adulis to re-distribute valuable spices such as frankincense and myrrh from Arabia Felix as well as many other products from the east coast and horn of African and the islands as far as India. These products included aromatic oils, gum, dyestuffs and kohl etc. However by the 9th Century A.D pressure from the growth of Islam persuaded the (by then Christian) Ethiopians to take an isolationist path, retreating to their high plateau and cutting themselves right away from the world's view. This resolve was coupled with an increasing societal tendency towards a non-urbanized form of feudalism. Effectively the state of Aksum had lost its reason to exist and was finally destroyed by a tribal chieftainess from the interior.

Ethiopia became a forgotten land, both isolated and isolationist - steadfastly Christian, in a region now dominated by Islam. Vague stories of a legendery warrior ruler, Prester John, continued to reach the West, but nothing at all was known of the isolated Christian kingdom he was supposed to rule. However this same withdrawal from world affairs ensured the kingdom's unique endurance as an unconquered indigenous cultural entity right up until the present day. It was this fiercely independent spirit that, with the help of a few British and South African troops, was able to ultimately defeat a belated attempt at colonization by Mussolini's Italian fascists.

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Does African-American Literature Exist?

2020-04-06T04:01:00.000-07:00

The question of what makes a piece of writing African American literature or not is one that I have never been confronted with before. I have certainly never been challenged to question the entire existence of the genre before taking a course entitled "ENGL 234: Major Writers in African American Literature". On the contrary, frequent evenings spent perusing bookstores have fortified the notion in my mind that the genre is alive and well. Other literature courses have not touched on this subject at all much less brought this question to light. Through that course, however, I found that it is certainly one worth exploring and one that deserves a definitive answer. I have come to understand the genre of African American literature as encompassing any piece of literature that deals specifically with issues unique to African Americans as a culture.

It is interesting to consider the definition for this genre that our English 234 class came up with at the start of this course. We all seemed to have a general understanding of what it was that we could agree upon. Students said based on what they had read in the past, that the genre was made up of books that seemed more 'real' than other books; that there was less fiction in black literature. It was also said that these books had to do with mostly issues surrounding slavery. It did not even seem to be a question that the authors of these books would be African American themselves, that appeared to be a given. It is funny that we were all so convinced that we knew what this genre was at the beginning of the course and how student's definitions have since completely changed, well mine has at least.

It is surprising to me, upon consideration, that I would agree with the claim that African American literature seemed more 'real' than books from other genres. It seems very ignorant to assume that all authors of African American literature actually had all of the life experiences they write about actually happen to them. In fact, most piece of this type of literature are fictional. Though some authors may have drawn from actual historical accounts, many of the stories themselves come from the writer's imagination. It is still safe to say that African American literature is more real than fantasy. The parameters of my definition steer it away from fantasy and more towards real, human experiences.

The idea that African American literature has to do almost exclusively with the issues surrounding slavery and race were completely overturned upon reading "Giovanni's Room" by James Baldwin. One might expect the book to deal with race simply because Baldwin was an African American writer. I definitely went into the book with that expectation. This perception extended to the point where I believed several characters in the book to be black instead of white or Mediterranean as Baldwin had intended simply because of the fact that we were reading it in a "Major Writers in African American Literature" class. Though I think the title of the class had more to do with this than the skin color of the author, I can certainly see how his skin color might have given students certain expectations as well. "Giovanni's Room" did not tackle the issue of race at all. The book was about a white man dealing with his inner conflict involving his homosexuality. Upon reading it I would definitely say that it qualifies as a great work of literature, but it does not fit under my definition of African American literature specifically. Black writers can write about anything, they are certainly not limited to issues of race or slavery. An author's skin color should not have anything to do with what label goes on that author's writing.

Writers of African American literature do not have to be black. To fit under my definition the material needs only to have connections to black culture or history. The profession of writing entails the ability to create from many different perspectives. I recently read a book called "The Help" by Kathryn Stockett, a white author, that I would consider an example of this. In the book Stockett writes from the perspectives of several different characters including two African American women working as maids in Mississippi during the 1960s. "The Help" is clearly a book that addresses issues of race and segregation. I would certainly consider it a work of African American literature because of its content. Similarly, the classic work "Uncle Tom's Cabin" was written by another white woman, Harriet Beecher Stowe. The book discusses slavery and the suffering involved with it. This book would also qualify as African American literature because of its subject matter. This leads us to the question of what "African American issues" really are.

The word "stereotype" comes with negative connotations because it is generally used to describe an off-putting generalization. It becomes necessary though when talking about facets of something like a certain group of people or culture. The other problem with stereotypes is the way they vary from person to person. One person might assume one thing about a certain group of people while another might assume the opposite, making universal stereotyping difficult. It is up to both the author and the reader to determine whether or not a work falls under the category of African American literature. An example of this from class would include Toni Morrison's "The Bluest Eye", a book that deals with the issue of skin color as it correlates to beauty and equality. This genre does not have to refer to pieces that deal only with slavery, inequality, or segregation. There are many modern subjects that can be explored through literature besides these. For example, a piece of African American literature might touch on the use of the "N" word in today's popular culture. It can be anything that either the reader or the writer deems a legitimate African American issue to be as long as there is evidence that one can make a claim for and defend successfully. Critics have argued that this genre no longer exists because American culture no longer has to deal with difficulties such as slavery or the Jim Crow laws. It is true that these things no longer exist per-se, but racism and problems concerning race are still rampant in our society even if they now manifest themselves in slightly different ways.

African American literature includes any piece of literature that deals in particular with issues that are related to African Americans as a people. This does not mean the author needs to be black though, writers of any skin tone can fashion characters with many different perspectives and cultures. The common misconception that this genre includes many works or biography and autobiography is false. Many pieces of African American literature are fictional. Topics that are included in this genre can include slavery and the like, but they can also be more modern. African American literature is a growing category just like any other type of literature.

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African Tribe Culture

2020-04-03T03:57:00.000-07:00

When you think of Africa, ancient and modern alike, you probably think of tribes. African tribe culture is characterized by a diverse set of social values and traditions. Some of these traditions center around a set of religious ideals, others are as old as the land itself. Whatever the case, Africa is certainly a complex place which is sometimes hard to understand. Let us help you get to know the area a little more.

African tribe culture includes a wide variety of religious values and ideals. While paganism was essentially the earliest religion of Africa with the focus on ancestor worship and spirituality, many modern religions have made their way into individual tribes over the last couple of thousand years. These religions include Christianity and Judaism. Islam has taken root as well, especially in the country of Egypt. The religions adopted by each area and tribe help define different tribes throughout Africa even today.

African tribe culture has a vast variety of art forms as well. The music of Africa is especially well-known and beautiful and varies from tribe to tribe. In addition to the popular choral singing of Africa, the rhythms adopted by early African tribal life through ceremonial and celebratory music and dance helped to influence modern day samba, blues, jazz, rap, rock and roll, and reggae. As people from other countries have moved into Africa through the years, they have also influenced the highly eclectic art of the continent.

African tribe culture is full of a wide variety of languages as well. In the early days of tribal life, simple, native languages were spoken. Zulu and Swahili are just a couple of the languages that survived into modern times. These languages are still spoken today by many tribes, especially by more isolated tribes. In recent years, however, European, Middle Eastern, and South American languages have become more common in many parts of Africa. In many countries, English has become the most-used language.

We can learn a lot from African tribe culture. The dynamic within each individual tribe is something to be admired. People living together and helping out other members of the tribe made for a more efficient society. One can only wonder what incorporating some of these techniques would mean to our own western culture today. We may not need these methods for survival, but perhaps it would benefit us in a more spiritual way to be connected to and truly invested in the lives of our neighbors.

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Does African Art Have a History?

2020-03-30T03:54:00.000-07:00

Art history is said to be the study of the past, particularly how it relates to humans. The term is universally applied to past events of individuals, cultures and associations. It unravels the genesis or etymology of the things in existence today. The term 'history' is from the Greek word, 'historia' meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation" (Munslow, 2001). Thus, it is the thorough investigation and search of our past which results in the acquisition of the knowledge of the past or the origin of things. The learning of our history is very important. Learning of the past has the potential of improving the life of man today and in the future.

However, it is sad to know that a poor documentation usually result in ambiguity and even loss of the wonderful storehouse of knowledge of the past. Prior to the advent of writing, history was preserved orally and passed on from parents to their wards resulting in oral historical tradition. The age of writing has witnessed the recordings of our past oral historical tradition. Long before the recording of events the colorful African art history has already been growing, reshaping itself with the passing of time. Depicting the various and elaborate societies and empires, the history of African art illustrates the vibrant cultures and traditions each group has nurtured with each successive generation.

There have been several distortions in the written histories. Such is the largely the case of the documentation of African art history. This is making some people even those in the academia to assert that African art has no history. But can this assertion be true? Certainly that cannot be. African art has a history since every human endeavor has its Genesis. African art is mostly used to refer to the Sub-Saharan arts excluding the arts of the North African areas along the Mediterranean coast. The arts of the North Africans are normally classified along with Islamic art by some scholars. This is very unfortunate and wrong because a critical analysis of the arts of Northern Africa such as Egypt and others reveals different formal values and principles which are not characteristics of the Islamic art forms. The author opines and redefines African Art as the ingenuity and creative innovations of Africans in the various forms of arts which mostly have African traditional cultural elements and values.

The origins of African art can be traced in a longer time span even before recorded history. African rock art in the Sahara in Niger alone preserves wood carvings that are more than six thousand (6000) years. Also, the paintings and artifacts of the Egyptians, and indigenous southern crafts which have greatly contributed to African art find their places in the ancient times. Artworks in Africa were often depicted in abstract forms of animals, plant life, or natural designs and shapes.

In West Africa, the earliest known sculptures are from the Nok culture which thrived between 500 BC and 500 AD in modern Nigeria, with clay terracotta figures typically with elongated bodies and angular shapes. It is known today that very complex production techniques of art were developed in sub-Saharan Africa around the 10th century. This includes the mastery productions of bronze works of the Igbo Ukwu as well as the terracottas and metal works of Ile-Ife which was ornamented with ivory and precious stones are examples of the proud artistic heritage of Africans.

We cannot dissuade these wonderful historic accounts of which we have visual proofs of the works and blatantly say that African Art has no history. It has not just a history but a rich, colourful and long standing artistic cultural history.

The study of art history is largely divided into two by art historians. These include studying the history in thematic fashion or in timelines. The thematic elements approach to the study of African art includes looking at the history in the light of some themes or topics. Some of the themes as sculpture of Africa, Adinkra cloth production by Ghanaians etc. Others include materials for production, countries, etc. The author want to take affirm that there are histories of some of the visual artforms such as Adinkra cloth, Kente, wood carvings and goldweights produced among the Asante ethnic society in Ghana.

African art has a long standing history which must be acknowledged. As Art historians, art critics and authors, we have to write and record the wonderful creations of Africa. There is the urgent need now for art critics and historians in Africa and Ghana especially to record the extraordinary works of art of today's contemporary African artists to make them available for our forebears. Adulteration of our historical traditions would gradually mar our identity as a people. African art has a history and we have to preserve, promote and transmit this historical heritage. If art educators, curriculum planners etc. make the teaching of our rich cultural African art tradition a priority, we will be able to propagate our rich African art tradition and lavishly paint it on the world's largest canvas of art history.

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The Dissemination and Ownership of Kenya's African Paintings

2020-03-27T03:52:00.000-07:00

People in other countries more often consume the market of contemporary African art than Africans themselves.

Take for example the country of Kenya, in East Africa. You will not find framed, original African paintings in most citizens' homes. Furthermore, Kenyans do not see African art as an official product, and surely do not view it as valuable now or gaining value over a lifetime. It is unfortunate that in Kenya and Africa as a whole, artists are abundant and their paintings very beautiful, but the public citizen does not recognize their talents. Why is this?

It is partly due to the poor economy. People just don't have the luxury to spend money on things that are not there for their survival. Money goes to food, shelter, transportation, electricity bills, and clothing, not to less needed things like home décor and certainly not to these aesthetics that are more than what they can afford, as most live on just a few dollars a day.

Take for instance the wildlife in Kenya. The country's landscape is filled with beautiful and increasingly rare wild animals like elephants, giraffes, and packs of lions. Many Kenyans living in the urban areas just cannot afford to go outside their local area on a vacation to a far away game reserve where wildlife reign. They know about it, but just can't spend a vacation there, and thus cannot appreciate the beauty of wildlife first hand in its natural setting. So for those artists who paint wildlife, there is just not interest in their work from Kenyans, since they have often never experienced a wild animal's presence and majesty first hand.

Another main reason Kenyans do not consume much of their own art is a lack of appreciation for and basic ignorance of arts in general. Their government does not promote arts in elementary schools and later on in terms of grants or scholarships to College. Even in many of their museums, art is scarce and not well collected. This leaves the few Kenyans that are masters of African art to market it for themselves.

They alone are just not capable of reaching the whole country audience in order to sway and spawn their opinion. Also, for Kenyans, their culture is their culture. They live it everyday. So to see a painting of a Maasai tribesman or a painting of a village scene, since Kenya is the subject matter, and Kenyans live in these settings for a lifetime, the subjects that an artist might paint about their country is not so special or new to them.

To visitors from outside their county, however, these art subjects and more are quite a delightful keepsake and adored meaningfully.

Therefore, for Kenyan artists, in order to make a living, the market and customer base has to go to visitors and tourists. Galleries, shops, exhibitions, and online websites are full of their paintings. And they are beautiful paintings that sell and are loved. Visitors to the country support the economy of Kenya's art circle, appreciating both the abstract and realistic work of its varied artists.

There are even markets in various locations in Nairobi, Kenya's capital city, that devote specific days of the week to selling pieces of art and artifacts. Visitors flock to these sites. Recognition and establishment of the art community in Kenya, supported by outsiders, is so strong that experienced artists sometimes go themselves for exhibitions outside of Kenya, rather than inside the country. When they do, clients see not only their great talent, but want to investigate more African artists with such a gift that paint what it is they love about Africa.

Although many Kenyans do not buy art as a whole, there is still hope and signs that they will in the near future. Attendance at exhibitions is growing and is thus an indicator that the number of Kenya art lovers is increasing by the day. Awareness of Kenya's galleries and exhibitions are circulating and the media is doing stories on the country's artists. But what needs to change is the realization that spending money on art is worthwhile in that it provides a beautiful addition to one's home and really promotes not only the country's artists, but the Kenyan culture itself!

Is this needed change attainable for Kenyans as a whole? We think so. Kenyans are naturally proud of their heritage, so if it can be transformed into buying their own cultural art, than all the better.

Culture is dynamic, with new preferences coming up in this modern age daily. Kenya is a client for this kind of on the whim changes. Also, with a new government wanted in the elections of 2012 and a new generation of adults who are exposed to much more of the world than their parents, Kenya and the rest of Africa is undergoing significant and sweeping changes. The field of African art paintings could get caught in this momentum.

The good news is that art has been and will continue to be created by those who dare to express their creativity in hopes of awareness and a lifestyle. Artists in the country also are increasing the number of their African artworks, partly due to the tourist and overseas demand. They seem to be more driven than ever to make their art be seen and its message to be heard. They are indeed a force to be reckoned with! The passion with which an artist paints and promotes their piece is the kind of passion that potential art lovers should have when selecting it.

But that is the future. How do Kenyan African artists stay afloat at present? At the moment artists can authoritatively state that African art paintings have, through time, become a sub-culture that has a following that is slowly but constantly increasing. If the current trend continues, an even larger population of art lovers would emerge in country, across the continent and abroad.

What the citizens of Kenya ought not to do is have artists do their works and just let them be at the mercy of the tourist dollar only. Those in country, and those abroad, with genuine interest in African paintings should extend their interest towards building a strong and formidable network that will eventually see the industry step its foot on the ground and declare that art has eventually trounced despite the many hurdles it had to pass through. Then and only then will the world that is gradually waking up to the quality and quantity of African paintings see this art as it is, a formable and powerful culture force that has its roots in the most basic and oldest traditions of humanity.

Note: This article may be republished in full as long as the author is credited and website links remains intact. All original content from the article, about the author and website must be included. Excerpts may also be taken as long as a link to the website is included.

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The Decline of African Universities, Hope and Despair on the Postcolonial Campus

2020-03-24T03:49:00.000-07:00

Although Africans were among early makers of human civilization the modern African university owes nothing to African genius. It is distinctly the creation of the colonial state.

In the contemporary world Africa lags way behind in development regardless of indices we use. The writer and broadcaster Ali Mazrui has likened Africa to the Garden of Eden in decay a place that once had it all but that now has lost all, a king only yesterday but a pauper today.

Yet in numbers alone, African universities have grown tenfold, churning out thousands of graduates. But numbers though important are not the game here. African universities as they are today betray little of the vibrant traditions that once animated the continent. Despite the poverty and the backwardness these traditions still animates rural Africa today. Take the case of the Acholi people of Northern Uganda.

The emergence of the African novel at Ibadan and the rise of the modern African art in Zaria, both events occurring in the middle of the last century, occurred because the colonial students that shaped the moments found a way to reconnect to their African past and from there drew strength.

The African university today, whether Senegalese or Malian, has routes not in the rich traditions of Africa, but in Africa's immediate colonial past. This is the problem. Because the colonial past is the past of despair. It represented a period when Africa had lost the initiative was clueless.

Unlike ancient Timbuktu or medieval European universities, the colonial university was not an organic institution. It did not rise out of the land. It could not offer a basis for the flowering of culture and learning. It was limited in scope and scale. It admitted few students, offered few carefully selected courses, taught by colonial professors. The colonial students were cultural refugees, cut off from the treasure house of their heritage.

There was little to distinguish between the colonial professor and the colonial administrator. Both were steeped in colonial culture. In colonial times you could not as a white person, live in Africa except as a colonizer. Colonialism as the life of Karen Blixen in colonial Kenya demonstrated was a collective thing. It was a lived experience that sucked in all persons from the metropolitan countries that lived in the colonies.

The colonial university however was a complex thing. There was little doubt about its mission, namely the reproduction of the colonial state and the promotion of colonial culture. In Africa there is a tendency to equate colonial culture with European culture. But colonial culture was not and is not European at all. Europe excepting only a few spots already had democracy. In Africa the European colonies were heavy handed dictatorships, the type you encounter in many African countries today.

The colonial university sprang out of the milieu of the debilitating condition produced by colonialism. The colonial university could never have been a marketplace of ideas in sense Oxford, Cambridge, and the Sorbonne were and still are. But within its framework, the colonial university functioned admirably. Immaculate facade bestowed the grace of a metropolitan campus, radiated serenity, civility, and wholeness. Within its four walls the contradictions that were imperialism seemed far away.

On the eve of independence the postcolonial state inherited the colonial university, little understanding its complexity. The inheritance was its most prized possession. So acute had been the hunger for knowledge and learning and so limited the opportunities. Chinua Achebe has remarked that the colonial university was the only good thing colonialism did in Nigeria.

In the immediate post colony, the new President became the new Chancellor of what had become overnight the national university, but it was national in name only. Nothing pleased the President more than when he appeared in full academic regalia and presided over convocation ceremonies. Viewed as a symbol of prestige, the colonial university in its post colony stage was sliding towards outward appearance and further away from substance. During colonialism proper the institution knew exactly its purpose understood its mission and acted accordingly. Now the new managers of the place did not comprehend the dynamics at work but acted as though everything was alright.

By the powers conferred upon me I confer upon all those whose names have been read the degree of Bachelor of Science. By the powers conferred upon me I confer upon all those whose names have been read the degree of Bachelor of Arts. Those became the litany of the postcolonial institution. Everything in the end became hinged on that. And so was entrenched the regime of marks.

The ceremonies were conducted in a postcolonial culture saturated with the music and the culture of modern pop. Modern pop was suddenly the new power in the land.

In time the neo colonial state proceeded to multiply its most prized possession. So acute was the hunger for knowledge. There was a need for men and women of learning in all manner of fields. There was a need for all manner of technical skills. In the postcolonial state everything was in short supply.

The state genuinely longed for progress and desired development and prosperity for the people. But at the old colonial university, it was business as usual. The old colonial professors continued to do the same things they did before.

Even as it routinely graduated students the post colony university faced the crisis of identity. What did it mean to be a university? What does it mean to be African? On the post colonial campus the crisis was deep but these questions were not asked. For a society emerging out of colonialism and in search of its own routes and place in the modern world, the program of learning and research at the postcolonial university were laughable. In the late sixties at the postcolonial university in Nairobi it took a fight by determined young lecturers led by the then young Ngugi wa Thiongo, to get African and non European literature on the curricula.

Five decades on since independence the old question acquires now an urgent tone. How have African universities faired since independence? What goes on there? Is it true what Olugesun Obasanjo once said according to a Nigerian daily, that all that the professors were interested in were drinks and beautiful girls?

In the mid nineteen seventies a famous African Statesman famously declared at Addis, during the Summit of the Organization for African Unity, that Africa had come of age. But throughout Africa even as he spoke, it was the age of the coup de tat. He himself had earned his way to Summit by means of the gun.

How could Africa come of age without its universities? Was that the example of Japan? Is it the example of the new China we saw at the Beijing Olympics? Without its universities where would Europe be? In Russia and Poland the intellectual tradition were well entrenched.

About the state of the postcolonial university there is a little known novel called Marks on the Run. It was published at the Ahmadu Bello University (where I taught) in 2002. Written by an Ahmadu Bello university lecturer, the book provides a rare insight as to what does go on in African universities. It is of course a Nigerian book but one can assume that it represents generally the African reality.

Although its author is far from being a great man of letters and in many ways lacks the gift of a writer, Marks on the Run does manage to let one into the world of the postcolonial university in a way that gives the experience akin to that of an on the site observer.

The old colonial campus is no more. No tears. In its place stands a huge edifice, hurriedly put together. Hundreds and thousands of students attend but many have no idea why they are there. The old colonial professor is gone; nobody there talks any more about spears, bows and arrows!

But there are lecturers and professors on campus who know next to nothing about their disciplines, who represent no body of knowledge, that are void of any trappings of culture. To be sure there are exceptions. Living conditions for students are appalling. Rented accommodation in town is worse. Really how anyone could study and learn under those conditions beats imagination.

The old colonial mission of "for the glory of empire" that in the past guided learning and the curricula, is gone. But nothing has been put in its place. In the vacuum, the regime of marks and grades, and the final certificate at the end takes center stage. It is wielded through the combined dictatorship of lecturers and professors who invoke out of context, the African thing about deference to elders. "Where are your manners?" is a constant refrain on campus.

The university has become big business. Fake businessmen haunt the corridors of learning hunting fake contracts to deliver fake equipments and disused reagents. A growing number of lecturers find here a place for marking time and making quick dough. For the majority of students the university has become a place for picking easy grades and unearned diplomas, a far cry from the rigor and discipline of the colonial university. "Where has the good time gone?"

Not long ago, a professor of the Ahmadu Bello University said to me. Here, no one earns their degrees. We dash them. He pointed to a group of his own graduate students lolling under shades in the heat of noon. They included some of his younger colleagues who were pursuing the PhD. Now, to dash in Nigerian terminology is to give away for free.

In the novel, learning and things intellectual take a back seat; money and sex get to replace ideas as the real mode of academic exchange. In real life you see this imprinted on the face of the postcolonial campus through the attention paid to material possessions and the general lack of reference to academic work.

But don't despair, not all is lost on the postcolonial campus. There is present there a band of gifted professors and scores of talented and determined students - young people in love with the idea of a modern and prosperous Africa. There is a battle raging on the postcolonial campus between the good, the bad and the ugly. Marks on the Run by Audee T. Giwa is a report from the frontlines.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/6725460

Making Meaning of The African Union Day: Is Cultural Hybridization The Answer?

2020-03-21T03:46:00.000-07:00

The African Union is a body that replaced the Organisation of African Unity established on the 25th day of May 2001 in Addis Ababa in Ethiopia. This continental union was later launched on the 9th of July 2002 in South Africa. The Union is tasked with the primary goal of promoting peace, security, and stability in Africa. Taking its root from the Organisation of African Unity established on the 25th of May 1963, the African Union has increased its member states from thirty-two to fifty-five. The African Union as a body has set up the Peace and Security Council that is mandated to ensure the fruition of its aims and objectives. Despite the commendable efforts and successes that the African Union has achieved in its quest to subdue conflicts and wars on the African continent while setting the tone for lasting peace, Africa still faces major setbacks that challenges her hopes and aspirations for peace and tranquility. The African continent continues to wobble in maintaining national and regional peace. There are age-long conflicts and insurgencies that haunt the continent and there are yet many others that are emerging due to family, clan, ethnic, cultural and religious animosity and strife. As a cultural anthropologist, I argue that the solution to the cessation of these ever-wakening fear of conflict is all African countries embracing the concept of hybridization of cultures.

A rigorous analysis of the conflicts that plague the African continent reveals underlying factors associated with disagreements and refusal to accept the culture and religion of one another. The truth of the matter is that all factions on the African continent have the right or freedom to operate without humiliating and/or demeaning each other. This is bent on mutual respect and acceptance of the cultural, ethnic and religious differences that exists amongst the diverse nationalities in Africa. This is what cultural hybridization stands for. Of course, viewpoints of individuals, families, and societies vary, but all share one common objective of living in harmony with one another, seeing our families' happy, enjoying friendships, work, and recreation. All these pleasure moments are often rubbed in the mud when peace, the pinnacle of such wholesome activities is challenged.

Cultural hybridization which means accepting and respecting the cultural and religious differences of each other, calls for a toleration of one's beliefs, ideologies, norms, and values. Usually, it is when the religious beliefs of a group of people are mocked and trampled upon that has been the major cause of the conflicts and strife on the African continent. It is time for all African countries to reckon that they need to embrace and accommodate each other's cultural, religious and ethnic distinctiveness. Africans must remember that the cultural diversities in Africa do not in any way warrant enmity amongst member states. Unity and oneness would make the continent thrive in attaining its sustainable development goals. This is not the time to clinch to age-long conventions that set African nations apart, but rather forge in togetherness, peaceful co-existence and understanding that would make the continent what it is supposed to be- A constant sparkling star to behold. Africa should not be seen as a broken mosaic piece, but a carefully composed piece of diverse tesserae that can swallow the frailties of one another.

The old page of animosity and strife perpetrated by family, cultural, ethnic, and religious diversities must be closed. Yes! There must be a new page of cultural hybridization where there would be cultural and religious toleration and respect, putting all African states in one hopeful cloth of peace, unity, and oneness. Until the campaign for cultural hybridization is propagated and ingrained in Africans, the glorious aim of the African Union, which is promoting peace, unity, and stability in Africa would continue to be a shadow.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/9715545

Understanding Shona Culture of The Shona Tribe of Zimbabwe

2020-03-18T03:42:00.000-07:00

The Shona people are mainly concentrated in the country of Southern Africa called Zimbabwe, but there are known pockets of these people in Mozambique, as well other parts of South Africa, especially the northern part of South Africa.

Before you understand the mindset associated with the Shona people, one has to understand their customs, their superstitions and everything that is connected with their way of life. Although their life in the towns/cities might have drastically changed from the time when Great Zimbabwe was a thriving city and in most instances certain puberty ceremonies are no longer carried out, their belief in spirit medium is just as strong as ever and in the tribal areas and especially amongst the elders the tribal customs of the tribesman have altered very little. In today's Zimbabwe the payment of lobola, and payment of what is known as damages {defiling a girl} is now in the form of cash payment, where formally it used to in the form of cattle, goats or hoes but on the whole the actual customs have not changed much at.

From the beginning of the formation of the Shona tribe, agriculture has been the principal mode of subsistence. Maize and millet have always been the staple crops but a fair amount of sorghum, monkey nuts, beans, rice and some indigenous vegetables are also grown. There a number of methods used for tilling the land. The traditional methods of cultivation basically involved the breaking up and scratching of the soil, there after the spreading seed over an extensive acreage. The Shona agricultural lifestyle involved having a considerable number of cattle as well as smaller livestock.

Shona culture is is strongly intertwined with the way the village was structured. In terms of the village set up, a Shona village (or musha as the Shona call it) is controlled by a hereditary headman, who is the head of the principal family unit which originally founded the village. The Shona people are a patriarchal society in general. To become a member of the village, one can only have done that through kinship. A member who has been absent from the village for a considerable time does not lose his membership by default unless there is evidence beyond doubt that he will not return. Understanding this concepts builds a framework that helps in understanding Shona culture.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/2573822

Culture Awareness

2020-03-15T03:39:00.000-07:00

Where you are from has a great part on what defines you as a person. Different places have different cultures, and these cultures mold the society and every person that has become a part of it. Culture is defined as something that a person or a whole civilization mostly agrees upon as what is excellent in matters such as arts, manners, foods and ways of living. Transmitted from one generation to the next, there are pieces of the whole entity that could somehow be replaced or added as culture evolves. However, these changes will still be justified by the norms and values that the society builds around it.

There are situations when a person or a group of people leave their cities or even countries to migrate. In these cases, when the cultures disagree in large scales, or when there are certain barriers such as language or races, it is only normal to experience a phase where one needs to adjust. Sometimes, it is never easy to adopt the ways which are foreign and new especially when it comes to foods with different consumers.

How can we avoid culture shock? Since it is a problem that originates from being estranged in a current settlement and a new society to adjust to, the simplest and most available form of solution is preparing for what you will have to put yourself into. If you plan to migrate, you have to study and learn the people, their tradition, their language, and enjoy their food. These four are at the top of the list of being significant.

In the first phase of your immersion to a new culture, you will probably be more amazed than anxious. You will be curious about all kinds of stuff such as the new kinds of food, fashion, architecture, and a lot more that you find different from what you were used to. For instance, in cases where language becomes a barrier, this is one aspect that requires the greatest effort from one who is trying to embrace a new society to belong to, but one of the easiest way to understand one's culture is through what they consume and the preparations that come along with it.

There are a lot of available options that will help you overcome culture shock. With the wide developed technology of our generation, learning new stuff and preparing for new things has been already made easy. What you need to know, you will instantly acquire in just a click of a button. You just have to find the determination to be armed for what is ahead.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/6315696

Visit Kenya, the Land of Rich Culture and Tradition

2020-03-12T03:36:00.000-07:00

Kenya lying in the eastern part of Africa boasts of a rich culture and tradition. During your visit to this country, you will discover their rich cultural tradition. Kenya is a land of diversity and its culture has faced constant changes. Right from the days of the cavemen to the present generation, the lives of the Kenyans have gone through great changes. Kenya records an extremely complex history which is manifested through the diversity of the land in the present times.

Kenya is a melting pot of different types of cultures and standard of living. On one hand you will find that people are technology savvy and on the other hand you will find the natives following the traditional way of living life. In other words, the modern and the traditional coexist in Kenya. People belonging to over 40 different ethnic groups live in Kenya in the present times. The main group of tribes includes Bantu, Nilotic, Hamitic, Kikuyu, Luyha, Luo, Kalenjin, Meru, Kamba, Masai, Swahili, Tirkana and Kisii. All of them have their own culture and tradition which are extremely rich and colorful.

The Kikuyu tribe has embraced the modern ways of living life, while the Masai tribe still holds on to their belief that God had given them the responsibility to take care of cattle. Their main source of sustenance is the cattle and they worship it. The Samburu and the Turkana tribes are also nomads though many of them have adopted the modern means of living.

According to the custom of the Riuki tribal group, the guests are welcomed with a traditional drink known as Muratina. Tribal laws are primary and everybody must abide by them. The tribes worship Ngai who is believed to be the creator of the tribes. The tribes believe that sacrificing a goat under a fig tree near the sacred mountain can bring rains. Their group dance with traditional music and colorful costumes will make you marvel.

They also have a tradition of singing songs while going to work on the fields. The traditional meal consists of Githeri, which is basically bean stew and maize (corn), mukino which is a preparation of mashed sweet potatoes and green peas along with roasted goat. It is rustic and a nourishing meal. The was a traditional dish of the Kikuyu tribe and incorporating a meat protein was not always necessary as meat was scarce in tribal life so it was mostly eaten vegetarian, but the beans provided most of the protein in this dish. Give it a try along with some Chapati bread and rice and you will love it.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/4742571

This One Action Will Change Your African Experience - For the Better!

2020-03-09T03:32:00.000-07:00

The Importance of a Greeting

Are Americans too busy to greet each other these days? What happened to genuine care for each other and our families? Has the notion of "time is money" stripped us of our inherent compassion for others?

Greetings are essential in many customs throughout the world. As International travelers, whether you're conscience of it or not, you're an ambassador of America. So when I heard my fellow Americans raise their voices in disapproval over President Obama bowing to the Japanese Prime Minister or the time when he greeted Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez in Spanish, I was in disbelief!

Finally! I thought we have a President who is neither arrogant nor ignorant to the situation. President Obama did exactly what he was supposed to do, acting as both an ambassador to the United States, and as a responsible traveler.

Greeting a stranger with warm words gives instant respect. A simple greeting turns fear into friendliness, suspicion into trust. President Obama, as any American, would expect the same from others who visit us, on our own soil, and in our own traditions and customs.

Throughout Africa, greeting is an essential custom and there is not enough time in the day to greet people. It is considered extremely rude to not greet first before beginning any kind of conversation. Is there any reason we can't make time to greet others, while traveling or in our own neighborhoods?

When entering or leaving a room, greet the people in it. Say hello, ask how their day went. When purchasing food, goods, or merchandise, begin your conversation with the cashier by first asking how they are doing. And when initiating a conversation first ask how the person is doing, rather than jumping into the business part of the conversation, in doing so, you will calm, cool, and create a positive, constructive environment.

Are we too arrogant and fearful of portraying our self as 'soft' if we show a little compassion for our friends, neighbors, and strangers?

Take this cultural custom and make something as a simple greeting a part of your everyday life. Greet your neighbor, catch up with old friends and ask them how their families have been. You'll feel perkier and the community you live in, whether it's the neighborhood, country, or world, will be a much friendlier, accepting place.

The importance of a greeting can make a big difference for offering something so simple. Live it at home, pack it on your travels and shed your arrogance of feeling silly while bowing to the Japanese Prime Minister.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/4865029

Culture of African Story

2020-03-06T03:19:00.000-08:00

For five years in the 1970s I lived and worked in Africa in both Botswana and Ghana. I also traveled throughout Western, Eastern, and Southern Africa. From that experience, I gathered these impressions of the culture of the storytelling in Africa.

Story in Africa is sacred (thus my capitalization), and Story is interwoven in the daily fabric of life. Story is not just words in Africa. Story is told through baskets, fabric, dance, ritual, and relationship. A slight gesture of a body might reveal entire Story Worlds. I experienced an enormous depth and subtly in communication in every country I visited. Quite ordinary interactions became extraordinary. I recall a woman in the Accra market in Ghana breaking into a spontaneous dance with me as part of our Story Time together.

Initially, I taught English as a Second Language (ESL) and Literature in Secondary Schools through Peace Corps. My Botswana students made beautiful drawings to go with stories they wrote to include in the school newspaper. They drew Story with ease and confidence because this was part of their early training at home.

I chose storytelling as a teaching tool to clarify plot lines and bridge cultural divides. The curriculum I taught was a mix of English classics such as Shakespeare, Milton, and Chaucer combined with marvelous African books like China Achebe's "Things Fall Apart" and "The Beautiful Ones Are Not Yet Born."

I prepared students for two sets of examinations that pretty much determined their futures: "O" Levels, or Ordinary Levels (roughly the equivalent of late middle school in the USA) and "A" Levels or Advanced Levels (roughly the equivalent of a high school diploma or even first year of community college in the USA). My students did rather well.

In Botswana one of the books we studied was "Lambs Tales from Shakespeare." I set my students the task of writing scripts for each of these tales and acting them out. When one does this kind of analysis, the commonality between classic European literature and World Story comes into sharper relief.

I went to Botswana on my own after my Peace Corps tour ended in secondary schools and became involved in three village projects, each involving story as a powerful tool.

With the villagers in Gabane I set up Tshwaragano Craft Center, became Puppetry Consultant for a Popular Culture Team, and wrote stories and lesson plans for a literacy curriculum. Through working on these projects I learned Story is the life force that moves brain, heart, and limbs forward. I became Puppetry Consultant simply because I picked up a puppet in the back of a pick-up truck, started wiggling its arms around and giving it a voice and lines to speak. In the Popular Theater work we built on the Brazilian educator Paulo Freire's Critical Theory.

Community Development workers brainstormed critical issues and then we built stories around these, performed in drama, dance, song, and puppetry. We stopped at the high point of the action to ask the audience: "What would you do now?" these discussions led to common work projects in the village. We did something similar in the literacy curriculum we designed and had illustrated.

I was so impressed by the results I'd seen in the other two projects that I started using puppetry performances at Tshwaragano to work out critical incidents and stimulate discussion of tricky situations any new venture encounters, like "Whose turn is it to sweep the floor today?"

I love Africa and her stories. I feel Africa is truly the Mother of humankind, and certainly archeological findings bear this out. In Africa I felt embraced by that Mothering energy.

Never in my life have I been so enfolded, nurtured, watched over, looked after, cared for...and just flat out enjoyed for being who I am. Africa is a continent, not a country, of course, but I felt this no matter where I went.

Stories ease difficult and painful situations. In Botswana I remember storytelling told around a campfire under a sky full of piercing stars a night our truck broke down in the bush between Francestown and Maun.

In Ghana I remember stories told in crammed to the brim Mammy Wagons that might plunge us into an accident around the next corner. But, in either of these situations if we would have come into danger, we would have faced it as friends, not as strangers, and this would have been through the power and grace of story.

Story is the thread of celebration and the thread of knowing. During Peace Corps training I went to a village no outsiders had ever lived in. We were mutually curious about one another and expressed this through Story. I collected their stories and they created stories and song commemorating my visit.

Stories in any language and culture are worth telling to our children and passing on. Africa has a strong oral history, of course, and you could probably speak to the impact of technology on her oral history tradition.

Because, by definition Story requires time, and time together, as well as the willingness to pass on a tradition and use our imagination. It's good to have stories of your family and your people to provide a sense of continuity between generations...a thread of time and life moving across place.

I have a shelf filled with books from and about Africa. Prominent among them are books of African folktales, which carry wisdom from the ancestors into the modern day.

There's a wide discrepancy between popular stories told about Africa ("It's dark, exotic, and war torn") and the stories I took home after I lived and worked in Africa for five years. I am troubled by the popular perception in the USA of Africa as this place (only) of war-poverty-famine-tribal strife-AIDS crisis. Granted African nations and the African continent have huge difficulties and problems to continue resolving, but to balance all that I so want people to understand the warm beating heart of Africa which for me felt like the essence of being human...not primitive at all, but highly civilized and humane.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/833284

Transcultural Nursing - Caring For Patients With Different Cultural Backgrounds

2020-03-03T03:16:00.000-08:00

Having empathy and understanding are very important characteristics of the nursing profession. To give proper care to a patient, one must consider the patient's situation not only in terms of health and the experience of pain but also in terms of age, religion, race and culture. Empathy is often described as "putting yourself in the other person's shoes." A lot of times, in your urbane scrubs free shipping you will be treating and caring for patients that have a starkly different culture than your own. Because of the increasing ethnic and cultural diversity of society, it is important to understand the differences and similarities of cultures so that you can give adequate care that is culturally congruent to the patient's own.

Adopting a Method for Cultural Understanding

Cultural differences can cause emotional distress among patients and healthcare givers or providers. Effective communication is important in treating patients and promoting their fast recovery. However, when two people of different cultures communicate, sometimes a lot of misunderstandings occur because of the difference in backgrounds, experiences, mannerisms, assumptions, and expectations. Caring for people from diverse cultural background can involve a lot of complexities. As a nurse, you need to develop approaches for recognizing and respecting the culture of patients from different cultures. Transcultural nursing is one such approach that you can adopt.

What is Transcultural Nursing?

Transcultural nursing is a method and practice that focuses on the similarities and differences of culture in terms of health, care, and illness based on the person's beliefs, cultural values, and practices, and using this knowledge to provide cultural specific nursing care to people. It promotes understanding instead of prejudice.

How to develop cultural understanding and awareness

To develop cultural understanding, you need to understand your own world view and that of your patient. At all costs, you should avoid stereotyping. To have a deeper understanding of diverse cultures, you need to inform yourself through education and research. A great way is to read about different religions, cultures, customs, and traditions. You have to develop an appreciation for the richness of the cultures of the world, what distinguishes Asian culture from European culture to African culture and American culture. It helps to read history as well as educate yourself about societal and biological evolution to understand how we are all interconnected and how we all became "different" because of events that shaped our culture and the environment that we live in. Widening your perspectives will not only help enrich your understanding of your patients from diverse backgrounds but it will also enrich your understanding of life and yourself. In more practical terms, tolerance and flexibility are very important factors for cultural understanding. Respecting your patients (or all individuals for that matter) no matter what background is very important. However, you should not make special privileges or overcompensate just because the patient is from a different cultural background. Respect should be given in the same accord as everyone. What you have to do is to give more understanding because it is not as easy compared to a patient that shares your worldview.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/2061425

How Is Gold Seen By Various Cultures?

2020-02-27T03:11:00.000-08:00

Symbol of wealth and prosperity to the large majority of cultures and civilizations throughout the world history, gold has always been given extreme importance by individuals, states and organizations, becoming a subject for their fascination.

Ever since ancient Egypt, gold has been considered a very precious metal, of divine nature, associated with the sun. While bearing no actual economic value until later times gold was traded only in barter by the Egyptians. The pharaoh had monopoly over the mines and used it for mortuary masks (Tutankhamen's solid gold mask being by far the most famous), statuettes of gods and jewelry.

Ancient Rome on the other hand used gold for trading; they had an Imperial treasury of gold coins. Gold mines belonged to the state and were located in Spain and Wales. Gold was used to finance the empire, to pay salaries and purchase goods from other parts of the world. Jewelry was worn only by very rich Romans.

Ancient Irish people and tribes from Central America made golden jewelry for the purpose of giving them as offerings to their respective Gods (by throwing the objects into rivers or lakes). In the case of African cultures, gold was used at large extent, mostly for the creation of objects worn by tribe leaders. Special workshops were created, making objects of elaborate nature, used for religious and ceremonial purposes. The continuous search for new deposits of gold because of the depletion of existing ones was the driving force behind the discovery of the American continent. This would be the place of the largest Gold rush, in California, around 1848, when 40000 diggers have come in search of the precious metal.

The gold standard was established by all countries of the world (China excepted) between 1870 and 1900, linking the currencies to the value of gold. Subsequently, this has been canceled by the US President Roosevelt who suspends the convertibility of US Dollar into gold. After the World War II, the Breton Woods conference sets the foundation for the post-war monetary system, creating the Gold Exchange Standard, primarily with reference to the US dollar. Buying gold remains to this day an important investment.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/5698249

Hip Hop Culture in Music

2020-02-24T03:07:00.000-08:00

Hip hop became part of modern culture during the '80s and over the years, it has become a lifestyle for many. Based on unique new art forms that developed in the streets because of a need for self expression, it is commonly known to contain four elements: DJ-ing, MC-ing (rapping), Graffiti and B-Boying. This article is going to look specifically look at hip hop culture in music.

Briefly, hip hop music is defined by four key stylistic elements: Rapping/MC-ing, DJ-ing/Scratching, Sampling (or Synthesis), and Beat boxing.

Rapping

Rapping, as it is commonly known, is also referred to as emceeing, MC-ing, spitting bars, or rhyming. Historically, it is believed that rapping is a form of expression embedded within ancient African culture and oral tradition.

Today, rapping is a primary ingredient in hip hop music and reggae. This style of music can be broken down into different components, namely: content, flow and delivery.

Content refers to the lyrics or words spoken by the rapper. Rappers usually talk about the world's current events in their content. Some even use rap to satirize or criticize some of the things happening in society.

The flow of the rap refers the rhythms and rhymes of a hip hop song's lyrics and how they interact. Flow can be broken down into rhyme, rhyme schemes, and rhythm (also known as cadence). Sometimes, flow is also used to refer to elements such as pitch, timbre, volume.

Delivery refers to the execution or performance of the rap. When preparing to deliver or perform a rap routine, a rapper must develop vocal presence, enunciation, and breath control. Vocal presence is the uniqueness of a rapper's voice on record. Enunciation affects the flow of rap - some rappers choose also to exaggerate their enunciation for comic and artistic effect. Breath control involves taking in air without interrupting the rap delivery. This is essential in any delivery because with poor breath control, one cannot deliver difficult verses without making unintentional pauses in between hip hop dance songs.

DJ-ing

DJ-ing involves the use of turntablism, an art of manipulating sounds and creating music using phonograph turntables and a DJ mixer.

Among the first few hip hop DJ's was Kool DJ Herc. Kool Herc created break-beat DJ-ing which became the foundational development of DJ-ing in hip hop history. This type of DJ-ing involves the isolation of breaks in songs. A break is a musical fragment only seconds in length in which all or most of the music stops except for the percussion.

Besides Herc's techniques, DJs Grandmaster Flowers, Grandmaster Flash, Grand Wizard Theodore, and Grandmaster Caz also made further innovations with the introduction of scratching.

Sampling

Sampling involves taking a portion, or sample, of one sound recording and reusing it as an instrument or a sound recording in a different song or piece. While sampling, producers will physically manipulate tape loops or vinyl records on a phonograph.

Sampling in hip hop dance songs first emerged with Kool Herc, contemporary disc jockeys and imitators creating rhythmic beats by looping breaks on two turntables.

Over time, sampling technology has become more advanced, modern equipment allowed not only more memory but more flexibility for creative production. Producers were able to filter and layer different hits, re-sequence them into a single piece.

Unfortunately, with the emergence of new and hi-tech equipment, it may prove to be very expensive to keep up with the technology causing a decrease in the quality of the album.

Beat Boxing

Beat boxing is a unique form of music style that do not use any kind of instrument or electronic equipment to produce. It is the vocal percussion of hip hop culture involving the production drum beats, rhythm, and musical sounds using the human mouth, lips, tongue, and voice. Specifically, this is done through singing, vocal imitation of turntablism, and the simulation of horns, strings, and other musical instruments.

Generally considered to be part of the same DJ-ing, beat boxing is typically used to provide a musical backdrop or foundation for rappers to rhyme over.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/7118485

Advice for AfriCANS by an AfriCAN

2020-02-21T03:02:00.000-08:00

In my work as a life coach and counselor I have certainly interacted with many Africans from different walks of life. What I have had to painfully come to grips with is the fact that our African culture has by and large molded us to be conservative and unnecessarily impalpable at times.

As such, it is not only hard for us to give love but we also struggle to receive love. We grow up in families and communities where the word 'LOVE' is foreign and considered a taboo. Some of us have never heard even our parents tell us that they love us. Growing up, I don't even recall even my siblings telling me they love me but of course we knew very well how to scold, fight and malign each other. It's only now after enlightenment that I for one take the onus to tell my siblings or parents that I love them.

The reality is really sad. Even married couples struggle to tell their mates that they love them. As our children grow up to be integrated into the bigger picture of the society all they would have learnt from their parents is how to say 'pfutseki'. Now that's sad.

This is to me the major reason why our continent is flooded with hatred, witchcraft, and enmity.

Fathers and mothers, brothers and sisters, I wish to let you know that the word 'LOVE' is not at all diabolical. If there is any word you aught to use more frequent than any other word, it is this blessed and sweet word, 'LOVE'. Let love be radiated in our families, workstations, schools and various institutions. You can start to unlearn, learn and relearn now. Find someone you will sincerely tell that you love them today.

Alvin Tofler's sentiment that, "The illiterates of the 21st century are not going to be people who can't read or write but those who can't unlearn, learn and relearn," rings true and factual to me. Africa, its time for us to Unlearn, learn and relearn.

Love covers a multitude of sins. Love is the thread which has the power to hold us together when every other thing fails. With love, all things are possible. With love, peace prevails. With love, prosperity prevails. With love, unity prevails.

We must let love flood our associations and relationships. In all we do, the common denominator should be love. We are different and we are bound to have diverging positions and preferences but after all is said and done, love should be the glue which sticks us together. Love and receive love. It must all come down to Love.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/8099254

Exploring New Orleans' Many Cultures

2020-02-18T02:58:00.000-08:00

New Orleans' unique flavor derives from the incredible mix of peoples and cultures assembled on the banks of the Mississippi River; Native American, French, Spanish, African, Anglo-American, Jewish, Italian, German, Irish, and Cajun (Acadian). They have all contributed to the "gumbo" that is New Orleans.

THE NATIVE AMERICANS

Numerous Native American tribes lived in the Delta: Attakpas, Bayougoula, Okelousa, Choctaw, Houma, Tunica, and Chitimacha.

They were either wiped out like the Natchez, who were destroyed in the war of 1730, or removed, like the Choctaw, to Oklahoma. Only scattered traces of these tribes remain, mostly outside the city.

THE FRENCH

The French came down the Mississippi from Canada and explored and settled the region in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Refugees from the French colony of Saint Domingue added a distinct West Indian flavor to the culture at the beginning of the 19th century. There was a continuous flow of immigration from France throughout the rest of the century. Their influence is most clearly seen in the cuisine as well as in architecture and decorative arts, such as the furniture created by Prudence Mallard.

THE AFRICAN CULTURES

The first slaves arrived in 1720, and by 1724 there were enough to justify establishing the Code Noir for their control. New Orleans became known for its large number of free people of color, many of whom came from Haiti during the 1791-1808 Haitian Revolution.

On the eve of the Civil War, the city had 13,000 blacks, slave and free. From Africa and the West Indies came music that influenced the birth of jazz. During Mardi Gras and on St. Joseph's Day (March 19), the Mardi Gras Indians in lavish costumes pay homage to native Americans who hid runaway slaves.

THE SPANISH

The Spanish took over from the French as administrators of Louisiana from 1763 to 1800, but few immigrants from Spain actually settled in New Orleans.

Spanish is still spoken by descendants of the "Islenos" - people who came at the request of the Spanish from the Canary Islands in the 1770s.

In the 1950s, Latin American refugees from Cuba, Nicaragua, and Honduras flooded into the city. The most obvious Hispanic influence can be seen throughout the French Quarter in the design of the buildings, as well as in the cuisine.

THE GERMANS

The first Germans arrived in 1722, lured by John Law's promotion of the colony as an earthly paradise. About 10,000 had left their homes in the Rhineland between 1719 and 1720 after the Thirty Years' War. Nearly 2,000 arrived in the region, settling as small farmers about 25 miles (40 km) upstream from New Orleans. A second wave followed between 1820 and 1850, bringing thousands more, who were fleeing political turmoil in Europe. Another wave followed just before the Civil War, and then another from 1865 to the 1890s. Most German immigrants settled inland, but by 1870 there were more than 15,000 living in New Orleans itself. For a time they were the largest immigrant group in Louisiana.

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Romance Your Cultural Side With a Trip to Rome

2020-02-15T02:54:00.000-08:00

Bursting with flavour and life, Rome is a truly remarkable city to visit. Ancient ruins, breathtaking architecture and a cultural programme packed to the rafters means the Italian capital is one of the most remarkable tourist destinations around. Add to the mix a warm, Mediterranean climate and mouth-watering cuisine and you will soon find that you have the perfect place to escape to.

With a history stretching back more than 2500 years, this stunning city is home to a plethora of world famous attractions, including St Peter's Basilica, the Colosseum and the Sistine Chapel. The vibrant street life, array of bustling piazzas and atmosphere charged with excitement, additionally makes Rome a unique destination to experience.

As if that were not enough, the Italian capital also boasts an impressive annual events calendar, filled with a number of music and film festivals, street performances and art exhibitions. Consequently, regardless of when you visit Rome, there is always something on offer to excite the senses and capture the imagination.

Established in 2003, White Night, or Notte Bianca as it is known to the Italians, is a fantastic event to experience. Held for one night each September, the city comes alive with a series of free music concerts, theatre performances and dance acts, as many of the galleries and entertainment venues open their doors to the public. It has become a key event in Rome's calendar and draws around two million people annually from across the globe.

The Estate Romana is one of the city's biggest festivals, as well as its most diverse. Taking place every year from June to September, there is a huge assortment of entertainment on offer, ranging from open air film screenings and jazz concerts to sporting activities and children's performances. With many of the events held in and around Rome's parks and monuments, it is the ideal opportunity to soak up the city's sights, whilst indulging your fun side.

Designed to celebrate the very best of African culture, Festa d'Africa is another great event to attend. Unique in Europe, this week-long extravaganza is a veritable treasure trove of all things African, including art, films, music and drama. A great way to learn about the culture, it also addresses the important issues affecting the country, thus helping to raise global awareness. Attracting a number of people annually, the event has been in operation for eight years.

In addition to the numerous events and festivals on offer, there is an unparalleled range of delicious eateries, bars and accommodation options, meaning all budgets are catered for.

So, if you're looking for a great escape this year, Rome flights will pick you up and take you to one of Europe's most beautiful cities.

Disclaimer: The information contained within this article is the opinion of the author and is intended purely for information and interest purposes only. It should not be used to make any decisions or take any actions. Any links are included for information purposes only.

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African Wall Masks Are An Attractive Decoration For Your Home

2020-02-12T02:50:00.000-08:00

African wall masks are a great accessory to have showcased in your home. Not only are they unique in their exterior appearance, they also provide a level of decadence to a home. Typically, these masks are comprised of special African pictures or lettering.

Many people whenever they think about a mask of some kind automatically begin to assume that these masks have to be adorned on their faces. This is not always the case when it comes to African masks. Great deals of them are made to hang on the wall as a stunning decoration.

Generally, the masks are filled with elegant pictures and they consist of bright colors. However, there are some that tend to have a darker color tone to them as well. Some of these masks are designed to tell a story, while other masks are simply made for decoration.

Contrary to belief, you do not have to be in tuned with African culture in order to obtain one of these fine pieces of art for your walls. Most people decide to obtain African wall masks, simply because they adore the attractive flair of the masks. The masks can be placed anywhere around your home, and they will definitely become the main focal point of any room that they are hung in.

Some of the masks that are created are a symbol of something. For instance, some of the masks incorporate different pictures on the outer layer that emphasize on wealth or good fortune. Some of the masks are made to same something about the character of the person that has it in their possession.

All in all, regardless of what type of mask that you obtain there is one thing that is evident about them. They will always be stunning and unique. There is no need to settle for drab decorations to hang on the walls of your home, when there are so many different African wall masks that are yours for the taking.

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Culture, Heritage and Fun

2020-02-09T02:47:00.000-08:00

Hilton Head Island

The Hilton Head Island is a beautiful destination. Located in the vicinity of nature amidst the sea waters, this island has been the home of the Gullah community for three centuries. Here, there is a rich culture and heritage of the Gullah community. This island has the beauty of nature, the sea, and a rich heritage and culture for people to learn about. It is the perfect holiday destination for you, your family and friends.

About Hilton Head Island

The Hilton Head Island is located off the coast of South Carolina. It is one among the Sea Islands of South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia and Florida; it is also known as the Low Country. The Low Country is inhabited by African-Americans who are the descendants of the people who were enslaved to work on the rice and cotton plantations in the Low Country region. These descendants have strongly retained their rich African culture.

The Gullah community has retained many important aspects of the West African Culture; including music, languages, family values and even land usage traditions.

History

In 1698, several islands along with some mainland in the Low Country, were granted as part of a barony to John Bayley. This place was then christened as Bayley's Barony. Hilton Head Island was then known as Trench's County, named after Alexander Trench. Alexander Trench was the faithful property agent and fee collector of John Bayley.

Years later in 1717, John Barnwell became the first English settler there and was granted land that measured 1,000 acres. Later, it came to be known as the Hilton Head plantations.

However, the beautiful Island failed to gain recognition until the arrival of another planter, William Elliot in 1790. William Elliot raised the first staple cotton here, along with his friend Will Seabrook. Will Seabrook introduced a new and advanced fertilizer for the crop; this resulted in a high-quality cotton crop which was widely acclaimed. In 1860, the island boasted of 24 such plantations. The main crop cultivated was cotton but, there were other crops like sugarcane, indigo and rice. In a bid to form a better lifestyle, the landowners began residing in better places. This island became the home of slaves and overseers who grew the crops.

After the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, the patriarch lifestyle of the plantation owners came to an end and the population plummeted to a few thousand; these residents were primarily the descendants of the slaves who worked there. The place returned to its state of rural obscurity. People living there survived through maintaining small farms and fishing. However, they retained their culture, values and rich heritage.

Regaining Glory

It was in 1940 that the Island regained its glory thanks to the timber-men who found new potential in its tall pines.

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Salvador Brazil - Birthplace of Afro-Brazilian Culture

2020-02-06T02:44:00.000-08:00

All the things one associates with the joy, color, and spectacle of Brazil can be traced to Salvador Brazil, where African culture made its entrance into the South American continent with the forced immigration of Africans. These new arrivals to a strange land would be forced into a life of slavery, subjected to the inhumane treatment that only one who has all freedoms taken away can know. Despite or perhaps because of the hardships these people had to endure, their customs and culture found fertile ground in Brazil and grew into fascinating new manifestations of the human spirit while also maintaining their essential African-ness, becoming a major contributor to the complex and sophisticated culture of Brazil.

Here, African rhythms and soul blended with Portuguese and indigenous influences to produce a way of being that retains elements of all three peoples while at the same time forming something much greater than the sum of its parts. You can hear it in the music such as samba, which was born of the rhythms brought by the slaves and their suffering, melded with European harmonies and scale patterns. The word for the feeling in Portuguese is saudade, a kind of indescribable yearning- sad but not just sad, lamenting the suffering which is universal to the human condition yet not bitter. It is the Brazilian blues, and it is a sound which uplifts.

Certainly music must be the highest art of Brazil, for nowhere else is there a sound which so perfectly encapsulates the history, emotions, and soul of its people. In Brazil's music, you hear the story of the pain endured by those separated from families, you hear how these same people were able to keep their dignity and humanity through it all. The feeling of joy is always there under the melancholy, there is always the current of movement. There is an understanding of life, of gratitude even when there may seem nothing to be grateful for.

Salvador Brazil is a place where the human spirit can be seen for what it is- seemingly fragile, yet powerful and able to overcome the greatest of challenges. It is a model for what we can be and shows that as people, we are able to put a dark past full of suffering behind us and move on, creating something beautiful out of crushing hardship.

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West African Tribal Masks

2020-02-03T01:24:00.000-08:00

Tribal masks of West Africa depict ancestors, spirit beings and invisible powers. In tribal ceremonial events the people express moral as well as important social and religions values for the community, with the African tribal masks providing a symbolic and artistic refection of these values.

The particular associations of African tribal masks vary widely across the different tribes, but it is universal that the artists who create masks are held in high esteem, as well as the individuals who wear the masks during ceremonies. Therefore, only certain people may wear the masks, predominately, men. These men are either the chieftains or kings, the elders of the tribe or perhaps those with high social status.

Mask-making is prevalent among the Maasai of Kenya, who produce some stunning works of art. The art of mask-making is passed from father to son. Along with the teachings of the process of the mask construction is included the teachings of the symbolic meaning in each component of the mask.

Dances of West Africa in which masks are worn include most events and ceremonies such as initiation rites, weddings, births, and deaths. It is believed that when a person puts on a ritual mask the individual losses a personal identity and thus becomes the spirit that the mask represents. This transformation of the individual is supported by additional costuming, particular dance moves and specific music. What occurs, then, with this transformation is that the individual becomes a medium allowing for communication between the members of the community and the spirit impersonated by the mask wearer.

Each "dominion," whether it be ancestor, nature, or magic, has a pantheon of spirits, and these spirits each have their own mask. There may be as many as nearly 100 masks to represent and honor each being or energy.

The complexity and over all quality of a Maasai mask, and generally the masks of other West Africa cultures and tribes as well, is a demonstration of the importance of the spirit portrayed.

Many masks from Kenya are in the shape of an animal face or a human face, although often very abstract. One of the most interesting components of African masks is in their focus on an abstract appearance rather than a strictly realistic look. This is due to the belief in African cultures that it is the essence of the subject, rather than the look of the subject, that is of relevance. As an example, when depicting flying spirits, the Bwa people show these spirits in geometrical forms only.

The effect of this abstract look of African masks is that they appear extremely contemporary with their minimalist but intensely evocative lines and forms.

Many components of African masks are tribe-specific, with subtle aspects identifying which tribe a mask has come from as clearly as a signature.

Animals are often the subject of masks. The animal mask when worn by the tribal member is an opportunity to communicate with the particular animal. During this ritual the dangerous, wild animal is asked to stay away from the tribe. Animals also represent certain attributes such as patience or strength. Sometimes various human and animal attributes may be combined on a mask to illustrate a combination of outstanding virtues.

Another frequently employed subject for African masks are traits and attributes of feminine beauty. The wearing of these masks is, again, generally restricted to men.

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Cultural Tours Within South Africa

2020-01-30T01:22:00.000-08:00

South Africa is an incredible holiday destination, with many cultural highlights and natural wonders to explore, you can experience the best South Africa has to offer. In South Africa you'll find the world's oldest fossils, and the world's newest democracy.
Referred to as the 'Rainbow Nation', South Africa has a population of 45 million people, with not one single culture but several, making the most culturally diverse country in the world. Visitors have the opportunity to experience South African culture via the many Cultural tours on offer.
South Africa is the most democratic country on the African continent; this is a country where you can share in on the historical and political memories the people. Visit the famous Apartheid museum or the world heritage site of Robben Island; home to political mover Nelson Mandela during his incarceration, upon his release in 1990, Nelson Mandela was elected South Africa's first black president.
For a rare cultural gem visit is the city of Cape Town, this is a city of culture built on a history that reflects the architecture, cuisine, music and dance. In the Western Cape you will find indigenous Fynbos which forms part of the Cape Floral region, pristine white beaches and the memorable landmark of Table mountain; providing an amazing backdrop of Cape Towns city center. Here many of the world's scenic wonders are with a days drive away from the city center.
For a cultural outing visit the many art galleries and museums or visit a natural rock painting mural, experience the authentic African artifacts by browsing the array of flea markets, or stroll along Kalk Bay main road and browse through the numerous antique stores. Visitors can travel to the rural areas where you can witness tribal culture and living. Township tours are a must, a unique and emotional experience, walk along the streets and witness the locals surviving on a daily basis, with daily struggles, hopes and dreams. After that is done stop off at the local Shebeen and enjoy a refreshing beer.
A lot is to be said about the South African cuisine; traditionally it is as diverse as the cultures surrounding it. Indulge in a seafood platter whilst watching the whale spectacle in the Hermanus Bay, have a hot summers day Boerewors Braai or go down to Durban and experience the hot BunnyChow.
The brilliant landscape and diverse culture is matched by the equally rich choice of places to stay, some of South Africa's hotels and lodges contend with the best in the world, from simple rustic 5 star lodges, friendly hotels, luxury accommodation to various conference and spa venues.

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African Dance - An Introduction to African Dancing

2020-01-27T01:18:00.000-08:00

Though many cultures and countries have national and ceremonial dances, few of them carry the social and historical significance of African Dancing. These elaborate dances not only help communities celebrate their festivals and specials events, they also help them tell their stories and record their history. Because writing and reading came late to some parts of Africa, music and dance were used as a form of unique oral storytelling that was utilized by people from many different tribes.

These dances were not only celebratory they were also instructive and were used to teach the younger generation about morals and values. They were also used to praise and pray to the gods and give thanks for a bountiful harvest or a successful hunt.

African Dance was one of the first to rely on music from choruses of trained singers who used harmony and complicated arrangements to set the pace and rhythm of the dance. Though the primary instrument for most choruses is the human voice, the second most popular instrument was and still is the African drum. There are literally dozens of different drums that are commonly used in African Dance. The basic bougarabou is one of the most popular African drums.

The drum is often seen as a sign of vitality and life and is considered the heartbeat of the tribe or village. Oftentimes the beating of a single drum will serve the same purpose as a bugle call in the military - it lets the community know that it is time to get up and gather together. The drum is also a symbol of solidarity in African music and Dance and lets people know that they are all different but connected. They are all cut from the same cloth.

Unlike many European or Latin dances, traditional African Dance is a collective experience. There are normally no partners, hand-holding or passionate embraces. In short, African Dancing is about the entire community rather than just a single couple. Many times dancers are actually separated by gender and age to symbolize the different stages of life.

As we mentioned, the main difference between African Dancing and other popular forms of dance is that there is no close couple dancing in traditional African dance. This can be attributed to fact that many early African cultures believed that men and women should not dance together because it was immoral. That is the primary reason why most African dances are gender specific and why men and women rarely even touch during mixed dances.

The following is a list of some of the most popular traditional African dances:

Warrior Dance: As you might expect, this dance was performed before the men of the tribe went off to battle. It is a violent dance that consists of stabbing motions and other battlefield tactics.

Dance of Love: A slow dance that is performed to acknowledge and celebrate special occasions like weddings or anniversaries. It is often danced only by the women.

Coming of Age Dance: Performed to mark the passing of a young person from childhood into adulthood.

These are only a few of the dozens of dances that Africans consider traditional and therefore an important part of their history.

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Promoting African Creativity by Globalizing Our Ideas

2020-01-24T01:16:00.000-08:00

Africans delight on their oral tradition of folklore. In many African villages, boys and girls gather around their elders to listen to stories of hope, imagination, bravery and justice.

These students of culture are expected to pass that tradition to newer generations. For many centuries, Africans have lived that life - a life of 'more talking, less writing'.

It helped shaped family values and embedded the spirit of service and honor. For generations, except Ethiopians, no African culture or nation was able to develop an indigenous way of writing.

Contracts were executed with words, marriages were concluded with words, lands were sold with words, and indeed all was about the memory of the human species. When neighbors disagree over land, an arbiter would come in to settle the disputes by telling stories his own parents or elders had passed to him.

Typically, Africans talk a lot. That was the tradition. It has remained like that and will be the same for many generations to come. While the western world works hard to document on black and white or in modern times on bytes and bits, we still do not bother.

Many African universities have no organized way of processing massive data or ideas that emanate from their students theses, projects or dissertations. At the end of every academic year, student dissertations are burnt, to make temporary room for new ones.

It is the culture and no one has found a solution for that. Only few of those works made it to the university library. Years after years, we are burning ideas that can unlock the future of better harvest, and curing diseases that corporations think make no economic sense to invest resources.

Except for the efforts of Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, many tropical diseases have lacked serious thoughts in the big Pharma companies. Why make drugs for people that cannot afford them? So for the cholera or TB, not many thoughts get into them in the big Pharma meetings. But Gates Foundation has offered a new dimension to finding solutions.

Notwithstanding, many of the works are still done outside Africa and in most cases their contributions are overlooked. And Africans do not make things easier by not having histories since they rarely keep records. So, how do you access their capabilities? Very tough and the vicious circle continues unabated.

Strange as it may seem, but that is the reality of many African schools where we run round in cycles wasting time without making progress. When you destroy your progress, you have to repeat it.

Instead of preserving legacies which can be built upon, we have students solving a problem someone that graduated a year before had solved. With no means of sharing data or documenting these works, innovation suffers.

Besides, it hurts the students because they spend money to recreate processes which had been validated a few years ago. It brings a tradition of constantly managing crises without a process to envision bold world changing ideas. They deprive the schools opportunities to attract funding because no one knows what they do. They are rarely published because local conferences are not common.

I think that a continental level effort must be put in place by African Union to ensure that all projects, theses or dissertations from any African institution are preserved and accessible on the internet. This is very important as it will make the schools effective and more focused.

This does not have to be expensive. The website must be designed in a way that students upon approvals from their schools can post the works themselves. It promises to become a way to help the world know our contributions to knowledge. It can also help the world get refreshed with new ideas and perspectives.

It has to be done immediately.

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