Pharmacist Blog about what I encounter and find useful/interesting

Mystical view over Ljubljana from Golovec Hill

2017-07-04T15:40:00.000+02:00

Mystical alternative view over Ljubljana, Slovenia; on a hill part of Golovec overlooking the city's south part

Chemistry exercise: mass needed to prepare a solution

2017-06-29T02:32:00.000+02:00

One of the most easy exercises in chemistry is calculating concentrations of solutions. However, for a lot of starting students or people new in the field, it remains a hassle to carry out such exercise.

Let's say we want to prepare a 0,250 M aqueous solution of calcium chloride (CaCl2). CaCl2 is a white powder at room temperature. It dissolves readily in water.

The exercise is as follows:

What mass of CaCl2 is required to prepare a 300,0 mL of a 0,250 M solution? (Molecular mass of CaCl2 = 110,98 g/mol)

Approach this step by step. First, deduct what is expected.

1. We need to calculate the amount of mass needed. Mass is in gram (g). The solution has a concentration of 0,250 M. This means we want a concentration of 0,250 Molar or = mol/liter.

2. 0,250 mol/liter. But we do not want 1 liter, we want 300 milliliter, or 0,3 liter.
Calculate the amount of mol we need: 0,250 mol/liter to 300 milliter, I calculate it as follows:

0,250 mol divide by 1000 (1 liter = 1000 milliliter). We have 0,00025/1 milliliter.
We need 300 milliliter, so multiply by 300.

0,00025 * 300 = 0,075 mol/300 milliter.

3. Now we can calculate the mass needed of CaCl2. We use the following equation to calculate the mass:

n = m/M

with n = mol; m = mass; M = molecular mass

Fill in the equation, and we get:

0,075 mol = m/110,98 g/mol
m = 0,075 mol * 110,98 g/mol
m = 8,3235 g

4. That's it! We need to weigh 8,3235 g of CaCl2 and dissolve it in 300 mL of water to obtain a 0,250 M solution.

5. Overview:

- Calculate amount of mol needed in the solution.
- Calculate the mass needed by using the mol equation.
- Dissolve the mass in the given amount.

Logarska Dolina, Slovenija // Logar Valley, Slovenia

2017-06-29T01:22:00.001+02:00

In 2017 I spent 3 months in Slovenia for a thesis exchange. One of the most beautiful sites I visited is the Logar Valley, or as they call it in Slovenija: Logarska Dolina.

One of the downsides is that it's hard to reach when you stay in Ljubljana. I suggest to rent a car or go there by bus and spend the night in the national park (which I hope to do someday).

A typical scenery picture I took:

Painkillers: brand names for paracetamol (= acetaminophen) in foreign countries

2017-06-29T01:10:00.002+02:00

Do you ever need a medication when in a foreign country, but in this country the medication you need is not available under a certain name? It's useful to know the active compound of the medication! In this case, I will present to you a list of brand names which contain paracetamol (= acetaminophen) throughout the world.

When you are in the local pharmacy, ask about the active compound ("paracetamol" or "acetaminophen") and they will know immediately what you mean! If you talk about a brand from your own country it can take a while until the pharmacist knows what you mean.

Useful: in almost all countries, generic brands are available, usually under the name of the active compound, so just ask for "paracetamol" or "acetaminophen" if you would like the cheapest product.

Paracetamol = Acetaminophen

EUROPE

Austria: Ben-u-ron, Mexalen

Belgium: Algostase, Dafalgan

Croatia: Daleron, Lekadol, Plicet
Czech Republic/Czechia: Paralen

Denmark: Pamol, Panodil, Pinex

Germany: Ben-u-ron, Enelfa, RubieMol (suppository)

Finland: Pamol, Panadol

France: Claradol, Dafalgan, Doliprane

Greece: Apotel, Depon, Panadol

Great-Britain (UK): Alvedon, Panadol,

Italy: Acetamol, Efferalgan, Sanipirina, Tachipirina

The Netherlands: Panadol

Norway: Pamol, Panodil, Paracet, Pinex

Poland: Codipar, Efferalgan, Panadol
Portugal: Ben-u-ron, Dafalgan, Panadol, Panasorbe, Supofen
Serbia: Febricet
Spain: Antidol, Apiretal, Efferalgan, Febrectal, Gelocatil, Termalgin
Sweden: Alvedon, Panodil
Switzerland/Suisse: Acetalgin, Becatemol, Ben-u-ron, Dafalgan, Panadol
Turkey: Minoset, Panadol, Parasedol, Parol, Setamol, Tamol, Termacet, Tylol

OTHER

Brasil: Dorico

Canada: Tylenol

Egypt: Abimol, Paramol, Pyral

Japan: Calonal

United States of America (USA): Acephen, Cetylev, Tylenol

South-Africa: Empaped

How to use: Spiriva Handihaler®

2017-06-22T00:33:00.002+02:00

Spiriva Handihaler® consists of the anticholinergic drug tiotropiumbromide. This medicin is used in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, most often abbreviated as COPD.

Pharmacology: tiotropiumbromide is a long-acting anticholinergic drug. It blocks the muscarin receptor. This way, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine will not be able to bind on this receptor. The result is a relaxation of the bronchialic muscle tissue.

Always use this medication as your doctor/pharmacist advises you. The most commonly used therapy is the inhalation of one capsule a day, on the same hour each day.

How to use the Handihaler:
Step 1: It may sound logical, but open the cap and the mouth piece.

Step 2:
Gently take a Spiriva capsule. Place it in the open space. Close it off with the mouth piece until you hear a soft click. Press the green button FULLY on the side only once. By pressing this button, the capsule will be "pierced", creating small openings in the capsule, ready to inhale.

Step 3:
- Fully breath out as much as possible. Note: away from the Handihaler! We do not want the Handihaler to be humidified by the breath.
- Place yourself in a straight position, tilt your head a little bit backwards (this will open up the lungs, and this will prevent the drug to be stuck in the throat.
- Place your mouth on the mouth piece: place it between the teeths and enclose it with your lips.
- Breath in as hard as you can! Not through the nose however, watch out with that. While breathing in, you will hear a small zooming sound. This is the capsule spinning, making it possible to extract the drug out.
- Remove the Handihaler from the mouth. Try to keep in your breath for 5-10 seconds. Then, breath out slowly.

Repeat step 3 a second time: this will make sure all medicin is inhaled.

Step 4:
- Close off the Handihaler with the protection cap.
- Rinse your mouth with water! If a small fraction of tiotropium is left in the mouth, this could give a dry mouth, with possible complications. Always make sure to rinse your mouth with water after EVERY application.

Hydrolysis of carboxylate to carboxylic acid

2017-05-16T19:08:00.002+02:00

Example of a hydrolysis reaction from carboxylate to carboxylic acid, drawn by myself.

The reaction shown is an example of a common hydrolysis reaction used in organic chemistry.
The ester compound on the left (carboxylate moiety), is usually dissolved in 1,4-dioxane. Then, NaOH aqueous solution is added.

Conditions are dependent of the type of compound.
Several conditions can be used:
- 80 °C, 2 M NaOH, if compound is extremely stable, these are harsh conditions.
- 80 °C, 1 M NaOH
- 60 °C, 2 M NaOH
- Room temperature (RT), 2 M NaOH
- RT, 1 M NaOH

If the compound is susceptible to degradation or is unstable, use room temperature and a low molarity of NaOH. It all depends on the compound of course, and often knowledge is obtained by trial and error. It is advised to start with the least harsh conditions.

When hydrolysis is complete, isolation of the final compound is done by evaporating the solvent (1,4-dioxane), acidify with HCl or an ion exchange resin, and filter off the precipitation. Dry the obtained solid and analyse.

Column chromatography: collection of samples

2017-05-16T18:28:00.003+02:00

Illustration of a small column (column chromatography)

Two pictures are shown of column chromatography. The first one showing the column, using mobile phase dichloromethane. Below the collected samples. Samples were collected in penicillin flasks. Every 10 samples, thin layer-chromatography (TLC) was done to monitor the column, and see which samples contained to desired isolated compound.

The chosen column was small, since the sample size was also relatively small.

Anti-dandruff shampoo, how does it work?

2015-12-29T19:14:00.002+01:00

Anti-dandruff

Dandruff

What is dandruff? Also called "roos" in dutch, are dead skin cells of the scalp, which are formed by a pathological process, caused by an acceleration of keratinization (also known as hyperkeratosis).

These dead cells will stick to eachother, together with tallow these compounds of cells will form to the dandruff as we know it. In some cases, due to the tallow, these 'flakes' can look yellowy, vivacious.

Most common cause is just a dry skin type, and by a yeast, living on the human skin, named Pityrosporum ovale (now known as Malassezia globosa). The exact mechanism how the yeast produces more dandruff is not fully known, but probably it's caused by a metabolisation of triglycerides into oleic acid. Fact is, reduce the yeast in population and dandruff will reduce significantly. N.B.: it has been proven that the colonization of the yeast is almost the double of normal population on people with more dandruff than other people.

Get rid of the yeast, get rid of the dandruff

The handle dandruff, the most commonly first-used solution is an anti-dandruff shampoo.

The shampoo is often a mild shampoo with antibacterial, antimycotical and keratolytic agents.

Most used agents: Zn/Na-pyrithione, Se-Sulfide (however contested due to toxicity, only used if really needed), coal tar, salicylic acid, nystatin, ...

Most preferred: Zn/Na-pyrithione, or Pyrithione Zinc, Pyrithione Sodium.

These molecules get rid of the yeast and thus the dandruff.

Structure of Pyrithione Zinc (source: Wiki)

For example: Procter & Gamble's "Head and Shoulders" shampoos contain about 1% of Pyrithione Zinc as an anti-dandruff shampoo.

One last thing that is very important to note, that not many people consider: allow these shampoos to rest on the scalp for a relatively long time! (1-2 minutes atleast), since these molecules need time to penetrate into the skin to get to the yeast! Thus, do not immediately rinse of the shampoo after application.

Silver nitrate exposure on the skin

2015-12-15T17:35:00.003+01:00

Silverfingers

A week ago, we were working in the laboratory with bromhexine hydrochloride.
Identification test on chlorides was performed according to the European Pharmacopoeia.

This test includes the use of silver nitrate (AgNO3).

Silver nitrate will form a white precipitation with chlorides if chlorides are present in the molecule (here: under the form of hydrochloride, HCl).

AgNO3 + Cl- ---> AgCl ↓

As a side note: the test is then proceeded washing the precipitation with water, and then adding ammonia. Ammonia will dissolve AgCl.

Luckily for us, the test was positive.

But, after the laboratory was finished, the next day I noticed grey / black small stains on my fingers.
In the theory lessons, we've always seen that silver ions oxidize very easily forming a black/grey precipitation, metallic silver. Thus working with silver ions should be done in absence of light, which could catalyze the oxidation reaction.

Ag+ --> Ag↓

What happened was that during the test, I probably got some exposure of AgNO3 on my skin which resulted in small stains. After washing my fingers, trying to scrub it off, nothing worked, patience is key!

Luckily the silver will form in the dead layer of the skin, which means that after some weeks, the layer will fall off and new cells will take its place, which means the silver will also come off.

Below are some pictures of the silver formation, some of it came loose when scrubbing, but these pieces are stubborn!

Small stain on the left middle finger

Small stains on the left thumb

Stains of silver on the right middle finger

Meadowsweet under the microscope - 4

2015-04-25T11:34:00.000+02:00

These are the last pictures.

Part 1: HERE
Part 2: HERE
Part 3: HERE

Meadowsweet under the microscope - 3

2015-04-24T17:53:00.001+02:00

Part 1: HERE
Part 2: HERE

Meadowsweet under the microscope - 2

2015-04-24T17:50:00.000+02:00

Part 2 of the series, looking at a meadowsweet powder under the microscope.

Part 1: HERE

Meadowsweet under the microscope - 1

2015-04-24T17:36:00.002+02:00

We acquired some meadowsweet powder and put it under a microscope, following the standard procedure of the European Pharmacopeia (using some droplets of a chloralhydrate solution (80 g in 20 mL)), heating followed by cooling, to minimize the crystallization process of chloralhydrate.
Namely a phase contrast microscope.
What we saw was a lot of irrecognisable structures, cells, celldebris, trichoma's (hairs), stoma, ..., but fascinating nonetheless.

Meprobamate

2015-04-14T00:34:00.003+02:00

Structure of meprobamate (source: Wikipedia)

Meprobamate is an amide derived from carbamic acid. More specifically, from a dicarbamate of a diol in this case.
Carbamic acid: NH2COOH. It does not exist on its own, it automatically splits into NH3 and CO2.

The two clear amide bonds are indicated with the red circles.
Full name of meprobamate is: 2-methyl-2-propyl-1,3-propanediolcarbamate.

Properties
It is a white crystalic powder or forms colourless crystals.
It tastes quite bitter, acrid even.
It is sparingly soluble in water at a temperature of 25 °C, a little but more soluble at a higher temperature of 50 °C and it's good soluble in alcohol.

How to identify meprobamate
- Specific melting point of 104-108 °C
- Can look at the IR (infrared) spectrum
- Adding acetic acid anhydride and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) will form a precipitate with a very characteristic melting point of 124-128 °C = N,N-diacetylderivate is formed out of the acid reaction.
- Adding an alcoholic KOH (Potassium hydroxide), while under a reflux setup, and adding acetic acid together with cobaltnitrate (Co(NO3)2) will form an intense blue colour.

Content
Cook the a solution with an excess of H2SO4 under reflux during about 3 hours straight.
After cooling down the solution, add an excess of NaOH, then, distil.
NH3 is formed and will be caught in a 40 g/L boric acid solution.
Titrate with a 0,1 M HCl on methyl red as indicator.

Basically: Ammoniumsulfate is formed (NH4)2SO4 - adding NaOH will form NH3 - which is caught in boric acid to keep NH3 in solution. Then a titration on this NH3 is done.
Moles of HCl = Moles of NH3, and this way the content can be determined.

Practical use of meprobamate
It's used as a weak tranquilizer, a sedativum, anxiolyticum and muscle relaxans.
Although, it has to be noted that habituation occurs, physical and psychological.
It also is an enzyme inducer, so special care with other in-take of medicines needs to be noted. Also toxic!
Its use dates back, now it sees almost no use anymore, and is replaced with the more modern benzodiazepines.

Benzalkonium chloride

2015-04-13T22:32:00.001+02:00

Structure of Benzalkonium chloride, source: Wikipedia

Properties

White to white-yellow powder or gelatinous yellowwhite fragments, the compound is hygroscopic, which means it easily attracts water (from f.e. the air).
When the compound gets heated, it will form a clear molten mass.
It is soluble in water and alcohol. When it is resolved in water, the H2O solution will form excessive foam.

How to identify the compound
It
- UV spectrophotometry: maxima at 257 nm, 263 nm and 269 nm.
- Using liquid chromatography
- Adding Na-tetraphenylborate and acetic acid will form a sediment of benzalkoniumtetraphenylborate. Which has a characteristic melting point of 127-133 °C.
- Bringing the compound in a NaOH solution together with BFB (bromephenol blue) and dimethylchloride will form a blue colour in the CH2Cl2 layer. This is caused by the ionpair forming with the anionic pigment (BFB) and extraction of the ionpair in the organic layer.
- Identification of Cl- ions: + AgNO3 will form a white precipitate which is soluble in NH3.
Or if you add dichromate -> chromylchloride will be formed + phenylcarbazide -> white precipitate.

Determining the content

Adding KI in an alkaline environment -> forms benzalkoniumiodide which will be extracted to CH2Cl2 (organic layer).
The excess of the I- ions (in the water layer) will be determined using KIO3 in strong acid (H+ milieu). This is also called the method of Andrews.

I- + IO3- -> I+ (jodoxyl)
Intermediate = I2

Use of benzalkonium chloride

It's used as a disinfectant in concentrations of about 0,1% for hands (used in surgery), small wounds, eat and drinking disinfectant, bed sheets, etc.

Meadowsweet aka Queen of the Meadow

2015-04-13T00:19:00.001+02:00

Meadowsweet

Filipendula ulmaria

Filipendula ulmaria in nature

General info:
NL: Moerasspirea
Ger.: Mädesüss
FR: Reine-des-prés

Family: Rosaceae ("the rose family")
Most common distribution: Northern Europe, Northern America and northern Asia.

Parts of the plant used for medicinal use: Flos (flowers), herba (herbs).
The traditional use of this plant is:
- Diaphoretic
- Diuretic
- Anti-gout
- Anti-rheumatism
- Anti Bladder and kidney inflammation
- Anti ulcerations in the stomach
- Anti burning stomachacid
- Anti diarrhea
Often prescribed by professionals against a cold.

Chemical components of the plant:
- Flavonoids
- Tannins (up to 12,5% of the total of all components)
- Etheric oil (mainly salicylcomponents, primarily salicylaldehyde together with gaultherin, methylsalicylate, salicin, spirein, etc.)

The main effects of the plant are caused by these salicylates.

In the body, these salicylates inhibit the COX enzymes. (COX1 and COX2)
COX enzymes regulate the synthesis of prostaglandins from arachidonic acids.

COX1 role: forms prostaglandins that regulate cells to a normal physiologic state and work cellprotective but also forms prostaglandins that cause inflammation.
COX2 role: forms prostaglandins that cause an inflammation, thus increase pain and fever.

Structure of salicylic acid

Metabolisation in the body:
Salicins will be metabolised inside the stomach and intestines to salicigenin, this will be absorbed into the blood where it will be metabolised primarily in the liver to salicylic acid, where it now can carry out its properties on the COX enzymes.

The huge advantage of this metabolisation is that the salicylic acid will not be directly in touch with the stomach/intestin mucus where it can cause irritation and inflict damage. Whereas if a person takes in f.e. a tablet of salicylic acid or acetyl salicylic acid it could cause damage.

Used doses for medicinal use:
An equivalent of 2,5-3,5 g of flowers or an equivalent of 4,0-5,0 g of herbs can be taken per day in case of adults.
This treatment should be applied for a long period of time, only after approximately two weeks, an optimal effect can be obtained.

Contra-indices:
Careful because the components have an anticoagulant and antifibrinolytic activity (because of the presence of heparin compounds).
People who are allergic to salicylatic compounds should avoid this plant and its preparations.
Kidneypatients should pay extra attention when considering to use this plant for therapeutic goals.

Erythropoietin: definition, structure, synthesis in vivo

2015-04-06T00:10:00.000+02:00

Definition:

EPO: = erythropoietin
A glycoprotein hormon-like structure, a sialoglycoprotein, which is an important factor in the survival, growth and proliferation of erythroid precursor cells (EPC) and it improves the de novo creation, differentation and growth of red blood cells (RBC).
Thus, EPO controls the erythropoiesis = production of RBC.

EPC: these are cells that are located in the bone marrow, will eventually form the RBC.
RBC: cells responsible for the transport and distribution of oxygen throughout the body.

Structure:

Built out of 165 aminoacids (AA). They are all connected and form 1 polypeptide chain.
Although, within the chain, there are 2 disulfide bonds.
Respectively on positions: Cys7-161 and Cys29-33
Cys = cystein and the numbers indicate the positions these AA are located.

Cystein structure. Available sulfide group for bonding

There are also 4 positions where there is a possibility for glycosylation
Namely: 3 N-linked: Asn24, Asn38, Asn83; en 1 O-linked: Ser126. On these positions, carbohydrates can bond on the EPO structure.

EPO has an estimated molecular weight of 36 kDa (kilodalton); but, the polypeptide chain itself is only 18 kDa. This means that the other weight is made out of the bonded carbohydrates.

EPO AA structure

Synthesis in the body:

EPO is formed in the kidney, more specific in the renal perituberal interstitial cells as an answer to hypoxia (a shortage of oxygen in the body/body parts).
It is also formed in the liver, but more so in the early stages of life, the kidney will takeover most production during adulthood.
The concentration of EPO in circulation of the body is relatively low in homeostasis, and is regulated with a feedback system directly associated with blood oxygenation. Although, during anemia or hypoxia, the concentration and secretion of EPO can increase up to a 1000-fold!

EPO is secreted in the urine.

Effect of glycosylation:

In vitro activity of glycosylated EPO and non-glycosylated EPO is the same.
But! In vivo activity is not.
In vivo non-glycosylated EPO has almost no activity. Glycosylated EPO is more active. Also, the more sialic acids that are placed on the EPO protein, the longer it stays in the body and stays active: these sialic acid residu's protect EPO from binding to a binding lectin in the liver that degrades the EPO.

Basic structure of a virus

2015-04-05T20:41:00.002+02:00

Very basic explanation of a virus:

Virus consists of a
- Head
- Tail
- Legs/Fibres

The head contains the DNA/RNA, nucleic acids (genetic material, GM). It depends on what kind of virus we speak of, there are a lot of different kind of viruses. It is protected from the outside with a protein coat, that consists of hemagglutinin and neuraminidases, hence names given for viruses (f.e. H1N1, Influenza virus).
The tail connects the head with the legs/fibres.
Those legs will make sure the virus can bind on its host, for example a bacterial cell or a human cell. Viruses that bind on bacteria are often called bacteriophages.

When connected to a host, the virus will inject its DNA/RNA into the cell via the tail.

Once its GM is injected, the virus will normally eject from the cell and fall apart/gets secreted out of the organism.
The GM will be implemented into the hosts genome often via reverse transciptases.

Now this GM will code for proteins that induce transcription of these genes to create new viruses

Legs, head and tail will all be created seperately. Only once the virus GM is brought inside the head, the head will bind with the tail and legs to form a new virus particle.

Now two options are possible:
- Lytic cycle: destruction of the host cell --> release of all the new virus particles into the organism to further infect the host.
- Lysogenic cycle: the virus GM is implemented into the DNA of the host and will stay there and will be given to new daughter cells of the host cell up untill a lytic cycle will occur.

Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/staticarchive/2effc5b6f748963d346ae11763b12f9ef34ba8af.jpg BBC

Note: this is a very short and basic summary of the structure of a virus. Every virus is different from eachother and there are a lot of different types.

Bacteria after Gram staining from the lab

2015-03-23T17:38:00.002+01:00

Behold, a picture taken through a lightmicroscope of two bacteria tribes, cultivated on a petri dish; it was simply taken with the camera of my phone.

Shown are two tribes of bacteria, and they can be visualized using the Gram staining.
For the theory behind it and the protocol I'd like to reference to HERE.

Basically on my picture:

Red rod-shaped bacteria are bacilli: these are Gram NEGATIVE.
Purple spherical bacteria are cocci: these are Gram POSITIVE.

You can further visualize the bacteria in terms of how they group up, with how many they group up, their specific form, do they attach to eachother, etc. and thus determine using references and literature what species they are from and what type of bacteria they are.

Coca-Cola: Life - myth or truth?

2015-03-11T18:47:00.001+01:00

"Coca-Cola Life"

Recently the Coca-Cola company released a new beverage: the Coca-Cola Life drink.

It should contain less sugar than the normal Coca-Cola drink; a part of the sugar is replaced with the recently approved sweetener from the Stevia plant (stevioglycosides).

It's being sold as a 'natural' drink, but those stevioglycosides are as natural as the chemical sweetener aspartame found in Light and Zero drinks.

However it is true that the amount of sugar is much lower (being reported as 33%, some say it's around 20%); yet approximately still 3-4 sugar cubes / 33 cl can (5-6 in a normal can).

I bought it myself and found that the flavor has not really changed from the original Coca-Cola, however it does taste more "flat" - but definitely true it yourself.

The outside of the can has the colour green. I personally do not associate this "healthy - natural" colour with Coca-Cola, but it's growing on me.

In summary, it's not a new revolutionary beverage, and mostly is (and maybe will stay) a marketing hype. But the flavour is alright, it's close to Coca-Cola's roots, and most importantly, has effectively less sugar than the original Coca-Cola. Yet keep in mind that if you want to lose weight or reduce your intake of sugar drastically, then do not drink this or the original Coca-Cola, but go for the Light or Zero varieties if you still want to drink this soft drink.

References: media, google, ...

A periodic table like you haven't seen before

2014-05-22T00:30:00.000+02:00

"Periodic table of, ... everything"

Lately I stumbled upon this insanely detailed periodic table. You can click any element and it will show you its wikipedia page, its properties, orbitals, isotopes, ... you can even combine all atoms to see what compounds they form with eachother! I highly recommend to look into it and play around with it, it might be of good use later on.

The language choices are very large, you can access the table in your native language, hell, even esperanto is there!

(Tip: bookmark this website in your browser)

http://www.ptable.com/

By courtesy of:

Preview of the website (I made the red box to indicate you can choose what you want to look up of the atoms):

Management of hair loss (alopecia): Minoxidil

2014-05-21T03:10:00.003+02:00

Hair loss

Hair loss is generally not a bad thing when you reach a certain age and most men seem to cope with it perfectly. However, when you are at a young age and when you already suffer from hair loss, this can be stressful. Young adolescents with baldness is a weird sight, and this can cause problems in social life.

Most common cause for hair loss is the generic factor. This cannot be prevented or reverted, which is frustrating for the young person.
Note: don't wait too long before you do something about it if you want to, your hairs may not come back, only a small fraction if you're lucky.

Minoxidil

Luckily, science always finds a way. The molecule minoxidil has been found to stimulate hair growth and stop hair loss. It was first used as a vasodilator to lower blood pressure but was shown that it also has the side-effect, namely anti-hair loss.

It is applied topical on the scalp, a solution of 5% with a puffer, applied once or twice a day.

However, once treatment is stopped, the hair loss will continue to occur about 30-60 days after last application of the solution. Research also shows side effects could include headaches and acne. As a sidenote: it appears to be extremely toxic for cats, so keep it away from them!
Further research is needed to help balding people, but for now, this molecule has helped A LOT of people around the globe.

Chemical aspects

The molecule itself is quite big.

The molecular mass is 209,251 g/mol
IUPAC name: 6-Piperidin-1-ylpyrimidine-2,4-diamine 3-oxide
Formula: C₉H₁₅N₅O
Structure: see below.

For more info I advice you to ask a clinician, pharmacist or your doctor.
Or consult

The proteasome [2]: animation of the process

2014-04-13T22:19:00.003+02:00

An animation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system

The following animation from the text book "The Cell: A Molecular Approach, Fifth edition - Geoffrey M. Cooper/Robert E. Hausman" is very very handy to understand the process of the ubiquitin-tagging of proteins and following the degradation of this protein.

Note: very basic animation; narrated can be easier to understand.

http://sites.sinauer.com/cooper5e/animation0802.html

The proteasome [1]: a crucial structure of protein degradation

2014-03-25T13:10:00.006+01:00

The proteasome

Proteins are constantly being synthesized and at the same time being degraded in each cell of our body.
One of the most known mechanisms of proteolysis (= protein degradation) is the degradation done by lysosomes.

However, an other important mechanism is degradation by the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS).
First of all, it is needed to understand that a cell maintains its protein concentration by a constant turn-over of proteins: when there is a lot of synthesis of a certain protein, this certain protein will also be degraded by a higher level, and vice versa.

A protein that has to be degraded will be marked by a polyubiquitin chain which consists of 4 or more ubiquitinmolecules.
This protein will be transported to a 26S proteasome. This structure in the cell is built by a 19S part and a 20S part. The 19S part mainly serves as a recognition and binding structure for the polyubiquitinated protein, and the 20S part will destroy the protein.

Once attached to the proteasome, the protein will be defolded and the polyubiquitin chain will be recycled in the cell, done by de-ubiquitinated enzymes (DUB's) - when this is completed this unfolded protein will be translocated inwards the proteasome to the 20S complex.

In the 20S complex there are a lot of proteases, enzymes that will degrade proteins by cleaving its peptide bonds, the protein will be cleaved into oligopeptides.

These peptides will be released back into the cell where they will be used in other cell processes or will be further degraded to amino acids.

Below is a very simplified drawing of the proteasome in work, degrading a protein:

Note: this is a VERY basic explanation of the function of the proteasome in protein degradation in cells.

Reference: Proteasomes and their kin: proteases in the machine age. 2004 Mar;5(3):177-87. Pickart CM, Cohen RE.

Helium shortage, a comic

2013-03-04T17:02:00.002+01:00

Helium shortage explained in comic

It is a worldwide phenomen that helium resources are running out, here is a short comic that explains why.

(Click link above)