B.A. Social Notes

The Rashtrakutas Kingdom Was Founded by

2021-12-24T00:40:00.006-08:00

The Rashtrakutas Kingdom Was Founded By

Origin

The term RASHTRAKUTAS denotes officers in charge of territorial divisions called Rashtra. In the Deccan charters of the 7th and 8th centuries, A.D. Rashtrakutas were exhorted not to disturb the peaceful enjoyment of the land grants. The Rashtrakutas originally belonged to Lattalura, the modern Latur of Maharashtra. They were of Kannada origin and Kannada was their mother tongue.

Dantidurga: He began his career as a feudatory of the Chalukyas. He laid the foundations of Rashtrakutas. The victorious career of Dantidurga is known from the two records of this reign- the Samangad Plates and the Dasavatara Cave Inscription of Ellora. Dantidurga's plan of expression was directed towards the east and west without disturbing Karnataka. The stronghold of Chalukyas is powerful. He invited Malwa, which was under the rule of the Gurjara Pradesh. Thus, by A.D. 75, he had become the master of the whole of Madhya Pradesh and central and southern Gujrat. He then attacked and overthrew his suzerain, Kirtivarman-II, the Chalukyas emperor proclaimed himself the paramount ruler of the Deccan. He did not live long after this victory.

Krishna-I: Dantidurga died childlessly and was succeeded by his uncle Krishna-I. After securing his position in Maharashtra and Karnataka, Krishna-I advanced southwards and invited Gangawadi (modern Mysore ), which was then under the sway of its Ganga ruler Sri Purusha. He returned home after permitting Sri Purusha to rule as a feudal. In the east Krishna-I come to grips which the Chalukya's of Vengi. He sent the crown prince Govinda to vengi and its ruler Vijyaditya-I, made his submission without a fight great as a conqueror, Krishna was equally great a builder. He constructed the Magnificent rock-cut monolithic temple at Ellora, now known as Kailash.

Govind-II: Krishna-I was succeeded by his eldest son Govind-II. He practically left the whole administration to the care of his younger brother, Dhruva was ambitious and seized the throne for himself.

Dhruva: Shortly after his accession, Dhruva proceeded to punish the kings who had supported his brother. Dhruva then made a bold bid to control north Indian politics, a feat in which no Deccan power had succeeded since the days of the Satvahanas. At that time, northern India was convulsed by the struggle for supremacy between Vatsaraja Pratihara and Dhannapal, the Pala ruler of Bengal.

While Vatsaraja was engaged in hostilities with Dharmapala in the Doab, Dhruva crossed the Nannada and occupied Malwa without much opposition. He then proceeded towards Kanauj and inflicted such a crushing defeat on Vatsaraja that later sought refuge in the deserts of Rajasthan. Without marching further into the imperial city of Kannauj, Dhruva returned home laden with rich booty.

He had four sons, Karka, Stambha, Govinda, and Indra, of whom Karka predeceased his father. Of the remaining three sons, the emperor chose the ablest Govinda as his successor and installed him as crown prince.

Govinda-III: Though the accession of Govinda took place peacefully, soon he had to face the hostility of his eldest brother, Stambha, who had been chafing owning to his supersession. After defeating Stambha and securing his position in the Deccan. Govinda turned his attention to the ever tempting politics of northern India and defeated Nagabhatta I who fled into Rajputana, leaving the Doab at the mercy of the invader. Chakrayudha, the puppet emperor of Kanauj, offered unconditional surrender and so did Dharmapala. Besides the powerful Gurjara Pratihara and Pala kings, other rulers of northern India were also defeated by Govinda III.

Amoghvarsha-I: Govinda-III was succeeded by his son Sarva, better known as Amoghvarsha. Amoghvarsha was not destined to enjoy the piece during his long reign of 64 years. He had to encounter frequent rebellions of his feudatories and wage constant wars against his powerful hostile neighbors. Amoghvarsha's reign lacked the brilliance and vigor of his father and grandfather. Gangawadi and Malava were lost to the empire.

Instead of war, it was rather peace, religion, and literature that attracted him most. In his later life, he developed definite leanings towards Jainism, and Jijasena, the author of Adipurana, was his chief preceptor. Amoghvarsha was himself an author and a liberal patron of men of letters. The Kavirajamarga, the earliest work on poetics in the Kannada language, was written by him. He was a great builder. He built the city of Mahakheta and adorned it with an excellent place. He was succeeded by his son Krishna-II.

Krishna-II: He was neither an able ruler nor a good military commander. His only achievement was the termination of the Gujarat branch. He could just maintain his own against Bhoja-I and his wars against Vengi and the Cholas brought disaster and disgrace. Like his father Amoghvarsha, Krishna was a Jaina.

Indra-III: Krishna-II was succeeded by his grandson Indra-III. Indra emulated his great ancestors by declaring war against the Gurjara Pratihara emperor, Mahipala. He marched upon Kanauj and occupied it. Towards Vengi, Indra followed the policy of fomenting troubles for the ruling king and put his own nominee on the Vengi throne.

Amoghavarsha-II: Indra-III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha-II. Within a year of accession, Amoghavarsha-II died and his younger brother Govinda ascended the throne.

Govinda-IV: Govinda was a tyrant whose conduct and vicious life provoked universal resentment. A chieftain took a leading part in the revolution which brought about the end of the inglorious reign of Govinda-IV and the transfer of the crown to Amoghavarsha-III.

Amoghavarsha-III: He devoted himself to religious rather than administrative affairs. The government was carried on by crown prince Krishna-III.

Krishna-III: After his accession, Krishna spent a few years strengthening the administration. Krishna led a lightning expedition to the Chola kingdom and captured Kanchi and Tanjore. He built a number of temples in the conquered territories among which the temples of Krishnesvara and Gandamartandatiya at Rameswaram are famous. Throughout his long reign, Krishna-III remained an ineffective possess of Tondai-mandala consisting of the Arcot, Chingleput, and Vellore Districts.

Krishna's reign marked the disintegration of the Rashtrakuta empire. He was oblivious of the feudal developments likely to endanger the stability of the empire by granting the province of Travadi near the heart of the empire as a fiet to Tailapa.

Khottiga: Krishna-III was succeeded by his half-brother Khottiga. During his reign, the Rashtrakuta empire received a rude blow that completely shattered its prestige. The defeat which the Paramara king Siyaka had sustained at the hands of Krishna-III, was ranking in his mind and he made necessary preparations to avenge it.

Karka-II: The prestige of the empire had suffered irreparably when Karka-II ascended the throne. Matters were worsened by the maladministration of the new emperor. The feudatories naturally felt emboldened to challenge the imperial authority and one of them eventually deprived Karka of his sovereignty over the Deccan within about eighteen months of his accession. This feudatory was Taila-II (Tailapa) of the Pallavas.

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Pallavas

2021-07-01T08:32:00.005-07:00

Pallavas

Controversy about Origin

Parthian Connection- According to one school, they were a branch of Parthians. But there is no evidence for the migration of the Parthians into the south.

Vakataka Connection- Another school opines that the Pallavas were a branch of the Brahmin royal dynasty of the Vakatakas at the Deccan. But here again, there is no direct evidence of any connection between the Vakatakas and the Pallavas.

Indigenous Origin- The third school maintains that it was an indigenous dynasty and rose to power after the dismemberment of the Ikshvaku kingdom. In other words, they were the indigenous Nagas.

So, the Pallavas were possibly a local tribe who established their authority in the Tondainadu or the land of creepers.

Political History

Simhavishnu (560-590 A.D.)- He is considered the first important Pallava ruler, through Pallava existed even during the time of Samudra Gupta's invasion of south India. He is credited with capturing the territory of the Cholas and humiliating his other southern neighbor including Ceylon. He followed Vaishnavism, as is evident from archaeological evidence.

Mahendravarman-I (590-630 A.D.)- During his reign began the long-drawn-out struggle between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. He was defeated by Pulkesin-II and a part of his kingdom was occupied.

Narasimhavarman-I (630-668 A.D.)- He is considered the greatest of the Pallavas rulers. He is credited with repelling the second invasion of Pulakesin-II, killing him, and capturing the Chalukyan capital, Badami. Hence, he assumed the title of 'Vatapikonda'. He is also said to have defeated the Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas, thus becoming supreme in south India.

Mahendravarman-II (668-670 A.D.)- He ruled for a very short period since he was killed by Chalukya king, Vikramaditya-I (Son of Pulakesin -II).

Parmesvaravarman-II (670-700 A.D.)- He also had to face the invading forces of Vikramaditya-I, but finally succeeded in defeating and driving them back after repeated efforts.

Narasimhavarman-II (700-728 A.D.)- His rule, however, is marked by peace and prosperity, literary activity, and the construction of large and beautiful temples like the Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanath temple at Kanchi. He is also said to have sent embassies to China, and maritime trade flourished during his reign.

Parameswaran-II (728-731 A.D.)- The Pallavas kingdom again had to face defeat and humiliation during his reign. The Chalukya, Vikramaditya-II attacked the Pallava capital. Parmesvaravarman had to conclude a humiliating treaty with him. When the Pallava ruler tried to retaliate, he was killed by the Ganga ally of the Chalukyas.

Nandivarman-II (731-796 A.D.)- The Chalukya, Vikramaditya-II again invaded and captured the Pallava capital during his reign. But Vikramaditya, this time, showed consideration and restraint in treating the vanquished, the only instance of restraint in the whole of the suicidal, Chalukya Pallava conflict, and withdrew from Kanchi without destroying it. However, Nandi soon strengthened himself and defeated the Chalukya ally, the Gangas.

Successors- Successors to Nandivarman-II were Dantivarman (796-847 A.D.), Nandivarman-III (847-869 A.D.), Naripatunga (869-99 A.D.) and Aparajita (899-903 A.D.). The last nail in the coffin was driven by Aditya Chola by defeating Aparajita; Pallavas towards the end of the ninth century A.D. However, the Pallavas chiefs continued to exist till the end of the 13th century A.D. as feudatories.

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Chalukya

2021-05-31T22:14:00.003-07:00

Chalukya

Pulakesin-I (543-66 A.D.)-- Founder of the Chalukya Dynasty, established a small kingdom with Badami-I (Vatapi) as its capital.

Kirtivarman-I (560-597 A.D.)-- The son and successor of Pulakesin-I, expanded the kingdom by the war against the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Nalas of Bastar.

Mangalesa (597-609 A.D.)-- On the death of Kirtivarman, his brother became the regent, since his son, Pulakesin-II was a minor. Mangalesa plundered the territories of Gujarat, Khandesh, and Malwa.

Pulakesin-II (609-42 A.D.)-- Considered the greatest of the Chalukya rulers of Badami not only because of the problems he had to face while coming to the throne but also because of his subsequent military as well as diplomatic achievements.

- He had to wage a civil war against his uncle, Mangalesa, who refused to hand over the power.

- Though, Pulakesin succeeded in defeating and killing his uncle, this civil war shook the young kingdom and rebellions began to appear on all sides. But he was quite successful in the suppression of these rebellions. He defeated the rebel feudatory, Appayika and pardoned his confederate, Govinda, when the latter offered his submission.

- Establishment of his suzerainty over the neighbors such as Kadambas of Banavasi, the Alupas of south Kanara, the Gangas of Mysore, and the Mauryas of north Konkan. Apart from the above rulers, the Latas, Malwas, and Gurjaras also offered their submission to him because of their fear of Harshavardhana of Kanauj.

- His clash with Harsha, in which he was able to check Harsha's design to conquer the Deccan.

- Conquests in the eastern Deccan-southern Kosala, Kalinga, Pistapura, and the Banas of Rayalaseema offered their submission after their defeat at the hands of Pulakesin.

- Conflict with the Pallavas of Kanchi- his first expedition against the Pallavas kingdom, which was then ruled by Mahendravarman-I was a complete success, and he annexed the northern part of the Pallava kingdom. But his second expedition against the Pallavas, however, ended in complete disaster for himself as well as his own kingdom. The then Pallava ruler, Narshimhavarman-I who succeeded Mahendravarman, not only drove back Chalukya kingdom, but also killed Pulakesin-II, and captured Badami.

- Diplomatic achievement- he sent an embassy to the Persian king, Khusrau-II, in A.D. 625 and also received one from him. The reception was given to the Persian mission is, in fact, depicted in one of the famous Ajanta cave paintings.

Visit of Hiuen- Tsang -: The description given by this Chinese pilgrim of the kingdom of Pulakesin is quite useful in knowing the social and economic conditions under the Chalukya rulers of Badami.

Vikramaditya-I (644-681 A.D) -: After an occupation of about 12 years he not only drove out the Pallavas forces but also consolidated the kingdom and plundered the Pallava, Kanchi, thus avenging his father's defeat and death at the hands of Pallavas.

Vinayaditya (681-693 A.D) -: His reign was generally peaceful and prosperous.

Vijyaditya (693-733 A.D) -: It was the longest and also the most prosperous and peaceful reign. It was marked by a great increase in temple building.

Vikramaditya II (733-744 A.D.) -: His reign is significant for the successful invasion of the Pallava kingdom three times and the repelling of the Arab invasion of South Gujarat.

Kirtivarman II (744-755 A.D) -: This last Chalukya ruler of Badami was defeated by Dantidurga, the founder of the Rastrakuta Dynasty, and thus come to an end to the Chalukya dynasty of Badami.

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Post Gupta Age

2021-05-20T06:22:00.003-07:00

Post Gupta Age

Harshavardhana

Harsha was the second son of Prabhakara Vardhana, the first important king of the Pushyabhuti dynasty with its capital at Thaneswar. Pushyabhuti dynasty with its capital at Thaneshvar. Pushyabhuti were the feudataries of the Guptas but had assumed independence after the Huna invasions.

Harsha was favored by his elder brother, Rajyavardhana, by both his father and the nobles, But Harsha expressed his reluctance to supersede his brother. Rajyavardhana who became the ruler had to face problems from the Makuhari ruler of Kannauj and husband of Rajyasri (daughter of Prabhakar), was murdered by Deva Gupta (the ruler of Malwa), who in alliance with Sasanka (ruler of Gauda or Bengal) now occupies Kanauj and imprisoned Rajyasri. Rajyavardhana, therefore, undertook a campaign against Deva Gupta and killed him but he was deceived and killed by Sasanka.

Harsha now succeeded his brother at brother-in-law and was quite successful in both. He drove out Sasanka and Gupta from Kanauj. Between 606 and 612 he brought most of northern India (Punjab, Kanauj, parts of Gauda, Orissa, and Mithila) under his control and assumed the title of 'Siladitya'.

Harsha's Military Conquest

Occupation of Kanauj-In his first expedition, Harsha drove away Sasanka from Kanauj who had occupied it after murdering Harsha's brother. After this, he not only unified Kanauj with Thaneshvar but also made it his new capital, which made him the most powerful king of north India.

Conquest of Valabhi-His early relations with the rulers of Valabhi was cordial because he was engaged in consolidating his position against the Gutaguda axis in the east. But soon Malwa became the bone of contention between the two and so he had to turn his attention to western India. Nausasi Copper Plate Inscription gives information about his expedition against Valabhi.

War with Pulkesin-II- The above success, however, proved to be the immediate cause of conflict between Harsha and Pulakesin-II. Further, the question of overlordship over the Latas, Malwa, and Gujarat seems to have been the long-standing cause of conflict between the two. Hiuen Tsang gives the impression that Harsha was the aggressor but did not succeed fully in the war. Chalukyan records of Pulakesin's victory. But Ravikirti (the court poet of Pulakesin-II and the author of the Aihole inscription) also hints vaguely at Pulakesin's successors cannot be taken as impartial as none of the contemporary records refer to Pulakesin's victory over Harsha's attack was not a complete success, and it resulted in the conclusion of an honorable treaty.

His Other Conquest- According to some scholars Harsha defeated the Pallava ruler, Mahendravarman-I, and also some other southern rulers. But in the absence of any direct evidence, we cannot say anything conclusively. But Orissa or the kingdom of Kaling seems to have been subjugated by Harsha. Thus, Harsha established his hold practically over the whole of north India. Rajasthan, Punjab, UP, Bihar, and Orissa were under his direct control but his sphere of influence spread over a much wider area since peripheral states such as Kashmir, Sind, Valabhi, and Kamarupa acknowledged his sovereignty.

Harsha's Government

Harsha governed his empire on the same lines as the Guptas did. except that his administration had become more feudal and decentralized. It is stated that Harsha had a standing army numbering over one lakh and 60,000 cavalry and 9,000 elephants. Harsha could mobilize the support of all his feudatories at the time of war. Evidently, every feudatory contributed his quota of foot soldiers and horses and thus made the army vast in numbers.

Land grants continued to be made to priests for special services rendered to the state. In addition, Harsha is credited with the grant of land to the officers by charters. These grants allowed more concessions to priests and officers than those by the Carlier grants. Thus the feudal practice of rewarding and paying officers with grants of land on a large scale seems to have begun under Harsha.

Gupta Period

2021-05-05T07:24:00.004-07:00

Gupta Period

It was, perhaps, sometimes late in the obscure period of the third century AD that the Gupta dynasty emerged. One Sri Gupta, who brought Magadha under his control, was the founder of the Gupta dynasty. Sri Gupta was succeeded by Ghatotkacha Gupta. The first two kings of the dynasty were described as Maharajas. It is generally believed that the first two rulers of the dynasty ruled before 320 AD. They were followed by some of the mighty rulers of Ancient Indian history.

Chandragupta I (320AD-335AD)

Chandragupta I, grandson of Sri Gupta and son of Ghatotkacha Gupta, was the line's first great ruler. He increased the power and prestige of the empire to a great extent by matrimonial alliance and conquests. He married Kumardevi, the Lichchavi princess. His empire included modern Bihar, Oudh, Allahabad, Tirhut, in addition to Magadha. He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. He started the Gupta Era in AD 320, which marked the date of his accession.

Samudragupta (335 AD-375 AD)

Samudra Gupta ascended the throne in 335 AD. The basic information about his reign is provided by an inscription prayaga prasasti composed by Harisena, the poet at his court, and engraved on an ashokan Piller at Allahabad. The places and the countries conquered by Samudra Gupta can be divided into five groups.

Group one includes princes of the Ganga-Yamuna doab who were defeated. Group two includes the rulers of eastern Himalayan states and some frontier states, such as the princes of Nepal, Assam, and Bengal.

It also covers some republics of Punjab. group three includes the forest kingdoms situated in the Vindhya region and known as 'atavika rajyas'. group four includes twelve rulers of the eastern Deccan and south India, who were conquered and liberated. Group five includes the names of the Sakas and Kushans.

Samudragupta embarked upon a policy of conquest. In fact, Digvijaya became the ultimate goal of his life. He has been aptly complimented by the historian V.A Smith as the Indian Napoleon for his military achievements. He has described Samudra Gupta as the 'Hero of a Hundred Battles.'

Chandragupta II (380 AD-412 AD)

The reign of Chandragupta II saw the highest watermark of the Gupta empire. He extended the limits of the empire by marriage alliance and conquests. Chandragupta I married his daughter Prabhavati with a Vakataka prince who belonged to the Brahmana caste and ruled in central India. The prince died and was succeeded by his young son. So, Prabhavati became the virtual ruler. Chandragupta exercised indirect control over the Vakataka Kingdom. This afforded a great advantage to him. With his great influence in this area, Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa and Gujarat, which had been under the rule of the Saka Kshatrapas for about four centuries. The conquest gave Chandragupta the eastern sea coast, famous for trade and commerce. The exploits of the king called Chandra are glorified in an iron pillar inscription fixed near Qutub Minar in Delhi. But the epigraphic eulogy seems to be exaggerated.

Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya which had been first used by a Ujjain ruler in 57BC as a mark of his victory over the Saka Kshatrapas of western India.

The court of Chandragupta at Ujjain was adorned by numerous scholars such as Kalidasa and Amarasimha.

In Chandragupta's reign, the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien (399-414) visited India and wrote an elaborate account of its people's lives.

Kumaragupta I, Mahendraditya (415-455 AD)

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son, Kumaragupta I. Nothing is known about his political career, but numismatic and epigraphic evidence indicates that the empire's strength, unity, and prestige remained unshaken in his reign. Towards the close of his reign, the Gupta power was seriously menaced by the new invaders called the Hunas. Kumargupta died during the war with the Hunas.

Skandagupta Vikramaditya (455-467 AD)

Skandagupta, the last great ruler of the Gupta dynasty, probably came to the throne when the war with Pushyamitra was still going on. His victory saved the Gupta empire. He succeeded in defeating the Hunas and in maintaining the integrity of his ancestral empire. Success in repelling the Hunas seems to have been celebrated by the assumption of the title Vikramaditya. The decline of the empire began soon after his death. The Hunas later became the rulers of Punjab and Kashmir.

The decline of the Gupta Empire

Though Gupta rule lingered till the middle of the sixth century AD, the imperial glory had ended a century earlier. The reasons were:

1- Invasion by the Hunas

2- Rise of feudalism,

3- Weak successors

4- Financial difficulties

5- Decline of foreign trade, and

6- Absence of a large professional army to maintain a vast empire.

Gupta Administration

In contrast to the Mauryas, the Gupta kings adopted pompous titles such as parameshvara, maharajadhiraja, and paramabhattaraka which signify that they ruled over lesser kings in their empire. Kingship was hereditary, but royal power was limited by the absence of a firm practice of primogeniture.

The Gupta bureaucracy was not as elaborate as that of the Mauryas. The most important officers in the Gupta empire were the kumaramatyas. They were appointed by the king in the home provinces and possibly paid in cash. The Guptas organized a system of provincial and local administration. The bhakti were divided into vishayas (districts), which were place under the charge of vishyapati. In eastern India, the Visayas were divided into vithis, which again were divided into villages.

The village headman became more important in Gupta times.

Since much of the imperial administration was managed by feudatories and beneficiaries, the Gupta rulers did not require as many officials as the Mauryas did. They did not require too many officers also because, unlike the Maurya state, the Gupta state did not regulate economic activities on any big scale. The participation of leading artisans, merchants, elders, etc, in rural and urban administration also lessened the need for maintaining a large retinue of officers.

Economic and Social Developments

Revenue and Trade- A study of the Gupta period's inscriptions reveals that eighteen different taxes were levied at that time. Land revenue was the chief source of income. Land tax was between 1/4 to 1/6 of the produce. It is known from the inscriptions of the Pallavas and Vakatas that taxes were enforced on buffalo milk, curd, and also on fruits and flowers.

Land taxes increased while those on trade and commerce decreased; Vishthi (forced labor) prevailed. Religious functionaries were granted land called Agrahara.

Trade through rivers proved quite cheap and comfortable. During this period, the ship-building industry greatly flourished. Tramrapti, a port in Bengal, was an important trade center and from there trade was carried on with the eastern countries like China, Ceylon, Java, and Sumatra. In Andhra, there were many ports on the rivers, Godavari and Krishna; Tondai was a famous port of Chola state. Kalyana, Chol, Broach, and Cambay were the important ports of the south.

The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins, which were called dinars in their inscription.

The emergence of Priestly Landlords

The striking development of the Gupta period, especially in Madhya Pradesh, was the emergence of priestly landlords at the cost of local peasants. Land grants made to the priests certainly brought many virgin areas under cultivation. But these beneficiaries were imposed from above on the local tribal peasants, who were reduced to a lower status. In central and western India, the peasants were also subjected to forced labor (Vishthi). Land grants to the brahmana supremacy continued in Gupta times. The Gupta were originally vaishyas. The Brahmanas. All the helped to legitimize the position of the Gupta princes, who became great supporters of the Brahmanical order. The Brahmanas accumulated wealth on account of numerous land grants. So they claimed many privileges, which are listed in law Book of Narada, which works in the fifth century AD.

Caste System- The castes proliferated into numerous sub-caste as a result of two factors. A large number of foreigners had been assimilated into the Indian society, and each group of foreigners was considered a kind of Hindu Caste. The other reason for the increase in the number of castes was the absorption of many tribal peoples into Brahmanical society through the process of land grants.

The tribal chief was given a respective origin. But most of their ordinary kinsmen were given a low origin, and every tribe became a kind of caste in its new incarnation. The position of Sudras improved in this period. They were now permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas. They could also worship a new god called Krishna. All this can be attributed to a change in the economic status of the Shudras as from the seventh century onwards, they have mainly represented agriculturists during this period, the uncountables, especially the chandalas, increased in number.

Position of women- In the Gupta period, women were also allowed to listen to the epics and the Puranas, and advised to worship Krishna. but women higher orders did not have access to independent sources to livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta times. the main reason for the subordination of women belonging to the upper varans was the complete dependence on men for their livelihood. Gupta and post-Gupta law books substantially enlarged the scope of these gifts which were known as Stridhana.

Post Mauryan Period

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Post Mauryan India

There are multiple causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire such as weak successors, the partition of the empire, and administrative abuses after Ashoka's reign. After the death of Ashoka, his successors were not able to keep the vast Mauryan Empire intact. Kalinga declared its independence and in the farther south, the Satavahanas established their independent rule.

Sunga and Kanvas

The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, who was the commander-in-chief under the Mauryas. He ascended the throne of Magadha in 185 B.C. Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. He performed two ashawamedh sacrifices. After the death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra was a great conqueror.

He was also the hero of the play Malavikagnimitram written by Kalidasa. During their rule, there was a revival of Brahminical influence. The Bhagavata religion became important. 'Patanjali, the author of the 'Mahabhasya', was born at Gonarda in Central India.

The fine gateway railing which surrounds the Sanchi stupa, built by Ashoka, constructed during the Sunga period.

The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was murdered by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of the Kanva dynasty. The Kanva dynasty ruled for 45 years. After the fall of the Kanvas, the history of Magadha was a blank until the establishment of the Gupta dynasty.

Satavahanas

The most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and in central India were the Satavahanas.

The Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhras who is mentioned in the Puranas.

According to some Puranas altogether the Andhras ruled for 300 years and this period is assigned to the rule of the Satavahana dynasty.

The early Satavahana kings appeared not in Andhras, but in Maharashtra where most of their early inscriptions have been found. They set up their early inscriptions have been found. They set up their power in the upper Godavari valley, which at present produces rich and diverse crops in Maharashtra. The fortunes of the family were restored by Gautamiputra Satakarni 106-130 A.D.

He called himself the only brahmana, defeated the Sakas, and destroyed many Kshatriya rulers.

He also occupied Malwa and Kathiyawar which lay under the control of the Sakas. The successors of Gautamiputra ruled till A.D. 220. The coins and inscriptions of his immediate successor Vasisthiputra Pulumavi (A.D. 130-154) are found in Andhra and show that by the middle of the second century this area had become a part of the Satavahana kingdom.

The Sakas resumed their conflict with the Satavahanas for the possession of the Konkan coast and Malwa. Yajna Sri Satakarni (A.D. 165-194), one of the later kings recovered north Konkan and Malwa from the Saka rulers.

Chedi

The information derived from the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela the greatest ruler of Kalinga of this dynasty. He constructed caves on the Udaygiri hill near Bhuvaneshwar.

Central Asian Contacts And Their Results

The Indo Greeks

A series of invasions took place from about 200 B.C. The first to cross the Hindukush were the Greeks, who ruled Bactria, lying south of the Oxus river in the area covered by north Afghanistan.

Two Greek dynasties ruled north-western India on parallel lines at one and the same time. The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165-145 B.C.).

He had his capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab, and he invaded the Ganga-Yamuna doab. He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena, who is also known as Nagarjuna.

The Indo-Bacterian rule is important in the history of India because of the large number of coins which the Greeks issued. The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins in India, which increased in number under the Kushanas.

The Sakas

The Greeks were followed by the Sakas, who controlled a much larger part of India than the Greeks did. There were five branches of the Sakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan. Although the Sakas established their rule in different parts of the country, only those who ruled in western India held power for any considerable length of time, for about centuries or so. The most famous Saka ruler in India was Rudradaman-I (AD 130-150). He ruled not only over Sindh, Kutch, and Gujarat, but had also recovered from the Satavahanas Konkan, the Narmada valley, malwa, and Kathiawar. He is famous in history because of the repairs he undertook to improve the Sudarshana lake in the semi-arid zone of Kathiawar.

The Parthians

The Saka domination in north-western India was followed by that of the Parthians, and in 'many ancient' Indian Sanskrit texts the two people are together mentioned as Saka-Pahlavis.

In fact, they ruled over this country on parallel lines for some time. Originally the Parthians lived in Iran, from where they moved to India. In comparison with the Greeks and the Sakas, they occupied only a small portion of north-western India in the first century.

The most famous Parthian king was Gondophernes, in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity.

The Kushanas

The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas, who are also called Yuechis or Tocharians. The Kushanas were one of the five clans into which the Yuechi tribe was divided.

A nomadic people from the steppes of north, Central Asia living in the neighborhood of China, the Kushanas first occupied Bactria or north Afghanistan where they displaced the Sakas. Gradually they moved to the Kabul valley and seized Gandhara by crossing the Hindukush, replacing the rule of the Greeks and Parthians in these areas.

Finally, they sit up to their authority over the lower Indus basin and the greater part of the Gangetic basin. The first dynasy was founded by a house of chiefs who were called Kadphises and who ruled 28 years from about AD 50. It had two kings. The first was Kadphises I, who issued coins south of the Hindukush. He minted coppers imitation of Roman coins.

The second king was Kadphises II, who issued a large number of Gold money to spread his kingdom east of the Indus. The house of Kadphises was succeeded by the of Kanishka. Its kings extended the Kushana power over upper India and the lower Indus basin.

The early Kushana Kings numerous gold coins with a higher gold content than is found in the Gupta coins. Although the gold coins of the Kushana are found mainly west of the Indus, their inscription is distributed not only in north-western India and Sindh but also in Mathura, Sravasti Kausambi, and Varanasi.

Kushana coins, inscriptions, sculptures, and structures found in Mathura show that it was their second capital in India, the first being Purushapara or Peshawar. The most famous Kushana Ruler was Kanishka. He started an era in AD 78, which is now known as the Saka era and is used by the Government of India.

Kanishka extended his whole-hearted patronage to Buddhism. He held a Buddhist council in Kashmir, where the doctrines of the Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalized.

Rise of Heterodox Sects : Buddhism

2020-11-12T08:48:00.003-08:00

Buddhism

Gautama Buddha : Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha was a contemporary of Mahavira. He was born in 563 BC in a Shakya (Kshatriya) family in Lumbini near Kapilvastu, which is situated on the foothills of Nepal. Gautama's father (Shudhodana) seems to have been the elected ruler of Kapilavastu, and headed the republican clan of the Shakyas. His mother (Mahamaya) was a princess from the Kosalan dynasty.

From his early childhood, Gautama showed a meditative bent of mind. Alara Kama was his teacher of meditation. His charioteer was Channa, while his horse's name was Kanthaks. He was married early, but married life did not interest him. At the age of 29, he left home. He kept on, wandering for about seven years and then attained knowledge at the age of 35 at Both Gaya under a pipal tree. From this time onwards, he began to be called the Buddha or The Enlightened. Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermons at Sarnath in Benaras. Gautama Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in 483 BC at a place called Kusinagar, identical with the village called Kasia in the district of Deoria in eastern Uttar Pradesh.

Five Great Events in Buddha's Life and Their Symbols

1- Birth - Lotus and Bull

2- Great renunciation - Horse

3- Nirvana - Bodhi tree

4- First Serman - Wheel (Dharma Chakra)

5- Parinirvana / Death - Stupa

Teachings- Buddha said that the word is full of sorrows and people suffer on account of desires. If desires are conquered, nirvana will be attained. He recommended an eight-fold path (astangika marga) for the elimination of human misery. It comprised: Right Observation, Right Determination, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Exercise, Right Memory and Right Meditation. Buddha also laid down a code of conduct for his followers. The main items in this social conduct are:

1-do not covet the property of others

2-do not commit violence

3-do not use intoxicants,

4-do not tell a lie,and

5-do not indulge in corrupt practices.

Bodhisattva

Bodhisattva means one whose essence is bodhi (enlightenment). In Buddhism, Bodhisattva also refers to other individuals who are destined to become Buddhas in this or in another life. The number of possible Bodhisattva in the world theoretically limitless.

Bodhisattvas postpone their own final entrance into Nirvana in order to alleviate the suffering of others. The aspirant Bodhisattva must be a male, but may live the life of a householder and need not be a monk. The title has been frequently applied to Buddhist kings, scholars and teachers in south-east Asia.

The celestial Bodhisattvas are considered to be manifestations of the eternal Buddhas. Foremost among the celestial Bodhisattvas is Avalokitesvara.

Hinayana or Lesser Vehicle-

1- Its followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha.

2- They sought individual salvation through self-displine and meditation.

3- They did not believe in idol-worship

4- Hinayana is a religion without god

5- Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all

Mahayana or Greater Vehicle

1- It believes in idol--worship.

2- Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha and sought the salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisattva.

3- It believes that Nirvana is not a negative cessation of misery but a positive state of bliss.

4- Mahayana had two chief philosophical schools: the Madhyamika and the Yogachara.

5- The former took a line midway between the uncompromising realism of Hinayanism and the idealism of Yogachara.

Vajrayana or Vehicle of Thunder Bolt:

1- Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the magical power, which they called Vajra.

2- The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras.

3- It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

Buddhist Scripture:

The Vinaya Pitaka:

1- It mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the Buddha promulgated.

2- It describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha.

3- An account of the life and teaching of the Buddha is also given.

The Sutta Pitaka:

1- It consists chiefly of discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different occasions.

2- Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda, Moggalana and others are also included in it.

The Abhidhamma Pitaka:

1- It contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha's teachings.

2- It investigates mind and matter, to help the understanding of things as they truly are.

The Khandhakas:

1- They contain regulations on the course or life in the monastic order and have two section-the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga.

Rise of Heterodox Sects

Mahajanpadas & Rise of Magadh

Vedic Age

Harappan Civilization

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Ancient History

Ancient and Medieval India

Rise of Heterodox Sects

2020-09-22T01:26:00.010-07:00

Rise of Heterodox Sects

Numerous religious sects arose in the middle Gangetic basin in the sixth century B.C. We here of as many as 62 religious sects in this period. Jainism and Buddhism were very important.

Causes of Rise of Religious Movement

In post -Vedic times, society was clearly divided into four varnas-Brahmanas, vaishyas, and shudras. Each varna was assigned well-defined functions, although it was emphasized that varna was based on birth and two higher varnas were given some priviledges.

Naturally the varna-divided society seems to have generated tensions. The Kshatriyas, who acted as rulers, reacted against the domination of the priestly class called brahamanas, who claimed various priveges. It was one of the causes of the origin of new religions. Vardhamana Mahavira who founded Jainism, and Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, belonged to the kshatriya clan, and both disputed the authority of the Brahmanas.

The trade of money-lending was established in the Vedic age. The practice of providing loans on interest was also legal but the trade was generally looked down upon by the brahmans. The vaisyas who practised this trade wanted to raise their social position in the eyes of religion. So the vaisyas extended generous support to both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. The merchants, called setthis, made handsome gifts to Gautama Buddha and his disciples.

The Vedic practice of killing cattles in sacrificial rituals was inimical to the emerging agricultural economy. Besides, the Sanskrit language was the knowledge of a chosen few while the common masses spoke Prakrit.

Jainism

The Founder: Rishabha, who was the father of king Bharata, the first chakravarti king of India, founded Jainism. The Vishnu Purana and Bhagavat Purana describe Rishabha as an incarnation of Narayana. Rishabha as an incarnation of Narayana. Rishabha was succeeded by 23 other Tirthankaras. Parsvanath (850 BC) was the 23rd Tirthankara. Jainism became a major religion under Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara.

Varadhamana Mahavira- Varadhamana Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a village Kundagrama near Vaishali. His father was the head of a famous kshatriya clan (Inatrika) and his mother a Lichachhavi princess. They were also connected with the royal family of Magadha. In the beginning Mahavira led the life of house holder, but in the search for truth he abandoned the world at the age of thirty and became an ascetic. He kept on wandering for twelve years, and abandoned them altogether when he attained perfect knowledge or kaivalya at the age of 42. Through kaivalya , he conquered misery and happiness, because of this conquest, he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or jina., i.e. the conqueror, and his followers, are known as Jainas. He propagated his religion for thirty years, and his mission took him to Kosala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa etc. He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 BC at the a place called Pavapuri near modern Rajgir in Bihar.

Teaching- Jainism taught 5 doctrines;

1- do not commit violence,

2- do not speak a lie,

3- do not steal,

4- do not aquire property, and

5- observe continence (brahmacharya)

3 Gems or Ratnas of Jainism

According to Jainism, attainment of Moksha or Nirvana was the most important human desire.

1- Right Faith (Samyak Vishwas) in the omniscient Lord Mahavira

2- Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnan) of the doctrines of Jainism

3- Right Conduct (Samyak Karma), i.e. fulfillment of the great five vows of Jainism (a) ahimsa (b) truthfulness (C) no stealing (d) no attachment of property (e) chastity or brahmacharya.

Sacred Literature: According to Svetambaras, the original doctrine taught by Mahavira was contained in the 14 old texts called Purvas, which were passed orally and were compiled later as twelve Angas.

The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written form of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi and may be classified as follows:

1- The twelve Angas

2- The twelve Upangas

3- The ten Parikaranas

4- The six Chhedasmaras

5- The four Mulasutras. Niryuktis and Churini are the comments on 14 Purvas.

Twelve Angas of Jainism

1- Acharanga

2- Sutrakruthanga

3- Sthananga

4- Somavayanga

5- Vakyaprainapti

6- Dharma- Kathanga

7- Upaska-Adhyananga

8- Anthakrudasanga

9- Anuttarapada Kanga

10- Prashnavyakaranaka

11- Vipakasutranga

12- Drustipravadanga

Jaina Philosophy- The Jaina philosophy may be studied under the following heads:

Syadvada-All our judgements are necessarily relative, conditional and limited. According to Syadvada the theory may be seven modes of predication (saptabhangi) are possible. Absolute affirmation and absolute negation both are wrong. All judgements are conditional.

Anekantavada- The Jaina metaphysics is a realistic and relativistic pluralism. It is called Anekatavada or the doctrine of the 'manyness of reality'. Matter (Pudgala) and Spirit (Jiva) are regarded as separate and independent realities.

Instruments of Knowledge- According to Jaina philosophy, the following are the main instruments of knowledge:

1- Matijnana: Perception through activity of sense organ, including the mind.

2- Srutajnana: Knowledge revealed by scriptures.

3- Avadhijnana: Clairoyant perception.

4- Manahparyayajnana: Telepathic knowledge.

5- Kevalajnana: Temporal knowledge or Omniscience.

Jaina Councils

1st Council was held at Pataliputra at Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas.

2nd Council was held at Valabhi in the 5th century AD under the leadership of Devaradhi Kshamasramana and resulted in final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

Spread of Jainism

- Jains built stupas with railings, pillars, and gateways. The Hathi Gumpha, Udaigiri and Khandagiri caves of Orissa contain Jain relics of Inscriptions.

- Mathura became a centre of Jain art during the Kushana period.

- The statues of Gomtesawara and Karakala testify to the excillence of Jain architecture.

- Dilwara temple at Mt. Abu and temples a Ranakpur are example of superb workmanship.

Impact of Jainism

- Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of varna order and ritualistic vedic religion.

- The early Jainas discarded the Sanskrit languages mainly patronized by Brahmans and adopted Prakrit language.

- Their religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi and the texts were finally compiled in the sixth century A.D. in Gujarat (Vallabhi).

- The Jainas composed the earliest important works in Apabhramsha and prepared its first grammer.

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Mahajanpadas & Rise of Magadh

2020-08-14T07:50:00.002-07:00

Mahajanpadas

In the later Vedic period, the tribal organisations changed its identity and gradually shifted to the territorial identity, and the area of settlement were now regarded as janapadas or states. In transition

from tribe to monarchy, they lost the essential democratic pattern of the tribe but retained the idea of government through an essential democratic pattern of the tribe but retained the idea of government through an assembly representing the tribes. These states consisted of either a single tribe such as the Shakyas, Kolias, Mallas etc. or a confederacy of tribes such as the Vrijjis, Yadavas, Panchala etc. The people in the lower Ganges Valley and Delta, which were outside the Aryan pale, were regarded as Mlecchas. There was, therefore, a strong consciousness of the pure land of the Aryans called Aryavarta.

According to Anguttara Nikaya, there were about sixteen Mahajanpadas in the sixth century BC. Their capital and locations are given in a table on the 16 Mahajanapadas.

Rise of Magadha

The Haryankas: Magadha came into prominence under the leadership of Bimbisara (542-493 BC), who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He look three wives. His first wife was the daughter of the king of. His second wife Chellana was a Lichchhavi Princess from Vaishali, and his third wife was the daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab.

Marriage relations with the different princely families gave enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the way for the expansion of Magadha wastward and northward. The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was called Girivraja at that time. It was surrounded by five hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajgir impregnable.

Bimbisar was succeeded by his son Ajatshatru (492-460 BC). Ajatshatru killed his father and seized the throne for himself. Throughout his reign, he pursued an aggressive policy of expansion.

Ajatshatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC). His reign is important because he built the fort upon the confluence of Ganga and son at Patna. This was done because Patna lay in the centre of the Magadhan Kingdom.

The Sisunagas: Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of Sisunagas, who temorarily shifted the capital to Vaishali. Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of Avanti with its capital at Ujjain. This brought to an end the 100 years old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.

The Nandas: The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas, who proved to be the most powerful rulers of Magadha. So great was their power that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not dare to move towards the east. The Nandas added to the Magadhan power by conquering Kalinga from wher they brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy. All this took place in the reign of Mahapadma Nanda. He claimed to be ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes.

The Nandas were the first non-kshtriya rulers. The last Nanda ruler was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya who founded the Maurya Empire.

Causes for the Rise of Magadha

1- Advantageous geographical location with both Rajgir and Patliputra situated at strategic locations.

2- Abundance of natural resources, such as iron, enabled Magadhan rulers to equip with effective weapons.

3- The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plains and sufficient rainfall were very conductive for agriculture produce.

4- Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce. The princes could levy tolls and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army.

5- Use of elephants on a large scale in wars.

6- Unorthodox character of Magadhan society.

7-Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious rulers.

Iranian Invasion

- In 560 B.C. Darius sent a naval expedition to explore the valley of the river Indus.

- The province of the Indus Valley was annexed by him by.as is mentioned in his inscription.

- He divided the province in 20th straphy, which was considered to be the richest and the most populous province of the persian empire.

Its annual tribute amounted to 360 Euboic talents of gold-dust.

- The Kharoshthi script was used on the north-west frontier since then uptil about 4th century A.D.

Effects of Persian Invasion

- Introduction into India the Aramic form of writing, which later developed into the Kharoshthi alphabet.

- Promotion to Indo-Iranian trade.

- Geographical exploration of the Indus and the Arabian Sea, leading to opening of a new water route.

- Fusion of Iranian/Persian features in the Mauryan art.

- Impact of Buddhism on the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia.

Alexander Invasion.

- Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 B.C.

- He was bravely checked by the local chieftains despite the fact that they had no chance of success.

- He was even checked by the queens of the vanquished and dead chiefs.

- His advance was checked on the bank of the Beas because of the mutiny of his sodiers.

- In 325 B.C. he began his homeward journey.

- In 324 B.C.,he reached Susa in Persia and died the next year.

- The Greek invasion of India opened the trade the route between the north-west India and Western Asia.

- Eastwards tradewent through the Ganga delta to the coast of Northern Burma and South along the East coast.

- Guilds (Shreni) come into existence.

- Money was introduced . Punch-Marked coins in Gold and Silver and of Copper cast have been discovered.

- Introduction of money facilitated the trade.

Vedic Age || For UPSC || SSC || Railway Exams

2020-07-10T10:12:00.005-07:00

Vedic Age

The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC with the coming of Aryans, who scattered on the plains of of northern India. Max Muller believes it an anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryans connotes nothing but language.The relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical languages of Europe was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp 1816.
Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is "knowledge", the best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus. It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies, and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely, Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.

Aryans' Arrival in India

The Aryans came to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people who appeared in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as dasa or dasyus in Rig Vega. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda represents the original inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called Trasadvasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is repeatdly mentioned in the Rig Veda.
Some of the chief tribes of the period were Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu, Puru, Kuru, Panchala, Bharata and Tritsu. Among the inter-tribal conflicts the most important was the 'Battle of the Ten Kings'.

Dravidians

- It is believed that before the coming of the Aryans in India, the greater part of Northern and North-Western India was inhabited by a group of people known as Dravidians.

- On arrival of the Aryans unable to meet their challenge, they gradually moved southwards.

- Perhaps, in India, they were first to use rivers for navigation and irrigation.

Aryans

- The group of Indo-Europeans who moved to Persia and India are Known to Aryans.

- The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia.

- They arrived in India around 1500 BC.

- The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu.

- The Aryans established themselves in India by defeating the natives whom they called Dasas or Dasyus.

- The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period.

- The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and brought horses along with them.

Rig Vedic Polity

The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period worked with the tribal chief in the centre. He was called Rajan. The king was called the protector of his tribe. He protected its cattle, fought its wars and offered prayers to gods on its behalf.

Several tribal assemblies, such as the sabha, samiti, vidatha, and gana mentioned in the Rig Veda exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. Even women attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But from the political point of view important were the sabha and samiti.

The most important functionary seems to have been the purohita. The two priest who played a major part in the time of Rig Veda were Vasishtha and Vishvamitra. The next important functionary seems to be the senani. Princes received from the people voluntary offering called bali.

There were cases of theft and bulglary, and especially we hear of the theft of cows.Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial activities. The officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture ground was called vrajapati . He led the heads of families called Kulapas, or the heads of the fighting hordes called gramanis to battle. The king did not maintain any regular or standing army, but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha.

Socio-Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Tribal Organization- Kinship was the basis of social structure. People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called jana. Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda is vis. Probably the sis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting. The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda. It seems that family in early Vedic phase was indicated by the term griha. The family was a large joint unit. It was obviously a patriarchal family headed by the father. Since it was a patriarchal society, the birth of a son was desired again and again.

Marriage and Status of Women- The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of primitive practices survived. We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda.

The status of women was equal to men and they received Upnayana and education, studied Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank of seers composing Vedic hymns. Monogamy was established, though polygamy and polyandry were also known.

Varna System- Varna was the term used for color, and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion. The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and sudra. Gradually the tribal society was divided into three groups- warriors, priests and the people. The forth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic period. In the age of the Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was not vary sharp.

Occupation- Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastroral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their life.
The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation. Possibly, this ploughshare was made of wood.
They were acquainted with sowing, harvesting and threshing, and knew about the difference seasons. There are so many references to the cow in the Rig Veda that the Rig Vedic Aryans seem to have been a pastoral people. The term for war in the Rig Veda gavisthi or 'search for cows'. The Rig Veda mentions such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the potter, etc.

Diet - The Indo-Aryans, while sharing the ancient Iranian veneration for the cow, felt no scruple about sacrificing both bulls and cows at weddings or on other important occasions. The persons who took part in the sacrifice ate the flesh of the victim, whether bull, cow, or horse. But meat was eaten only as an exception.Milk was an important articles of food, and was supplemented by cakes of barley or wheat (yava), vegetables and fruits.

Strong Drinks- The people freely indulged in two kinds of intoxicating liquor, called soma and sura. Sura probably was a kind of beer. Soma juice was considered to be particularly acceptable to the gods, and was offered with elaborate ceremonial. The Sama Veda provides the chants appropriate for the ceremonies.

Amusements- It included dancing, music, chariot-racing, and dicing. Gambling with dice is mentioned so frequently in both the Rig Veda and the later documents that the prevalence of the practice is beyond doubt.

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Harappan Civilization

2020-06-19T02:34:00.002-07:00

Harappan Civilization

In 1924, scholars in history were roused by the announcement of Sir John Marshall that his Indian aides,particularly R.D. Banerjee, discovered (1922-23) at Mohenjo-daro in the Larkana district of Sind, now in Pakistan, the remains of a civilization, one of the oldest of the world. A few hundred miles towards the north of Mohenjo-daro, four or five superimposed cities were excavated at Harappa in the Montgomery district of the Punjab, now in Pakistan. Recently, excavations carried out on the site of Kalibangan have revealed a third city as large as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
That the civilization was not confined to the limits of Indus Valley can be understood from the finds of relics of the same civilization at Sutkagendor on the sea board of south Baluchistan, in the west of Alamgirpur in the Uttar Pradesh in the east; and from Ropar in the Himalaya foothills in the north to Bhagatrav on the river kim in between the Narmada and Tapti in the south. This civilization belonged to the Chalcoholic i.e. Copper-Bronze Age of history; on trace on iron has been found.

Until the discovery of the remains of the Indus Civilization, it was believed by scholars that the history of India practically began with the coming of the Aryans. But this theory is an exploded one and the pre-historic civilization of India, that is, the Indus Civilization is contemporaneous with the civilization Mesopotamia, Egypt,etc.

Geographical Extent

The Harappan culture was the most extensive of the ancient civilization in area, including not only the Indus plain (the Punjab and Sind),but also northern Rajasthan and the regions of Kathiawar in western India. It was essentially a city culture and among the cultures of authority were the two cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The 1400 settlements, discovered so far are distributed over a very wide geographical area. Its known extent in the west is upto Sutkagendor in Baluchistan: Alamgirpur in Meerut district (Uttar Pradesh) in the east, Daimabad (Ahmednagar district,Maharashtra) in south; and Manda (Akhnoor district, Jammu and Kashmir) in the north, covering an area of almost 1600km. east-west and 1400 km. north-south. The total geographical area over which this civilization flourished is more than 20 times of the area of Egyptian and more than 12 times of the area of Egyption and Mesopotamian civilizations combined. It covers an area of about 12,50,000 sq. km. Harappan settlements are mostly located on river banks of Indus and Saraswati.

Town Plannings

The first thing that strikes us with regard to Harappan Culture is the town planning and urbanisation. Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal or Sutkagendor were built on similar plan. To the west of each was a citadel built on a high platform. It was defended by wall and on it were constructed the public buildings.Below this citadel was the town proper. Everywhere,the main streets ran from north to south and other streets ran at right angles to the main streets. Houses, residential or others, stood on both sides of the streets. Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, houses were built of Kiln-burnt burnt bricks. At Lothal and Kalibangan, residential houses were made of sun-dried bricks. The drains, wells and bathing platforms were made of kiln-burnt bricks.The covered drains of the streets had soak-pits and manholes for clearing. There were also arrangements for street lighting.

Economic Life

The discovery of granaries and the urban lifestyle of the people proves that the Harappan people were undoubtedly 'comfort loving' and were prosperous.

1-Agriculture- The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped their of wheat and barley in April before the advent of the next flood.
The Indus people produced wheat, barley, peas, kodon, sanwa, jowar, ragi etc. They produced two types of wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley has been discovered at Banwali. In addition to this they produced sesame and mustard. The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.

2- Domestication of Animals- Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were kept on a large scale, Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheeps domestic fowls and pigs were domesticated. The humped bulls were favoured by the Harappans. From the very beginning dogs were regarded as pets. Cats were also domesticated and signs of the feet of both dogs and cats have been noticed.

3- Trade and Commerce-The thriving agricultural economy supported a flourished trade within the northern and western areas of the sub-continent and between the people of this culture and those of the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia. The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC refer to trade relations with Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the Indus region. There were two intermediate trading stations called Dilmun and Makan which lay between the regions of two civilizations.

4- Crafts and Industries- Mohenjo-daro was a great industrial centre. Weaving was probably the chief industry. Harappans were also acquainted with the art of dyeing. Pottery was an important industry. Harappans used to export these pots made on potter's wheel and burnt in kilns not only to nearby areas but also to the far-flung places. The art of smelting metals was well-known to the people of Harappa. Huge brick structures suggest that brick-laying was an important craft. They also attest to a class of masons. The Harappans also practised boat-making, seal-making and terracotta manufacturing. The Harappans were also expert in beadmaking.

5- Weight and Measures- The regulations of weights and measures form the basis of trade and Harappans were very accurate in this respect. The sexagesimal system and the decimal system were known to the Harappans. The weights were of cubical and spherical in shape and were made of chert, jasper, and agate and sometimes of grey stone and were in a series, first doubling from 1,2,4,8 to 64 then going to 160,320,640 and so forth. The unit of ratio was 16 equivalent to 13.64 grams.
The measurement as per the discovery of the bronze rod was divided accurately into units of 0.264 inches with an error of .003 inches. Another scale on a shell was on the decimal system of 1.32 inches forming a foot of 13.2 inches. 16 Chhatank made a ser and 16 annas made one rupee.

6- Transport- Harappa also had a good transporting system for their internal and external trade. Representation of ships and boats are found on some seals and as graffiti on pottery. For onland journey and transport, they relied upon the bullock carts and rarely horse carts. They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian sea.

7-Arts-The Harappans were utilitarians although not completely devoid of artistic sense. They were well-acquainted with the manufacture and use of bronze. Bronze-smiths produced images and utensils. They also made several kinds of tools and weapons, namely,axes,saws,knives,and spears. Jewelleries of silver, gold and copper were also made on a large scale.
The red sandstone torso of a man seems to show an attempt at portraiture. However, the bronze dancing girl, found in Mohenjo-daro is perhaps among the most striking Harappan figurines, Naked but for a necklace and a series of bangles, she stands in a provocative posture.

8- Currency- Thousands of seals have been discovered not only from the Harappan sites but also from the remains of other world civilizations. Every merchant and his family had a seal bearing an emblem and a brief inscription. But it is still unknown whether they used these seals as currency or not. In absence of evidence, it is safe to assume that the Harappans practised barter system and got goods they need in exchange of their articles.

Social and Religious Life

1- Class- It is not proved if their existed any classes or caste as the Aryan's varna system. Based upon the mounds we can assume that there were classes if not castes according to the occupation of the people.

2- Dress and Ornaments- All information about their dress is based on inference arrived at from two types of materials; firstly, on the basis of spindles discovered and secondly, from the dress of statues and carvings on different seals found in those cities. Ornaments were also popular among both men and women. Necklace, fillets, armlets, finger-rings and bangles were probably used by both the sexes.
Girdles, nose studs, ear-studs, anklets etc. may have been worn by women only as are proved by the statues.
The seals bearing figures, hair-pins, combs and a few statues also have been discovered in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.

3- Religion- The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva, represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction and two deers appear at his feet.

-The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms.

-The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan, and Harappa.

-Indus people also worshiped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals (unicorn etc)

-They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.

4- Script- The script of the Harappa people had 400 to 500 signs and it were not alphabetic but was logosyllabic writing system. Although the Harappan script is yet to be deciphered, overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from kalibangan show that the writing was from left to right and from right to left in alternate lines, i.e. 'boustrophedon'.

5- Games- The Harappans preferred indoor hobbies to outdoor amusements. Dance and music were their popular amusements. Some tubular and conical dices discovered in these cities show that the evil of gambling is as old as history. Another game which they played resembles our modern chess. Marble dolls and animals toys show that the children of Mohenjo-daro were well supplied with plaything. Fishing and hunting animals were other source of entertainment.

6- Disposal of the Dead- No definite proof is available regarding the disposal of the dead bodies yet. It is believed that the dead either burnt completely, cremation followed by burial of ashes and rarely the burial of the dead after exposure to birds and beast.

Modernisation

Ashrama System

The Theory of Divine Origin

Modern Individualism

2020-05-10T09:03:00.004-07:00

Modern Individualism

Decline of the 19th century Individualism and emergence of Modern Individualism in the 20th century. After the 18th century, there was a decline in the influence of individualism and in its place the idealism and collectivism gained importance. Joad says,"The theory of individualism or its doctrine of freedom, which is very valuable in politics,when applied in economic sphere,proved disastrous".

According to Joad,individualism is based on three misconceptions:

1-That each individual is equally sagacious and he has an equal capacity for knowing what he wants.

2-That each individual possesses an equal power of obtaining what he wants and an equal freedom of choice.

3-That the satisfaction of the wants of all individuals is identical with the well-being of the community as a whole.

Thus on the basis of the reasons mentioned above, individualism suffered a setback and idealism and socialism took its place. But when both these theories explained the functions and powers of the state in an exaggerated form, and when they did not attach any importance to individual freedom, there was a great reaction against them and individualism took birth in a refined form.

Meaning of Growth of Modern Individualism-The distinction between modern individual and nineteenth century individualism is that 19th century individualism gives more importance to individual than the state and in order to protect individual liberty,it wants to limit the functions of the state. On the other hand, modern individualism lays more emphasis on groups and association and considers the state an association like other associations. The common thing in short, modern individualism is a form of pluralism.

Causes of its Origin

1-Increase in associations in human society and the acceptance of their importance as compared to state.

2-During the first World War the European govts. acquired all powers, suppresed the individual freedom and acted arbitrarily.

3-Many people even objected to the majority rule in democracy and the states acting in an orbitrary manner.

Exponents of Modern Individualism-Graham Wallas, Normal Angell, Miss Follett and many other Guild socialists are the exponents of modern individualism. Garham Wallas, in his book ,Great Society exhibits a,"distrust of the power of the over-developed state". According to him, centralised state with parliament composed on the basis of territorial representation, is hardly an effective organ for the expression of popular will.
Norman Angell was a great supporter of Internationalism. He strongly opposed the enhanced powers of the state in his book,.He said that people come together for their common"The Great Illusion"on economic interests. Generally, man does that job which is useful from economic point of view. But different states compete with one another and they instigate the people in the name of national interest. When the people start thinking as one unit of international limits and they will aspire for the society based on economic classes.

Nationalism

2020-05-01T09:34:00.000-07:00

Nationalism

Meaning of Nationalism

Nationalism teaches us to love our motherland. The nationalists love their motherland, rivers, mountains, flowers, animals and birds very much and they say that motherland is better than paradise.Hans Kohn writes, "Nationalism is an idea, an idea-force which fills man's brain and heart with new thoughts and sentiments and drives him to translate his consciousness into deeds of organised action". According to Dr. Garner, "It is one of the characteristics features of modern nationalism that most peoples who constitute a nationality aspire either to be independent and to be under a state organisation of their own choice and creation or at least to be according a large political autonomy where they are united with another nationality or nationalities in the same state".

Right of Self-Determination

Meaning of the right of self-determination-The right means that each nationality should have in separate state. John Stuart Mill in his book, "Representative Government",has laid a special emphasis on the theory. Late President Woodrow Wilson of the U.S.A.also said,"self-determination is not a mere phrase,it is an imperative principle of action, which statesmen will henceforth ignore at their peril".
Implementation of the right of self-determination-According to this principle the province of Alsace Lorraine was given to France. Poland was considered as a free state and its boundaries were merged with ethnic boundary. North Sheleswig was returned to Denmark. The Czechs and Slovaks got freedom from the slavery of Austria and a new state named Czechoslovakia was formed by merging both of them.
Violation of this right- In spite of this,the principle was not fully implemented in Paris Peace Conference,1920. Many Germans were left under the regimes of Poland.Czechoslovakia and Italy and certain people of Hungary were pulled out of the country and were handed over to other states. Many Lithunian and Rudinian nationals were shifted to Poland and Czechoslovakia.
Practical difficulties in adopting this principle- If this principle is adopted,there will be practical difficulties. According to this principle, Scotland and Wales shall have to be separated from England.
Moreover,many nationalists will have to be given the right of separation from the Soviet Union and China which will not be tolerated by the governments of these countries. The Pakhtoons shall be separated from Pakistan, and there will be disorder and anarchy in India. The rebel Naga leaders and Sikh terrorists, had demanded separates states for the Nagas and the Sikh respectively. These demands were not accepted by the government of India. Pakistan is harping on the theme of self-determination for Kashmiris. If on the basis of this right, a plebiscite is held in Kashmir, it will give rise to many complications. According to this principle,many states f Europe will be cut into piece because, they are inhabited by people belong to several nationalities. Therefore President Smarik in his tract ,"Small Nations in the European Crisis" wrote that "there are 68 small nations in Europe and if this principle is adopted, Europe will have to be divided into 68 instead of 28 state,which will a practical difficulty. For this reason, in Lausanne Peace Conference, 1923 Lord Curzon said,that the principle of self-determination is a double-edged sword and it can only be accepted with some reservations.
In 1918 and 1919, plebiscite took place in A land Island (Europe) and according to that the people decided, almost unanimously, to be separated from Finland and to join Sweden.There was a great controversy over it.

Merits of Nationalism

1-Helpful in liberating the country from foreign yoke- Nationalism infused the spirit of patriotism in the minds of the people. If a country is under the yoke of a foreign rule as was the case in India before 1947, the people can be united for attaining freedom through nationalism. In the nineteenth century, in Greece,Italy,Bulgaria,Serbia and Poland and in the twentieth century in many countries of Africa,Asia and South America many freedom movements were started.

2-It leads to social unit- Through nationalism the feelings of the high and low cateism are banished from the minds of the people, and social unity is achieved.

3- It leads to the spirit of heroism and self-sacrifice-Nationalism creates the feeling of heroism and self-sacrifice. Every nation has to make several sacrifices for the attainment and protection of its freedom.

4-It leads to economic prosperity-The feeling of nationalism unites the people and they work for the economic prosperity of the country. They bear the burden of extra taxes in order to implement plans in the national interest.

5-Nationalism enables the country face the economic and political crisis effictively-Every nation faces an economic or political crisis once or twice in the career and the world history is a clear proof of it.

Demerits of Aggressive Nationalism

1-Aggressive nationalism leads to racism-Aggressive nationalism leads to racism. Hitler encouraged racism in the name of nationalism and said that Aryan race was the best race and it had been made to rule all over the world.

2-It encourages Colonialism and Imperialism-In the name of nationalism many European races discovered many new markets for their goods in the name of racism and established colonies.
3-It is likely to endanger world peace-When nationalism takes the extreme form in any country, that country invades other weaker countries,which becomes the basis for the world war.For example-Hitler invaded Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium and France and Russia.

3-It is hindrance in the way of World Federation and international co-operation-Militant or aggressive nationalism is a great hindrance in the way of international co-operation. Many modern intellectuals are of the view that in order to establish world peace,it is essential that every state should give up a part of its sovereignty and give it to the world-federation. But militant nationalism proves a hindrance in its way.

Modernisation

2020-03-31T04:28:00.002-07:00

Modernisation

Introduction

Modernisation,in fact, started first of all in England as a result of Industrial Revolution (1760-1830). When America also started modernising herself in all fields, then this process was called westernisation. When the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America also began to industrialise themselves and adopt modern technology, and adapt themselves in social and economic fields to the changing needs of the time, then this process came to be regarded as modernisation. Modernisation is thus a process of change in all fields and indicates social transformation.

Meaning of Modernisation

1-A society was regarded as "more or less modernised" by Levy "to the extent that its members use inanimate sources of power and /or use of tools to multiply the effects of their efforts."

2-A modern society according to Ward is characterised "by its far-reaching ability to control or influence the physical and social circumstances of its environment and by a value system which is fundamentally optimistic about the desirability and consequences of this ability."

3-Rustow too would identify a modern society with a "rapidly widening control over nature through closer co-operation among men".

4-Modernisation, in its historical sense is, in the words of Eisenstadt,"is the process of change towards those types of social,economic and political systems that have developed in Western Europe and North America from seventeenth century to the nineteenth and then have spread to other European countries and in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to South America,Asian and African countries."

5-Benjamin Schwartz describes political modernisation as "the systematic, sustained and powerful application of human energies to the rational control of man's physical and social environment for various human purposes".

Basic Characteristics of Modernisation

1-Application of technology and mechanisation-This means in other words that the people give up their old ways of living, old methods of agriculture and travelling.Previously, the majority of the people in India used to live in villages in old ways in Kuccha houses and they used to cultivate their lands through ploughs and travel by means of bullock-carts. Now this has been given up entirely as the people now live in well-built houses, cultivate their fields through tractors and use other modern methods of agriculture (chemical fertilisers or manure, good seeds, irrigation system and harvesting through machines).

2-Industrialisation-Previously the people used to spin cloths through spindles and live in traditional ways and use their old patterns of occupation and places of residence. When the industrialisation of a country takes places, the people give up their tradition rural and agricultural economy.

3-Urbanisation-When the industrialisation of a country takes place,then the new centres of industries develop. Consequently, the people of villages particularly the laboures migrate in large number of these new centres in the cities with the hope that they will return to their villages after making enough money but well their livelihood in the villages and agriculture cannot bear so much burden.

4-Rise in national and per capital income-The agricultural economy alone cannot increase the national wealth and per capital income as it has to support the idle members of the society also. Therfore,in order to raise the national and per capita income,the old economy based on agriculture has to be supplemented by industrial growth and its income because by exporting the industrial goods the country can make huge profit.

5-Increase in Literacy-Another prominent feature of modernisation is that all out efforts are made by the govt. and the society to wipe out illiteracy and strenuous efforts are made not only to send every child to school but the adults are also persuaded to learn three R's. This education does not remain limited only to arts,science and commerce but also spreads to higher medical education,research,technology and crafts.

6-Political participation-When the best possible opportunities are offered to every person to attain higher education,the people become enlightened. Economic development and equal distribution of wealth enables everybody to share sometime from the pressing necessity of daily wants and devote it in political participation every voter begins to read newspaper and learn something about politics.
Therefore the political participation is made possible in a democracy through political parties,interest groups,and various other organisations. They influence the government for the welfare of citizens and equal opportunities are made available in services to everybody irrespective of caste,creed,religion,sex or such other conderations.

7-Development of Mass-Media techniques-The modernisation brings in its wake development of mass-media techniques. These mass-media techniques include newspapers,broadcasting,postal facilities,movies,road,rail and air services,electricity and T.V. Through all these facilities,the citizens become enlightened and well-informed and these in turn enable the citizens to serve the state in a better way.

8-Social Mobility-When the Modernisation of a country begins to take place, then the people go on migrating from the villages to cities in search of better Sarpanch amenities and jobs. The role of village Sarpanch becomes insignificant and is replaced in the cities by the role of the leaders of various political parties and the unions.

9-Cultivation of national identity-When the Modernisation of any country takes place, then the people begin to give up their narrow loyalties and parochial considerations of caste,colour,sex or creed. Their interests become identified with the interests of the nation.

Authority and Legitimacy

2020-03-11T00:50:00.000-07:00

Authority and Legitimacy

In day-to-day language we use the word authority. For example,we say that parents have got the authority over their children or elder brothers and sisters have got authority over their younger brothers and sisters.Similarly, we find the teachers have got authority over their pupils and the doctors exercising authority over his patients. The patients accepts the authority of doctors without any hitch in order to get the disease cured.Prof. Carl J. Fredrick in his treatise Man and his Government suggest that "the person weilding authority possesses superior knowledge or insight. This may be often true, but it is probably more universally appropriate say that people are usually willing to accept that person do have such knowledge or insight, without asking for proof."
Authority is always legitimate and backed by the power of law and common consent.Legitimate power of influence is generally called authority. For example, if a policeman stops a truck which is going on the wrong side or carries banned articles, then he is using his legal or legitimate authority but if a robber stops the said vehicle and loots it by means of force, then he does not exercise any authority but rather uses the force illegally. "The man who has authority possesses something that I would describe as the capacity for reasoned elaboration for giving convincing reasons for that he does or proposes to have others do". In simpler words, we can say that we obey the authority because it is reasonable.
Different types of Authority according to Max Weber

1- 'resting on an established belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of the status of those exercising authority under them.

2- 'belief in the "Legality" of patterns of normative rules and the rights of those elevated to authority under such rules to issue commands'.

3- based on 'denotion to the specific and exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person', and of normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him.

Influence

2019-12-24T05:56:00.003-08:00

Influence

Political Influence is the suitable outcome of possessions-wealth,health,education,charm and other things and the skill with which they are made use of. We have also seen that power is the ability of an individual or groups to influence another individuals or group. In this way influence is a relationship. It is a relationship between individuals or groups which can make another to act in a way that he may not do otherwise. We can distinguish between power and influence by saying that those who have got power, they can influence the conduct of others more easily than those who do not possess any power. It is admitted on all hands that power and influence are co-related terms but influence turns into power when sanctions enter. Suppose A is an officer and asks B (another subordinate official) to obey his orders,then if B refuses and A suspends him, then A has used his powers. So it is a process of sanctions which differentiates power from influence in general.
Any how, power and influence are supplementary.For example, India has no power over the non-aligned countries out India exercised considerable influence over these countries,when she was the President.

Modern Individualism

Nationalism

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Matriarchal Theory

2019-10-05T08:28:00.000-07:00

Matriarchal Theory

Macleannan , Morgan and Jenks are chief exponents of this theory. In their books,"Primitive Society"(1866),"Studies is Ancient Society"(1877),"A History of Politics"(1900),they have explained this theory and rejected outrightly the proposition that patriarchal family was the earliest form of society. They maintain that the primitive family had no common male head and kinship was traced through mothers. The matriarchal family was prior to patriarchal family. The patriarchal family was possible only where monogamy or polyandry existed. The earliest form of marriage relation was polyandry. According to it one woman had more than one husband. In such a society kinship is traced through females and not males. Meclennan and Morgan share "the credit of discovering the clan, a maternally organised hereditary ,unilateral unit, unilateral because children under this system belonged to the clan of their mother without regard to the clan of the chief of the family".After her mother's death, the eldest daughter inherited the property. A few examples of such a system of family are available in Australia, Malaya, Madagaskar and Malabar. Jenks has attempt to illustrate his proposition with the help the conditions still existing among the natives of Australia where people live in totem groups and intermix with one another. When the wandering tribes settled in a permanent place and started their business, monogamy or polygamy come into being. Since then patriarchal families come into being. Therefore, the supporters of the matriarchal family are right when they argue that the matriarchal family is prior to the patriarchal family. They firmly believe that the union of families leads to the formation of Gens and Gens to that of tribes. The expansion of tribes give shape to the village and the expansion of villages give shape to the state.

Criticism of Matriarchal Theory

1-At first it is difficult to shape that in the very beginning matriarchal families excited in the primitive society. It is possibly that at some places the tradition of patriarchal family was popular. In this connection, Dr. Leacock has very aptly remarked that "here the matriarchal relationship and there a patriarchal regime, is found to have been the rule-either of which may perhaps be displaced by the other".

2-This theory does not attempt to explain the true origin of the state. It deals only with the primitive stage of human society.

3- The process of the development of state is not so simple as is explained in this theory. It ignores many complex factors which play their role in the development of state.

Patriarchal Theory

2019-10-03T08:33:00.000-07:00

Patriarchal Theory

So limited is the knowledge of the Political Scientists, regarding the origin of the state that it becomes very difficult, if not impossible to say when and how the state originated. But it can safely be asserted that the State is the outcome of historical evolution. Because, family is the oldest of all human institutions and because family is the first constituent of society, it has played a dominant role in the organisation of State. MacIver, an eminent political and social scientist, is of the same opinion. He says,"In the family,the primary social unit, there are always present the curbs and controls that constitute the essence of government, which is in continuation by the more inclusive society of a process of regulation that is highly developed within the family. The same necessities that create the family also regulate it. Here is government in miniature and already government of a quite elaborate character. "Therefore,it can safely be asserted that family has been a very important link in the development of State.

a-Patriarchal Theory of the State

This theory explains that the family with the father as head expended into the clan and the clan into the tribe and finally the state came into being. The tribe expanded into the state. Blood relationship made its valuable contribution in the expansion of the family into the clan and of the clan into the tribe. While dealing with this process Leacock writes,"First a household, then patriarchal family, then a tribe or persons of kindered descent and finally nation-so emerges the social series erected on this bais." While Aristotle believe that the state took form "as a natural expansion of the family.
Sir Henry Maine was the strongest supporter of Patriarchal Theory of state. At one time.he was the legal member of the Governor-General's Council in India.He has ardently advocated this theory through his well-known books-"Ancient Law" and "Early History of Instistution". According to Sir Henry Maine,"the eldest male parent-the eldest ascendant-was absolutely supreme in his household and his dominion extended to life and death and was as unqualified master over his children and their houses as over his saves." He further remarks "Over the members of his household, the eldest male parent possessed despotic authority. He was not only absolute owner of property including even what his children had acquired but he could even chastise and even kill, could sell or transfer by adoption, could marry or divorce any of his children at will."

b-Criticism of the Patriarchal Theory

1-McLenna, Morgan and Jenks have severely criticised the Patriarchal theory. According to them Matriarchal families because marriage system was not popular in the primitive society.

2-According to Dr.Garner, the family and the state are altogether different.Both were organised for achieving different aims and performing different functions.And it is wrong to say that the one developed with the help of the other.

3-According to some political thinkers this theory does not throw light on the origin of state. It throws a flash of light only on the primitive society and family.

4-In his classical work,"This Golden Bough", J.G.Frazer warns that "he who investigates the history of institutions should constantly bear in mind the extreme complexity of the cause which have built up the fabric of human society and should be on his guard against a subtle danger incidental to all science-the tendency to simplify unduly the infinite variety of the phenomena by fixing our attention on a few of them to the exclusion of the rest."

c-Value of the Theory

Though this theory fails to explain to origin of the state, yet it is not without significance. It makes us aware of the co-operation and the contribution made by the family to the state. Though this theory is not regarded as the infallible theory of the state and its development, yet it attempts to explain the value of male kinship, permanent marriage and paternal authority in the evolution of gens,tribe and state "The chief merit of the theory is "R.N.Gilcrist,that it points out what is un-recognising the difference between a family and a developed civil community,likewise,points out the relation of father to children as a fundamental fact in the origin of the civil society."

Force Theory

2019-09-30T08:11:00.001-07:00

The Force Theory

a-Statement of the Theory-This theory holds that the state originated and developed by the use of naked force applied by the strong over the weak and their consequent subjugation. In the very beginning man lived in small groups (Guilds) and wondered from one place to another in search of food. Many times a fight broke out in these groups. Whenever the strong group succeeded in having its control over the weak group the State was organised, because the leader of the strong used to become the king and brought the defeated group into his subjection. In his famous book "History Politics" Jenks points out,"Historically speaking there is not the slightest difficulty in proving that all political communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare." This statement of Jenks makes it very clear that the state is the out-come of war and that "war begets the king." Voltaire has also admitted that "the first king was fortunate warrior".Hume gave expression earlier in the eighteenth century when he wrote,"It is probable that the first ascendancy of one man over multitudes began during a state of war,where unanimity and concert are most requisite and where pernicious effects of disorder are most easily felt. The long continuance of that state, an incident common among savage tribes inured people to submission.
The progressive growth from tribe to kingdom and from kingdom to empire is but a continuation of the same process".
The exponents of the Force Theory are of the opinion that the origin and development of the state is based on the use of sheer force. Oppenheim, Jenks, Bernhardi and Treitschke are the cheif exponent of this theory. Oppenheim, the author of the "State", and Jenks agree that all political communities or states rose on the basis of force. Treitschke, the German historian, is of the opinion that "the state is the public power of offence, the first task of which is the making of war and the administration of justice".
Secondly,exponents of the Theory of Force firmly believe that the State developed only on the basis of force. For example, Alexander, the Great,expanded his kingdom only with the use of force. Other conquerors also followed the suit. Changez Khan, Akbar, Aurangzeb, Nadir Shah, Hitler and Napoleon also did the same. Thirdly, exponents of this theory are of the opinion that the State can exist only on the basis of force. For example, the police and army help a lot in maintaining peace within the country and in defending the country from foreign aggression. Force always plays its role in the existence and evolution of the State.
"Some of the greatest empires or the States have been established through blood and iron methods in the past. David Hume is of the opinion that "it is probably that the first ascendancy of one man over multitudes began during a state of war..."

Diverse Uses of the Force Theory

a-For providing the Supremacy of the Church over State

During the Middle Ages troule arose between the Church and the State.At that time the priests argued that the State originated by the use of brutal force and could exist only with the help of force. So it was inferior to the Church that functioned according to the dictates of religion. The priest tried their best to prove the theory that the Church was a divine institution and ,therefore, the State was inferior to and was under the control of the Church. Gregory VII wrote in 1080, "which of us is ignorant that Kings and Lords have had their origin in those who are ignorant of God, by arrogance,rapine and perfidy,slaughter by every crime with the devil agitating as the princes of the world have continued to rule over the fellowmwen with blind cupidity and intolerable presumption".

b-For Supporting Socialism and Communisms

Karmal Marx gave birth to Socialism and Communism. According to Karl Marx, the State is based on force and the imperialists make the use of power for exploiting the labour class. Lenin, who is regarded as the father of communism,has gone to the extent of saying,"The State is the instrument of exploitation in the hands of capitalists who rule over the majority of persons." Karl Marx inspired the labourers to organise themselves and rise in revolt against the State. He incited them to overthrow the government and abolish the State so that they may be able to establish a socialist institution at the cost of imperialism. Marx permitted the State to operate only for a temporary phase.

c-For Suporting Extreme Nationalism and Militarism

The German writers appreciated the Force Theory and praised it for making their country great. They thought it necessary to make the use of force in order to make the country strong,and powerful. Treitschke said that "the state is the public power of offence and defence,the first task of which is the making of war and the administration of justice." He further said,"War consolidates a people, reveals to each individual his relative unimportance,cause factional hostilities to disappear and intensified patriosm and national idealism."The grandeur of history lies,"says Treitchke,"in the perpetual conflict of the nations and appeal to arms will be valid until the end of history."
During the second World war, Hitler in Germany,Mussolini in Italy translated these ideals into action. They laid emphais on power for rising their status in the world,for spreading their culture and for establishing supremacy all over the world.

d-For supporting the Military Revolutions After the Second World War

After the second world war, Egypt, Pakistan, Burma, Iraq, Turky, South Vietnam,Bangla desh,Panama,Dahomey,Chile,Nigeria and Sudan and many other countries saw the out-break of military revolutions.These military revolutions which broke out after the Second World War forcibly toppled down the civil govt.and the strongest military leader in each of these countries shouldered the responsibility of leading the country.

The Theory of Divine Origin

2019-09-28T03:06:00.001-07:00

Divine Theory

a-Statement of the Theory

According to this theory, the state is a divine institution of God has created it for the common welfare. This theory propagates that either God Himself rules over or sends his representatives or the deputy to rule over the people. The king is God's representative and therefore,he is responsible to God and not to the people.It is the supreme duty of the people that they should obey the commands of the king. To opposite the king is to oppose God.The king may be a tyrant, yet the people have got no right to go against the king. Disobedience to the king is the disobedience to God. King's opposition is God's opposition. It is not the people to ask the king to give the account of his deeds. God alone is entitled to ask the king to give the account of his good deeds or bad deeds. In this way the exponents of this theory regard the king and his administration as superior to the people and law. According to this theory no power on earth can put a restraint to the king's will, nor can any authority ban his use of power. The supporters of this theory consider it a sin to protest against the power and authority of the king and call his actions unjustified. Therefore,it is the supreme duty and highest moral obligation to carry out the commands of the king who is the representative of god on this earth. To violate the dictates of the king and to disobey him is not only a legal offence but also a sin. So the people should unconditionally surrender to the king. Thus,it is not quite clear that nobody is entitled to go against the king or to dethrone the king even though the proves to be tyrant.
"Kings",writes James I,are breathing images of God upon earth", and disobedience to their dictates is the disobedience to God"."As it is atheism and blasphemy to dispute what God can do, so it is presumption and high contempt in a subject to dispute what a king can do or to say that a king cannot do this or that",Rebellion in the cause of religion is regarded as a sacrilege because, "the state of monarchy is the supermost thing upon earth; kings are not only God's lieutenants upon earth and sit upon God's throne but even by God Himself they are called God".

b-The Divine Theory followed by the Hindus

As has already been stated that the Divine Theory of the origin of the state is as old as the state itself. "Manusmriti ",is the glaring example of this theory. It has been clearly stated in the "Manusmriti",that "thought the king is a human being yet no one should hate him because he is God in the shape of man".I has been clearly stated that "people were fed up with the anarchy and so God created the state for their protection".In the Gita, the famous book of the Hindus, Lord Krishna declared himself to be the king of the people. Kautilya has stated in his famous book, "Arthashastra",that the king is equal to Indira,the God of rain and sky or Yama, the God of Death. And so he must not be insulted. Though it is true that such statements have been given in the books like "Manusmriti"that the king is under the command of religion and he makes use of sceptre only for safeguarding religion. Spiritually,and morally degraded king is killed by his followers".

c-The Divine Theory followed by Jews

The Divine Theory of the origin of the state takes us back to the earliest stage of political life."The Old Testament",the religious book of the Jews is the glaring example of this theory. In the "Old Testament God is looked upon as the immediate source of royal powers".Bluntschli has very aptly pointed out that according to the Jews,of "the stage was the immediate work of God,the direct revelation upon earth the divine government".In the Bible it has been stated,"Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers.For there is no power but of God;the powers that be,are ordained of God".

d-The Divine Theory followed by the Christians

With the rise of Christianity this theory received a new impetus. The Church-fathers founded this theory on the well-known saying of Paul :Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers;for there is no power but of God; the powers that be are ordained of God. Whosoever resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of God and they that resist shall receive to themselves damnation". The Church fathers preached this theory in the entire Europe. According to them man in the beginning lived in heaven but for his own sins, he was hurled from the Paradise. Then God created the state on the earth and pointed the king as its head. Hence, the king was regarded as the "infallible head" over the people. The Divine Right of the kings became a supreme weapon in the hands of the despotic monarchs who were thought to be responsible to God alone. James I ruled over Britain in accordance with the principle of the Divine Right of the kings. In the famous book-"Law of Free Monarchies", James I has stated the following rights of the king;

1-Kings derived power straight from God.

2-Kings have no legal obligations to the people.

3-Laws were products of king's authority and they, therefore,could not be above the king.

4-Kings had power of life and death over their subjects.

5-Subjects should obey the king's orders and even if he happened to be bad,they could not rise in rebellion against him as they were the "breathing images of God upon earth".

e-Divine Rights of Kings

After having sought the assistance of the Divine Theory, the kings of Europe formulated their own theory known as "Divine Rights of Kings". Dr. J.N. Figgs is the supporter of the Divine Rights of kings. According to him :

1-the king was given political power by God

2-political power is hereditary

3-the king is a great source of intelligence and wisdom and is responsible to God alone

4-it is a sin to disobey the king or to do against his will.

Purushartha

Divine Origin

Authority and Legitimacy

Nationality

2019-09-17T08:25:00.002-07:00

Nationality

Many political thinkers have defined "nationality " in their own way. As has already been stated that the term "nationality " has been derived from the Latin word "Natio" which commonly connotes the idea of birth or race. In this way by nationality we mean the status of a number of people who belong to one race and who have similar attitudes in regard to their race. But we should not forget that this literal meaning of the word "nationality " has undergone a revolutionary change.
Richard W.F. Flournoy has very aptly remarked in this connection,"While nationality is sometimes used broadly with reference to blood relationships in the strict legal sense,there is no necessary connection between them." After marking out the meaning of nationality we quote a few definitions of nationality,given by various authors.

1-Legal definition of Nationality-The Nationality is "the status of a person who is attached to a state by tie of allegiance."

2-Lord Bryce says that-"A Nationality is a population held together by certain ties,as for example language and literature,ideas,customs and traditions in such a way so as to feel itself a coherent unity distinct from other population similarly held together by like ties to their own."

3-According to Burges and his followers-"Nationality is a distinct socio-ethic group within the state and ordinarily constituting minority of the total population".

4-Professor Gilchrist-"Defines nationality as a spiritual sentiment or principle arising a number of people usually of the same race,resident on the same territory,sharing a common language ,the same religion,similar history and tradition,common interest with common political associations and common ideas of political unity."
Various definitions of nationality given above clearly indicate that nationality is aspiritual sentiment of a number of people who belong to the same race,who the same language,who prefess the same religion and whose political associations and ideas are the same. But we should forget the fact that all the elements mentioned above are not indispensable for constituting a nationality. Only a few from them can constitute a nationality.

Marxist Theory of rights

2019-07-08T06:10:00.001-07:00

Marxist Theory of Rights

Rights of liberal State welcomed-Marx and Engles welcomes the existence of civil rights in the contemporary bourgeoisie-democratic state because they represented an advance from the feudal state where no such rights existed.
Moreover,though from these rights the capitalist benefitted most, these rights also enabled the workers to organise easily against the capitalist and start agitations.

Freedom of the Press defended-As the editor of Rheinixhe Zeitung, Marx wrote many articles defending the freedom of the press but criticised the law of censorship imposed by the state. According to Marx,censorship entirely destroyed the freedom of the Press and various rights conferred upon the people by the constitution.

Adult Suffrage-Marx admitted that the capitalist were the major beneficiaries of the civil liberties or the rights guaranteed by the Constitution,since they could invest huge money to own and control the Press. In spite of that thing,he admitted that the freedom of the press was essential since he could also advocate freely the cause of the proletariat (workers). In this regard he greatly appreciated the Chartist Movement for demanding adult suffrage in England,.

Rights to work not guaranteed to workers by the liberal constitution- Marx said that the rights guaranteed by a liberal Constitution safeguard the interests of the bourgeois class only because it protected the rights of the capitalist to acquire and accumulate unlimited property. Marx held the opinion that Paris Commune of 1871was the first model of workers 'State since full liberty was granted in it. It was also based on adult franchise. Therefore Lenin proclaimed all these rights to the proletariat when first Constitution of the socialist state was framed in Russia.
Belief of Marx in the self-creative nature of mean-Marx viewed man "as a self-creative being,that is to say,a being who develops the capacities peculiar to his species as he lives and works with his fellows and who in this process acquires his ideas of the world and of himself."Thus Marx believed in man's unique power of self-fulfilment.

Marx views man as a social being-Marx does not consider rights for man cut off from the society. He views man as a social beings. Society confers rights to a social beings only. Society can only guarantee these rights and creates conditions for their fulfilment. In a Marxist society,rights are not acquired but only the conditions for self-fulfilment are needed. There is no exploitation in such a society.

No rights without duties-Marx did not consider any rights without duty and no duty without right. The Marxian dictum is that who does not work,shall not eat. It proves clearly that every right has got some social responsibilities attached to it.
Rights associated with classes-Marxism has associated rights with a particular class. The right are enjoyed only by the class who possesses the means of production. For the other class the rights will be illusory. The right to equality remains merely a dream for the working class in a capitalist society.

Authority and Legitimacy

Matriarchal Theory

Patriarchal Theory

Law

2019-07-04T20:31:00.000-07:00

Law

The term 'Law' has been derived from "an old Teutonic root 'lag' " which means something which lies fixed or evenly ". Law regulates life and without law there is chaos of confusion. The term law is used to denote that which is uniform. Laws are of two kinds:physical and human. Those laws which regulate nature are known as physical laws. Those laws which regulate human life are known as human laws. In Political Science we use the term law to mean a body of rules to guide human actions.

Definition of Law

1-According to Salmond,"Law is a collection of the rules which the State recognises and applies in the admiration of justice."

2-According to Austin,"Law is the command of the sovereign."

3-In the opinion of Holland,"A law is a general rule of external human actions enforced by a sovereign political authority."

4-According to Krabbe,"Law is the expression of the judgment of value which we human beings make by virtue of our disposition and nature."

Classification of Laws

1-Private Laws
2-Public Laws
3-Constitutional Laws
4-Statute Laws
5-Ordinances
6-Common Laws
7-Administrative Laws
8-International Laws

1-Private Laws -Private laws determine the relation of citizens to one another. They regulate the relations among individuals. In Private Law ", says Holland, "the parties concerned are private individuals above and between whom stands the state as an impartial arbiter."

2-Public Law-Public laws are the laws that determine the relation of citizens to the state. Distinguishing Public Law from Private Law Holland says,"In public law also the state is present as an arbiter,although it is at the same time one of the the parties interested.

3-Constitutional Laws-Constitutional Laws are all those "rules which directly or indirectly affect the distribution or the exercise of power in the state ",and which are "enforced by the courts ". Constitutional Laws are the basic laws according to which the government in a state conducts itself. In short, the laws that define,interpret and regulate the functions of the government are known as constitutional laws.

4-Statute Laws-The laws which are framed by the Legislative Assembly or by the Parliament are known as Statute Laws. These days Democratic Government is popular in most of the countries and most of the laws are framed there by the Parliaments in those countries.

5-Ordinances-Ordinances are the orders issued by the executive branch of the government within the powers prescribed to them by the law of the state. In other words, the President issues the orders, in the absence of Parliament,in order to face the emergency.

6-Common Laws-Common Laws are those laws which rest on customs but are enforced by the law courts like statutes law. Common laws are quite popular in England.

7-Administrative Laws-According to Dicey, administrative law interpret the office and responsibilities of government servants. Administrative laws enable the public officers to separate law and procedures from private individuals. These not popular in England,U.S.A and India.They are popular in France and a few government servant, the citizens goes to the Administrative Courts.

8-International Laws-International laws are the rules which determine the conduct of the general
body of civilized state in their dealings with each other. International laws stand for the body of the rules which regulate the relations between state . These laws are not framed by any sovereign law making authority not there any sovereign authority to enforce these laws. But these laws are backed by International Public Opinion. These laws are meant for regulating the conduct of various states in the world.

individualism

2019-06-11T08:49:00.000-07:00

Individualism

Individualism considers the State a necessary evil,but it wants to keep the State because without the state,law and order is not possible and without law and order the progress of civilisation and culture is not possible. In spite of all this, the individualist wants to limit the function of the state.
Statement of the Theory of Individualism
The principles of individualism is also called Laissez Faire in French language,which means,'leave the individual alone ' and there should be minimum interference, in his functions,by the government. It should be left to the will of the individual to do what he desires. The State or the government should only interfere when it feels that one individual is unnecessarily interfering in the liberty of the other.
According to John Stuart Mill, the main function of the state is protection. Therefore,the maintenance of army,police,navy and courts is justified,but the things which are not directly protective,like Post Office, Telegraph,Railways,Education ,Hospitals etc..should not be run by the government. According to those who believe in individualism, the government should perform the following functions..

1- The protection of the and individuals against foreign aggression.

2- Protection of individual against individual,in matters of physical harm,slander,personal restraints etc.

3- The protection of property (theft,dacoity and other types of protection of property).

4- Protection of individuals against false contracts or breach of contracts.

5- Protection of the invalid persons.

Bases of Individualism

1-Ethical
2-Political
3-Scientific
4-Economic

1-Ethical Basis-Thinkers like Kant,Fichte,Mill and Humboldt are the supporters of ethical basis. According to them,state interference goes against the development of the individuals personality and character. They say that each individual is wise enough to understand his interest well. The individual should be left free to himself to enable him to develop his personality and character. When the government encroaches upon the individual field, the individual loses all sense of responsibility and his self-reliance and personality are destroyed. Humboldt says,"The real aim of the individual,which has been fixed by the orders of wisdom is the maximum and complete development of human faculties." Mill is of the view,that "Government interference starves the development of some portion of the bodily or mental faculties when it deprives one from doing what one is inclined to do or from acting according to one's judgement of what is desirable ".
Mill has divided the functions of the individual into two parts-1-Personal 2-Affecting Society.
Personal functions are those which affects the individual who perform them,which are related to him. Other functions are those which affect the society. Mill says that the state has no rights to interfere in the functions of the individual,because the individual is supreme in those matters. However, in social functions the state must interfere.

2-Political basis- The political basis of this theory was developed by way of protest under Social Contract Theory as propounded by John Locke against the claims of kings to absolute power. John Locke advocated that the people enjoyed certain natural rights in the State of nature. Therefore,the duty of state should be to protect those rights. The individualist supported the theory of Laissez Faire or 'leave the individual alone ' not on the basis of any absolute justice,but they did it one the basis of the real achievement through state. They said that the state was mean not an end. The State has already many functions to perform, and it is not advisable to increase them as Mill has said, "Every additional functions means a new burden on a body already over charged with duties,the result is that most things are ill done and much is not done at all."

3-Scientific Basis-Herbert Spencer has supported individualism on the biological basis. He says that
in biology there is a continuous struggle among the organisms and animals. Only the strong survive in this struggle and the weak perish. This is the law of nature. He asks why this law of natural development should not be applied to human life? Incapable and feeble people shall automatically perish in society and only strong and able persons will survive. He believes in the survival of the fittest. He feels that the state is rendering the society weak by protecting development. According to Spencer,compulsory education,help to the poor,social law and changing the law of natural development are useless efforts.

4-Economic Basis-Adam Smith supported individualism on the economic basis. He was of the view that the state or the government should not interfere in the economic sphere as far as possible. Each individual is competent to safeguard his interests well. He maintained that the government which governed least,governed best. The trade and industry flourish best if left to private enterprise.
Non-interference by the government will open competition,which will give opportunity to the capitalist to earn more and more.
Cainer observes,"Laissez-faire assumes that the interest of human beings are fundamentally the same,that which is best for the interests of one is the best for others,that the individual known his interest in the sense in which they are coincident with the interests of others and that in the absence of coercion,he will in this sense follow them ".

Nazism

2019-05-16T01:38:00.000-07:00

Nazism

After the First World War (1914-18) the principles preached by Hitler are known as Nazism. There is no need to give details of Nazism,because it's principles are identical to those of Fascism.
The reasons for the rise of Nazism-Germany faced a defeat in the First World War. Heavy war reparations were imposed on her . Many of her parts were given away to the neighbouring states and the German armed forces were reduced considerably. Many types of weapons of war. Germany suffered a severe loss in the war and its treasury lay empty. She had no money to give to the allies, i.e England, France the U.S.A.etc. but the allies wanted to realise the money from Germany by force. Thus the economic conditions of Germany deteriorated considerably.
After World War I, Weimar Constitution of Germany was framed. According to it ,democracy was established. This democracy continued till 1919-1933. The democratic government of Germany could not solve the problem which had arisen owing to World War I and the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler's principles and programmes became very popular in Germany. In 1933 he was elected the chancellor (Prime Minister) of Germany.

Theory of Hitler or Nazism-Like Mussolini, Hitler condemned communism and democracy and supported his personal dictatorship. He raised the slogan of turning the Jews out of Germany for their seditious activities and for the restoration of the parts of Germany to German manland. He laid special emphasis and sacrifies. He,too, wanted to make the State omnipotent and considered it his duty to control and regulate economic spheres in the national interest. He also supported the view that war was inevitable and believed inviolent means to achieve his ends. His believed in racialism and imperalism and said that the Govt. were connected wit the Aryan race and they had the right to rule over the goal world.

In order to achieve his purposes, Hitler invaded Austria, Czechosolvakia, Poland, Belgium and France.
It resulted in the outbreak of the Second World War come to an end in Germany after World War II and once again democracy was established there.

Critism-Though Hitler made efforts to consolidate the unity of his country to infuse patriotism among the people,and to increases the production yet his imperialist wars and the use of force is condemnadle. The propaganda of racialism is also not desirable. His propaganda against democracy and in favour of dictatorship was totally unfare.