aviation engine

GIS for Aviation

2017-04-13T13:53:00.000+02:00

Within the field of aviation, GIS applications can be utilized to present geographic data so that safety is reinforced through an enhanced threat and error management (TEM) decision making process. Using GIS aviation applications, a pilot is able to see or “fly” a specific arrival or departure at an airport. Textual descriptions or 2D maps can be compiled into an interactive virtual model that can be reviewed from all angles. Threats such as controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) or other unrecognized hazards are more easily identified and mitigated before the flight ever operates.

The growth of GIS compatible data has created an environment where off-the-shelf programs can be utilized to present the information in a meaningful way for flight crew members. Through the use of layered information a pilot would be able to “see” an approach or departure by reviewing previous flights. This can be enhanced by overlaying navigation information against the terrain and/or highlighting specific areas of concern. This synthetic experience allows a pilot to more fully understand the arrival or departure challenges associated with an airport even if he/she has never flown there before.

As GIS applications and compatible data sources continue to grow, the cost barriers that previously existed for such programs have significantly decreased. All levels of operation, from a flight school to a major airline, can harness existing GIS applications to build pertinent, effective overviews that will allow pilots to better understand risks and therefore make better operating decisions.

As an example, an entity only needs access to Google Earth to start building an overview. Google Earth (GE) allows photos to be overlaid onto the depicted surface. An approach procedure that has been saved in a photo format can be overlaid against a specific airport. When latitude and longitude are provided in the approach procedure, it can be sized to match the latitude and longitude of the airport within GE. GE also allows the user to adjust the transparency of the overlay so that the terrain and landmarks can be distinguished while also depicting pertinent information from the approach procedure.

Within GE, a user can also build polygons that can be used to emphasize specific areas such as airspace, terrain or even navigation fixes. By illustrating these items, a pilot develops a better understanding of the environment which leads to increased situational awareness.

Another layer that can be added from readily available data is the flight path of previous flights arriving or departing from an airport. Websites such as flightaware.com provide radar tracks that can be opened in GE. These tracks allow a user to “fly” the flight path over the terrain with the layered approach procedure applied.

As a safety tool this type of GIS application provides tremendous insight about airports that may have special conditions associated with the arrival or departure. Conditions such as high terrain, prohibited airspace, restricted flight paths, etc. can be visualized.

The pictorials presented in this article were created with Google Earth, FlightAware (with permission) and photo overlays for the specific airport approaches. As GIS tools and applications continue to propagate, their implementation costs have decreased. A few of the open source platforms currently available are Google Earth, FlightAware, Sketchup, Grass GIS, Flightwise and Marble. These platforms and their low- to no-cost use provide cost effective aviation safety applications for operations of all sizes. Additional resources may also be found at the Open Source Geospatial Foundation. There are a number of providers for approach and departure navigation procedures which can be overlaid with Google Earth as a scanned document or a downloaded picture file. Always check to ensure that your utilization is in compliance with the terms of use for each platform.

GIS allows data to be created, edited, and stored in a centralized manner for further uses such as:

· - Charts

· - Aeronautical Information Publications (AIPs)

· - Aeronautical data creation, tasking, and Web services

- Multi-dimensional visualization and analysis

Civil and military organizations must create and maintain digital aeronautical datasets and produce high-quality, database-driven charts that meet their unique specifications. GIS can help these agencies maintain, control, and disseminate data that meets their rigorous requirements.

With GIS, aeronautical organizations can

v Create, visualize, analyze, and disseminate critical data from Aeronautical Information Systems (AIS).

v Automatically update charts through the AIS to reduce data latency, redundancy, and errors.

v Produce a wide range of charting products, including International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)-compliant charts, from a central database.

v Share data using the Aeronautical Information Exchange Model (AIXM).

v Efficiently generate aeronautical charts for route planning, in-flight navigation, and takeoff and landing.

Benefits of GIS

Reliable, Fast & Cost – effective in:

•Creating, visualizing, analyzing & disseminating aeronautical data.

•Updating charts to reduce latency, redundancy & errors.

•Production of wide range of ICAO- compliant charts.

•Sharing data using AIXM

We need GIS for eTOD and AMDB

Reduce the probability of editing errors or using out-of-date or inaccurate data by ensuring that data is stored in only one location instead of several. Create navigational products using the correct data every time, maintaining safe navigation.

Manage large collections of obstacle and terrain data necessary for Electronic Terrain and Obstacle Database (eTOD) compliance. GIS allows the creation, viewing, and analysis of this data and gives a replicable workflow that makes aeronautical information system (AIS) updates easier.

GIS software is very efficient and allows producing data and charting products faster with better quality.

All charts can be stored in one common database. Data can be updated once and reflected in all the products that are needed: charts, maps, AIPs, electronic AIPs, and supplements. This reduces the chance of errors, streamlines workflows, and condenses the size of data that needs to be physically stored, reducing costs.

GIS provides tools for managing aeronautical information needs. Data can be efficiently managed and high-quality charts produced. Both civil and military agencies, commercial airlines, and chart producers can create, maintain, and use standard aeronautical datasets based on the latest digital data.

Increase your efficiency over traditional production systems by centralizing information, minimizing data entry, and maximizing product output. Something as simple as a single edit that is automatically reflected on all output products, including charts, digital files like AIXM, and Web services, can save time and money and reduce the chance of errors.

Many methods are acceptable for capturing aerodrome mapping data

•Subject to the requirements specified in Annex 15

( AIS) and Doc 9881(Guidelines for Electronics, Terrain, Obstacle & Aerodrome Mapping Information)

-e.g: aerial photogrammetry, satellite photogrammetry, field surveying, and digitization of existing analog charts

•A description of the process used to acquire aerodrome mapping data must be provided.

ARINC424 Specification

2017-04-13T13:38:00.002+02:00

ARINC424 is an aeronautical specification developed and maintained by the industry which has been used for the exchange of navigation and communication data between commercial data suppliers and avionic system manufacturers for more than 30 years

It was created in the 70’s to meet the requirements of more complex embedded navigation systems (FMS) supporting evolving navigation techniques. The ARINC424 sets forth the air transport industry’s recommended standards for the preparation of airborne navigation system reference data files.

The first issue of the ARINC424 specification was officially published in May 1975. The version applicable in August 2010 is version 19, which was released on December 2008. The specification is maintained by the A424 committee which groups the major aeronautical actors involved in the different steps of the data production chain:

ANSP & administrations
Commercial data providers
Avionic systems suppliers
Aircraft manufacturers
Airlines

The ARINC424 specifies a format of navigation (and communication) data based on text files containing lines of 132 alphanumeric characters. Section 4 “ARINC424 Records” and Section 5 “ARINC424 Fields” detail the textual structure and the type of alphanumeric characters which shall be used in order to represent aeronautical features. The picture below illustrates how an Airport can be expressed in ARINC424.

In addition to the description of the format, the ARINC424 specification also provides a series of rules (Business rules) explaining how the Aeronautical Information Publication should be interpreted (naming convention for waypoints for instance). One of the major chapters of the specification (Attachment 5) deals with the encoding of terminal procedures (SID, STAR, Approaches). The ARINC424 defines in particular the concept of Path&Terminators (elementary trajectories which are sequenced in order to represent a complete procedure) which is now more and more adopted outside the strict A424 community. As an example, the ARINC424 Path&Terminator concept is reused in the ICAO Performance-Based Navigation Manual.

The ARINC424 datasets are assembled by commercial data suppliers based on the public sources (AIPs). Custom data (also named tailored data) which is specific to the end-user, such as the Company Routes specified by an airline, is added to this in initial set of standard ARINC424 data. The ARINC424 text files are then converted into binary datasets by ground compilers (packing software) which are unique to each avionic system manufacturer; at this stage, the input ARINC424 dataset can be adapted to meet the specific requirements of a target Flight Management System. The resulting binary file is a navigation database which is unique per FMS manufacturer and per FMS type. The picture above illustrates the general data production chain, from the publication to the embedded system.

One of the main consequences of this process is that an airline operating a mixed fleet will have to manage and validate many different types of navigation databases every 28 days (the AIRAC cycle), which generates significant logistic effort and costs.

Airspace and Procedure Design

2015-07-12T16:19:00.003+02:00

Description

The proper planning and design of routes, holding patterns, airspace structure and ATC sectorisation in both terminal and en-route airspace can be effective in reducing the likelihood of level bust incidents. The converse is also true: poorly designed airspace can create situations where a level bust incident is more likely to occur within an air traffic management (ATM) system.
In an ideal world, airspace design would make it possible for arriving, departing and en-route flights to operate so that they did not have to cross one another, or climb and descend through each other’s levels. Furthermore, approach and take-off flight paths would be free of obstacles. Unfortunately, however, this “ideal” design environment is seldom possible, which means that airspace designers need to take steps to reduce the likelihood of level busts in the above circumstances.

Effects

While not actually causing them, poorly designed airspace can increase the risk of loss of separation, level bust, and Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT).

Defences

Airspace and procedure design should follow the principles laid down in ICAO Doc 8168 (PANS-OPS) and Doc 4444 (PANS-ATM). PANS-OPS provides criteria for the design of instrument approach, holding and departure procedures. PANS-OPS provisions also cover en-route procedures where obstacle clearance is a consideration. PANS-ATM provides procedures for air navigation services, whose basic tenets form the basis of airspace design.
EUROCONTROL Manual for Airspace Planning provides guidance material for airspace design and PANS-OPS Procedure design. This is supplemented by Guidance Material for the design of Terminal Procedures for Area Navigation (DME, GNSS, Baro-VNAV and RNP RNAV).

Typical Scenarios

A standard instrument departure (SID) requires pilots to level at an intermediate altitude until passing a specified point. The pilot fails to stop at this intermediate altitude and loses separation with an aircraft above.

A SID is based on an off-airfield DME. The pilot does not notice this and becomes confused when the DME range decreases rather than increases.

A non-precision approach begins at a fix defined by bearing and distance from a radio facility. The pilot has difficulty flying to this fix and descends the aircraft outside the calculated safety zone.

A non-precision approach specifies a descent path by means of a series of fixes and corresponding check heights. The descent path consists of a series of steps rather than a continuous descent and the pilot has difficulty in establishing a stabilised approach.

Contributory Factors

The extent of the navigation, communication and surveillance infrastructure;

Terrain surrounding the aerodrome;

Other ATS routes, prohibited, danger and restricted areas;

Proximity of other aerodromes and other airspace structures;

Requirements to ensure environmental mitigation (e.g. noise abatement procedures.

Solutions

The introduction of airspace procedures and design should be planned. This implies identifying and addressing all relevant stakeholder interests; carrying out an impact assessment; and carrying out a safety assessment. This also implies the introduction of changes in an organised manner which reduces the likelihood of design solutions creating operational difficulties for either pilots or ATCOs.

Changes introduced to existing terminal area procedures as well as SIDs and STARs should be properly validated, prior to implementation.

Sufficient time should be allowed in the planning process to allow for necessary ATCO and pilot training.

When RNAV terminal area procedures are designed (excluding the final approach and missed approach segment), procedures should be designed using P-RNAV criteria in accordance with guidance material published by EUROCONTROL.

Make use of procedure-design tools.

PANS-OPS

2015-07-12T16:18:00.002+02:00

PANS-OPS is an air traffic control acronym of procedures for air navigation services – aircraft operations. PANS-OPS are rules for designing instrument approach and departure procedures. Such procedures are used to allow aircraft to land and take off when instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) impose instrument flight rules (IFR).

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) outlines the principles for airspace protection and procedure design to which all ICAO signatory states must adhere. The regulatory material surrounding PANS-OPS may vary from country to country.

Similar to an obstacle limitation surface (OLS), the PANS-OPS protection surfaces are imaginary surfaces in space that guarantee an aircraft a certain minimum obstacle clearance. These surfaces may be used as a tool for local governments in assessing building development. Where buildings may (under certain circumstances) be permitted to penetrate the OLS, they cannot be permitted to penetrate any PANS-OPS surface, because the purpose of these surfaces is to guarantee pilots operating under IMC an obstacle free descent path for a given approach.

There are other PANS :

PANS-ATC: Procedures for Air Navigation Services – Air Traffic Control
PANS-ATM: Procedures for Air Navigation Services – Air Traffic Management (rules of the air and air traffic services ICAO Doc. 4444)

In 1989 Ian Whitworth programmed the first commercially available off the shelf instrument procedure design software conforming to ICAO document 8168 Pans-Ops. This software was first demonstrated at Bailbrook College in Bath England in 1992 to a procedure design course. Prior to this all procedure design was done with pencil, tracing paper and a calculator. The software was programmed on a 386 IBM laptop computer and written in the “LISP” programming language.

Annexes and PANS

The Flight Safety Section is responsible for the following Annexes and PANS:
    Annex 1 — Personnel Licensing

    Annex 5 — Units of Measurement to be Used in Air and Ground Operations

    Annex 6 — Operation of Aircraft
        Part I — International Commercial Air Transport — Aeroplanes
        Part II — International General Aviation — Aeroplanes
        Part III — International Operations — Helicopters

    Annex 7 — Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks

    Annex 8 — Airworthiness of Aircraft

    Annex 16 — Environmental Protection
        Volume I — Aircraft Noise
        Volume II — Aircraft Engine Emissions

    Annex 18 — The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air

    PANS-OPS, (Doc 8168), Procedures for Air Navigation Services — Aircraft Operations
        Volume I — Flight Procedures
        Volume II— Construction of Visual and Instrument Flight Procedures
        PANS-OPS OAS Software

    PANS-TRG, (Doc 9868), Procedures for Air Navigation Services — Training

Air traffic control

2014-11-27T09:13:00.004+02:00

Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace, and can provide advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled airspace. The primary purpose of ATC worldwide is to prevent collisions, organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and provide information and other support for pilots.^[1] In some countries, ATC plays a security or defensive role, or is operated by the military.
To prevent collisions, ATC enforces traffic separation rules, which ensure each aircraft maintains a minimum amount of empty space around it at all times. Many aircraft also have collision avoidance systems, which provide additional safety by warning pilots when other aircraft get too close.
In many countries, ATC provides services to all private, military, and commercial aircraft operating within its airspace. Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue instructions that pilots are required to obey, or advisories (known as flight information in some countries) that pilots may, at their discretion, disregard. Generally the pilot in command is the final authority for the safe operation of the aircraft and may, in an emergency, deviate from ATC instructions to the extent required to maintain safe operation of their aircraft.
Pursuant to requirements of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), ATC operations are conducted either in the English language or the language used by the station on the ground.^[2] In practice, the native language for a region is normally used; however, the English language must be used upon request.^[2]

In 1921, Croydon Airport, London was the first airport in the world to introduce air traffic control.^[3]
In America, Air Traffic Control developed three divisions. The first - Air Mail Radio Stations (AMRS) was created in 1922 after World War 1 when the US Post Office began using techniques developed by the Army to direct and track the movements of reconnaissance aircraft. Over time the AMRS morphed into Flight Service Stations. Today's Flight Service Stations do not issue control instructions, but provide pilots with many other flight related informational services. They do relay control instructions from ATC in areas where Flight Service is the only facility with radio or phone coverage. The first Airport Traffic Control Tower, regulating arrivals, departures and surface movement of aircraft at a specific airport, opened in Cleveland in 1930. Approach/Departure Control facilities were created after the invention of RADAR in the 1950s to monitor and control the busy airspace around larger airports. The first Air Route Traffic Control Center, which directs the movement of aircraft between departure and destination was opened in Newark, NJ in 1935, followed in 1936 by Chicago and Cleveland.^[4]

^{airport control :}
^{-------------------------------------------------------}
The primary method of controlling the immediate airport environment is visual observation from the airport control tower (TWR). The tower is a tall, windowed structure located on the airport grounds. Air traffic controllers are responsible for the separation and efficient movement of aircraft and vehicles operating on the taxiways and runways of the airport itself, and aircraft in the air near the airport, generally 5 to 10 nautical miles (9 to 18 km) depending on the airport procedures.
Surveillance displays are also available to controllers at larger airports to assist with controlling air traffic. Controllers may use a radar system called secondary surveillance radar for airborne traffic approaching and departing. These displays include a map of the area, the position of various aircraft, and data tags that include aircraft identification, speed, altitude, and other information described in local procedures. In adverse weather conditions the tower controllers may also use surface movement radar (SMR), surface movement guidance and control systems (SMGCS) or advanced SMGCS to control traffic on the manoeuvring area (taxiways and runway).
The areas of responsibility for TWR controllers fall into three general operational disciplines; Local Control or Air Control, Ground Control, and Flight Data/Clearance Delivery—other categories, such as Apron Control or Ground Movement Planner, may exist at extremely busy airports. While each TWR may have unique airport-specific procedures, such as multiple teams of controllers ('crews') at major or complex airports with multiple runways, the following provides a general concept of the delegation of responsibilities within the TWR environment.
Remote and Virtual Tower (RVT) is a system based on Air Traffic Controllers being located somewhere other than at the local airport tower and still able to provide Air Traffic Control services. Displays for the Air Traffic Controllers may be either optical live video and/or synthetic images based on surveillance sensor data.

Ground control

Ground Control (sometimes known as Ground Movement Control) is responsible for the airport "movement" areas, as well as areas not released to the airlines or other users. This generally includes all taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas, and some transitional aprons or intersections where aircraft arrive, having vacated the runway or departure gate. Exact areas and control responsibilities are clearly defined in local documents and agreements at each airport. Any aircraft, vehicle, or person walking or working in these areas is required to have clearance from Ground Control. This is normally done via VHF/UHF radio, but there may be special cases where other procedures are used. Aircraft or vehicles without radios must respond to ATC instructions via aviation light signals or else be led by vehicles with radios. People working on the airport surface normally have a communications link through which they can communicate with Ground Control, commonly either by handheld radio or even cell phone. Ground Control is vital to the smooth operation of the airport, because this position impacts the sequencing of departure aircraft, affecting the safety and efficiency of the airport's operation.
Some busier airports have Surface Movement Radar (SMR), such as, ASDE-3, AMASS or ASDE-X, designed to display aircraft and vehicles on the ground. These are used by Ground Control as an additional tool to control ground traffic, particularly at night or in poor visibility. There are a wide range of capabilities on these systems as they are being modernized. Older systems will display a map of the airport and the target. Newer systems include the capability to display higher quality mapping, radar target, data blocks, and safety alerts, and to interface with other systems such as digital flight strips.

Local control or air control

Local Control (known to pilots as "Tower" or "Tower Control") is responsible for the active runway surfaces. Local Control clears aircraft for takeoff or landing, ensuring that prescribed runway separation will exist at all times. If Local Control detects any unsafe condition, a landing aircraft may be told to "go-around" and be re-sequenced into the landing pattern by the approach or terminal area controller.
Within the TWR, a highly disciplined communications process between Local Control and Ground Control is an absolute necessity. Ground Control must request and gain approval from Local Control to cross any active runway with any aircraft or vehicle. Likewise, Local Control must ensure that Ground Control is aware of any operations that will impact the taxiways, and work with the approach radar controllers to create "holes" or "gaps" in the arrival traffic to allow taxiing traffic to cross runways and to allow departing aircraft to take off. Crew Resource Management (CRM) procedures are often used to ensure this communication process is efficient and clear, although this is not as prevalent as CRM for pilots.

Flight data / clearance delivery

Clearance Delivery is the position that issues route clearances to aircraft, typically before they commence taxiing. These contain details of the route that the aircraft is expected to fly after departure. Clearance Delivery or, at busy airports, the Traffic Management Coordinator (TMC) will, if necessary, coordinate with the en route center and national command center or flow control to obtain releases for aircraft. Often, however, such releases are given automatically or are controlled by local agreements allowing "free-flow" departures. When weather or extremely high demand for a certain airport or airspace becomes a factor, there may be ground "stops" (or "slot delays") or re-routes may be necessary to ensure the system does not get overloaded. The primary responsibility of Clearance Delivery is to ensure that the aircraft have the proper route and slot time. This information is also coordinated with the en route center and Ground Control in order to ensure that the aircraft reaches the runway in time to meet the slot time provided by the command center. At some airports, Clearance Delivery also plans aircraft push-backs and engine starts, in which case it is known as the Ground Movement Planner (GMP): this position is particularly important at heavily congested airports to prevent taxiway and apron gridlock.
Flight Data (which is routinely combined with Clearance Delivery) is the position that is responsible for ensuring that both controllers and pilots have the most current information: pertinent weather changes, outages, airport ground delays/ground stops, runway closures, etc. Flight Data may inform the pilots using a recorded continuous loop on a specific frequency known as the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS).

Approach and terminal control

Many airports have a radar control facility that is associated with the airport. In most countries, this is referred to as Terminal Control; in the U.S., it is referred to as a TRACON (Terminal Radar Approach Control). While every airport varies, terminal controllers usually handle traffic in a 30-to-50-nautical-mile (56 to 93 km) radius from the airport. Where there are many busy airports close together, one consolidated Terminal Control Center may service all the airports. The airspace boundaries and altitudes assigned to a Terminal Control Center, which vary widely from airport to airport, are based on factors such as traffic flows, neighboring airports and terrain. A large and complex example is the London Terminal Control Centre which controls traffic for five main London airports up to 20,000 feet (6,100 m) and out to 100 nautical miles (190 km).
Terminal controllers are responsible for providing all ATC services within their airspace. Traffic flow is broadly divided into departures, arrivals, and overflights. As aircraft move in and out of the terminal airspace, they are handed off to the next appropriate control facility (a control tower, an en-route control facility, or a bordering terminal or approach control). Terminal control is responsible for ensuring that aircraft are at an appropriate altitude when they are handed off, and that aircraft arrive at a suitable rate for landing.
Not all airports have a radar approach or terminal control available. In this case, the en-route center or a neighboring terminal or approach control may co-ordinate directly with the tower on the airport and vector inbound aircraft to a position from where they can land visually. At some of these airports, the tower may provide a non-radar procedural approach service to arriving aircraft handed over from a radar unit before they are visual to land. Some units also have a dedicated approach unit which can provide the procedural approach service either all the time or for any periods of radar outage for any reason.
In the U.S., TRACONs are additionally designated by a three-letter alphanumeric code. For example, the Chicago TRACON is designated C90.^[5]

En route, center, or area control

----------------------------------------------------------

ATC provides services to aircraft in flight between airports as well. Pilots fly under one of two sets of rules for separation: Visual Flight Rules (VFR) or Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). Air traffic controllers have different responsibilities to aircraft operating under the different sets of rules. While IFR flights are under positive control, in the US VFR pilots can request flight following, which provides traffic advisory services on a time permitting basis and may also provide assistance in avoiding areas of weather and flight restrictions. Across Europe, pilots may request for a "Flight Information Service", which is similar to flight following. In the UK it is known as a "Traffic Service".
En-route air traffic controllers issue clearances and instructions for airborne aircraft, and pilots are required to comply with these instructions. En-route controllers also provide air traffic control services to many smaller airports around the country, including clearance off of the ground and clearance for approach to an airport. Controllers adhere to a set of separation standards that define the minimum distance allowed between aircraft. These distances vary depending on the equipment and procedures used in providing ATC services.

General characteristics

En-route air traffic controllers work in facilities called Air Traffic Control Centers, each of which is commonly referred to as a "Center". The United States uses the equivalent term Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC). Each center is responsible for many thousands of square miles of airspace (known as a Flight Information Region) and for the airports within that airspace. Centers control IFR aircraft from the time they depart from an airport or terminal area's airspace to the time they arrive at another airport or terminal area's airspace. Centers may also "pick up" VFR aircraft that are already airborne and integrate them into the IFR system. These aircraft must, however, remain VFR until the Center provides a clearance.
Center controllers are responsible for climbing the aircraft to their requested altitude while, at the same time, ensuring that the aircraft is properly separated from all other aircraft in the immediate area. Additionally, the aircraft must be placed in a flow consistent with the aircraft's route of flight. This effort is complicated by crossing traffic, severe weather, special missions that require large airspace allocations, and traffic density. When the aircraft approaches its destination, the center is responsible for meeting altitude restrictions by specific points, as well as providing many destination airports with a traffic flow, which prohibits all of the arrivals being "bunched together". These "flow restrictions" often begin in the middle of the route, as controllers will position aircraft landing in the same destination so that when the aircraft are close to their destination they are sequenced.
As an aircraft reaches the boundary of a Center's control area it is "handed off" or "handed over" to the next Area Control Center. In some cases this "hand-off" process involves a transfer of identification and details between controllers so that air traffic control services can be provided in a seamless manner; in other cases local agreements may allow "silent handovers" such that the receiving center does not require any co-ordination if traffic is presented in an agreed manner. After the hand-off, the aircraft is given a frequency change and begins talking to the next controller. This process continues until the aircraft is handed off to a terminal controller ("approach").

Radar coverage

Since centers control a large airspace area, they will typically use long range radar that has the capability, at higher altitudes, to see aircraft within 200 nautical miles (370 km) of the radar antenna. They may also use TRACON radar data to control when it provides a better "picture" of the traffic or when it can fill in a portion of the area not covered by the long range radar.
In the U.S. system, at higher altitudes, over 90% of the U.S. airspace is covered by radar and often by multiple radar systems; however, coverage may be inconsistent at lower altitudes used by unpressurized aircraft due to high terrain or distance from radar facilities. A center may require numerous radar systems to cover the airspace assigned to them, and may also rely on pilot position reports from aircraft flying below the floor of radar coverage. This results in a large amount of data being available to the controller. To address this, automation systems have been designed that consolidate the radar data for the controller. This consolidation includes eliminating duplicate radar returns, ensuring the best radar for each geographical area is providing the data, and displaying the data in an effective format.
Centers also exercise control over traffic travelling over the world's ocean areas. These areas are also FIRs. Because there are no radar systems available for oceanic control, oceanic controllers provide ATC services using procedural control. These procedures use aircraft position reports, time, altitude, distance, and speed to ensure separation. Controllers record information on flight progress strips and in specially developed oceanic computer systems as aircraft report positions. This process requires that aircraft be separated by greater distances, which reduces the overall capacity for any given route. See for example the North Atlantic Track system.
Some Air Navigation Service Providers (e.g. Airservices Australia, The Federal Aviation Administration, NAV CANADA, etc.) have implemented Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS-B) as part of their surveillance capability. This new technology reverses the radar concept. Instead of radar "finding" a target by interrogating the transponder, the ADS-equipped aircraft sends a position report as determined by the navigation equipment on board the aircraft. Normally, ADS operates in the "contract" mode where the aircraft reports a position, automatically or initiated by the pilot, based on a predetermined time interval. It is also possible for controllers to request more frequent reports to more quickly establish aircraft position for specific reasons. However, since the cost for each report is charged by the ADS service providers to the company operating the aircraft, more frequent reports are not commonly requested except in emergency situations. ADS is significant because it can be used where it is not possible to locate the infrastructure for a radar system (e.g. over water). Computerized radar displays are now being designed to accept ADS inputs as part of the display. This technology is currently used in portions of the North Atlantic and the Pacific by a variety of states who share responsibility for the control of this airspace.
Precision approach radars are commonly used by military controllers of airforces of several countries, to assist the Pilot in final phases of landing in places where Instrument Landing System and other sophisticated air borne equipment are unavailable to assist the pilots in marginal or near zero visibility conditions. This procedure is also called Talkdowns.
A Radar Archive System (RAS) keeps an electronic record of all radar information, preserving it for a few weeks. This information can be useful for search and rescue. When an aircraft has 'disappeared' from radar screens, a controller can review the last radar returns from the aircraft to determine its likely position. For example, see this crash report.^[6] RAS is also useful to technicians who are maintaining radar systems.

Flight traffic mapping

The mapping of flights in real-time is based on the air traffic control system. In 1991, data on the location of aircraft was made available by the Federal Aviation Administration to the airline industry. The National Business Aviation Association (NBAA), the General Aviation Manufacturers Association, the Aircraft Owners & Pilots Association, the Helicopter Association International, and the National Air Transportation Association petitioned the FAA to make ASDI information available on a "need-to-know" basis. Subsequently, NBAA advocated the broad-scale dissemination of air traffic data. The Aircraft Situational Display to Industry (ASDI) system now conveys up-to-date flight information to the airline industry and the public. Some companies that distribute ASDI information are FlightExplorer, FlightView, and FlyteComm. Each company maintains a website that provides free updated information to the public on flight status. Stand-alone programs are also available for displaying the geographic location of airborne IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) air traffic anywhere in the FAA air traffic system. Positions are reported for both commercial and general aviation traffic. The programs can overlay air traffic with a wide selection of maps such as, geo-political boundaries, air traffic control center boundaries, high altitude jet routes, satellite cloud and radar imagery.

Problems

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traffic

The day-to-day problems faced by the air traffic control system are primarily related to the volume of air traffic demand placed on the system and weather. Several factors dictate the amount of traffic that can land at an airport in a given amount of time. Each landing aircraft must touch down, slow, and exit the runway before the next crosses the approach end of the runway. This process requires at least one and up to four minutes for each aircraft. Allowing for departures between arrivals, each runway can thus handle about 30 arrivals per hour. A large airport with two arrival runways can handle about 60 arrivals per hour in good weather. Problems begin when airlines schedule more arrivals into an airport than can be physically handled, or when delays elsewhere cause groups of aircraft that would otherwise be separated in time to arrive simultaneously. Aircraft must then be delayed in the air by holding over specified locations until they may be safely sequenced to the runway. Up until the 1990s, holding, which has significant environmental and cost implications, was a routine occurrence at many airports. Advances in computers now allow the sequencing of planes hours in advance. Thus, planes may be delayed before they even take off (by being given a "slot"), or may reduce speed in flight and proceed more slowly thus significantly reducing the amount of holding.
Air traffic control errors occur when the separation (either vertical or horizontal) between airborne aircraft falls below the minimum prescribed separation set (for the domestic United States) by the US Federal Aviation Administration. Separation minimums for terminal control areas (TCAs) around airports are lower than en-route standards. Errors generally occur during periods following times of intense activity, when controllers tend to relax and overlook the presence of traffic and conditions that lead to loss of minimum separation.^[7] Paradoxically, current high precision cruising altitude rules increase the risk of collision between 10 and 33 times over more sloppy alternatives when air traffic control errors occur.

Weather

Beyond runway capacity issues, weather is a major factor in traffic capacity. Rain, ice or snow on the runway cause landing aircraft to take longer to slow and exit, thus reducing the safe arrival rate and requiring more space between landing aircraft. Fog also requires a decrease in the landing rate. These, in turn, increase airborne delay for holding aircraft. If more aircraft are scheduled than can be safely and efficiently held in the air, a ground delay program may be established, delaying aircraft on the ground before departure due to conditions at the arrival airport.
In Area Control Centers, a major weather problem is thunderstorms, which present a variety of hazards to aircraft. Aircraft will deviate around storms, reducing the capacity of the en-route system by requiring more space per aircraft, or causing congestion as many aircraft try to move through a single hole in a line of thunderstorms. Occasionally weather considerations cause delays to aircraft prior to their departure as routes are closed by thunderstorms.
Much money has been spent on creating software to streamline this process. However, at some ACCs, air traffic controllers still record data for each flight on strips of paper and personally coordinate their paths. In newer sites, these flight progress strips have been replaced by electronic data presented on computer screens. As new equipment is brought in, more and more sites are upgrading away from paper flight strips.

Call signs

A prerequisite to safe air traffic separation is the assignment and use of distinctive call signs. These are permanently allocated by ICAO on request usually to scheduled flights and some air forces for military flights. They are written callsigns with 3-letter combination like KLM, BAW, VLG followed by the flight number, like AAL872, VLG1011. As such they appear on flight plans and ATC radar labels. There are also the audio or Radio-telephony callsigns used on the radio contact between pilots and Air Traffic Control. These are not always identical to their written counterparts. An example of an audio callsign would be "Speedbird 832", instead of the written "BAW832". This is used to reduce the chance of confusion between ATC and the aircraft. By default, the callsign for any other flight is the registration number (tail number) of the aircraft, such as "N12345", "C-GABC" or "EC-IZD". The short Radio-telephony callsigns for these tail numbers is the last 3 letters using the NATO phonetic alphabet (i.e. ABC spoken Alpha-Bravo-Charlie) for C-GABC or the last 3 numbers like 345 spoken as TREE-FORE-FIFE for N12345. In the United States, the prefix may be an aircraft type, model or manufacturer in place of the first registration character, for example "N11842" could become "Cessna 842".^[8] This abbreviation is only allowed after communications has been established in each sector.
The flight number part is decided by the aircraft operator. In this arrangement, an identical call sign might well be used for the same scheduled journey each day it is operated, even if the departure time varies a little across different days of the week. The call sign of the return flight often differs only by the final digit from the outbound flight. Generally, airline flight numbers are even if eastbound, and odd if westbound. In order to reduce the possibility of two callsigns on one frequency at any time sounding too similar, a number of airlines, particularly in Europe, have started using alphanumeric callsigns that are not based on flight numbers. For example DLH23LG, spoken as lufthansa-two-three-lima-golf. Additionally it is the right of the air traffic controller to change the 'audio' callsign for the period the flight is in his sector if there is a risk of confusion, usually choosing the tail number instead.
Before around 1980 International Air Transport Association (IATA) and ICAO were using the same 2-letter callsigns. Due to the larger number of new airlines after deregulation ICAO established the 3-letter callsigns as mentioned above. The IATA callsigns are currently used in aerodromes on the announcement tables but never used any longer in Air Traffic Control. For example, AA is the IATA callsign for American Airlines — ATC equivalent AAL. Other examples include LY/ELY for El Al, DL/DAL for Delta Air Lines, VY/VLG for Vueling Airlines, etc.

Many technologies are used in air traffic control systems. Primary and secondary radar are used to enhance a controller's situation awareness within his assigned airspace — all types of aircraft send back primary echoes of varying sizes to controllers' screens as radar energy is bounced off their skins, and transponder-equipped aircraft reply to secondary radar interrogations by giving an ID (Mode A), an altitude (Mode C) and/or a unique callsign (Mode S). Certain types of weather may also register on the radar screen.
These inputs, added to data from other radars, are correlated to build the air situation. Some basic processing occurs on the radar tracks, such as calculating ground speed and magnetic headings.
Usually, a Flight Data Processing System manages all the flight plan related data, incorporating – in a low or high degree – the information of the track once the correlation between them (flight plan and track) is established. All this information is distributed to modern operational display systems, making it available to controllers.
The FAA has spent over US$3 billion on software, but a fully automated system is still over the horizon. In 2002 the UK brought a new area control centre into service at the London Area Control Centre, Swanwick, Hampshire, relieving a busy suburban centre at West Drayton, Middlesex, north of London Heathrow Airport. Software from Lockheed-Martin predominates at the London Area Control Centre. However, the centre was initially troubled by software and communications problems causing delays and occasional shutdowns.^[9]
Some tools are available in different domains to help the controller further:

Flight Data Processing Systems: this is the system (usually one per Center) that processes all the information related to the Flight (the Flight Plan), typically in the time horizon from Gate to gate (airport departure/arrival gates). It uses such processed information to invoke other Flight Plan related tools (such as e.g. MTCD), and distributes such processed information to all the stakeholders (Air Traffic Controllers, collateral Centers, Airports, etc.).
Short Term Conflict Alert (STCA) that checks possible conflicting trajectories in a time horizon of about 2 or 3 minutes (or even less in approach context – 35 seconds in the French Roissy & Orly approach centres^[10]) and alerts the controller prior to the loss of separation. The algorithms used may also provide in some systems a possible vectoring solution, that is, the manner in which to turn, descend, or climb the aircraft in order to avoid infringing the minimum safety distance or altitude clearance.
Minimum Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW): a tool that alerts the controller if an aircraft appears to be flying too low to the ground or will impact terrain based on its current altitude and heading.
System Coordination (SYSCO) to enable controller to negotiate the release of flights from one sector to another.
Area Penetration Warning (APW) to inform a controller that a flight will penetrate a restricted area.
Arrival and Departure Manager to help sequence the takeoff and landing of aircraft.
- The Departure Manager (DMAN): A system aid for the ATC at airports, that calculates a planned departure flow with the goal to maintain an optimal throughput at the runway, reduce queuing at holding point and distribute the information to various stakeholders at the airport (i.e. the airline, ground handling and Air Traffic Control (ATC)).
- The Arrival Manager (AMAN): A system aid for the ATC at airports, that calculates a planned Arrival flow with the goal to maintain an optimal throughput at the runway, reduce arrival queuing and distribute the information to various stakeholders.
- passive Final Approach Spacing Tool (pFAST), a CTAS tool, provides runway assignment and sequence number advisories to terminal controllers to improve the arrival rate at congested airports. pFAST was deployed and operational at five US TRACONs before being cancelled. NASA research included an Active FAST capability that also provided vector and speed advisories to implement the runway and sequence advisories.
Converging Runway Display Aid (CRDA) enables Approach controllers to run two final approaches that intersect and make sure that go arounds are minimized
Center TRACON Automation System (CTAS) is a suite of human centered decision support tools developed by NASA Ames Research Center. Several of the CTAS tools have been field tested and transitioned to the FAA for operational evaluation and use. Some of the CTAS tools are: Traffic Management Advisor (TMA), passive Final Approach Spacing Tool (pFAST), Collaborative Arrival Planning (CAP), Direct-To (D2), En Route Descent Advisor (EDA) and Multi Center TMA. The software is running on Linux.^[11]
Traffic Management Advisor (TMA), a CTAS tool, is an en route decision support tool that automates time based metering solutions to provide an upper limit of aircraft to a TRACON from the Center over a set period of time. Schedules are determined that will not exceed the specified arrival rate and controllers use the scheduled times to provide the appropriate delay to arrivals while in the en route domain. This results in an overall reduction in en route delays and also moves the delays to more efficient airspace (higher altitudes) than occur if holding near the TRACON boundary is required to not overload the TRACON controllers. TMA is operational at most en route air route traffic control centers (ARTCCs) and continues to be enhanced to address more complex traffic situations (e.g. Adjacent Center Metering (ACM) and En Route Departure Capability (EDC))
MTCD & URET
- In the US, User Request Evaluation Tool (URET) takes paper strips out of the equation for En Route controllers at ARTCCs by providing a display that shows all aircraft that are either in or currently routed into the sector.
- In Europe, several MTCD tools are available: iFACTS (NATS), VAFORIT (DFS), New FDPS (MUAC). The SESAR^[12] Programme should soon launch new MTCD concepts.

URET and MTCD provide conflict advisories up to 30 minutes in advance and have a suite of assistance tools that assist in evaluating resolution options and pilot requests.

Mode S: provides a data downlink of flight parameters via Secondary Surveillance Radars allowing radar processing systems and therefore controllers to see various data on a flight, including airframe unique id (24-bits encoded), indicated airspeed and flight director selected level, amongst others.
CPDLC: Controller Pilot Data Link Communications — allows digital messages to be sent between controllers and pilots, avoiding the need to use radiotelephony. It is especially useful in areas where difficult-to-use HF radiotelephony was previously used for communication with aircraft, e.g. oceans. This is currently in use in various parts of the world including the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
ADS-B: Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast — provides a data downlink of various flight parameters to air traffic control systems via the Transponder (1090 MHz) and reception of those data by other aircraft in the vicinity. The most important is the aircraft's latitude, longitude and level: such data can be utilized to create a radar-like display of aircraft for controllers and thus allows a form of pseudo-radar control to be done in areas where the installation of radar is either prohibitive on the grounds of low traffic levels, or technically not feasible (e.g. oceans). This is currently in use in Australia, Canada and parts of the Pacific Ocean and Alaska.
The Electronic Flight Strip system (e-strip):

Electronic Flight Progress Strip System at São Paulo Intl. Control Tower – Ground Control

A system of electronic flight strips replacing the old paper strips is being used by several Service Providers, such as NAV CANADA, MASUAC, DFS, DECEA. E-strips allows controllers to manage electronic flight data online without Paper Strips, reducing the need for manual functions, creating new tools and reducing the ATCO's workload. The firsts electronic flight strips systems were independently and simultaneously invented and implemented by NAV CANADA and Saipher ATC in 1999. The NAV CANADA system known as EXCDS^[13] and rebranded in 2011 to NAVCANstrips and Saipher's first generation system known as SGTC, which is now being updated by its 2nd genreration system, the TATIC TWR. DECEA in Brazil is the world's largest user of Tower e-strips system, ranging from very small airports up to the busiest ones, taking the advantage of real time information and data collection from each of more than 150 sites for use in ATFM, Billing and Statistics.

Screen Content Recording: Hardware or software based recording function which is part of most modern Automation System and that captures the screen content shown to of the ATCO. Such recordings are used for a later replay together with audio recording for investigations and post event analysis.^[14]
Communication Navigation Surveillance / Air Traffic Management (CNS/ATM) systems are communications, navigation, and surveillance systems, employing digital technologies, including satellite systems together with various levels of automation, applied in support of a seamless global air traffic management system.^[15]

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Economic & Social Benefits of Air Transport

2014-11-27T09:06:00.001+02:00

Study conducted by Oxford Economics on behalf of the Air Transport Action Group (ATAG)
The study has global and regional figures including case studies of how aviation benefits people both economically and socially
ATAG is an independent coalition of air transport organizations whose mission is to promote aviation’s sustainable growth for the benefit of the global society
The full study is available at www.aviationbenefitsbeyondborders.org

Air transport

Air transport drives economic and social progress
It connects people, countries and cultures
It provides access to global markets
It generates trade and tourism
It forges links between developed and developing nations

Employment

The air transport industry supports 58.1 million jobs globally
It directly creates 8.7 million jobs worldwide
Airlines, airports and air navigation service providers employ 7.6 million people
The civil aerospace sector employs 1.2 million people
9.8 million indirect jobs are created via purchases of goods and services from companies in the air transport supply chain
4.6 million jobs are induced through spending by industry employees
Almost 35 million direct and indirect jobs are created through air transport’s catalytic impact on tourism

Economic benefits

Aviation provides the only worldwide rapid transportation system which makes it essential for global business and tourism
Aviation's total global impact is $2.4 trillion including direct, indirect and the catalytic effects of tourism
Aviation transported approximately 3.1 billion passengers in 2013
Aviation carried over 49.8 million tonnes of freight in 2013 and 35% of interregional exports of goods by value
52% of international tourists travel by air
In a 2009 survey of over 2,200 business people, 52% said that restrictions on the numbers of flights they take would hurt their business
Research conducted in the US suggests that every dollar invested in aerospace yields an extra $1.50 to $3.00 in economic activity

Air transport facts (2013)

1,397 commercial airlines
25,332 aircraft in commercial service (30,101 jets and 5,231 turboprops)
3,864 airports
36.4 million commercial flights worldwide

Air transport efficiency

Aviation occupancy rates of 80% (2013 industry load factor) are better than those of road and rail
Modern aircraft achieve fuel efficiencies of 3.5 liters per 100 passenger kilometers or 67 passenger miles per gallon

Social benefits

Aviation broadens people’s leisure and cultural experiences via wide choice/affordable access to destinations across the globe
Improves living standards and alleviates poverty through tourism
Often serves as the only means of transportation to remote areas promoting social inclusion
Contributes to sustainable development by:

Facilitating tourism and trade
Generating economic growth
Creating jobs
Increasing tax revenues
Facilitates the delivery of emergency and humanitarian aid relief
Swift delivery of medical supplies, organs for transplantation

Airport security

2014-11-27T09:01:00.003+02:00

Airport security refers to the techniques and methods used in protecting passengers, staff and aircraft which use the airports from accidental/malicious harm, crime and other threats.
Large numbers of people pass through airports every day. This presents potential targets for terrorism and other forms of crime because of the number of people located in a particular location.^[2] Similarly, the high concentration of people on large airliners, the potential high death rate with attacks on aircraft, and the ability to use a hijacked airplane as a lethal weapon may provide an alluring target for terrorism, whether or not they succeed due their high profile nature following the various attacks and attempts around the globe in recent years.
Airport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed in this, then the chances of any dangerous situations, illegal items or threats entering into both aircraft, country or airport are greatly reduced. As such, airport security serves several purposes: To protect the airport and country from any threatening events, to reassure the traveling public that they are safe and to protect the country and their people.
Monte R. Belger of the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration notes "The goal of aviation security is to prevent harm to aircraft, passengers, and crew, as well as support national security and counter-terrorism policy."^[3]
While some countries may have an agency that protects all of their airports (such as Australia, where the Australian Federal Police are responsible for security at their major airports),^[4] in other countries the protection is controlled at the state or local level. The primary personnel will vary and can include:

A police force hired and dedicated to the airport e.g. the Irish Airport Police Service
A branch (substation) of the local police department stationed at the airport
Members of the local police department assigned to the airport as their normal patrol area
Members of a country's airport protection service
Police dog services for explosive detection, drug detection and other purposes

Other resources may include:

Security guards
Paramilitary forces
Military forces

Some incidents have been the result of travelers being permitted to carry either weapons or items that could be used as weapons on board aircraft so that they could hijack the plane. Travelers are screened by metal detectors. Explosive detection machines used include X-ray machines and explosives trace-detection portal machines (a.k.a. "puffer machines"). In the United States the TSA is working on new scanning machines that are still effective searching for objects that aren't allowed in the airplanes but that don't depict the passengers in a state of undress that some find embarrassing. Explosive detection machines can also be used for both carry on and checked baggage. These detect volatile compounds given off from explosives using gas chromatography.^[5]
A recent development is the controversial use of backscatter X-rays to detect hidden weapons and explosives on passengers. These devices, which use Compton scattering, require that the passenger stand close to a flat panel and produce a high resolution image.^[6] A technology released in Israel in early 2008 allows passengers to pass through metal detectors without removing their shoes, a process required as walk-though gate detectors are not reliable in detecting metal in shoes or on the lower body extremities. Alternately, the passengers step fully shoed onto a device which scans in under 1.2 seconds for objects as small as a razor blade.^[7] In some countries, specially trained individuals may engage passengers in a conversation to detect threats rather than solely relying on equipment to find threats.
A single backscatter scan exposes the target to between 0.05 to 0.1 microsievert of radiation. In comparison, the exposure from a standard chest x-ray is almost 100 times higher.^[8]
Generally people are screened through airport security into areas where the exit gates to the aircraft are located. These areas are often called "secure", "sterile" and airside. Passengers are discharged from airliners into the sterile area so that they usually will not have to be re-screened if disembarking from a domestic flight; however they are still subject to search at any time. Airport food outlets have started using plastic glasses and utensils as opposed to glasses made out of glass and utensils made out of metal to reduce the usefulness of such items as weapons.
In the United States non-passengers were once allowed on the concourses to meet arriving friends or relatives at their gates, but this is now greatly restricted due to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Non-passengers must obtain a gate pass to enter the secure area of the airport. The most common reasons that a non-passenger may obtain a gate pass is to assist children and the elderly as well as for attending business meetings that take place in the secure area of the airport. In the United States, at least 24 hours notice is generally required for those planning to attend a business meeting inside the secure area of the airport.^{[citation needed]} Other countries, such as Australia do not restrict non-travellers from accessing the airside area, however non-travellers are typically subject to the same security scans as travellers.^[9]
Sensitive areas in airports, including airport ramps and operational spaces, are restricted from the general public. Called a SIDA (Security Identification Display Area), these spaces require special qualifications to enter. Systems can consist of physical access control gates or more passive systems that monitor people moving through restricted areas and sound an alert if an restricted area is entered.^[10]
Throughout the world, there have been a few dozen airports that have instituted a version of a "trusted traveler program". Proponents argue that security screening can be made more efficient by detecting the people that are threats, and then searching them. They argue that searching trusted, verified individuals should not take the amount of time it does. Critics argue that such programs decrease security by providing an easier path to carry contraband through.^[11]^[12]
Another critical security measure utilised by several regional and international airports is the use of fiber optic perimeter intrusion detection systems. These security systems allow airport security to locate and detect any intrusion on the airport perimeter, ensuring real-time, immediate intrusion notification that allows security personnel to assess the threat and track movement and engage necessary security procedures. This has notably been utilised at Dulles International Airport^[13]^[14] and U.S. Military JFPASS.^[15]
The world's first terrorist attack intending to indiscriminately kill civilians while in flight was Cubana Flight 455. It was a Cubana flight from Barbados to Jamaica that was brought down by a terrorist attack on October 6, 1976, killing 73 people. Evidence implicated several Central Intelligence Agency-linked anti-Castro Cuban exiles and members of the Venezuelan secret police DISIP, including Luis Posada Carriles.^{[citation needed]}
The single deadliest airline catastrophe resulting from the failure of airport security to detect an on board bomb was Air India Flight 182 in 1985, which killed 329 people.
Another on board bomb that slipped through airport security was the one on Pan Am Flight 103 in 1988, which killed 270 people; 259 on the plane, and 11 residents of Lockerbie, Scotland.
Another notable failure was the 1994 bombing of Philippine Airlines Flight 434, which turned out to be a test run for a planned terrorist attack called Operation Bojinka. The explosion was small, killing one person, and the plane made an emergency landing. Operation Bojinka was discovered and foiled by Manila police in 1995.
On May 30, 1972 three members of the Japanese Red Army undertook a terrorist attack, popularly called the Lod Airport massacre, at the Lod Airport, now known as the Ben Gurion International Airport, in Tel Aviv. Firing indiscriminately with automatic firearms and throwing grenades, they managed to kill 24 people and injure 78 others before being neutralized (one of them through suicide). One of the three terrorists, Kozo Okamoto, survived the incident.
The Rome and Vienna airport attacks in December 1985 were two more instances of airport security failures. The attacks left 20 people dead when gunmen threw grenades and opened fire on travelers at El Al airline ticket counters.
The terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 are the most widely recognized terrorist attacks in recent times involving air travel. 19 members of the Islamist terrorist group Al-Qaeda took control of 4 airplanes on the east coast of the United States and deliberately crashed them into both World Trade Center towers in New York City, New York and into The Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. A fourth plane crashed in Pennsylvania, not reaching its intended target. The attacks resulted in the deaths of almost 3,000 people, including the civilians in the airplanes and the hijackers who assumed control of the aircraft.
On July 5, 2002, a gunman opened fire at Los Angeles International Airport (Israel's El Al Ticket Counter). The shooter killed two people and injured four.
On August 10, 2006, security at airports in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States was raised significantly due to the uncovering by British authorities of a terror plot aimed at detonating liquid explosives on flights originating from these countries. This is also notable as it was the first time the U.S. Terror Alert Level ever reached "red". The incident also led to tighter restrictions on carrying liquids and gels in hand luggage in the EU, Canada, and the United States.^[16]^[17]
^----

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Supersonic Electric Aircraft

2014-06-25T12:47:00.001+03:00

Commercial aviation is an essential component of the global economy. The cost of aviation fuel is directly determined by the prevailing world price of oil. It accounts for a major proportion of airplane operating costs. Several airline companies now add a fuel surcharge to the ticket cost of a commercial flight to compensate for the recent rapid rise in fuel costs. World oil prices are expected to remain high for several years. The prospect of sustained high aviation fuel prices could propel airline companies to seek alternative aviation fuels. Seeking alternative fuel could become become paramount for the airline industry should the peak-oil phenomena actually occur. The commercial aviation industry would likely compete for fuel and energy in a market of scarcity and escalating fuel prices.
Breakthroughs and Research
It may become possible for supercooled liquid hydrogen to eventually be used as an alternative fuel for some types of commercial airline service. Extensive research will be needed to resolve the numerous logistical problems that are related to its use as an alternative aviation fuel in supersonic and hypersonic aircraft. Other alternative fuels may include high-density energy-storage technologies that result from breakthroughs in research in the areas of nanotechnology and in high-temperature superconductivity.
Sporadic and significant breakthroughs periodically occur in both fields. High-temperature superconductivity holds great promise for use in high-density energy-storage technology. A coil formed into a torus and made from "high-temperature" superconductive material could theoretically store enough energy to enable a full-sized commercial airliner to undertake an extended trans-oceanic or trans-continental flight. Advances in nanotechnology could enable superconductive materials to eventually be manufactured at a cost that could justify their application in airliner propulsion.
Electrical Storage and Propulsion
Energy stored in a superconductive storage technology could power electric motors that drive the identical propulsion fans that are found at the front-end of modern, "high-bypass" turbo-fan aircraft engines. Such fans provide up to 90% of the propulsive thrust of the turbo-fan engine. Each electrically powered propulsion fan may be driven by multiple (induction) lightweight electric motors during take-off. Some electric motors would "cut-out" under reduced power demand at cruising altitude so that the remaining motors will operate at higher efficiency (electric motors have poor part-load effciency).
Coanda fans may propel subsonic commercial aircraft that use high-density electrical storage technology. Such units were originally developed by physicist Henri Coanda and can operate at comparable efficiency and at comparable flight speeds as turbine-driven propulsion fans. Electrically powered aircraft that use either turbine propulsion fans or Coanda fans could be flown in thinner air at higher altitude (up to 65,000-feet) to reduce energy consumption (less drag on aircraft) on extended flights. The cooler air found at such altitudes could assist in keeping the superconductive energy storage systems functioning properly.
Superconductive energy storage systems used in future commercial aircraft would likely be cooled by liquid nitrogen. Both systems would need to be frequently recharged. Commercial aircraft that operate long-haul service usually undergo cleaning and servicing in hangars after long flights. It is during such service periods when the energy storage and cooling systems could be recharged, a process that would likely be both energy-intensive as well as time consuming.
It may be possible to design the energy storage systems along with their cooling systems to be removed and replaceable during shorts layovers. Such technology may be possible and could help reduce the turn-around time of the aircraft. The introduction of superconductive energy storage systems in commercial aircraft in the long-term future would require that future airport terminals be equipt with power generation technology at or near the premises.
Short-haul/Commuter Aircraft
Aircraft turbine engines are very flexible in the kind of fuel that they can burn. Short-haul and commuter airline companies that operate routes of under 500-miles would be the most likely candidates to use alternative aviation fuel. Their fleets are mainly powered by turbo-prop or by turbofan engines and may likely have sufficient capacity in the fuel tanks to carry a cheaper fuel with a lower energy content. They may use such fuel if its cost per BTU undersells fossil aviation fuel. Breakthroughs in electrical storage technology could see a future generation of short-haul and commuter aircraft being propelled by electric motors driving propellers or propulsion fans.
Low-Altitude Flight
Ground-effect aircraft use a specialized wing design that generated a cushion of air between the wing and the surface over which it flies. Large and heavy versions of such aircraft could be flown at moderate speed over water and carry passengers and freight between coastal centres of up to 500-miles apart. Eliminating the need for take-off to at least 10,000-feet would cut fuel costs. The performance of such craft can be enhanced by a recent development from Britain that has been successfully tested in a scale model aircraft.

EcoJet

2014-06-25T12:42:00.001+03:00

The EcoJet is a proposed short-haul aircraft for 100 to 200 passengers using propfan engines. The aim of the EcoJet is to stimulate aircraft manufacturers to build a passenger aircraft that would be more environmentally friendly than current generation jets (like the Boeing 737 and the Airbus A320 family), because the intended design using would reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 50%, nitrogen oxide emissions by 75%, and noise pollution by 25% versus current Boeing 737 standards.
The idea was brought forward by EasyJet in June 2007, as a proposal of what the next generation of narrowbody aircraft (with the first flight technically possible for 2015) could look like, but since then no news on the advances of the project were released. Since then, however, both Boeing and Airbus have started development and sales of their updated narrowbody aircraft (737 MAX, A320 NEO), and Bombardier has launched its C-series aircraft. None of these follow the advanced engine and design concepts of the EcoJet. Further, the other narrowbody manufacturers around the world (such as COMAC or UAC) have also recently launched narrowbody projects (the C919, Sukhoi Superjet and Irkut MS-21). As such, no brand new aircraft development, whether like the EcoJet or not, is to be expected before 2025-2030.

The design study sees the EcoJet to be built mostly out of carbon fibre composite materials. Due to the large diameter of the engines, fitting them under the wing would not be an option, so the two engines would be mounted on the rear of the aircraft on pylons. The tail would be flat with diagonal upward projections on the sides functioning as horizontal stabilisers; a Pelikan tail arrangement.

Environmental impact of aviation

2014-06-25T12:39:00.002+03:00

The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit noise, and particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming.Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines, the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation. In the European Union, greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006.
There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account.

Like all human activities involving combustion, most forms of aviation release carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouse gases into the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to the acceleration of global warming^[6] and (in the case of CO₂) ocean acidification.^[7]
In addition to the CO₂ released by most aircraft in flight through the burning of fuels such as Jet-A (turbine aircraft) or Avgas (piston aircraft), the aviation industry also contributes greenhouse gas emissions from ground airport vehicles and those used by passengers and staff to access airports, as well as through emissions generated by the production of energy used in airport buildings, the manufacture of aircraft and the construction of airport infrastructure.^[8]
While the principal greenhouse gas emission from powered aircraft in flight is CO₂, other emissions may include nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, (together termed oxides of nitrogen or NO_x), water vapour and particulates (soot and sulfate particles), sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide (which bonds with oxygen to become CO₂ immediately upon release), incompletely burned hydrocarbons, tetraethyllead (piston aircraft only), and radicals such as hydroxyl, depending on the type of aircraft in use.^[9] Emissions weighting factor (EWFs) i.e., the factor by which aviation CO2 emissions should be multiplied to get the CO2-equivalent emissions for annual fleet average conditions is ca in the range 1.3–2.9.^[10]
The contribution of civil aircraft-in-flight to global CO₂ emissions has been estimated at around 2%.^[9] However, in the case of high-altitude airliners which frequently fly near or in the stratosphere, non-CO₂ altitude-sensitive effects may increase the total impact on anthropogenic (human-made) climate change significantly.^[9]

Mechanisms and Cumulative Effects of aviation on Climate

A 2007 report from Environmental Change Institute / Oxford University posits a range closer to 7-9 percent cumulative effect.^[11] Subsonic aircraft-in-flight contribute to climate change^[9] in four ways:

Carbon dioxide (CO₂): CO₂ emissions from aircraft-in-flight are the most significant and best understood^[12] element of aviation's total contribution to climate change. The level and effects of CO₂ emissions are currently believed to be broadly the same regardless of altitude (i.e. they have the same atmospheric effects as ground based emissions). In 1992, emissions of CO₂ from aircraft were estimated at around 2% of all such anthropogenic emissions, and that year the atmospheric concentration of CO₂ attributable to aviation was around 1% of the total anthropogenic increase since the industrial revolution, having accumulated primarily over just the last 50 years.^[13]

Oxides of nitrogen (NO_x): At the high altitudes flown by large jet airliners around the tropopause, emissions of NO_x are particularly effective in forming ozone (O₃) in the upper troposphere. High altitude (8-13km) NO_x emissions result in greater concentrations of O₃ than surface NO_x emissions, and these in turn have a greater global warming effect. The effect of O₃ concentrations are regional and local (as opposed to CO₂ emissions, which are global).^{[citation needed]}

NO_x emissions also reduce ambient levels of methane, another greenhouse gas, resulting in a climate cooling effect. But this effect does not offset the O₃ forming effect of NO_x emissions. It is now believed that aircraft sulfur and water emissions in the stratosphere tend to deplete O₃, partially offsetting the NO_x-induced O₃ increases. These effects have not been quantified.^[13] This problem does not apply to aircraft that fly lower in the troposphere, such as light aircraft or many commuter aircraft.

Water vapor (H₂O)

One of the products of burning hydrocarbons in oxygen is water vapour, a greenhouse gas. Water vapour produced by aircraft engines at high altitude, under certain atmospheric conditions, condenses into droplets to form Condensation trails, or contrails. Contrails are visible line clouds that form in cold, humid atmospheres and are thought to have a global warming effect (though one less significant than either CO₂ emissions or NO_x induced effects).^[14] Contrails are extremely rare from lower-altitude aircraft, or from propeller-driven aircraft or rotorcraft.

Cirrus clouds have been observed to develop after the persistent formation of contrails and have been found to have a global warming effect over-and-above that of contrail formation alone. There is a degree of scientific uncertainty about the contribution of contrail and cirrus cloud formation to global warming and attempts to estimate aviation's overall climate change contribution do not tend to include its effects on cirrus cloud enhancement.^[12]

Particulates: Least significant is the release of soot and sulfate particles. Soot absorbs heat and has a warming effect; sulfate particles reflect radiation and have a small cooling effect. In addition, they can influence the formation and properties of clouds.^[15] All aircraft powered by combustion will release some amount of soot.

CO₂ emissions per passenger kilometre

Averaged emissions

Emissions of passenger aircraft per passenger kilometre vary extensively because of differing factors such as the size and type aircraft, the altitude and the percentage of passenger or freight capacity of a particular flight, and the distance of the journey and number of stops en route. Also, the effect of a given amount of emissions on climate (radiative forcing) is greater at higher altitudes: see below. Some representative figures for CO₂ emissions are provided by LIPASTO's survey of average direct emissions (not accounting for high-altitude radiative effects) of airliners expressed as CO₂ and CO₂ equivalent per passenger kilometre:^[16]

Domestic, short distance, less than 463 km (288 mi): 257 g/km CO₂ or 259 g/km (14.7 oz/mile) CO₂e
Domestic, long distance, greater than 463 km (288 mi): 177 g/km CO₂ or 178 g/km (10.1 oz/mile) CO₂e
Long distance flights: 113 g/km CO₂ or 114 g/km (6.5 oz/mile) CO₂e

These emissions are similar to a four-seat car with one person on board;^[17] however, flying trips often cover longer distances than would be undertaken by car, so the total emissions are much higher. For perspective, per passenger a typical economy-class New York to Los Angeles round trip produces about 715 kg (1574 lb) of CO₂ (but is equivalent to 1,917 kg (4,230 lb) of CO₂ when the high altitude "climatic forcing" effect is taken into account).^[18] Within the categories of flights above, emissions from scheduled jet flights are substantially higher than turboprop or chartered jet flights. About 60% of aviation emissions arise from international flights, and these flights are not covered by the Kyoto Protocol and its emissions reduction targets.^[19]
Figures from British Airways suggest carbon dioxide emissions of 100g per passenger kilometre for large jet airliners (a figure which does not account for the production of other pollutants or condensation trails).^[20]

Emissions by passenger class, and effects of seating configuration

In 2013 the World Bank published a study of the effect on CO2 emissions of its staff's travel in business class or first class, versus using economy class.^[21] Among the factors considered was that these premium classes displace proportionately more economy seats for the same total aircraft space capacity, and the associated differing load factors and weight factors. This was not accounted for in prior standard carbon accounting methods. The study concluded that when considering respective average load factors (percent of occupied seats) in each of the seating classes, the carbon footprints of business class and first class are three-times and nine-times higher than economy class.^[21]^[22]^[23] A related article by the International Council on Clean Transport notes further regarding the effect of seating configurations on carbon emissions that:^[23]

Total climate effects

In attempting to aggregate and quantify the total climate impact of aircraft emissions the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that aviation’s total climate impact is some 2-4 times that of its direct CO₂ emissions alone (excluding the potential impact of cirrus cloud enhancement).^[9] This is measured as radiative forcing. While there is uncertainty about the exact level of impact of NO_x and water vapour, governments have accepted the broad scientific view that they do have an effect. Globally in 2005, aviation contributed "possibly as much as 4.9% of radiative forcing."^[19] UK government policy statements have stressed the need for aviation to address its total climate change impacts and not simply the impact of CO₂.^[24]
The IPCC has estimated that aviation is responsible for around 3.5% of anthropogenic climate change, a figure which includes both CO₂ and non-CO₂ induced effects. The IPCC has produced scenarios estimating what this figure could be in 2050. The central case estimate is that aviation’s contribution could grow to 5% of the total contribution by 2050 if action is not taken to tackle these emissions, though the highest scenario is 15%.^[9] Moreover, if other industries achieve significant cuts in their own greenhouse gas emissions, aviation’s share as a proportion of the remaining emissions could also rise.

Future emission levels

Even though there have been significant improvements in fuel efficiency through aircraft technology and operational management as described here, these improvements are being continually eclipsed by the increase in air traffic volume.

Continual increases in travel & freight

From 1992 to 2005, passenger kilometers increased 5.2% per year, even with the disruptions of 9/11 and two significant wars. Since the onset of the current recession:

"During the first three quarters of 2010, air travel markets expanded at an annualized rate approaching 10%. This is similar to the rate seen in the rapid expansion prior to the recession. November’s results mean the annualized rate of growth so far in Q4 drops back to around 6%. But this is still in line with long run rates of traffic growth seen historically. The level of international air travel is now 4% above the pre-recession peak of early 2008 and the current expansion looks to have further to run."^[25]

"Air freight reached a new high point in May (2010) but, following the end of inventory restocking activity, volumes have slipped back to settle at a similar level seen just before the onset of recession. Even so, that means an expansion of air freight during 2010 of 5-6% on an annualized basis – close to historical trend. With the stimulus of inventory restocking activity removed, further growth in air freight demand will be driven by end consumer demand for goods which utilize the air transport supply chain. ... The end of the inventory cycle does not mean the end of volume expansion but markets are entering a slower growth phase."^[25]

In a 2008 presentation^[6] and paper ^[26] Professor Kevin Anderson of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research showed how continued aviation growth in the UK threatens the ability of that nation to meet CO₂ emission reduction goals necessary to contain the century-end temperature increase to even 4 or 6C°. (See also: the 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference (2009)^[27] and its proceedings.)^[28] His charts show the projected domestic aviation carbon emission increase for the UK as growing from 11 MT in 2006 to 17 MT in 2012, at the UK's historic annual emission growth rate of 7%. Beyond 2012 if the growth rate were reduced to 3% yearly, carbon emissions in 2030 would be 28 MT, which is 70% of the UK's entire carbon emissions budget that year for all sectors of society. This work also suggests the foreseeable future which confronts many other nations that have high dependency on aviation. "Hypermobile Travelers,"^[29] an academic study by Stefan Gössling et al. (2009) in the book "Climate Change and Aviation,"^[30] also points to the dilemma caused by the increasing hypermobility of air travelers both in particular nations and globally.

What is the scope for improving efficiency, to reduce emissions?

Aircraft efficiency
While it is true that late model jet aircraft are significantly more fuel efficient (and thus emit less CO2 in particular) than the earliest jet airliners,^[31]^[32] new airliner models in the first decade of the 21st Century were barely more efficient on a seat-mile basis than the latest piston-powered airliners of the late 1950s (e.g. Constellation L-1649-A and DC-7C).^[32] Claims for a high gain in efficiency for airliners over recent decades (while true in part) has been biased high in most studies, by using the early inefficient models of jet airliners as a baseline. Those aircraft were optimized for increased revenue, including increased speed and cruising altitude, and were quite fuel inefficient in comparison to their piston-powered forerunners.^[32]
Today, turboprop aircraft - probably in part because of their lower cruising speeds and altitudes (similar to the earlier piston-powered airliners) compared to jet airliners - play an obvious role in the overall fuel efficiency of major airlines that have regional carrier subsidiaries.^[33] For example, although Alaska Airlines scored at the top of a 2011-2012 fuel efficiency ranking, if its large regional carrier - turbo-prop equipped Horizon Air - were dropped from the lumped-in consideration, the airline's ranking would be somewhat lower, as noted in the ranking study.
Aircraft manufacturers are striving for reductions in both CO2 and NOx emissions with each new generation of design of aircraft and engine.^[34] While the introduction of more modern aircraft represents an opportunity to reduce emissions per passenger kilometre flown, aircraft are major investments that endure for many decades, and replacement of the international fleet is therefore a long-term proposition which will greatly delay realizing the climate benefits of many kinds of improvements. Engines can be changed at some point, but nevertheless airframes have a long life.^{[citation needed]} Moreover, rather than being linear from one year to the next the improvements to efficiency tend to diminish over time, as reflected in the histories of both piston and jet powered aircraft.^[32]
Operations efficiency
Adding an electrific drive to the airplane's nose wheel may improve fuel efficiency during ground handling. This addition would allow taxiing without use of the main engines.[33][34][35] ^[35]^[36]^[37]
Other opportunities arise from the optimisation of airline timetables, route networks and flight frequencies to increase load factors (minimise the number of empty seats flown),^[38] together with the optimisation of airspace. However, these are each one-time gains, and as these opportunities are successively fulfilled, diminishing returns can be expected from the remaining opportunities.
Another possible reduction of the climate-change impact is the limitation of cruise altitude of aircraft. This would lead to a significant reduction in high-altitude contrails for a marginal trade-off of increased flight time and an estimated 4% increase in CO₂ emissions. Drawbacks of this solution include very limited airspace capacity to do this, especially in Europe and North America and increased fuel burn because jet aircraft are less efficient at lower cruise altitudes.^[39]
While they are not suitable for long-haul or transoceanic flights, turboprop aircraft used for commuter flights bring two significant benefits: they often burn considerably less fuel per passenger mile, and they typically fly at lower altitudes, well inside the tropopause, where there are no concerns about ozone or contrail production.

Alternative fuels

Main article: Aviation_fuel § Chemical_composition

Some scientists and companies such as GE Aviation and Virgin Fuels are researching biofuel technology for use in jet aircraft.^[40] Some aircraft engines, like the Wilksch WAM120 can (being a 2-stroke Diesel engine) run on straight vegetable oil. Also, a number of Lycoming engines run well on ethanol.
In addition, there are also several tests done combining regular petrofuels with a biofuel. For example, as part of this test Virgin Atlantic Airways flew a Boeing 747 from London Heathrow Airport to Amsterdam Schiphol Airport on 24 February 2008, with one engine burning a combination of coconut oil and babassu oil.^[40] Greenpeace's chief scientist Doug Parr said that the flight was "high-altitude greenwash" and that producing organic oils to make biofuel could lead to deforestation and a large increase in greenhouse gas emissions.^[40] Also, the majority of the world's aircraft are not large jetliners but smaller piston aircraft, and with major modifications many are capable of using ethanol as a fuel.^[41] Another consideration is the vast amount of land that would be necessary to provide the biomass feedstock needed to support the needs of aviation, both civil and military.^[42]
In December 2008, an Air New Zealand jet completed the world's first commercial aviation test flight partially using jatropha-based fuel. Jatropha, used for biodiesel, can thrive on marginal agricultural land where many trees and crops won't grow, or would produce only slow growth yields.^[43]^[44] Air New Zealand set several general sustainability criteria for its Jatropha, saying that such biofuels must not compete with food resources, that they must be as good as traditional jet fuels, and that they should be cost competitive with existing fuels.^[45]
In January 2009, Continental Airlines used a sustainable biofuel to power a commercial aircraft for the first time in North America. This marks the first sustainable biofuel demonstration flight by a commercial carrier using a twin-engined aircraft, a Boeing 737-800, powered by CFM International CFM56-7B engines. The biofuel blend included components derived from algae and jatropha plants.^[46]
One fuel biofuel alternative to avgas that is under development is Swift Fuel. Swift fuel was approved as a test fuel by ASTM International in December 2009, allowing the company to continue their research and to pursue certification testing. Mary Rusek, president and co-owner of Swift Enterprises predicted at that time that "100SF will be comparably priced, environmentally friendlier and more fuel-efficient than other general aviation fuels on the market".^[47]^[48]
As of June 2011, revised international aviation fuel standards officially allow commercial airlines to blend conventional jet fuel with up to 50 percent biofuels. The renewable fuels "can be blended with conventional commercial and military jet fuel through requirements in the newly issued edition of ASTM D7566, Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons".^[49]
In December 2011, the FAA announced it is awarding $7.7 million to eight companies to advance the development of drop-in commercial aviation biofuels, with a special focus on ATJ (alcohol to jet) fuel. As part of its CAAFI (Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuel Initiative) and CLEEN (Continuous Lower Emissions, Energy and Noise) programs, the FAA plans to assist in the development of a sustainable fuel (from alcohols, sugars, biomass, and organic matter such as pyrolysis oils) that can be "dropped in" to aircraft without changing current infrastructure. The grant will also be used to research how the fuels affect engine durability and quality control standards.^[50]

Reducing air travel

As George Monbiot said in a 2006 column:

"Aviation has been growing faster than any other source of greenhouse gases. Between 1990 and 2004, the number of people using airports in the UK rose by 120%, and the energy the planes consumed increased by 79%. Their carbon dioxide emissions almost doubled in that period - from 20.1 to 39.5 megatonnes, or 5.5% of all the emissions this country produces. Unless something is done to stop this growth, flying will soon overwhelm all the cuts we manage to make elsewhere. But the measures the government proposes are useless."^[51]

Thought on how to grapple with this unsustainable growth, and even to reduce air travel from its present level in order to avoid dangerous climate change, seems to be most prominent in the UK. Although the specifics differ globally, this work in the UK is likely to be widely applicable.

Personal choices and social pressure

The German video short The Bill^[52] explores how travel and its impacts are commonly viewed in everyday developed-world life, and the social pressures that are at play. Using the concept of "love miles" George Monbiot also delved into this topic in his above 2006 column:

"When it comes to flying, there seems to be no connection between intention and action. This is partly because the people who are most concerned about the inhabitants of other countries are often those who have traveled widely. ... When you form relationships with people from other nations, you accumulate what I call "love miles": the distance you must travel to visit friends and partners and relatives on the other side of the planet. If your sister-in-law is getting married in Buenos Aires, it is both immoral to travel there, because of climate change, and immoral not to, because of the offence it causes. ... Who could be surprised to discover that "ethical" people are in denial about the impacts of flying?"^[51]

British writer George Marshall has investigated common rationalizations that act as barriers to making personal choices to travel less, or to justify recent trips. In an informal research project, "one you are welcome to join," he says, he deliberately steered conversations with people who are attuned to climate change problems to questions about recent long-distance flights and why the travel was justified. Reflecting on actions contrary to their beliefs, he noted, "(i)ntriguing as their dissonance may be, what is especially revealing is that every one of these people has a career that is predicated on the assumption that information is sufficient to generate change -- an assumption that a moment’s introspection would show them was deeply flawed."^[53]

Business and professional choices

"With most international conferences having hundreds if not thousands of participants, and the bulk of these usually traveling by plane, conference travel is an area where significant reductions in air-travel-related GHG emissions could be made. ... This does not mean non-attendance." (Reay, 2004)^[54] For example, by 2003 Access Grid technology has already been successfully used to host several international conferences,^[54] and technology has likely progressed substantially since then.

Ending incentives to fly—frequent flyer programs

Over 130 airlines have "frequent flyer programs" based at least in part on miles, kilometers, points or segments for flights taken. Globally, such programs included about 163 million people as reported in 2006.^[55] These programs benefit airlines by habituating people to air travel and, through the mechanics of partnerships with credit card companies and other businesses, in which high profit margin revenue streams can amount to selling free seats for a high price.^[55] The only part of United Airlines business that was making money when the company filed for bankruptcy in 2002 was its frequent flyer program.^[55]
Concerning business travel, "The ease of international air travel and the fact that, for most of us, the costs are met by our employers, means that ... globe trotting conference travel is often regarded as a perk of the job."^[54] However, the perk usually is not only the business trip itself, but also the frequent flyer points which the individual accrues by taking the trip, and which can be redeemed later for personal air travel. Thus a conflict of interest is established, whereby bottom-up pressure may be created within a firm or government agency for travel that is really not necessary. Even when such conflict is not a motivation, the perk of frequent flyer miles can be expected to lead in many cases to personal trips that would not be taken if a ticket had to be paid for with personal funds.^[56]
By just using an airline-sponsored credit card to pay one's household expenses, personal or business bills, or even expense bills charged to an employer, frequent flyer points can be racked up quickly.^[55] Thus, free travel—for which the individual has to pay nothing extra—becomes a reality. Across society, this too can be expected to lead to much air travel—and greenhouse gas emissions—that otherwise would not occur.^[57]
Several studies have contemplated the elimination of frequent flyer programmes (FFPs), on the grounds of anti-competitiveness,^[58] ethics,^[59] conflict with society's overall well-being,^[60] or climate effects.^[61] There is a record of governments disallowing or banning FFPs and of industry players requesting bans. Denmark did not allow the programs until 1992, then changing its policy because its airlines were disadvantaged.^[58] In 2002, Norway banned domestic FFPs in order to promote competition among its airlines.^[62] In the U.S. in 1989, a vice president of Braniff "said the government should consider ordering an end to frequent-flyer programs, which he said allow unfair competition."^[63]
A Canadian study said that because of competition no airline could unilaterally end its FFP, but that a national government could use its regulatory power to end the programs broadly, which in Canada's case would also require North America-wide cooperation.^[60] In further analysis, a Scandinavian study which recommended an end to frequent flyer plans said, "the only possible way of prohibiting FFPs successfully now that they have spread from the US to Europe to the Far East would be to do so on a global basis. The basis exists: it could be done by the World Trade Organization."^[58] A recent study which surveyed frequent flyers in the U.K. and Norway, looked into behavioral addition to frequent flying and the "flyer's dilemma" of the conflict between "the social and personal benefits of flying and air travel's impact on climate change."^[61] It concluded that:

"Continued growth in both frequent flying practices and concern over air travel's climate impacts are in a dynamic relationship and the question of whether one or the other will reach a tipping point cannot yet be determined. Self-regulation, external regulation, social norms, technology and physical resources will continue to co-constitute the balance. An increasing stigmatisation of 'excessive' air travel may (re)frame flying as more open to collective external mitigation," meaning government action.^[61]

Potential for governmental constraints on demand

One means for reducing the environmental impact of aviation is to constrain demand for air travel, through increased fares in place of expanded airport capacity. Several studies have explored this:

The UK study Predict and Decide - Aviation, climate change and UK policy, notes that a 10% increase in fares generates a 5% to 15% reduction in demand, and recommends that the British government should manage demand rather than provide for it.^[64] This would be accomplished via a strategy that presumes "… against the expansion of UK airport capacity" and constrains demand by the use of economic instruments to price air travel less attractively.^[65]

A study published by the campaign group Aviation Environment Federation (AEF) concludes that by levying £9 billion of additional taxes, the annual rate of growth in demand in the UK for air travel would be reduced to 2%.^[66]

The ninth report of the House of Commons Environmental Audit Select Committee, published in July 2006, recommends that the British government rethinks its airport expansion policy and considers ways, particularly via increased taxation, in which future demand can be managed in line with industry performance in achieving fuel efficiencies, so that emissions are not allowed to increase in absolute terms.^[67]

In his conclusion, after considering alternative fuels, better efficiency not expanding air fields and terminals, etc., Monbiot wrote:

"In common with all other sectors, aviation's contribution to global warming must be reduced in the UK by some 87% if we are to avoid a 2C rise in global temperatures. Given that the likely possible efficiencies are small and tend to counteract each other, an 87% cut in emissions requires not only that growth stops, but that most of the aeroplanes flying today be grounded. I realise that this is not a popular message, but it is hard to see how a different conclusion could be extracted from the available evidence." After listing some current privileges this means doing without, he concluded: "But I urge you to remember that these privations affect only a tiny proportion of the world's people. The reason they seem so harsh is that this tiny proportion almost certainly includes you."^[51]

Kyoto Protocol

Greenhouse gas emissions from fuel consumption in international aviation, in contrast to those from domestic aviation and from energy use by airports, are not assigned under the first round of the Kyoto Protocol, neither are the non-CO₂ climate effects. In place of agreement, Governments agreed to work through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to limit or reduce emissions and to find a solution to the allocation of emissions from international aviation in time for the second round of Kyoto in 2009 in Copenhagen; however, that conference failed reach an agreement on these emissions.^[68]

Emissions trading

As part of that process the ICAO has endorsed the adoption of an open emissions trading system to meet CO₂ emissions reduction objectives. Guidelines for the adoption and implementation of a global scheme are currently being developed, and will be presented to the ICAO Assembly in 2007,^[69] although the prospects of a comprehensive inter-governmental agreement on the adoption of such a scheme are uncertain.
Within the European Union, however, the European Commission has resolved to incorporate aviation in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).^[70] A new directive was adopted by the European Parliament in July 2008 and approved by the Council in October 2008. It became effective on 1 January 2012.^[71]
Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute investigated the possible effects on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) of the European Union's decision to limit the supply of Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) to its ETS market to Least Developed Countries (LDCs) from 2013.^[72] Most SIDS are highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and rely heavily on tourism as a basis for their economies, so this decision could place them at some disadvantage. The researchers therefore highlight the need to ensure that any regulatory frameworks put in place to tackle climate change take into account the development needs of the most vulnerable countries affected.
A report published by researchers at the Centre for Aviation, Transport and the Environment at Manchester Metropolitan University found that the only way to have a significant impact on emissions was to put a price on carbon and to use a market-based measure (MBM), such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).^[73]

Mitigation

Increased fuel efficiency, the use of aviation biofuels and route optimisation reduces the impact of aviation on greenhouse gas emissions.^[74]

Noise

Aircraft noise is seen by advocacy groups as being very hard to get attention and action on. The fundamental issues are increased traffic at larger airports and airport expansion at smaller and regional airports.^[75]

Radiation exposure

Flying 12 kilometres (39,000 ft) high, passengers and crews of jet airliners are exposed to at least 10 times the cosmic ray dose that people at sea level receive. Several times a decade, a geomagnetic storm permits a solar proton event to penetrate down to jetliner altitudes. Aircraft flying polar routes near the geomagnetic poles are at particular risk.^[76]^[77]^[78]

Notes and references

International Civil Aviation Organization, Air Transport Bureau (ATB). "Aircraft Engine Emissions". Retrieved 2008-03-19.
Enviro.aero. "What is the impact of flying?". Retrieved 2008-03-19.
Travis, David J.; Carleton, Andrew M. & Lauritsen, Ryan G (2002). "Contrails reduce daily temperature range". Nature 418 (6898): 601. doi:10.1038/418601a. PMID 12167846.
"Climate change: Commission proposes bringing air transport into EU Emissions Trading Scheme" (Press release). EU press release. 2006-12-20. Retrieved 2008-01-02.
Including Aviation into the EU ETS: Impact on EU allowance prices ICF Consulting for DEFRA February 2006
Anderson, K. (17 June 2008). Reframing climate change: from long-term targets to emission pathways (esp. slide 24 onward).
McNeil BI, Matear RJ (2008). Southern Ocean acidification: A tipping point at 450-ppm atmospheric CO2. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (105:48; p.18860). (In the Southern Ocean, an ecological tipping point due to "wintertime aragonite undersaturation is projected to occur by the year 2030 and no later than 2038.")
Horvath A, Chester M (2008). Environmental Life-cycle Assessment of Passenger Transportation An Energy, Greenhouse Gas and Criteria Pollutant Inventory of Rail and Air Transportation. Info: University of California Transportation Center, UC Berkeley.
IPCC, Aviation and the Global Atmosphere: A Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (1999), Cambridge University Press
Valuing the non-CO2 climate impacts of aviation Climatic Change, 111 ( 3-4 ) s. 559-579 2012
http://climatecare.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Calculating-the-Environmental-Impact-of-Aviation-Emissions.pdf
Sausen; Ivar Isaksen, Volker Grewe, Didier Hauglustaine, David S. Lee, Gunnar Myhre, Marcus O. KÖhler, Giovanni Pitari, Ulrich Schumann, Frode Stordal and Christos Zerefos, Robert (2005). "Aviation radiative forcing in 2000: an update on IPCC". Meteorologische Zeitschrift (Gebrüder Borntraeger) 14 (4): 555–561. doi:10.1127/0941-2948/2005/0049. Archived from the original on 2007-11-28. Retrieved 2008-01-12.
Aviation and the Global Atmosphere: A Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (1999), Cambridge University Press
SPM-2
"Questions & Answers on Aviation & Climate Change". European Commission. 2005-09-17. Retrieved 2008-01-12.
Average passenger aircraft emissions and energy consumption per passenger kilometre in Finland 2008 accessed 3 July 2009
Average emissions and energy consumption per vehicle kilometre of cars in Finland in 2009 accessed 3 July 2009
Nevins, Joseph (2010, 13-Dec), Kicking the Habit: Air Travel in the Time of Climate Change.
Owen B, Lee DS, Lim L, 2010/04/01 P- (2010). Flying into the Future: Aviation Emissions Scenarios to 2050. Environmental Science & Technology (44:7, p.2255-2260).
Goodall, Chris (2007-02-08). How to Live a Low-carbon Life: The Individual's Guide to Stopping Climate Change. Earthscan Publications Ltd. p. 326. ISBN 1-84407-426-9.p. 222
Bofinger, H.; Strand, J. (2013). Calculating the carbon footprint from different classes of air travel. World Bank, Development Research Group, Env. & Energy Team. 40pp. May 2013.
Washington Post (2013). How the World Bank could slash its carbon emissions: Start flying coach. By Howard Schneider, 13 June 2013.
ICCT (2013). Inflight Luxury: Who Really Pays?. By Irene Kwan. Int'l Counc. on Clean Transport.
The Future of Air Transport White Paper (2003), HMSO "The aviation industry is encouraged to take account of, and where appropriate reduce, its contribution to global warming...The impact of aviation on climate change is increased over that of direct CO₂ emissions alone by some of the other emissions released and their specific effects at altitude".
IATA (2010, Nov.) Air Transport Market Analysis Accessed: 23 January 2011.
Anderson K, Bows A (2008). Reframing the climate change challenge in light of post-2000 emission trends. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences (366:1882, p.3863-3882). [1],
4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference, 28-30 Sept 2009, Oxford, UK. http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/4degrees/
Royal Society (2011). Special Issue: "Four degrees and beyond" (Jan 2011). Philosophical Transactions - A (369:1934). http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/369/1934.toc
Gössling S, Ceron JP, Dubois G, Hall CM, Gössling IS, Upham P, Earthscan L (2009). Hypermobile travellers. Chapter 6 in: Climate Change and Aviation: Issues, Challenges and Solutions; http://alicante.academia.edu/documents/0076/1866/chap06_copy.pdf
Gössling S, Upham P (2009). Climate change and aviation: Issues, challenges and solutions. http://www.earthscan.co.uk/?tabid=42745
IATA/ATAG, Aviation & the Environment (1999) "Aircraft fuel efficiency has improved by some 50% over the past 30 years"
Peeters P.M., Middel J., Hoolhorst A. (2005). Fuel efficiency of commercial aircraft Fuel efficiency of commercial aircraft An overview of historical and future trends. National Aerospace Laboratory. NLR-CR-2005-669, 37pp.
Back to the Future: Return of the Turboprop?. By Irene Kwan. Int'l Counc. on Clean Transport. 3 June 2014.
Advisory Council for Aeronautical Research in Europe (ACARE) Strategic Research Agenda (2002) "These objectives include, inter alia, a 50% cut in CO2 and 80% in Nox emissions" [for new aircraft introduced in 2020 relative to new aircraft introduced in 2000].
EOS magazine November 2011
Fuel Cell-powered Electric Nose Wheel Nears Flight Tests, EV World, 9 Feb 2011.
Tests prove electric-drive concept, Flight Global 9 Aug 2005.
International Civil Aviation Organization Operational Opportunities to Minimize Fuel Use and Reduce Emissions (2001)
Williams; Robert B. Nolanda, Victoria; Ralf Toumib (November 2002). "Reducing the climate change impacts of aviation by restricting cruise altitudes". Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 7 (6): 451–464. doi:10.1016/S1361-9209(02)00013-5. Retrieved 2014-01-07.
CBC News (February 2008). "Airline flies jumbo jet powered by biofuel". Retrieved 2008-02-24.
South Dakota State University (2006). "Active Projects". Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2008-02-19.
Rapier R (2011, 20-Jan). Marginal Land Produces Marginal Biomass. Consumer Energy Report
Ron Oxburgh. Through biofuels we can reap the fruits of our labours The Guardian, February 28, 2008. Retrieved December 24, 2008.
Patrick Barta. As Biofuels Catch On, Next Task Is to Deal With Environmental, Economic Impact Wall Street Journal, March 24, 2008. Retrieved December 24, 2008.
Air New Zealand Completes Biofuel Test GreenBiz.com, January 5, 2009. Retrieved January 5, 2009.
Sustainable flight The Engineer Online, January 12, 2009. Retrieved January 12, 2009.
Grady, Mary (December 2009). "Efforts Move Forward To Produce Alternative Aviation Fuels". Retrieved 2009-03-05.
Purdue Research Park (December 2009). "Indiana Airline Fuel Developer Moves Ahead With Testing". Retrieved 2009-12-17.
"50 Percent Biofuels Now Allowed in Jet Fuel". Renewable Energy World. July 1, 2011.
Meg Cichon (2 December 2011). "FAA Awards $7.7 Million for Advancement of Aviation Biofuels". Renewable Energy World.
Monbiot, George (2006, 21-Sept), On the flight path to global meltdown.
"The Bill", by Peter Wedel, distributed by GermanWatch.
Marshall, G. (2009, 24-July). Why We Still Don’t Believe In Climate Change
Reay DS (2004). New Directions: Flying in the face of the climate change convention. Atmospheric Environment (38:5, p.793-794).
The Economist (2005, 20-Dec), Frequent-flyer miles - Funny money.
UNEP DTIE (Sustainable Consumption & Production Branch)(undated). A Guide to Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction in UN Organizations (DTI/1217/PA). pp.18-19.
MedCaribbean.com. Making The Most Of Your Airlines Miles Credit Cards.
Storm, S. (1999). Air transport policies and frequent flyer programmes in the European Community: a Scandinavian perspective. Unit of Tourism Research, Research Centre of Bornholm. pp. 1–105. CiteSeerX: 10.1.1.138.3305.
Cognac M, DeLozier M (1997)Frequent Flyer Programs Promotion: An Analysis Of A Paradoxical Industry. Southwestern Marketing Association (p.1-12).
Tretheway MW (1989) Frequent Flyer Programs: Marketing Bonanza or Anti-Competitive Tool? (30:1), p.445.
Cohen S, Higham J, Cavaliere C (2011). Binge flying: Behavioural addiction and climate change. Annals of Tourism Research
Aftenpost (2002). Sterling polishes plans for new routes, by Nina Berglund, 19 Mar 2002.
Orlando Sentinel (1989). Braniff Will SlimDown, Keep Flying, by Kenneth Michael, 4 Oct 1989.
Cairns, Dr Sally & Carey Newson et al. (September 2006). "Predict and decide - Aviation, climate change and UK policy". pp. 96, section 11.9. Retrieved 2008-05-31.
Cairns, Dr Sally & Carey Newson et al. (September 2006). "Predict and decide - Aviation, climate change and UK policy". p. 4. Retrieved 2008-05-31.
Sewill, Brendon (February 2003). "The Hidden Cost of Flying" (PDF). Aviation Environment Federation. pp. 19–20. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
"Select Committee on Environmental Audit Ninth Report". British House of Commons. 19 July 2006. pp. paras. 112, 118–125, 113–114 & 126–133. Retrieved 2007-11-12.
GreenAirOnline (2009, 22-Dec). Copenhagen's failure to deliver an aviation emissions deal leaves sector facing an uncertain future.
ICAO news release 30 November 2005 "ICAO is also considering market-based options to address engine emissions through the participation of aviation in emissions trading schemes and the use of emissions levies related to local air quality. Guidelines for Contracting States wishing to implement such measures are being formulated and should be completed in time for the next regular Session of the ICAO Assembly in the Fall of 2007, when direction for future action will be set."
European Commission, Reducing the Climate Change Impact of Aviation (2005)
Directive 2008/101/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 amending Directive 2003/87/EC so as to include aviation activities in the scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Community (Text with EEA relevance)
Keane, J. (2012) Briefing paper: The aviation industry, the European Union's Emissions Trading Scheme and Small and Vulnerable Economies: development-friendly frameworks. Overseas Development Institute
Lee, D. et al 2013 Briefing paper: Bridging the aviation CO2 emissions gap: why emissions trading is needed. Centre for Aviation, Transport and the Environment
"Beginner’s Guide to Aviation Biofuels". Air Transport Action Group. May 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-20. (Authorization required)
Noise Pollution Clearinghouse. "Aviation Noise". Retrieved 2007-12-29.
Evaluation of the Cosmic Ray Exposure of Aircraft Crew
Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, UNSCEAR 2008
Phillips, Tony (25 October 2013). "The Effects of Space Weather on Aviation". Science News. NASA.

Aviation fuel

2014-06-25T12:35:00.004+03:00

Aviation fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel used to power aircraft. It is generally of a higher quality than fuels used in less critical applications, such as heating or road transport, and often contains additives to reduce the risk of icing or explosion due to high temperature, among other properties.
Most aviation fuels available for aircraft are kinds of petroleum spirit used in engines with spark plugs (i.e. piston and Wankel rotary engines), or fuel for jet turbine engines, which is also used in diesel aircraft engines.
Fuels have to conform to a specification in order to be approved for use in type certificated aircraft. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) developed specifications for automobile gasoline as well as aviation gasoline. These specifications are ASTM D910 and ASTM D6227 for aviation gasoline and ASTM D439 or ASTM D4814 (latest revision) for automobile gasoline.
The production of aviation fuel falls into two categories: fuel suitable for turbine engines and fuel suitable for internal combustion engines. There are international specifications for each.
Jet fuel is used in both turboprop and jet aircraft, and must maintain a low viscosity at low temperature, meet definite limits in terms of density and calorific value, burn cleanly, and remain chemically stable when heated to high temperature.
Aviation gasoline, often referred to as "avgas", is a highly refined form of gasoline for aircraft, with an emphasis on purity, anti-knock characteristics and minimization of spark plug fouling. Avgas must meet performance guidelines for both the rich mixture condition required for take-off power settings and the leaner mixtures used during cruise to reduce fuel consumption.
Avgas is sold in much lower volume than jet fuel, but to many more individual aircraft operators; whereas jet fuel is sold in high volume to large aircraft operators, such as airlines and military. Avgas (aviation gasoline) is used in spark-ignited internal-combustion engines in aircraft. Its formulation is distinct from mogas (motor gasoline) used in cars. Avgas is formulated for stability, safety, and predictable performance under a wide range of environments, and is typically used in aircraft that use reciprocating or Wankel engines.
Jet fuel is a clear to straw-colored fuel, based on either an unleaded kerosene (Jet A-1), or a naphtha-kerosene blend (Jet B). It is similar to diesel fuel, and can be used in either compression ignition engines or turbine engines.
Jet-A powers modern commercial airliners and is a mix of pure kerosene and anti-freeze and burns at temperatures at or above 49 degrees Celsius (120 degrees Fahrenheit). Kerosene-based fuel has a much higher flash point than gasoline-based fuel, meaning that it requires significantly higher temperature to ignite. It is a high-quality fuel; if it fails the purity and other quality tests for use on jet aircraft, it is sold to other ground-based users with less demanding requirements, like railroad engines.
Aviation fuel is often dispensed from a tanker or bowser, which is driven up to parked aircraft and helicopters. Some airports have pumps similar to filling stations to which aircraft must taxi. Some airports have permanent piping to parking areas for large aircraft.
Aviation fuel is transferred to an aircraft via one of two methods: overwing or underwing.

Aeronautical Decision Making

2014-05-01T10:24:00.001+02:00

Introduction to ADM¹

ADM can be best described as an enhanced decision making process that is used in aviation by pilots to help them consistently make the best choices when they are faced with alternatives leading to uncertain outcomes (AC No: 60-22₁).
As with any good decision making process, ADM is about avoiding the circumstances that lead to bad choices. This is achieved by making the decision maker aware of the factors that can contribute to bad decisions, how their impact on safety can be managed, as well as the steps that are involved in making good decisions. In other words, ADM is able to be taught to pilots.

Teaching ADM

The objectives in teaching ADM are to provide the pilot with a set of skills and techniques that they can use to:
1. Identify and manage factors that have a negative influence on their decision making
The factors that influence decision making are:
a) Personal attitudes that are hazardous to safety flight
A pilot’s attitude is what determines how they will behave in most situations. The attitude that “the flight must be completed” is likely to result in behaviours’ that lead to bad decisions. This type of attitude is likely to drive decisions such as, pressing on into hazardous weather, or continuing a flight with critical equipment failures. Although the safe decision would be to abort a flight, the pilot’s attitude has influenced the ability to make safe decisions.
b) Physical and psychological conditions
Physical and psychological factors influence the performance of the pilot. Illness, lack of sleep, alcohol and medications are some of the factors that impact on a pilot’s ability to make good decisions. Other factors, such as stress, can be present both before, and develop during a flight. These factors can impact on the “decision making process” by reducing alertness, situational awareness or motivation, essential components in good decision making. i.e. failure to detect a problem or error
How a Pilot manages these factors.
a) Personal attitudes that are hazardous to safety flight
The pilot must learn to recognize these attitudes, and during any decision making process it is essential that they ensure their choices are not influenced by such attitudes. Pilots are taught behavioral modification techniques where they learn to substitute hazardous attitudes for positive alternatives and apply these to their decision making.
b) Physical and psychological conditions
Again, pilots must learn to recognize these conditions and ensure that their influence is safely managed. The broadest approach to recognizing these conditions is a form of self interrogation by the pilot. They need to ask the question, am I fit to fly? This can include lifestyle aspects such as getting adequate sleep, keeping physically fit and knowing their personal limitations.
Stress is a factor that can also appear during a flight so it is essential that a pilot be adequately equipped to cope with it effectively. Pilots use various workload management techniques such as checklists, automation and task sharing to control stress in the cockpit.
2. Take a structured approach when making decisions
The approach pilots take in making decisions:
a) Detect- detection for changes
b) Estimate-estimate the need for counter measures or react to the change
c) Choose-chooses a desirable outcome
d) Identify-identification of actions which will successfully control the change
e) Do-implement the necessary actions
f) Evaluate-evaluates the effect of action countering the change
During decision making, there are two significant components that guide the process:
Motivation – Provides the correct attitude and behaviours’. i.e. vigilance and compliance with safe practices.
Expertise – Helps the pilot identify changes; determine if they require action and the best course of action to take. It also provides the necessary skill to implement, to experience to evaluate and knowledge monitor any actions taken. Expertise is a critical component in identifying how to best allocate recourses during the decision making process and essential in maintaining a complete understanding of the situation and its consequences. (Situational Awareness)

References

1. FAA (1991). Advisory Circular : Aeronautical Decision Making. AC No: 60-22, Retrieved on the 24th September, 2009 from http://www.airweb.faa.gov

Aeronautical chart

2014-05-01T10:19:00.001+02:00

An aeronautical chart is an enhanced map that pilots use when flying. The Oxford Essential Dictionary of the US Military (2002, quoted by Answers.com, 2009¹) defines an aeronautical chart as "a specialized representation of mapped features of the earth, or some part of it, produced to show selected terrain, cultural and hydrographic features, and supplemental information required for air navigation and pilotage, or for planning air operations".
An aeronautical chart, thus, represents topographic features, hazards and obstructions, navigation aids, navigation routes, designated airspace and airports locations. Specific charts are used for each phase of a flight and may vary from a map of a particular airport to an overview of the instrument routes covering an entire continent (e.g., global navigation charts), and charts for IFR and VFR (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, 2008². By using appropriate and updated navigational charts, pilots will be able to know their location as well as any procedures governing particular airspaces and airports.

Types of Aeronautical charts and their purpose

1. Airport Charts
2. Standard Instrument Departure (SID): It's purpose is to standardize departure from a given runway, reduce the errors in aircraft tracking, reduce possibility of radio-telephony congestion and prove a means of vacating the aerodrome to a point clear of traffic where an aircraft can then intercept the cleared route.
3. Enroute Charts (High Altitude/Low Altitiude {upper altitude and lower altitude for EU & RVSM charts)
4. Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARS). They are used for reducing radio-telephony congestion, standardize arrival instructions, reduce the possibility of aircraft tracking to land in airports and for aircraft suffering communication failure.
5. Instrument Approach Charts (precision/non precision)
6. VOR/DME MRA Sectors (VORSEC) Chart: Purpose of VORSEC chart is to provide adequate terrain clearance and reliable navigation aid signal reception within the area covered by the chart. Additionally, they are used by pilots for arrival, departure or transiting when within the area of cover and also used by ATC for lateral aircraft separation.

References

1. ANSWERS.COM (2009). Aeronautical chart. Retrieved from Answers.com on 30 December 2009.

2. NATIONAL GEOSPATIAL-INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (2008). Navigational planning charts. Retrieved from NGA on 30 December 2009.

Air Shows

2014-05-01T10:18:00.000+02:00

An air show is an event at which aviators display their flying skills and the capabilities of their aircraft to spectators in aerobatics (2009¹). There are also air shows that do not have aerobatic displays where the aircraft are displayed on the ground which are called “static air shows” (2009¹).

Why are air shows held?

There are a number of reasons that air shows are held throughout the world. Some of the air shows are held as part of a business venture or trade event where aircraft, avionics and other services are promoted to customers (2009¹). Other air shows are to support charities including that of the military air shows which are held in appreciation of the general publics ongoing support, promoting careers in the military and to raise their profile (2009¹).
Air shows are held are different times in the year throughout the world. The European season has one of the longer seasons of air shows as it starts in late April or early May and goes through till the middle of October (2009¹). The United States runs their air shows from March to November. Australia, New Zealand and the Middle East have a much shorter season as they hold their events between January and March (2009¹). When the air shows are not taking place, throughout the world, the aircraft undergo maintenance and there is continual training and practice sessions for the pilots (2009¹).

Types of air shows.

There are a number of different types of air show which can range in size and can include (2009¹):

Military events – generally involving a significant number of flight displays and exhibitions on the military base.
Local air shows – held at a local aerodrome and generally involves less flight displays and only a few marquees with exhibitions inside.

The air displays that take place at these air shows are limited by a number of restrictions including the weather which can also affect visibility on the day (or night), and any local airspace restrictions (2009¹). The location of an air show depends on why the event is taking place, for example when unveiling a new aircraft, the manufacturer may want to showcase it at an event which will be attended by many people including potential customers, as seen when the A380 made an appearance at the 2009 EAA AirVenture in Oshkosh, US.

Attractions.

Air shows use to be connected with long distance air races which often lasted many days, however, the Reno Air Races is the only air race that keeps this going as most air shows today feature much shorter aerial displays (2009¹). Most air shows include (2009¹):

Aerobatics,
Military aircraft demonstrations,
Warbirds,
Other aeronautical attractions – wing-walking, firefighting aircraft demonstrations, radio-controlled aircraft, simulated helicopter rescues and sky diving or parachuting.

The solo military jet demonstrations involve one aircraft (strike fighter or an advanced trainer) to showcase what the aircraft can do in combat operations. This display can include showing how the aircraft can takeoff quickly in a short distance; how fast it can fly along with slow approaches; tight turns; quick climbs; and their easy maneuverability at different speeds (2009¹). These jet demonstrations can also include some form of simulated bomb drops with the aid of pyrotechnics on the ground for effect (2009¹). Aircrafts with special features that give them unique abilities will often display them in their demonstrations (2009¹), for example a Harrier pilot may perform a vertical landing or vertical takeoff as seen in the video below.

Safety.

Although air shows are a great way to showcase the many different aircraft and their abilities, they also pose a number of risks for spectators and pilots (2009¹). There have been a number of accidents occurring at air shows for example, the world's worst air show accident to date was at the Sknyliv Air Show near Lviv, Ukraine in 2002, when a SU-27 aircraft crashed during an aerobatics presentation killing 85 spectators and injuring 100 others who were watching on the ground (2009³). As a result of this accident and others alike, there are now strict rules and regulations for air displays which differs depending on the rating of the pilot or crew, the type of aircraft and the way the aircraft is being flown, for example a slower smaller aircraft can fly closer and lower over crowds then a larger, faster aircraft (2009¹).

Major World Air Shows.

There are a number of air shows that take place every year throughout the world. Some of the main air shows include (2009²):

Abbotsford International Airshow (Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada) - Canada's largest airshow.
Aero India (Yelahanka Air Force Base, Bangalore, India)
Asian Aerospace (Hong Kong)
Australian International Airshow (Avalon Airport, Victoria, Australia)
Berlin Air Show - ILA (Internationale Luft- und Raumfahrtausstellung) (Berlin, Germany) - oldest aviation show in the world.
China International Aviation & Aerospace Exhibition (China)
Danish Air Show (Denmark)
Dubai Airshow (Dubai)
EAA AirVenture Oshkosh (Oshkosh, Wisconsin, U.S.) - America's largest annual gathering of aviation enthusiasts.
Iran Airshow (Kish, Iran)
Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition (Langkawi, Malaysia)
Light Aviation Airshow (West Africa) - biggest light aviation air show in West Africa.
MAKS Airshow (Russia)
Paris Air Show (Paris, France) - international trade fair for the aerospace business.
Radom Air Show (Radom, Poland)
Reno Air Races (Reno, Nevada, U.S.)
Royal Netherlands Air Force open days (Various military airports in the Netherlands)
Royal International Air Tattoo (RAF Fairford, United Kingdom) –world’s largest military air show.
Singapore Airshow (Singapore)
Sunderland International Airshow (Seaburn, Sunderland, England, United Kingdom) - biggest free annual airshow in Europe.
Tannkosh (Tannheim, Germany) - European equivalent to EAA AirVenture Oshkosh.
Warbirds over Wanaka (Wanaka, New Zealand) - biennial air show in Wanaka, held on the Easter weekend of even-numbered years.
Wings Over Gillespie (Commemorative Air Force static airshow, El Cajon, California, U.S.)

References

1. WIKIPEDIA (2009). Air Shows. Retrieved from Wikipedia on 28 September 2009.

2. WIKIPEDIA (2009). List of air shows. Retrieved from Wikipedia on 4 October 2009.

3. WIKIPEDIA (2009). Sknyliv airshow disaster. Retrieved from Wikipedia on 4 October 2009.

Airbags in Aviation

2014-05-01T10:16:00.000+02:00

Introduction

With the success of airbags, a nature progression has lead the technology from the automotive industry into aviation. The airbags will help reduce injury and save lives during accidents that might otherwise cause death. In aviation these airbags are located in seat belt.
The airbags deploy outward away from the occupant and fills the space between them and the aircraft structure. This also helps reduce the accidents that airbag have been known in cause in cars because the bags deploy away from the occupant instead of towards.
The Airbags have already saved lives in aviation and their experiences can be found on Youtube (an example is located at the bottom of the page under want to know more). There are also steps to increase further use and understanding of their presence.

How the airbag works

Watch this video to see an explanation of how the seatbelts work.

Cautions

In order for the seatbelt airbag to work correctly the seatbelt must be secure. Therefore, if the seatbelt is not locked correctly it will not work. In order to prevent this always check your seatbelt is secure fasten each time you put it on.

NTSB Recommendations

In 2003, the National Safety Transport Board recommends:
To modify restraint systems to not allow misuse and to also allow correct function a seatbelt airbag designed for that plane
Revise standards to prevent misuse
Provide guidance of ways that will demonstrate effectiveness of the restraint system
Evaluate the safety benefits
Track each individual safety system that helps improve survivability in crashes¹

Airbags in General Aviation

This system is able to provide extra safety even in GA. With the AMSAFE’s seatbelt airbags being the most popular, these bags can now be seen in the new single-engine aircraft. There is also a possibility of the demand for these systems to become global. With airbags in general aviation is will help increase the survivability of some of the accidents that can occur during training or other activities².

References

1. Hersman D.A.P. (Feb 2011). National Transportation Safety Board, Washington, D.C. 20594, Safety Recommendation Retrieved from http://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/recletters/2011/A-11-001-006.pdf

2. PAPPALARDO J. (Mar 2009). Airbags on Planes: Will a New FAA Regulation Pave the Way for Airbag Seatbelts? Retrieved from http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/aviation/safety/4308255

+++ Footnotes +++

3. ###

Airspace Infringement

2013-06-01T13:49:00.001+02:00

Description
Airspace infringement occurs when an aircraft enters notified airspace without previously requesting and obtaining clearance from the controlling authority of that airspace, or enters the airspace under conditions that were not contained in the clearance.
Notified Airspace includes controlled airspace structures in ICAO airspace classes A to E, such as Airways, Terminal Control Areas (TMAs), Control Zones (CTRs) or aerodrome traffic zones (ATZ) outside controlled airspace, as well as restricted airspaces, such as danger areas, restricted areas, prohibited areas and temporary reserved airspaces (TRA).
It should be noted that VFR traffic cannot infringe class E airspace because under ICAO rules neither an ATC clearance nor radio communication is required to enter or operate within it, unless filed national differences call for one or the other (or both). Traffic following instrument flight rules (IFR) can infringe class E airspace when not in receipt of a clearance to enter it.
Although VFR flights do not require clearance to enter Class E airspace, serious incidents have occurred between VFR and IFR flights in such airspace due largely to limitations in the “see-and-avoid” principle. Therefore this type of incident is also being addressed by airspace infringement prevention initiatives.
All classes of aircraft are prone to airspace infringement, but the majority of incidents recorded involve General Aviation. This is unsurprising, as most GA VFR flights are conducted outside controlled areas and zones, and are in general flown by less trained and experienced leisure pilots; whereas IFR flights are usually conducted within controlled airspace and carried out under the supervision of ATC units.

Effects

Mid-Air Collision

Loss of Separation from other aircraft. An infringement leading to loss of separation may also cause Loss of Control due to wake vortex encounter and even injuries to passengers or crew when violent manoeuvres are needed to avoid the other aircraft.

Disruption to flight operations. An infringement can significantly increase controller and pilot workload due to the need to break an approach, change aircraft sequence for landing or implement other contingency measures. Any disruption to flight operations is likely to have adverse environmental and economic impact due to increased fuel burn by aircraft subject to delays both in the air and on the ground.

Exposure to danger from military hazards, e.g. radiation, gun-firing or manoeuvring high-performance aircraft.

Perceived security risk of flight contrary to clearance which may result in a military response.

Disruption of military or other special activities within restricted, danger or prohibited airspace.

Defences

Enhanced Flight Information Service (FIS) based on the use of radar to provide services to VFR flights outside controlled aispace, such as the Traffic Service (provides the pilot with traffic information on conflicting aircraft) and Deconfliction Service (provides the pilot with traffic information and deconfliction advice on conflicting aircraft) provided in the UK airspace.

Accurate aircraft navigation systems, including conventional, BRNAV and PRNAV systems

Hand held or mounted GPS equipment used in VFR flying on board light aircraft, provided that the pilot has a proper understanding of the right way to use it and is aware of its limitations.

Use of aircraft transponders, especially those associated with encoding altimeters which enable ATC to identify traffic and can facilitate TCAS-based avoiding action.

Ground based Safety Nets, such as Short Term Conflict Alert (STCA) and Area Proximity Warning (APW) that can alert controllers to hazardous sitations and help mitigate the effects of infringements.

Knowledge of and strict adherence to RTF procedures.

Typical Scenarios

Aircraft flying outside controlled or restricted airspace, etc. enters the airspace without clearance due to:
- Lack of awareness of existence of the airspace (maps, briefing, etc.); or,
- Lack of awareness of the activation of airspace restriction; or
- Poor navigation performance (equipment or technique); or,
- Poor air-ground communication technique; or,
- Lack of understanding of procedure for obtaining clearance to enter.

Aircraft flying outside controlled or restricted airspace enters it with or without awareness as a result of adverse weather avoidance

Aircraft flying outside controlled or restricted airspace enters it as a result of misunderstanding or misinterpretation of ATC instructions or clearance.

Contributory Factors

Poorly equipped aircraft (navigation and communication equipment).

Inexperienced or inadequately trained pilots.

Poor pre-flight preparation (out-of-date or inappropriate maps, NOTAM briefing, etc.).

Over-reliance on GPS eqipment

Adverse Weather.

Absence of enhanced Flight Information Service.

Airspace design which constrains uncontrolled air traffic into corridors of limited horizontal and/or vertical extent.

Unfavourable attitude of ATC controllers to VFR flights, leading to poor comunication.

Routine (assumption that airspace restrictions on a familiar route will not change).

Solutions

Improve airspace infringement awareness;

Improve pilot's navigation and communication skills by raising the standard of pilot training including, especially an awareness of the importance of and means to:
- Effective Pre-flight briefing;
- Accurate Navigation;
- Appropriate and effective Air-Ground communications;

Enhance Flight Information Services to VFR flights based on the use radar in areas where airspace infringement is common;

Implement safety nets, such as Area Proximity Warning (APW) that can alert controllers of potential or actual infringements;

Improve the availability and accessibility of aeronautical and meteorological information to VFR flights;

Review airspace design where repetitive airs

pace infringement occur with the objective of removing features which appear to have contributed to such incidents;

Encourage or mandate the use of high quality aircraft systems for navigation and communication, including transponders;

Improve cooperation at local level between ATS providers, GA establishments and the military.

Low Visibility Procedures

2013-03-09T13:27:00.001+02:00

IR-OPS and EU-OPS Definitions
Low visibility procedures (LVP) means procedures applied at an aerodrome for the purpose of ensuring safe operations during lower than standard category I, other than standard category II, category II and III approaches and low visibility take-offs; - IR-OPS Annex I and EU-OPS 1.435
Low visibility take-off (LVTO) means a take-off with an RVR lower than 400 m but not less than 75 m; - IR-OPS Annex I and EU-OPS 1.435
Note that ICAO requires LVP for all departures below 550m RVR, not just LVTO

Description

Low visibility procedures have been devised to allow aircraft to operate safely from and into aerodromes when the weather conditions do not permit normal operations. To this end, they cover all relevant issues relating to surface movement other than aircraft within the designated aircraft manoeuvring area comprehensively.

Low visibility on Runway

Hazards

On aerodromes where the ground marking and lighting is adequate, ground traffic at reasonable flow rates can often be sustained safely in reduced visibility. An aeroplane on the ground is at its most vulnerable during the landing and the take-off phases of flight, when the options for avoiding action if an obstruction is encountered may be very limited. The aircraft is likely to be badly damaged or destroyed if it collides, at high speed, with any sizeable object.
Making the necessary transition to visual reference during the final stages of an approach to land in poor visibility is critical and certain requirements must be met to reduce the risk of a Runway Excursion. Low visibility take off also requires careful attention to correct runway alignment before the take off is commenced; an ILS LLZ signal can be used for verification if available. If an RTO is carried out, pilots must maintain awareness of runway length remaining using whatever external visual cues are available; relevant runway lighting, signage or markings may be available.
As visibility deteriorates, the potential for runway incursions by aircraft, vehicles or personnel increases. The risk of inadvertent runway incursion by taxiing aircraft is greatest at aerodromes with complex layouts and multiple runway access points. This risk can only be managed adequately by the application of procedures that provide the pilot with clear, unambiguous guidance on routing and holding points or ground traffic patterns.
The safe operation of airside vehicles depends upon drivers being adequately trained and thoroughly familiar with the aerodrome layout in all visibility conditions and by complying with procedures, signs, signals and ATC instructions. In low visibility conditions, special awareness is required and special procedures, including restrictions on normal access, may be invoked. All of this is an essential product of the Airport Operator SMS

Aerodromes

Aerodromes that wish to continue operating in poor visibility or are available for instrument approaches in conditions of low cloud are required to develop and maintain LVPs.
Aerodromes that provide precision instrument approaches are required to develop and maintain additional procedures that ensure suitable measures are in place to protect the signal produced by the ground based radio navigation equipment.
The point at which LVPs should be implemented will vary from one aerodrome to another depending on local conditions and facilities available. The point at which LVPs are to be implemented must be clearly defined and should be related to a specific RVR or cloud ceiling measurement (e.g. RVR below 550m or cloud ceiling below 200 ft). Aerodromes may define higher values for RVR and ceiling than the ICAO standard depending on local circumstances.
Adequate consideration should be given to the time taken to implement fully all of the measures required to protect operations in low visibility conditions. Provision should also be made for alerting airlines and other organisations with movement area access in good time of the introduction of LVPs. This is particularly important where companies exercise control over their own apron areas and maintenance facilities adjacent to the manoeuvring area.
National authorities offer guide lines on when LVPs should be implemented and when they should cease. A typical example is UK CAP 168: Licensing of Aerodromes, Appendix 2B, which contains much other useful information and advice on the subject. ICAO guidance material on the implementation of LVP is available in ICAO EUR Doc 013 "European Guidance Material On Aerodrome Operations Under Limited Visibility Conditions".

Operators

Low visibility procedures may only be conducted under strict conditions, which are described fully in IR-OPS Subpart E Low Visibility Operations (LVO) and associated Acceptable Means of Compliance and Guidance Material, and EU-OPS 1.440 - EU-OPS 1.460 and relevant appendices. Essentially these concern the following main areas:

Flight crew constitution, training, qualification and authorisation;
Aircraft minimum equipment and certification;
Aerodrome considerations; and,
Operating procedures.

Fog
Accident and Serious Incident Reports: RI

Vehicle Driver Airside Safety Check List

2013-03-09T13:26:00.000+02:00

Introduction
This Check List is designed as an aide-memoire to print off and keep if no equivalent document is available so that it can be reviewed periodically. It does not cover the conduct of effective vehicle airside radio communications with ATC which is dealt with separately in the article ATC Radio Use by Airport Vehicles

Prior Knowledge

Understand Aerodrome surface marking colour coding:
- white for runway markings
- yellow for taxiway markings including lead on/off lines to / from runway centrelines
- markings on apron and ramp areas for various subordinate purposes may use colours other than yellow such as the commonly used white for roadways.

Be aware that the yellow line markings which define the division between taxiways and runways are always continuous on taxiway side and always broken on the runway side, and that when crossing from the continuous-lines-first direction a clearance is required, whereas when crossing from the broken-lines-first-direction clearance is not required.

Understand Aerodrome Signs (different types will be used in combination with each other)
- ‘you are here’ = black square signs
- Mandatory instruction indicating restricted or prohibited access = white on a red background
- Arrow and identifier prior to an intersection = which directions lead where - black on a yellow background usually with a ‘you are here’ sign
- ‘this way to’ = black on yellow background with an arrow`

Understand Aerodrome Lighting
- Lit taxiway centrelines are green; green reflectors may be substituted
- Lit taxiway edges use blue lights; blue reflectors may be substituted
- Lit runway centrelines are white except near the end when they may change to red
- Lit runway edges use white lights except near the end when they may change to yellow
- A transverse row of red lights is a stop bar and must never be crossed

Make it your business to know if there is a Local Runway Safety Team at your aerodrome and if so what they have been doing.

Have any runway hotspots been identified on your aerodrome? If they have been, know where they are.

Be clear how the implementation of Low Visibility Procedures affects the rules and procedures for airside vehicle driving.

Tactical Preparation

Be aware of the extent of the airside area which requires prior ATC clearance to proceed.

If there is more than one ATC designated for control of airside vehicle movements, including active runway crossings, ensure each of their control areas is understood so that frequency changes on expected or likely routes can be anticipated.

Note promulgated speed limits and any variation of these in different airside areas.

Check for any temporary restrictions and changes in the extent of the authorised movement area.

Review any issues which might arise because of reduced forward visibility or frozen surface deposits.

Have a current aerodrome chart which shows all taxiway and runway designations available in any vehicle being driven.

Consider expected routes in advance of a request for clearance to destination, taking particular note of runways which may be in use and in proximity to or likely to be encountered on these routes.

Re-check that you are familiar with the meaning of light signals which may be used by ATC if radio communications cannot be maintained.

Satisfy yourself either before setting off or immediately you do that the vehicle being driven appears to be serviceable and that adequate forward visibility through the windscreen is available.

Maintaining Situational Awareness

It is essential that an airside vehicle driver remains positively aware of their location at all times.

If position uncertainty occurs, STOP at once and seek assistance from ATC.

Be especially careful at night or when Low Visibility Procedures are in force.

Monitor ATC instructions to other vehicles and aircraft and mentally ‘position’ them relative to the actual and projected position of your vehicle.

Focus 100% on the driving and navigation task; if a colleague is in the driving compartment of the vehicle with you, involve them in tracking vehicle position - but do not devolve that responsibility to them.

If about to cross a runway having obtained an ATC clearance to do so, always carry out a visual inspection in both potential directions of the full length of the runway and up the approach paths if visible, to ensure that no aircraft or other vehicles which might conflict with the received crossing clearance are visible.

Make full use of all aerodrome surface markings, signs and lights to aid situational awareness.

Stand Entry Guidance Systems

2013-03-09T13:24:00.000+02:00

Description
There is a huge variety of stand entry guidance systems ranging from a marshaller with bats or lighted wands to a wide range of fully or semi automated systems. Each method may provide either or both of azimuth (centreline) guidance and stop position information. Systems may differ between different terminals at the same airport or even within terminals. Although flight crew guides normally contain the relevant information for any particular gate, late allocation of gates or late changes to initial allocations may make it impracticable for flight crew to pre-brief themselves on unfamiliar systems without stopping the aircraft prior to proceeding onto stand for that specific purpose.

Gate Allocation

Airport procedures should specify which aircraft types are permitted to use which gates. Flight Crew on board documentation should provide equivalent information. Allocation of an appropriate gate will depend upon the Flight Plan having been filed with the correct aircraft type and variant. Errors in this area are particularly common when a flight operates on a stored RPL and an aircraft substitution, even just a variant, is made.

Responsibility for aircraft safety

Procedures for ground staff for the activation of automatic or semi automatic SEG for arriving aircraft should require that the full marked gate area for aircraft use is clear of all obstructions and surface contamination or FOD. However, neither this nor the correct application of SEG activation procedures can be assumed. The aircraft commander (or other authorized person with clearance to conduct out of service aircraft ground re-positioning of an aircraft under its own power) is left with sole responsibility for the safety of the aircraft as it arrives at the gate. The difficulty of establishing the fitness of the gate area for use from the flight deck is clear, especially when it is dark. The majority of guidance systems except a marshaller are ‘calibrated’ to be viewed from the LH pilot seat so they can only be interpreted accurately by the pilot occupying that seat. Pilots occupying the RH seat can not therefore use most currently available aids of this sort with confidence.

Azimuth Guidance

This may be achieved simply by following the painted/lighted taxiway line with or without the guidance of a marshaller. Alternatively, It may be provided by various forms of` left / right indications on an illuminated head-of-gate display. These are generically described as AGNIS (Azimuth Guidance for Nose-In Stands). One system in common use has two vertical, parallel light bars. Both appear green when the aircraft is on the stand centreline but, if it is displaced to the left or right, the light on that side turns red, inviting the pilot to turn towards the green light to regain the centreline.

Stop Guidance

The painted lead-in centerline is likely to have painted cross markers for NLG position according to aircraft type groups. A marshaller can be expected to signal when the required position has been reached. One common form of eye-height display which shows the correct stop position is called PAPA - Parallax Aircraft Parking Aid. This has a horizontally slotted black marker board mounted to one side of the head of stand behind which a vertically oriented white fluorescent light shines through the slot and appears to traverse the slot as the aircraft moves forward. Marks on the board identify the correct alignment of the light according to aircraft type. The operating principle of PAPA requires that the board is offset from the gate centreline and so the pilot must alternate his view between it and whatever system is provided for azimuth guidance.
Alternatively, the stop position may be indicated (independently of azimuth guidance) by means of a stand alone ‘traffic light’ system, which is often operated by remote control from the ramp, or by use of the Mirror Guidance System which relays to the flight crew the stop mark on the taxiway centerline and, as it reaches the vicinity, the NLG position.

Azimuth and Stop Guidance combined

Systems which have a composite display above the head of the gate which shows stop position and the reducing distance to go are usually described as APIS - Aircraft Positioning and Information Systems. Various displays are provided.

Emergency Stop Systems

All light-display stop position indicator systems are provided with emergency stop buttons at both ramp level and on the air bridge platform. However, care must be taken to distinguish these from potentially similar stop buttons which apply to the moveable airbridge and cut its electrical power supply, since, if pressed in error, electrical power to the SEG system control and display may also be lost, including the emergency stop element.

Hazards and their avoidance

Fixed rather than moveable air bridges are less common than they used to be. When they are encountered, they are likely to result in closer proximity to moving aircraft than for the more common movable bridges. Movable bridges should be parked away from the ‘attached-to-aircraft-position’ when not in use and no aircraft is on the gate. The closeness of the fixed bridge reduces the margin for error by the person taxying an aircraft onto the gate. Whenever an aircraft is taxyed onto a gate, it should be done at a very slow speed and the aircraft braking system status should be checked upon arrival at the turn-in point to ensure that this system is functioning normally. Flight crew operating more than one aircraft type variant or who may have recently undergone type conversion need to be absolutely sure they cross check the type/variant they are operating before proceeding so as to follow any SEG system correctly. These systems will be marked / displayed with the aircraft type set on the SEG System and flight crew need to check that the marking/display does correspond to their aircraft type.

Jet Efflux Hazard

2013-03-09T13:23:00.000+02:00

Definition
Jet Efflux Hazard is defined as hazards associated with the force or wind generated behind a jet engine, particularly on or before take-off when high/full power is set, but also when the aircraft is taxiing.

Description

Jet efflux, also known as Jet Blast, can be hazardous in the ramp environment. This risk is generally appreciated by the potential sources and, where there is a specific hazard, then signage and or NOTAMs are usual.
There are two important hazards to aircraft safety which arise from jet efflux effects:

where the efflux from one aircraft on the ground affects another (usually) smaller aircraft, and
where disturbance to the surface of an aircraft manoeuvring area, attributable to the effect of jet efflux from wing mounted aircraft engines, results in pieces of that surface striking and damaging aircraft to the extent that a risk of subsequent airborne loss of control exists.

Moving aircraft, which are significantly smaller than other adjacent aircraft emitting jet efflux, are at risk of losing directional control when passing through the jet efflux zone if thrust greater than ground idle is encountered. There is often no appreciation by the larger aircraft flight crew of the potential hazard which is created by application of ‘breakaway’ thrust to commence moving, when this takes place away from the ramp environment. However, the most dangerous case of this type of jet efflux hazard is actually to aircraft on the take off or landing roll which are subjected to strong jet efflux relative to their size from aircraft which have stopped just clear of the active runway after crossing or vacating it, and apply breakaway thrust to re-commence taxiing just as a smaller aircraft passes behind at speed. In the worst case, a loss of directional control and runway excursion could result. Regional and business jets, operating at busy airports with frequent wide body aircraft movements are most at risk. These aircraft have no direct defence except a high degree of proactive situational awareness of the risk. This can only be achieved with the aid of on-board equipment which displays the position of other aircraft on the ground, or R/T communications which are all conducted in Aviation English.
The risk of efflux-induced impact damage to the tailplane of an aircraft about to take off, as disturbed pavement debris is deflected rearwards and partially upwards, includes the possibility of significant elevator/stabilizer damage. This could lead to impaired control authority, which would render normal flight control authority unavailable at a critical stage of flight - from rotation into initial climb. A more detailed review of this hazard with examples can be found in the separate article "Applying Take-off Thrust On Unsuitable Pavement Surface May Have Hidden Dangers" (see Further Reading).

Transporting Live Animals By Air

2013-03-09T13:21:00.001+02:00

Why are live animals transported by air?
There are many reasons why people wish to transport live animals. The animals may be personal pets, or guide and assistance dogs. They may be sporting animals, agricultural animals for breeding, food animals being transported for slaughter, zoological animals and species being transported for reasons of science. Transporting animals for long periods of time is considered unnecessarily cruel and to be avoided whenever possible. Therefore, for long journeys the only speedy option is to use aircraft.

Regulations, Standards and Conventions

Because air transport is the most humane way of transporting live animals on long journeys, it is important to ensure high standards are maintained by all those involved: veterinary inspectors, animal keepers, handlers and attendants, container manufacturers, air carriers, pilots etc. This is best achieved through regulation and oversight.
Regulations for the transport of live animals need to set a balance between ensuring compliance with aviation safety requirements and practice, and treating animals humanely in accordance with current welfare standards. The safety of crewmembers, passengers and animal handlers also need to be considered.
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) is not a regulatory body, but airline members of the Association are obliged to ensure IATA’s Live Animals Regulations (LAR) are followed. As such, IATA’s LAR has become the worldwide standard for transporting live animals by commercial airlines, and supranational and national regulating bodies reference it. As well as providing guidance for airlines, The LAR is used by shippers, freight forwarders, and animal care professionals. The LAR contains a comprehensive classification of 1000’s of animal species along with the container specifications required for their transport. It also includes information on handling, marking & labelling along with necessary documentation when transporting animals by air.
International and national regulations will also apply. It may not always be the case that compliance with The LAR will meet these requirements and air carriers will need to ensure that all regulations are followed. For example, the Australian National Consultative Committee on Animal Welfare (NCCAW) (Position Statement - October 1993, revised 2007) considers The LAR as minimum standards only and not fully satisfactory for the types of native species transported interstate throughout Australia. The UK Government has released it’s own guidance to help airlines comply with European Regulations as well as meet the standards of The LAR.^[1]
The European Union Regulation 1/2005 covers the protection of animals during transport and related operations. This supranational regulation applies to the transport of vertebrates only, and covers farmers moving their own livestock on their land, as well as the transport of live animals via road, rail, sea and air. The EU Regulation specifically requires compliance with The LAR (Annex 1, Chapter 2, paragraph 4).
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) has also established a set of detailed guidelines for the transport of all animals^[2]. These guidelines attempt to broadly follow The LAR.

Aircraft Manufacturers

All animals are handled as live cargo and most are stowed in the aircraft’s climate-controlled cargo bays unless the aircraft has been converted as a dedicated livestock carrier. Many airlines allow small pets to be carried in the passenger cabin under certain conditions; and there will be national guidelines to be followed when transporting guide and assistance dogs in the passenger cabin. Aircraft manufacturers can provide air carriers with specific information concerning the safe transport of live animals within each different aircraft type and model.^[3] Especially with reference to loading, storage and unloading, and temperature and humidity control.

Key Factors

The key factors that affect the safe transport of live animals include the:

aircraft Environmental Control System (ECS) settings,
animal physiology,
airport and en-route environments, and
ground handling.

Optimal ECS settings, handling and packaging, and ideal loading configurations vary by species. Combinations of species in transit will complicate management of these key factors.

Environmental Control

Three environmental parameters need to be controlled in order to maintain the welfare and comfort of live animal cargo, and to prevent death. These are: temperature, relative humidity, and cargo compartment carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. Depending on the species being carried (and their age, and state of pregnancy) each of these parameters vary considerably. For example, most large farm animals fall within the ranges 4.4 to 26.6 °C, 0 to 75% humidity, and 0 to 3% CO2; whereas one-day old poultry require 32 to 37 °C, 0 to 80% humidity and 0 to 0.5% CO2.
Humidity and CO2 levels inside the cargo compartment may not be controllable directly by the ECS settings, and the hold temperature set by the pilots is not necessarily what is experienced by the animals. The supplied air obviously has some vapour and CO2 content, but when entering the cargo compartment it mixes with the existing air, which in turn has been affected by the animal body temperatures, exhalations and emissions. Data, gathered from in-service experience, of the air condition in each cargo compartment, can be used to make decisions concerning what animals to carry where on the aircraft, and how many. The number of animals planned for carriage can always be reduced and distribution planned throughout an aircraft’s cargo compartments (where possible) in order to ensure climate conditions are suitable.
Some aircraft ECS and cargo compartment configurations allow for airflow rates to be adjusted. Higher airflow rates should be selected for high-density animal loads; this will incur a fuel penalty, which may affect aircraft range.
Where a cargo compartment does not contain any animal or temperature-sensitive cargo, air conditioning to this area can be turned off if this provides greater ventilation in compartments containing animals, without raising their temperature through heat-transfer. This may also help reduce fuel burn.

On The Ground

ECS need to be able to cool cargo compartments adequately when external ambient temperatures are high during ground operations (taxiing, pre-take off, post landing and stopovers). Also, aircraft can become heat-soaked when exposed on the ground to strong sunlight, resulting in extremely high temperatures in the cargo compartments. Pre-loading, and pre engine start, the performance of an aircraft’s Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) and where available, external cooling systems will determine whether the conditions are suitable for animal loading.
It should always be the aim of carriers to reduce the time that animals are held in cargo compartments  and therefore, close cooperation is required between flight crew, loading and unloading ground crew, animal-handling agents and air traffic services. For example, closing cargo doors last before departure and opening first on arrival may ensure greater airflow and more comfortable conditions for the animals. Also loading animals at night can avoid both higher ambient daytime temperatures and higher workload for the ECS.
During lengthy stopovers en-route, consideration should be given to off-loading the animals. In these situations and where animals may remain at the destination aerodrome for long periods before collection, consideration must be given to quarantine requirements, veterinary services, food, watering and protection from the climate.

Loading

It is essential to consult with aircraft manufacturers regarding specific recommendations for loading different aircraft types and models. However, the following factors should be considered.

Do not transport animals and carbon dioxide (usually in dry ice form) in the same compartment.
Avoid mixing live animals with cargo that contains a lot of moisture on the container, such as rain, snow, or ice, or liquids inside the container.
Load animal containers with enough space between pallets to allow air to freely circulate.
Spreading animals evenly within and between cargo compartments can help to reduce condensation, however, weight and balance limits will still need to be complied with.
Some areas within cargo compartments may suffer greater heat transfer through the walls, and animal densities should be reduced in such circumstances.
Animal containers, pallets and stalls need to maintain their location and their integrity during turbulence in flight.
Containers are designed specifically for different species of animal, and they should have adequate ventilation gaps and holes to allow air flow, and reduce localised temperature and CO2 build-up.
Container construction also needs to cope with animal behaviour that may weaken its structure, e.g. gnawing, clawing, kicking etc.
Container construction should allow for appropriate inspections, both in-flight and on the ground. Adequate lighting is therefore also required.
When animals are self-loading, the slope of loading ramps should be minimised to facilitate each animal species’ ability, and consideration given to batons or other anti-slip measures.
When transporting animals in belly holds (lower deck compartments), access in flight will most certainly be impossible. All aspects of the animals’ welfare need to be planned and accounted for, especially as temperature control is usually more difficult in these belly holds.

General Welfare

Apart from the factors discussed above, there are many other considerations for both packers and carriers to consider when transporting live animals.
The animals should be in good health, preferably not pregnant, and mixed species should not be housed in the same container. If sedation is deemed necessary, then it is advisable that a vet travels with the animal; note that sedated animals may not be able to maintain balance during turbulence and significant manoeuvring, and therefore they risk injury.
It may not be possible to address sickness, injury or death whilst in transit, therefore inspection during refuelling stopovers is essential. Handling of animals carries the risk of human contamination and cross-contamination between animals and other species, and therefore should be avoided whenever possible. Food items should not be stored near to animals for this reason. Although, there will be occasions when the destruction of a sick or injured animal, in transit, is required; and this must be conducted by a vet or someone with suitable experience. Some means of killing an animal, such as anaesthetic darts, can damage aircraft structures and systems if used incorrectly.
Arrangements for feeding and watering will depend on the species of animal involved and the duration of the journey. Some animals (e.g. reptiles) are able to survive comfortably without distress for long periods without food and water, others may benefit from fasting before loading onto the aircraft. Where water is provided the risk of animals drowning should be mitigated against.

Oversight and Control

It is usual that people, or organisations, and airlines need to be authorised by a competent authority before they can transport live animals by air. Such authorisations will typically be time-limited and require re-authorisation periodically.
Personnel involved in the transport of live animals need to be adequately and appropriately trained to fulfil their responsibilities in accordance with national and international regulations. These personnel include: ground-handling staff, aircraft commander, loadmaster and aircrew, and animal attendant. On occasion, when authorised, a member of aircrew can fulfil the attendant’s duties. Competence will need to be demonstrated and requalification may be necessary.
Appropriate documentation is essential in monitoring the safe transport of live animals, these will typically include: certificates, declaration forms, journey logs and crate labelling.

Accidents and Incidents

HL-7601 was operating a Commercial Air Transport (Cargo) flight from Chicago O’Hare Airport to Brussels National Airport carrying 390 cows on the main deck. The aircraft was cruising at FL340 over the Irish Sea when the crew received a FIRE MN DECK AFT warning. A crew member went onto the main deck but saw no sign of smoke or fire. The crew suspected that the warning was false but decided to carry out the procedure in the Quick Reference Handbook for ‘Main Deck Cargo Compartment Suppression’, which involved donning oxygen masks and initiating a controlled cabin depressurisation and rapid descent. Following the descent, the crew made an uneventful landing at London Heathrow Airport where emergency services attending the aircraft found no evidence of smoke or fire. The pilot believed that the presence of the cattle led to higher than normal levels of humidity and that this was the cause of the warning. UK AAIB Bulletin 7/2012

References

^ UKCAA Guidance on Welfare of Animals during Transport by Air
^ Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Guidelines for Transport and preparation for shipment of live wild animals and plants 1981
^ Safe Transport of Live Animal Cargo – Aero, Quarter 2, 2012

ATC Radio Use by Airside Vehicles

2013-03-09T13:19:00.004+02:00

Description
One of the key requirements for the safe deployment of vehicles airside, on manoeuvring areas shared with aircraft, is that their drivers (or their front seat colleagues) are competent in RTF communication with ATC. Airport Authorities usually have overall responsibility for setting and monitoring standards, but the agency operating a vehicle has direct responsibility for ensuring that ATC communications with their vehicle is of a standard which will preclude any contribution to diminished safety standards for aircraft. Whilst some vehicles will be operated directly by the airport authority, most will be operated by various service providers. The chance of disaster is at its greatest when the possibility of aircraft at speed on a runway during the take off or landing roll encountering ground vehicles exists. One national survey showed that in 2007, 26% of recorded runway incursion incidents involved vehicles and the majority were not unintended errors by ATC but unintended errors by vehicle driver.

Who are the Drivers?

Apart from Airport Authority personnel who may fulfil many different roles including the very specialist RFFS, it is likely that airside drivers will also include persons working airside in connection with:

Aircraft Maintenance;
Aircraft Ground De/Anti Icing;
Aircraft and Passenger Handling;
Aircraft Catering;
Aircraft Cleaning;
Aircraft Refuelling;
Passenger and Crew transport;
Cargo;
Visiting vehicles requiring escort.

Where Are They Driving?

All airport operators should have a system for issuing airside driving permits; this should include a process for validating competency in the effective use of ATC radio communications. Within the aircraft manoeuvring area, there are usually two types of region: those for which ATC permission is required for access and those for which permission is not required. This article addresses the risk to aircraft safety attributable to the first of these regions.

The Key Elements of Acceptable ATC Radio Communication for Vehicle Drivers

At larger airports, it is usual to find different parts of the airport controlled by ATC using different radio frequencies, often with different radio call sign endings. A call sign ending in “Tower” (TWR) usually indicates a radio frequency used to control at least one active (in use) runway; a call sign ending in “Ground” (GND) usually indicates that an active (in use) runway is not being controlled.
Speak clearly and at a moderate speed, especially if the speaker has marked regional or non-native accent.
Always listen before starting a transmission and be aware that there may be a short gap between a transmission by other traffic or ATC and the corresponding reply.
Press the radio transmit switch before beginning to speak and do not release it until a transmission is finished, otherwise it may be ‘clipped’ and an important part of the content lost.
Know the airport layout and the location and designation of all runways, taxiways and holding points.
Find out before setting out which runways are in use and the location of any “work in progress” or taxiway closures which may affect usual routes.
Strictly adhere to vehicle speed limits; ATC will assume this if they need to amend a current clearance.
Use marked roadways where available
If in any doubt about an ATC instruction, obtain a repeat by saying “Say Again" (or “Say Again all after…”). Do not proceed beyond the previous clearance limit until a response has been obtained and understood.
Ensure that all ATC Clearances are read back in full before proceeding.
Remember the designated radio call sign for either the driver or the vehicle and:
- listen out for it at all times
- use it to identify each transmission made.
Listen to aircraft/ATC communications and where possible, use the information acquired to build up a mental map of what else is moving - or about to be moving - in the area in which you are at present, or where you are about to proceed. This is called maintaining 'situational awareness' and is important for flight crew too.
If the vehicle being driven has an automatic position transmitter fitted which allows ATC to see its position on a remote display, then this must be switched on whenever this is required.
If a vehicle driver becomes uncertain of his/her position, the vehicle should be stopped immediately and ATC informed. Further movement should await ATC instructions.
If the occupants of a vehicle operating under ATC Control need to work outside it, then they must have a means of hearing calls from ATC - a vehicle loudspeaker or portable radios - and these must be audible even at the high noise levels that are likely to be experienced.
Be aware of local radio failure procedures and be prepared to recognise the signs that this has occurred - whether wholly or only in respect of vehicle reception or (apparently) vehicle transmissions.

Standard Phraseology

It is important that radio communications are concise so that the amount of transmission time is minimised, but also even more important that they are fully understood. In many cases, single words are used which are equivalent to a phrase. Sometimes, even single words which are not commonly encountered in everyday use are used by ATC as important instructions. Also, where letters or numbers have to be spoken individually eg “Hold at C12” then it is important that the international radio telephony alphabet is used.

Active Runways

Many airports have more than one runway and if so, it is important to be aware which runways are in use or ‘active’. It is always necessary to obtain a specific clearance to cross any runway, active or inactive.

Towing

Persons authorised to drive and/or operate ATC radio communications in vehicles which tow aircraft should be very carefully selected and trained by their employers, with special reference to any restricted visibility from the vehicles used and their awareness of the size of aircraft types which may be towed. The potential effect of not complying with ATC clearances when towing aircraft, or if the link between the towing vehicle and the aircraft nose landing gear fails, is clearly much greater than for a vehicle on its own.

Low Visibility Procedures (LVPs)

An airport which has approved procedures to continue with aircraft movements in low forward visibility will have a formal set of procedures which apply whenever Low Visibility Procedures are declared to be in force. Typically, all non-essential airside vehicular traffic will be prohibited and remaining traffic will be required to drive within reduced speed limits and use different runway entry holding points. In addition, taxiway and runway lighting will be in use which may not necessarily be the case otherwise during daylight.

Proactive Reporting

The most important aspects of driving under ATC control are:

to follow all clearances as given, and
to maintain situational awareness.

Additionally, it is part of the driver's responsibility to be observant and to make radio reports to ATC of:

any apparent external abnormalities in respect of an aircraft in the vicinity;
bird or other wildlife activity which may be unknown to ATC and apparently hazardous to aircraft;
any significant FOD sighting;
any other hazard to aircraft or personal safety which is seen from the vehicle.

Escorted Vehicles not in Radio Contact with ATC

If appropriate procedures have been agreed with ATC, it may be permissible for a radio equipped vehicle driven by a suitably authorised permit holder to escort a visiting vehicle within the ATC-controlled zone. Such arrangements carry a heavy responsibility upon the escorting driver to ensure that the driver of the escorted vehicle has been properly briefed and to monitor the position of the other vehicle at all times to ensure both vehicles comply with ATC clearances. This particularly applies to position reports which will need to be made only when the whole ‘convoy’ is in compliance.

Local Runway Safety Teams (LRST)

There will often be a Local Runway Safety Team at an airport. If there is, it will usually be run by the Airport Authority and attended by ATC. It exists to monitor issues which may affect runway safety and is therefore very concerned with runway crossings by vehicles and situational awareness of their drivers, both of which are heavily dependent upon high standards of radio communication. It is there both to receive input and to help co-ordinate any action which may be needed to deal with problems and issue alerts.

ATC Clearance Delivery

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Description
The issue of ATC Departure / En Route Clearance for a flight (as distinct from a take off clearance), in particular for an IFR flight.

Potential Risks to Safety

If there is any misunderstanding within the flight crew of the route to be flown after take off, or if any error is made by the flight crew when programming the route to be flown into their FMS, then the risk of Loss of Separation against other traffic or even of CFIT, has been increased.
In order for a flight crew to both brief a departure and initial routing and correctly input its details into the aircraft FMS, it is important that the departure clearance is available from ATC in good time prior to engine start / pushback. Both flight crew briefing and FMS input take time and require the full attention of all flight crew members.
It follows from the above that, if changes are made to the departure or initial routing clearance by ATC, the aircraft should be stationary and not under any immediate pressure to move when these are communicated to the crew. Under no circumstances should changes to departure or subsequent flight routing, however minor, be issued at the same time as a take off clearance. This includes all changes to airborne clearances including those arising from change of runway, whether originated by ATC or issued in response to a flight crew request.
Investigation of Accidents and Incidents has often found that the late issue of, or late change to, a departure clearance has been a causal factor in the unwanted outcome.

Mitigation of the Risk - ATC

The existence of appropriate procedures for:

the timing of the issue of initial departure clearances - this should preferably be sufficiently ahead of the likely "off blocks" time to allow the flight crew actions which must follow the issue of clearance to be completed before the aircraft first moves.

handling a change of departure runway after a departure clearance has been issued.

offering a change of departure runway to an aircraft which has already received an initial departure clearance where such a change would have a material effect on the initial airborne routing.

Controllers should be mindful that, even if the operator is a frequent visitor to the airport, members of any particular flight crew may have very varied familiarity with the departure procedures, local navigation aids and reporting points and clearances should be passed clearly and and at a steady pace.

Mitigation of the Risk - Aircraft Operation

The existence of appropriate procedures for:

Recording of clearances and monitoring of read-back by the flight crew members not operating the radios.

Effective cross checking of FMS departure route data entry.

Actioning of Initial ATC departure clearances received too late for their input and briefing to be completed before the flight leaves the parking gate.

Acceptance and actioning of amendments to initial ATC departure clearances received prior to take off such that the necessary response to them is completed and cross checked prior to take off and the departure re-briefed.

Airport Activity Level

Busy airports, where delays in the departure of an aircraft resulting from necessary flight crew actions caused by a late or changed departure clearance are liable to have awkward consequences, can assist safety by ensuring that their normal procedures include the availability, on request, of a departure clearance sufficiently ahead of pushback from or taxi off stand for it to be input to the FMS and form the subject of a flight crew brief before the aircraft moves. An indicative minimum time to facilitate this would be 10 minutes. Normal procedures should also preclude the issue of pushback or taxi clearance unless a departure clearance has already been issued.
Quieter airports may not apply such rigid normal procedures in respect of departure clearances but ATC should still appreciate, and make due allowance for, the time which it may take to set up and brief departure clearances which are issued or altered once an aircraft has begun push back and / or has begun taxiing for take off.

Aircraft Tie Down

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Definition
An aircraft tie-down scheme is designed to minimise the possibility of aircraft movement due to high winds or propeller/jet-efflux. Tie down is most likely to apply to aircraft up to about 12 tonnes for normal conditions in temperate latitudes but in the case of extremely high winds everywhere, this indicative maximum could need upward revision.

Description

Each year numerous aircraft are needlessly damaged by winds or propeller/jet efflux because of inattention to weather forecasts, negligence, or improper tie-down procedures; it doesn’t necessarily take storm-force winds to cause aircraft damage.
If the weather conditions warrant it, an aircraft should be parked and tied down into wind, or as nearly into wind as possible. There are varied opinions as to whether a tail wheel aircraft should be tied down tail into wind. Remember that your aircraft was designed to meet the airflow head-on, and that flying control surfaces can be easily damaged if control locks are not in place when the aircraft is parked tail into wind. The aircraft also has a tendency to weathercock when on the ground. Therefore, if parked tail into wind (and not properly secured), it could be blown over as it is rotated into wind by a sudden gust. If the aircraft is parked tail into wind, it must have the park brakes on, control locks in place and the tail securely tied down.

Effects

Physical damage to the aircraft arising from lack of, or inappropriate, tie-down.
Damage to aircraft or airfield arising from inappropriate checks following tie-down.

Defences

If the forecast winds are strong enough to damage the aircraft, then one course of action is of course to fly the aircraft to another airfield away from the forecast area of strong winds. This may not always be possible or practical.

Park the aircraft in a storm proof hangar.

If that is not possible, employ a suitable 3-point tie-down scheme; aircraft owners, operators and pilots should ensure that they know the correct method for securing their particular aircraft type.

After the aircraft has been standing out and tied-down, a very careful pre-flight inspection should be carried out.

Ensure that all tie-down strops, opening covers and external gust locks are removed before going flying.

Typical Scenarios

The following is an extract from a real-life incident:
"As the aircraft took off from Runway 25, the tower Air Traffic Control Officer observed an object dangling from the tail. The object was subsequently identified as a car tyre filled with concrete, which had been used to tie down the aircraft on the ground. The pilot was informed and he landed the aircraft safely after completing a normal circuit. After landing, the aircraft was taxied clear of the runway and shut down before the tie-down weight was removed. A runway inspection was carried out before further use. The pilot reported that during the aircraft’s pre-flight inspection he had removed the tie down weights attached to the wings but had failed to notice the tie down weight attached to the tail”.

Contributory Factors

Other Aircraft. It is important to make sure any adjacent aircraft are also securely tied down - having your own aircraft well tied down will be wasted if the neighbouring aircraft blows over on to it.

Flying Debris. Always check the surrounding area for other items that could be a danger as flying debris - things as large as 44-gallon drums or aircraft stairs and maintenance stands on castors have been known to blow across a tarmac area.

Multi-engine aircraft. Smaller twin engined aircraft can also require tie-down; many do not have suffient weight to protect them from movement by strong winds.

Solutions

Any small aircraft parking area should be equipped for three-point tie-downs. The direction in which the aircraft are to be parked and tied down will be determined by prevailing or forecast wind direction.

If fixed tie-down points are not available, then try to find a sheltered place in which to picket the aircraft, eg, a natural depression in the ground, in the lee of a building, or behind a shelterbelt of trees. Seek local knowledge - sometimes the seemingly logical place may in fact be the worst because of localised wind effects. If a relatively sheltered place cannot be found, it may be possible to park a truck or tractor in front of the aircraft. This will serve as an extra tie-down point, as well as helping to break up the airflow over the aircraft.

If permanent tie-down facilities are not available it will be necessary to use your own set of pickets. Your picket set should include a number of steel stakes, a mallet and ropes of appropriate length, all stowed in a bag or other suitable container.

Aerobatics

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Aerobatics is the practice of flying maneuvers involving aircraft attitudes that are not used in normal flight.

Aerobatics are performed in airplanes and gliders for training, recreation, entertainment, and sport. Some helicopters, such as the MBB Bo 105, are capable of limited aerobatic maneuvers, and Chuck Aaron is the only U.S. pilot certified to do helicopter aerobatics. The term is sometimes referred to as acrobatics, especially when translated.^{[citation needed]}
Most aerobatic maneuvers involve rotation of the aircraft about its longitudinal (roll) axis or lateral (pitch) axis. Other maneuvers, such as a spin, displace the aircraft about its vertical (yaw) axis.Maneuvers are often combined to form a complete aerobatic sequence for entertainment or competition.
Aerobatic flying requires a broader set of piloting skills and exposes the aircraft to greater structural stress than for normal flight.In some countries, the pilot must wear a parachute when performing aerobatics.
While many pilots fly aerobatics for recreation, some choose to fly in aerobatic competitions, a refereed sport.

In the early days of flying, some pilots used their aircraft as part of a flying circus to entertain. Amongst the earliest innovators in aerobatics the Frenchman Euclid's name is foremost.
Maneuvers were flown for artistic reasons or to draw gasps from onlookers. In due course some of these maneuvers were found to allow aircraft to gain tactical advantage during aerial combat or dogfights between fighter aircraft.
Aerobatic aircraft fall into two categories—specialist aerobatic, and aerobatic capable. Specialist designs such as the Pitts Special, the Extra 200 and 300, and the Sukhoi Su-26M and Sukhoi Su-29 aim for ultimate aerobatic performance. This comes at the expense of general purpose use such as touring, or ease of non aerobatic handling such as landing. At a more basic level, aerobatic capable aircraft, such as the Cessna 152 Aerobat model, can be dual purpose—equipped to carrying passengers and luggage, as well as being capable of basic aerobatic figures.
Flight formation aerobatics are flown by teams of up to sixteen aircraft, although most teams fly between four and ten aircraft.

Some are state funded to reflect pride in the armed forces whilst others are commercially sponsored. Coloured smoke trails may be emitted to emphasise the patterns flown and/or the colours of a national flag. Usually each team will use aircraft similar to one another finished in a special and dramatic colour scheme, thus emphasising their entertainment function.
Teams often fly V-formations (otherwise known as echelon formation)— they will not fly directly behind another aircraft because of danger from wake vortices or engine exhaust. Aircraft will always fly slightly below the aircraft in front, if they have to follow in line (the "trail formation").
Aerobatic maneuvers flown in a jet-powered aircraft are limited in scope as they cannot take advantage of the gyroscopic forces that a propeller driven aircraft can exploit. Jet-powered aircraft also tend to fly much faster which increases the size of the figures and the length of time which the pilot has to withstand increased g-forces. Jet aerobatic teams often fly in formations which further restricts the maneuvers that can be safely flown.
To enhance the effect of aerobatic maneuveres smoke is sometimes generated; the smoke allows viewers to see the path travelled by the aircraft. Due to safety concerns, the smoke is not a result of combustion but is produced by the vaporization of fog oil into a fine aerosol, achieved either by injecting the oil into the hot engine exhaustor by the use of a dedicated device that can be fitted in any position on the aircraft. The first military aerobatic team to use smoke at will during displays was Fleet Air Arm 702 Squadron "The Black Cats" at the Farnborough Air show in September 1957

Training
Aerobatics are taught to military fighter pilots as a means of developing flying skills and for tactical use in combat.
Aerobatics and formation flying is not limited solely to fixed-wing aircraft; the British Army, Royal Navy, Spanish Air Force and the Indian Air Force, among others, have helicopter display teams.
All aerobatic maneuvers demand training and practice to avoid accidents. Such accidents are rare but can result in fatalities. Low-level aerobatics are extremely demanding and airshow pilots must demonstrate their ability before being allowed to gradually reduce the height at which they may fly their show
Competitions start at Primary, or Graduate level and proceed in complexity through Sportsman, Intermediate and Advanced, with Unlimited being the top competition level. Experienced aerobatic pilots have been measured to pull +/-5g for short periods while unlimited pilots can perform more extreme maneuvers and experience higher g levels -possibly up to +8/-6g. The limits for positive g are higher than for negative g and this is due to the ability to limit blood pooling for positive g maneuvers, but it is generally accepted that +9 g for more than a few seconds will lead to loss of consciousness (also known as GLOC).

Aerobatics are most likely to be seen at a public airshows

aviation engine

GIS for Aviation

ARINC424 Specification

Airspace and Procedure Design

Description

Effects

Defences

Typical Scenarios

Contributory Factors

Solutions

Further Reading

ICAO Documentation:

PANS-OPS

Annexes and PANS

Air traffic control

Ground control

Local control or air control

Flight data / clearance delivery

Approach and terminal control

En route, center, or area control

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General characteristics

Radar coverage

Flight traffic mapping

Problems

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traffic

Weather

Call signs

Economic & Social Benefits of Air Transport

Air transport

Employment

Economic benefits

Air transport facts (2013)

Air transport efficiency

Social benefits

Airport security

Supersonic Electric Aircraft

EcoJet

Environmental impact of aviation

Mechanisms and Cumulative Effects of aviation on Climate

CO2 emissions per passenger kilometre

Averaged emissions

Emissions by passenger class, and effects of seating configuration

Total climate effects

Future emission levels

Alternative fuels

Reducing air travel

Kyoto Protocol

Emissions trading

Mitigation

Noise

Radiation exposure

Notes and references

Aviation fuel

Aeronautical Decision Making

Introduction to ADM1

Teaching ADM

Aeronautical chart

Types of Aeronautical charts and their purpose

Air Shows

Why are air shows held?

Types of air shows.

Attractions.

Safety.

Major World Air Shows.

Airbags in Aviation

Introduction

How the airbag works

Cautions

NTSB Recommendations

Airbags in General Aviation

Airspace Infringement

Effects

Defences

Typical Scenarios

Contributory Factors

Solutions

Low Visibility Procedures

Description

CO₂ emissions per passenger kilometre

Introduction to ADM¹