BEd MEd Assignment

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8619 Educational Technology Assignment 2

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8619 Educational Technology Assignment 2

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BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

ASSIGNMENTNo.2

Q.1 Critically examine the role of educational broadcasting in the teaching learning process?
Answer:

Modern technology has transformed the way students learn and interact with their environment. Radio and Television are broad cast media meant to disseminate audio and video signal, messages, information or programs to wide range of audience. Broad cast media are regarded as eye and ear of the people because they look for information on behalf of the general public. Media have always for me the important part of modern education since the beginning of the twentieth century. From print to radio, television, and today’s Web-enabled e-learning, each medium has been seen as a potential solution for the problems, inadequacies and certain ills of education. Invariably, the purpose of inducting media into education has been two-fold: to increase the reach and there by access; and to enrich the quality of educational content. The birth of a new medium has not however, supplanted the previous one; since each has found its own niche.

Broadcast media on its own help the populace to be conscious and aware of various events near and faraway from them. Radio and television are now in separable with the society because of the numerous roles they play including educational function. Educational broadcasting refers to television programming and radio programming providing or related to courses of study. The term "educational" is also applied at times too the programs that are particularly enlightening, informative or intellectually stimulating. Educational broadcast is the term given to the medium's use informal learning systems, whether primary or higher education (Berman,2008). It is typically used as a means for course material delivery, and often integrated with various kinds of interaction: for example, in classrooms, discussion groups, or via the telephone. Community radio, on the other hand, involves informal learning processes where by communities plan, own, and operate their own radio stations. The informal learning topics of community radio typically include child nutrition, family planning, and agricultural tips. Community radio necessarily involves a non-profit enterprise, community ownership and participation, and usually a participatory approach to learning.

Wherever the mass media have been established, education has been put at the forefront of the fruits to be reaped or as on objective for the development of the mass media. Since education has been linked to the creation of communication systems that can reach wide populations, educational broadcasting has been identified with development and nation building. However, they are powerful socializing agent store ach large heterogeneous and widely dispersed audience. It is observed that millions of people over huge are as can be reached very quickly via radio and television by spreading news, information, entertainment and soon. Indeed, they represent powerful tools of socializing people and students in particular through their different educative programs which increase the level of literacy in the society.

Sambo (2012) noted that broad cast media are tools that invest the past with an air of reality.

They provide the learners with realistic experience, which capture their attention and help in the understanding of the historical phenomena. They appeal to the mind through the visual auditory senses. Also, Ortyoyande (2006) noted that we receive knowledge through our senses; they also noted that if we hear we forget, if we see we remember, and if we do something we know it. So, access to educational radio and television makes learning process more effective and productive. Also, those educational programs can be recorded to benefit Learners by listening and viewing the lesson programs severally, hence aids their retention.

Therefore, educational radio and television encourage learning, make it easier and interesting. It should be noted that radio and television can effectively be utilized to teach individual or public the norms and values of society and reinforce same. Recent development in television has drastically affected educational procedure for improved quality of education offered to students. Television resource in instructional delivery will serve dual purposes and more efficient classroom instruction (Onabajo,2000). The advancement which radio and television offer in education can be evident through accessibility to educative programs and instructional delivery like quiz, debate and soon. Productive situational delivery enhances learners’ creative and intellectual development through the use of television images, graphics, audio, test motion for high quality learning. Babalola (2005) states that radio and television offers five distinct roles in education which are: Socialization, Religion, Subject, Brain test and

Sex Education.

Educational television has been discovered to have profound effect on speech training among young learners (Gocen&Okur,2013). According to Gocenand Okur (2013) learners mimic what they see on television and as such remember more of the things they watch than the ones they learn in the classroom. Also, their study after studying the attitudes of students involved in the survey of effect of TV on speech, it is obvious that they dominate how people talk on TV and there by think that their friends will like them better that way. Also, students who took this survey point out that they like when their friends imitate TV characters.

One of television’s most obvious characteristics is its visual aspect. Humans intuitively grasp the power of images to convey meaning, as can be seen in the old adage that values a picture at thousand times the value of a word. Research in the past two decades has proven what we intuitively know: our brains deal with images differently than print (Saglik&Ozturk,2001).

Words are processed in the neo cortex where the higher thinking capability of the brain resides. Pictures, however, are handled in the limbic system, rapidly, and trigger instinct, emotion, and impulse (Omenesa,1997). Because brains are programmed to remember experiences that have an emotional component, television has a powerful ability to relay experience through the emotions evoked by images.

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Q.2 Critically examine the channels of communication. Also discuss the basic principles of good communication?

Answer:

In an organization, information flows forward ,backwards and sideways. This information flow is referred to as communication. Communication channels refer to the way this information flows within the organization and with other organizations. In this web known as communication, a manager becomes a link. Decisions and directions flow upwards or downwards or sideways depending on the position of the manager in the communication web. For example, reports from lower level manager will flow upwards. A good manager has to inspire, steer and organize his employee sufficiently, and for all this, the tools in his possession are spoken and written words. For the flow of information and for a manager to handle his employees, it is important for an effectual communication channel to be in place.

The Working of a Communication Channel

Through a modem of communication, be it face-to-face conversations or an inter-department memo, information is transmitted from a manager to a subordinate or vice versa. An important element of the communication process is the feedback mechanism between the management and employees. In this mechanism, employees inform managers that they have understood the task at hand while managers provide employees with comments and directions on employee's work.

Importance of a Communication Channel

A breakdown in the communication channel leads to an inefficient flow of information. Employees are unaware of what the company expects of them. They are uninformed of what is going on in the company. This will cause them to become suspicious of motives and any changes in the company. Also without effective communication, employees become department minded rather than company minded, and this affects their decision making and productivity in the workplace.

Eventually, this harms the overall organizational objectives as well. Hence, in order for an organization to be run effectively, a good manager should be able to communicate to his/her employees what is expected of them, make sure they are fully aware of company policies and any upcoming changes. Therefore, an effective communication channel should be implemented by managers to optimize worker productivity to ensure the smooth running of the organization.

Types of Communication Channels

The number of communication channels available to a manager has increased over the last 20 odd years. Video-conferencing, mobile-technology, electronic bulletin boards and fax machines are some of the new possibilities. As organizations grow in size, managers cannot rely on face-to-face communication alone to get their message across.

A challenge the managers face today is to determine what type of communication channel should they opt for in order to carry out effective communication. In order to make a manager's task easier, the types of communication channels are grouped into three main groups: formal, informal and unofficial.

Formal Communication Channels

A formal communication channel transmits information such as the goals, policies and procedures of an organization. Messages in this type of communication channel follow a chain of command. This means information flows from a manager to his subordinates and they in turn pass on the information to the next level of staff.

An example of a formal communication channel is a company's newsletter, which gives employees as well as the clients a clear idea of a company's goals and vision. It also includes the transfer of information with regard to memoranda, reports, directions, and scheduled meetings in the chain of command.

A business plan, customer satisfaction survey, annual reports, employer's manual, review meetings are all formal communication channels.

Informal Communication Channels

With in a formal working environment, there always exists an informal communication network. The strict hierarchical web of communication cannot function efficiently on its own and hence there exists a communication channel outside of this web. While this type of communication channel may disrupt the chain of command, a good manager needs to find the fine balance between the formal and informal communication channel.

An example of an informal communication channel is lunch time at the organization's cafeteria/canteen. Here, in a relaxed atmosphere, discussions among employees are encouraged. Also managers walking around, adopting a hands-on approach to handling employee queries is an example of an informal communication channel.

Quality circles, team work, different training programs are outside of the chain of command and so, fall under the category of informal communication channels.

Unofficial Communication Channels

Good managers will recognize the fact that sometimes communication that takes place within an organization is interpersonal. While minutes of a meeting may be a topic of discussion among employees, sports, politics and TV shows also share the floor.

The unofficial communication channel in an organization is the organization's 'grapevine. 'It is through the grapevine that rumors circulate. Also those engaging in 'grapevine' discussions often form groups, which translate into friendships outside of the organization. While the grapevine may have positive implications, more often than not information circulating in the grapevine is exaggerated and may cause

unnecessary alarm to employees. A good manager should be privy to information circulating in this unofficial communication channel and should take positive measures to prevent the flow of false information.

An example of an unofficial communication channel is social gatherings among employees.

Conclusion

In any organization, three types of communication channels exist :formal, informal and unofficial. While the ideal communication web is a formal structure in which informal communication can take place, unofficial communication channels also exist in an organization. Through these various channels, it is important for a manager to get his/her ideas across and then listen, absorb, glean and further communicate to employees.

Basic principles of good communication:

Good communicators have a wide repertoire of skills and are able to adjust their communication style in response to the many variables they face at a given time. Here are a few principles to consider as you adjust and refine your communication skills.

1.Understandyourself. Understanding who you are and what your natural tendencies are is the first step to be in an effective and genuine communicator. Do you tend to be chatty, or do you like to listen? Are you assertive? Are you direct? Are you comfortable with ambiguities, uncertainties, and risks? Do you choose your words carefully, or, do you tend to use words more like a blunt instrument? Do you tend to unintentionally offend or miscommunicate with others? Do you tend to overreact, or do you tend to stay calm and collected? Another part of understanding yourself is to be clear about your values and goals, both in general and in the context of each communication.

When you are clear on why you’re communicating, your genuine self will shine through and add credibility and vigor to your communication. After all, being “real” leads to more effective communication.

2. Understand your audience. As important as it is to understand yourself, it is also important to understand your audience and their natural tendencies, motivations, goals, challenges, and opportunities. Does your audience want to be heard, enlightened, or get things done? How much time does your audience have? Is your audience patient and forgiving? Are you interacting with a competitor, collaborator, or superior party? What pains and opportunities — real or imaginary — does your audience perceive? Is there a third party that is not present whose interest must be addressed to help you communicate more effectively? Another part of understanding your audience is to be clear about their values and goals. For example, is your audience focused on maximizing profits or social good?

3. Listen actively. Listening is usually an important part of most communications. It is not enough to merely listen, however. You also want to make sure that others feel heard. To that end, it is not enough to use your ears. Active listening that helps people feel heard involves eye contact, nodding, appropriate and timely responses, and overall high engagement. Asking good, relevant questions and then actively listening helps to build rapport and trust. Active listening also involves looking for more subtle,

non verbal cues; one’s body language will often tell you as much as, if not more than, the substantive message.

4.Simplify. Simple, concise messages that can be delivered quickly and powerfully usually have the highest impact, especially when you address an audience that is over-worked or over-whelmed with information. And these days, who isn’t over-worked or over-whelmed with information? Distilling complex materials in to digestible terms that your audience can understand and use is an art worth pursuing, because it often makes a difference between getting what you want and not. Cut out the technical jargon and business speak, reduce complexity, and cut-right to the chase by saying exactly what you mean in as few words as possible. Also consider using graphics, stories, or analogies to drive your point home in a more powerful and memorable way.

5.Find a perfect time. A good idea is only good when it comes at the right time. As an effective communicator, you need to be on the lookout for a window of opportunity that allows you to be the most effective. For example, offering a solution, product, or service just when your audience is looking for one is a perfect time to deliver your message. In fact, addressing the needs of others in a timely way is the most guaranteed (though not necessarily the quickest) way to get a desired outcome and be an effective communicator. Consider being more alert and flexible in order to more effectively influence the outcome and get what you want in the long run.

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Q.3 Discuss the production process of instructional materils. What measures you will adopt for an efficient production process?

Answer:

After surveying existing materials and assessing which materials are required and available for unit and lesson plans, certain instructional aids may still be needed to adequately present the content of a lesson. For these, and perhaps for all materials used in the classroom, the teacher must become a materials developer and producer. Many objects which are useful in the classroom can be made out of "found" material such as discarded bottles and cans, cloth, cardboard cartons, sticks and other such items. The next section will offer some ideas on the best ways to make use of local resources in the development of instructional aids.

Realia

Using real objects in the class, or realia as they are sometimes referred to, is a very effective way of aiding visual identification of leaves, minerals, parts of machinery etc. In using realia, there are several points that the teacher should consider:

Use recognizable objects from the environment.
Prepare the materials well in advance of presentation.
Keep information simple and clear.

Cross-cultural considerations should be weighed before recommending and using these types of materials, however, as many objects may be used in ceremonies and carry special meaning for teachers and students. The use of bones, either real or replicas to teach biology, for example, can often cause consternation among class members due to their cultural relevance. In general, the teacher needs to be careful when using cultural artifacts not to make them meaning lessor insult the students by ignoring their cultural value.

Visual Aids

Teachers may wish to use some form of visual aids which they can make themselves. As indicated above, these might take a variety of forms including tables, charts or diagrams which display a processor identify objects. The Peace Corps Resource Packet P-8 listed at the end of this section contains numerous "recipes" for the do-it-yourself production of many different types of audio/visual aids as well as other types of materials. The chart which follows provides a sampling of the types of instructional materials which can be produced, their potential for classroom application and the types of materials you need to produce them.

Choosing and Producing Instructional Materials

1.Blackboard

Most all demonstrations and diagrams. Erasable. Ply wood and black board paint. Chalk can Also be produces from local resources.

2. Charts

Diagrams Permanent display such as a periodic table of the elements. Produce from paper, white cardboard or cloth. Words can be imprinted using felt tip Markers, home made and ink or paint. Use different colors and boards and boards to rule straight lines.

3.Real objects

Identification of parts of plants, machinery, etc. Plant specimens, used Auto-parts, objects from the environment.

4. Flannel graphs

Displays requiring moveable items showing action or change. Flannel cloth or wool. Pieces made from same material or similar rough cloth that will "stick" (burlap and flannel is a good combination). Cloth may be at market or taken from old clothing. Attach to a base like stiff cardboard.

5. Tapes for audio present action.

Language dialogue review and oral history. Simple audio cassette player and recorder. Batteries or power Outlet if current is available. Tapes for recording.

6. Television,

Film, VCRs Presentation of recorded programs Video Cassette Recorder (VCR) unit, monitor, current; Film projector; Television and broadcast program from TV studio.

Using materials in the classroom

Whatever subject is being taught, visual aids are most effective when they are properly used and reach the greatest number of students.

Visual Aids and Learning Styles

Based on the ideas from previous sections of the manual Child and Adolescent Learning and Instructional Objectives), one principle which should be apparent is that certain students benefit more from seeing or touching something while others need to hear an explanation before they can understand it. The best way to be sure that every student's preferred learning style is addressed is to use a variety of materials within any presentation. Relying too heavily on visual aids and neglecting the importance of the spoken presentation, or doing it poorly, may mean that the teacher is not reaching those students who may learn better when they hear some one present the information orally. The key here is to mix the presentation with different types of materials if possible. Use real objects to teach classification, visual aids like charts and diagrams to teach about processes, and technological media, if available, to teach processes involving action or subjects where dramatization is appropriate. Combine different sections of the course content and use various materials to teach these sections alternating between the use of media and materials and a regular, oral presentation (see Classroom Teaching Techniques for more detail on presentation techniques).

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Q.4 Describe the care which a teacher should take while selecting A.V aids for effective teaching?

Answer:

The importance of audio visual (AV) technology in education should not be underestimated. There are two reasons for this; one, learning via AV creates a stimulating and interactive environment which is more conducive to learning; two, we live in an audio-visual age which means that having the skills to use AV equipment is integral to future employment prospects. Therefore exposure to AV technology in education is imperative.

Audio visual materials are produced, distributed and used as planned components of educational programs. It helps the process of learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation. A.v. aids are multisensory materials which motivate and stimulate the individual.

It makes dynamic learning experience more concrete realistic and clarity. It provides significant gains in thinking and reasoning. Audio visual aids are sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for learning. These are planned educational materials that appeal to the senses of the people and quicken learning facilities for clear understanding.

PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED FOR THE EFFECTIVE USE OF A.V. AIDS:

Audio visual materials should function as an integral part of the educational program.
A.v. aids should be centralized, under specialized direction and leadership in educational programs.
An advisory committee consisting of representative from all areas of curriculum should be appointed to assist in selection and coordination of a.v. materials.
An education program should be flexible.
A.v. material should be carefully located to eliminate duplication, easy accessibility and convenient use.
A.v. material should be available whenever and wherever they needed for effective utilization as an integral part of curriculum.
Budget appropriations should be made regularly for a.v. education programs.
• Periodic evaluation to be done to assess the function of, utilization and expenditure of the program.

AV technology in schools

AV technology has been used in schools for decades, but only in the form of a TV and video player to show short educational films. Now it is the computer that shows these educational films and home work is also being done increasingly on PCs.

Children learn differently and audio visual equipment gives teachers the chance to stimulate each child’s learning process with a combination of pictures, sounds and attention grabbing media. We are surrounded by audio visual equipment and children are keen to understand technology and keep up to date with applied science. Having this opportunity in the classroom helps to facilitate learning.

More and more schools are taking advantage of AV technology to teach their students. This equipment can be used to present information to students but also the fact that they are interacting with AV technology on a daily basis also makes them proficient in using technology.

Not exposing children to different forms of technology is depriving them of vital learning opportunities that could benefit them in later life for example through increased career opportunities. AV lessons should not just consist of children working in pairs on a Power Point presentation or rewriting a piece of work using Word, ICT should be challenging, exciting and fun. Webster’s Encyclopedia Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, defines Audio-Visual aids as “training or educational materials directed at both the senses of hearing and the sense of sight, films, recordings, photographs, etc used in classroom instructions, library collections or the likes”. The term has also been defined by (Dike,1993) as; those materials which do not depend solely upon reading to convey meaning. They may present information through the sense of hearing as in audio resources, sight, as in visual resources or through a combination of senses. Indeed, the variety of such resources is a striking characteristic.

According to (Anzaku,2011) “the term audio-visual materials is commonly used to refer to those instructional materials that may be used to convey meaning without complete dependence upon verbal symbols or language”. Thus according to the above definition, a text book or a reference material does not fall within this grouping of instructional materials but an illustration in a book does. Some audio-visual components are in the nature of process and experience, for example, dramatizing an event or a procedure or making diorama. Some of the audio-visual materials like the motion pictures require the use of equipment to release their latent value.

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Q.5 How you will teach students through emerging technologies?

Answer:

As online and blended learning reshape the landscape of teaching and learning in higher education, the need increases to encourage and support faculty in moving from delivering passive, teacher-centered experiences to designing active, student-centered learning. Our new social era is rich with simple, free to low-cost emerging technologies that are increasing experimentation and discovery in the scholarship of teaching and learning. While the literature about Web2.0 tools impacting teaching and learning is increasing, there is a lack of knowledge about how the adoption of these technologies is impacting the support needs of higher education faculty. This knowledge is essential to develop new, sustainable faculty support solutions.

Driven by my own experiences as a full-time and part-time faculty member and early adopter of VoiceThread --a Web 2.0 tool that fosters asynchronous voice, video and text conversations around media--I designed my dissertation research study to investigate how the use of Web2.0 tools is impacting the support needs of higher education faculty. I performed this action research study in collaboration with the VoiceThread organization with the purpose of improving the support needs of their higher education users.

The study’s sample included 50 higher education faculty members, comprised of a mix of part-time and full-time faculty from two-year and four-year institutions in the United States with a VoiceThread account (free, an individual higher ed account or a site license).The interview and reflection data revealed unique support needs of faculty who teach with emerging technologies, a growing demographic. These include:

Just-in-time resources. Faculty support programs comprised of face-to-face workshops and consultations will not meet the needs of faculty. The issues underlying this finding are related to the significant changes in the demographics of faculty. Today, most classes are taught by part-time faculty, and many of these individuals also have full-time jobs and teach at multiple institutions. Online resources that can be accessed from any where at anytime from multiple devices are essential to supporting innovations in teaching and learning.

Nonlinear PD experiences. Faculty who adopt new technologies desire nonlinear professional development experiences to support the integration of technology into their classes. Faculty noted that accessing an e-book to learn new strategies to teach with VoiceThread was “less risky” than spending the time in a workshop, as the e-book provided non linear pathways, allowing a faculty member to engage with the topics that align best with their needs.

Community. The adoption of emerging technologies by faculty is resulting in pockets of innovation on campus. As a result, faculty who integrate emerging technologies into their teaching feel isolated from their peers. Professional learning networks designed to connect faculty and promote sharing of practices and ideas will be key to supporting faculty. Social technologies like Twitter, Hangouts on Air and Google+ Communities will continue to play important roles in connecting faculty innovators across campuses.

Funding for accounts. The freemium model employed by most ed-tech companies provides faculty with a low barrier to entrance and encourages experimentation. However, as the adoption cycle for Web2.0 tools matures, many faculty are finding themselves paying out of pocket for the premium version(s) of their tool(s) of choice. We will need to consider new funding approaches for supporting faculty within these pockets of innovation.

LMS integration. Learning management systems (LMSs) remain the most pervasively used technology in higher education. Learning technologies interoperability (LTI) is an industry standard that provides a simple way for web-based technologies to integrate with major LMSs, offering stream lined teaching experiences that may eliminate the need for students to create accounts and provide the ability to grade the activity inside the LMS.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8622 Non Broadcast Media Assignment 2

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 2 Jan 2021 18:16:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8622 Non Broadcast Media Assignment 2

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Course: Broadcast Media in Distance Education
Code: 8622 Level: B.Ed SPRING 2018
Assignment No: 2

Q.1 Discuss the reprographic equipment normally used in the teaching learning process.

Answer:
This article describes about the suitable reprographic equipment for office reprography. It also awares you about the crucial factors on which the process depends and modern features that have evolved with time. Besides, it also informs you about the maintenance procedures and certain legal policy that one needs to be kept in mind before carrying on with the process.

Reprography
The copying or duplicating of documents in offices is done by the reprographic department. Here, comes the importance of the reprographic equipment that produces several copies of important documents, notices for the office notice boards and even small magazines and pamphlets. Normally, in offices different types of reprographic equipment are used to accomplish different tasks. Reprography is the process that refers to the reproduction of the printed documents, handwritten documents, charts, drawings, designs, graphics, plans etcetera.

Factors on which reprography depends
There are different equipments of reprography that are used to produce duplicates from the original documents. One may get several duplicate print copies through the computer printers, offset printing machines, electronic scanning etcetera within a stipulated time-period. But there are certain factors on which reprography depend like the number of documents to be printed, time taken to perform the reprography, the quality of output required and the cost involved in the whole reprographic process. Of course, a prudent entrepreneur has to consider these factors before he/she opts for a particular method of reprograhy or settles down for a particular type of reprographic equipment.

Office reprographic equipment
Generally, an entrepreneur has to make certain reprographic decisions which may include distributing several copies of the original documents to his employees and sending copies of important copies of a document to the branch or head offices. He/she may employ professionally trained reprographers to serve the purpose of the office. To give you a better understanding on the subject I would discuss here some of the important reprographic equipment and their basic functions which are as given below:

1. Offset lithography machine: This machine has the capacity to perform printing in the bulk volumes. During the process of printing the images get transferred from the metal plates of the machine to the roller and finally into the print medium. The images thus generated is of high quality. The offset printing process is used today for performing small and big column printing.

2. Letterpress printing duplicates: In the letterpress printing duplicate there is a hard metal printing surface. With the help of ink, and this hard printing surface (usually a plastic printing surface) it carries out the work of printing. This is still very much in demand and is popular for suitable printing jobs irrespective of the fact that lithography is dominating the printing process arena.

3. Stencil duplicator machine: As the name suggests it simply works by letting the ink pass by stencil onto a paper. It is also put-upon offices for the printing purposes. Normally, this machine or equipment is used where low volume of printing is required. It is also known as mimeograph machine. Besides, the automatic stencil duplicator is also available that can be operated either manually or electrically. These are sophisticated to adjust the working speed with the flow of ink accordingly. It also has an intelligent temperature controller.

4. Gelatine duplicator machine: It is a copying or duplicating system that is very low in cost. Especially those offices and business firms which cannot afford to buy a high cost duplicator due to shortage of fund could rely or bet on this. It excludes the requirement of electricity and installation of typewriters or any other expensive equipment. The advantages of this is that it is very simple to use and a lot cheaper than other duplicating machines. The downside is that it works very slowly but then one also needs to consider the fact that it is sophisticated to give an output of 50 copies each time it is made to work. Moreover, it is also very durable and could serve the purpose of a firm for a long time.

5. Electrostatic copier machine: The electrostatic copier works when an image is placed on the grass plate. There are a series of mirrors inside on the drums that are photo-conductive in nature. When light falls on the image it gets reflected through the mirrors. Thus through a methodical way it produces photocopy of images.

Features of advanced reprography
With time, technology has taken a big leap and this holds true to reprography also. Certain reprograpic machines have been replaced with the introduction of the new ones and there is also advancement in the overall reprograpy features. Some of the most advanced reprography features that deserve a mention here are duplexing (copying on both sides), switching to color photocopying, copying multiple copies of documents, great memory storage facility to store items, the facility of enlargement and reduction according to one's needs.

Maintenance of reprograpic equipment
The regular and timely maintenance holds crucial to any machinery for a prolonged life and quality output. Regular minor maintenance could be done by the reprographer or the person who uses the machine. If major problems occur one should take the help of the service personnel of the company from where the product is purchased. Generally, when the digital or electrical reprographic equipment in the office goes out of order they display some code on the screen. Each code denotes a particular type of error. The service person or a technician is technically savvy or equipped to understand these problems and rectify these errors. Hence, one should always contact the service center in cases of major failure in these machines

Reprography and legality
Though reprography helps to produce copies of documents, pictures, drawings etcetera but one should also be aware of the legal aspect of it. Certain reproductions are not allowed by the law or the government of a country and one should abide the same. For instance, reproduction of identity cards, driving licenses, passports without the prior permissions are illegal under the law. Hence, before doing any such thing one should be aware of the legal aspects that concern these.

Q.2 Discuss the importance of programmed learning and give example in support of your answer.

Answer: Program instruction method of teaching is an autocratic and individualized strategy. It is based on psychological principles of operant condition. The response of the learner are strictly controlled by the programmer.

Meaning of Programmed Instruction
Its main focus is to bring desirable change in the cognitive domain of the learner’s behavior. The structure of teaching method is that the selected content is analyzed and broken into smaller elements. Each element is independent and complete in itself. The programmer develops frames based on each element. Responses are also provided to the learner in the program on some different leaflets. The correct response of the learner is the new knowledge or new behavior. Immediate confirmation of correct response provides reinforcement to the learner and he proceeds to the next frame. Wrong responses required feedback. Physical presence of the teacher is not necessary. He may come to give instructions regarding the program. Students are left for learning at their own pace.

Types of Programmed Instruction
There are three types of this teaching strategy
1. Linear Programming. It is being used for teaching all subjects. In programed teaching strategy progressive chain elements are presented. Last step is at the mastery level. It is based on five fundamental principles.
1. Small steps
2. Active responding
3. Immediate confirmation
4. Self-pace
5. Student testing

2. Branched Programming. It is generally used in mechanical fields.

3. Mathematics. Retrogressive chain of elements is presented. First step is the master level while the last step is the simplest element.

Advantages of Programmed Instruction
Following are the advantages of this teaching strategy
1. The main emphasis is on individual differences and students’ involvement.

2. There is not fixed time interval for learning. Students may learn at their own pace.

3. Learning by doing maxim of teaching is followed to involve learners in the learning process.

4. Students are exposed only to correct responses, therefore, possibility to commit errors in reduced.

5. Immediate confirmation of the results provides reinforcement to the learners and encourages the learners to proceed further. Feedback is provided to wrong answers, so that learner is able to develop mastery over the content.

Disadvantages of Programmed Instruction
1. It is very difficult to develop an instructional programme
2. Only cognitive objectives can be achieved
3. Due to tight schedule of time table, students cannot be left to learn at their own pace. It would be very
difficult to learn the content the subject matter in a limited period of time.
4. There is no chance for students’ creativity, their responses are highly structured.
5. Development of programme is not economical in terms of cost and time
6. In absence of the teacher, students may spoil the disciplinary tone of the class, or they will be helpless
when any problem arises.
7. It cannot be applied at primary level of education or at higher education

Suggestion for this Teaching Strategy
1. A programmer should have thorough knowledge of the content and technique of content analysis.
2. This strategy should be used as a supplementary device for remedial teaching in the class room.
3. It should be used in distance education or continuing education programs where no rigid time table is
applied.
4. If no at a primary level or higher level of education, this strategy may be useful at secondary level of
education where many new subjects are introduced in the curriculum and they create problems in
learning.

If applied in classroom teaching, teacher should be present in the class. He can maintain discipline in the class and help in eradicating the difficulties of the learners. Personal touch of the teacher can be more fruitful and effective in student’s learning.

Q.3 What sort of material is required for the preparation of teaching aids? Do you think that the locally available material can equally be useful in preparation of A.V Aids?

Answer: Teaching aids are vital tools to enhance learning of basic concepts. They play a significant role in teaching – learning of visually impaired children. The difficulties encountered by the child in understanding a concept could be overcome by the correct use of teaching aids. Certain fundamental questions should be asked before the preparation of teaching aids. What is the purpose of the aid? To whom is it useful and when? Clarifications to these questions may help the teacher to frame his specific objectives for the task.

• Teaching aids make teaching effective and simultaneously make the learning interesting and profitable.
• Aids quicken the pace of learning, foster its development and help to overcome the hurdles in learning.
• Aids provide first hand concrete experience to the child. One aid is equivalent to thousand words when a child has difficulties in forming a concept.
• Aids bring variety to the learning of the visually impaired child which is more in demand for his education. In fact, visually impaired children need varieties.
• Good collection of aids motivates the teacher for better teaching. The ideas involved in the aids evoke the creativity of the teacher.

Preparation of Aids for Visually Impaired Children
1. A number of aids can be prepared subject-wise. But it should be borne in mind that some of the aids are not very important and some others are very vital. Judgment regarding the selection of the aid is one of the most important skills of the teacher. The aids should be more selective.
2. A particular teaching aid should be prepared in such a way that the visually impaired child is able to explore, discriminate and recognize it without much confusion. First the child must be able to perceive the differences between the different textures, forms, etc, used in the aid and distinguish one from another. Thirdly, he should be able to perceive details of appearances so as to identify the names for the parts of the aid or the aid itself for recognition.
3. The next important rule to be observed is that the aids, which prepared should withstand the manipulation of the little hands of the children. When the aid is prepared in hurry the very touch of the object may dislocate the parts. Therefore, it should be strong enough to have longer durability.
4. Validity and preciseness are factors, which make the aid more effective and time saving. The aid should be tactfully as attractive as possible because visually impaired children are devoid of visual attraction.
5. Innumerable hours of preparation of teaching aids must be avoided. A teacher should not spend much of time for an aid which has very little value for visually impaired children. Appropriate use of time is very imperative as the teacher has to attend to other activities too in the educational programme for children with visual impairment.
6. The teacher should be tactful enough in preparing an aid in such a way that when it is prepared, it should be useful for teaching more than one concept. This little attention saves time, energy and cost.
7. Principle in the preparation of aid may be “Make it cheap; use it well and change it often”. Newness and novelty will always attract the children. The teacher should know the art of improvising aids by using low cost materials readily available at the local markets.

Audio visual material must be seen in their relationship to teaching as a whole and to the learning process as a whole, until the teacher understands the relationship between audio visual material and teaching learning process. Audio visual materials are produced, distributed and used as planned components of educational programs. It helps the process of learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation. A.v. aids are multisensory materials which motivate and stimulate the individual. It makes dynamic learning experience more concrete realistic and clarity. It provides significant gains in thinking and reasoning. Audio visual aids are sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for learning. These are planned educational materials that appeal to the senses of the people and quicken learning facilities for clear understanding.

Definitions:
1. According to Kinder S. James: Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.
2. According to Burton: audio visual aids are those sensory objects or images which initiate or stimulate and reinforce learning.
3. According to Carter.v.Good: audio visual aids are those aids which help in completing the triangular
process of learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation.
4. According to good’s dictionary of education: audio visual aids are any thing by means of which learning process may be encouraged or carried on through the sense of hearing or sense of sight.
5. According to Edger Dale: audio visual aids are those devices by the use of which communication of ideas between persons and groups in various teaching and training situations is helped. These are also termed as multi sensory materials.
6. According to McKean and Roberts: audio visual aids are supplementary devices by which the teacher,
through the utilization of more than one sensory channel is able to clarify, establish and correlate concepts, interpretations andappreciations.
7. According to KP. Neeraja: an audio visual aid is an instructional device in which the message can be heard as well as seen.

CLASSIFICATION OF A.V.AIDS:
Various classifications are given for Audio visual aids according to the type of projection by various authors.
I) Classification of A.V.Aids
I) Audio aids: Audio materials are those which can be heard. Ex: - radio, tape recorder, walkman, Headphones.
II) Visual aids: these are helpful to visualize the things. Ex:- graphic aids, 3d-aids, display boards, and print material.
III) Audio visual aids: these aids can be heard and seen simultaneously. Ex: - projected aids, TV, films.

II) Classification of A.V.Aids
I) Simple A.V.Aids: It includes graphic aids, display boards, 3d-aids, print material...etc.
II) Sophisticated A.V.Aids: includes audio-visual aids.

PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED FOR THE EFFECTIVE USE OF A.V.AIDS:
· Audio visual materials should function as an integral part of the educational program.
· A.v. aids should be centralized, under specialized direction and leadership in educational programs.
· An advisory committee consisting of representative from all areas of curriculum should be appointed to assist in selection and coordination of a.v. materials.
· An education program should be flexible.
· A.v. material should be carefully located to eliminate duplication, easy accessibility and convenient use.
· A.v. material should be available whenever and wherever they needed for effective utilization as an integral part of curriculum.
· Budget appropriations should be made regularly for a.v. education programs.
· Periodic evaluation to be done to assess the function of, utilization and expenditure of the program.

Q.4 Critically examine the three aspects of any non-broadcast programme which must be consider while establishing a budget.

Answer:
Non-Broadcast
Television
Although broadcast television has long been the most "visible" part of the television business, in terms of personnel, equipment and facilities, non-broadcast production is actually the largest segment of the TV field.
Included in the category is institutional video, which includes corporate, educational, religious, medical, and governmental applications, and vocational television, which is associated with serious personal/professional applications

Institutional Video
Video production designed for specific audiences, has proven itself in many areas. These include --
• Management-employee links It can be an effective tool for supervisors or management in reaching employees with information on policies, progress, or problems. This is particularly important if the institution has branches in diverse areas.
• Instructional video In today's highly competitive, rapidly changing world, the ability to keep employees up on the latest techniques and developments is a major concern. Instructional videos are one answer.
• Public relations Many institutions regularly create videos to explain policies or announce products,
research developments, or major institutional changes.
• Marketing While the mass media may be a cost-effective way of reaching a general audience, it's not the best way of informing a limited number of people about specialized products and services. Point-of-sale videos, often seen in the home improvement, make-up, clothing, and hardware departments of retail stores, are one example of this type of marketing.

Institutional television has been particularly effective in seven areas:
1. Where graphic feedback is necessary Seeing something firsthand is generally more effective than someone talking about it. This is particularly true when it comes to feedback on artistic work or athletic performance.
2. Where close-ups are required to convey information The TV camera can make details and information obvious. It's possible to get cameras into hazardous and hard-to-reach places to reveal information. This is especially true in medical television.
3. Where subject matter can best be seen and understood by altering its speed Often, things cannot be clearly seen or understood without the use of slow motion or time-lapse (speeded up) photography.
4. Where visual effects such as animation can best convey information Animated drawings, flowcharts, and even animated characters can often make concepts clear.
5. When it's necessary to interrelate a variety of diverse elements Television can pull together and interrelate events and objects so the total effect can be understood. As we noted in the section on editing, the selection and sequence of visual elements can provide meaning and understanding.
6. Where it's difficult to transport specific personnel to needed locations Through television, experts are
readily accessible to viewers in diverse locations.
7. When the same basic information must be repeated to numerous audiences over time It's more cost
effective to use personnel to explain information once to TV cameras and then play the videotape to numerous groups thereafter.

Let's say a company spends $15,000 producing a simple, 60-minute production designed to indoctrinate new employees to the company, its policies, and the various health and retirement plan options. If 3,000 people view the video over a period of 3 years, the cost would be $5.00 per person. This can represent a major savings in cost and manpower, compared to having personnel repeatedly present the information to individuals or small groups over this time period.

Presentation Formats
There are four basic presentation formats.
• The lecture format In its worst form the lecturer stands at a podium and uses an overhead projector or
chalkboard. Without the array of attention-holding audio and video embellishments normally associated
with television the success of this format rests entirely upon the skill of on-camera talent to hold audience attention. The only advantages of lecture format are that it's easy, fast, and inexpensive.
• The interview format Here a moderator interviews one or more experts on specific topics. Although it's the mainstay of documentary programming, savvy producers strive to reduce the talking head component by adding as much supplementary B-roll footage as possible. Keep in mind that while executives may be effective in their jobs, they can come across as stilted and even inarticulate on camera.
• The documentary approach Here, ENG techniques are used to cover a topic from the perspective of the
corporation.
• The dramatic format Although drama can be an engaging way of presenting information, it's the most
demanding and it presents the greatest risk of failure. Probably the easiest form to pull off is a humorous skit where weak acting or production will be easier to overlook. Even so, for dramatic pieces it's worth the effort to try to find professional actors. Some will work for little or no pay just for the chance to gain professional credits and experience.

Holding Audience Attention
One of the findings that consistently emerges from studies on effective television programming is the need for variation in sound, visual information, and presentation style. In commercial television the commercials, themselves, provide change and give viewers regular "intermissions" from program content. Since non-broadcast productions don't have commercials to break things up, change and variation must be introduced in other ways. Most viewers can't absorb more than about eight minutes of straight information at a time. Unless there's a change in pace, content, or presentation style, attention tends to drift.

A vocational Video
With professional-quality camcorders and editing equipment now within the reach of most people, we are seeing a host of vocational and a vocational applications.
Here are a few examples: (We'll use the term, "videotape" throughout these, even though other recording and playback media will probably be used.)
• An insurance agent videotapes the contents of insured homes for evidence in case of loss.
• A psychiatrist uses a camcorder to treat anorexia. To help dispel the physical illusions they hold about
themselves, he tries to get the patients to see themselves as others see them.
• An animal rights group videotapes graphic evidence of the inhumane treatment of animals. The tape ends up in a network documentary.
• A camp counselor videotapes the daily experiences of a group of scouts and sells the videotapes to parents.
• After doing a creative job of videotaping his sister's wedding, a man starts his own business producing
videotapes of weddings.
• A law student earns tuition money by taking video depositions for law firms.
• A young woman videotapes graduation ceremonies and sells copies to parents.
• A college student videotapes segments from athletic events at area schools and sells them to local TV
stations.
• A husband and wife team travels the world with a camcorder and then sells their recordings to video libraries to be used as stock footage.

Here are examples on a more personal level.
• A homeowner videotapes the contents and personal belongings in his home to have as a record, in case of fire, theft, or natural disaster.
• A dying man records a complete will on videotape, talking personally to each person named.
• A family member records the embarrassing and dangerous antics of another family member who is regularly under the influence of alcohol. Mortified at seeing it, the person seeks treatment.
• By videotaping herself as if talking to a trusted friend, a young woman is able to more fully articulate fears and yearnings. When the recording is played back after a period of time, she is able to more objectively view her feelings and fears.
• An organization puts together a videotape explaining the advantages of building a cultural arts center and presents it to the city council.
• An animal lover videotapes inhumane conditions at a local animal shelter and shows the tape on a local cable channel. The public is outraged, and action is taken to correct the situation.

Q.5 Critically examine the role of teacher in using the equipment resource centre for teaching learning process?

Answer: A learning resource centre is a facility within a school, staffed by a specialist, containing several information sources. Purpose Information and communication development opportunities and information flow are the big challenges arising from a dedicated review of most educational questions, whether from theoretical frames or material. School libraries are then considered one of the most important resources: within educational facilities. The need to develop school libraries is urgent in that, on the one hand there is a need to convey information via a wide diversity of technologies and resources, and on the other hand, there is a myriad of new teacher and student roles to support. Within this view, came the project of learning centers. The objective is to raise school libraries to an international and more technical standard. Learning Resource Centres can also be institutionalized in various institutions for teaching and learning purposes. The purpose of a resource center is to advanced the learning experience of students and teachers in any educational sector.

Concept A school utility driven by a qualified expert. It contains several information resources and their
techniques, which the teacher directly deals to acquire searching skills of information, analyze and evaluate to build a new knowledge and experience, then develop them using several learning methods. It also provides services to, facilitate the useful for both teaching and learning.

This view encourages educational trends, ruled in mid of 1960s and 1970s, whereas these are the methods of self-learning, from programmed learning and learning for mastery and learning throughout audio media to passing earliest beginnings to employ computer in learning process. And, information technology and teaching and learning theories have added a new dimension into learning resources centers concept.

Reasons for establishing resources centers
• The strong connection between learning resources and method, and passing away supporting and cultural general role of school libraries into essential, accurately planned, role to achieve the method and its purposes.
• The book and printed material become not the only information resource.
• Development of educational theories, international tends to self learning, taking in account differences of individuals, make the learner the axis of educational process, and the teacher role change into a leader and facilitator of learning process.
• Learning resources centers concentrate on amalgamation of resources, information and communication
technologies with educational practices inside centers.

Assignments
• Definition the goals of learning resources centers programs, with and implemented, evaluated plan to
achieve these goals.
• Center activities planning and to amalgamate them with school educational program.
• Establishing a balanced group that contains printed and non-¬printed educational and learning materials supporting curriculum.
• School man-power development through continuous training during the period of teachers service and
ensuring technical resources, and notify them about new materials, and sharing with them in decision making processes related to resources purchasing.
• Presenting consultation services in the educational techniques field and teaching methods.
• Ensuring educational techniques production requirements and acquainting about methods of their production and amalgamating them into educational curricula.
• Make the periodical maintenance for materials and educational instruments available in the center.
• Encourage students on self-learning.
• Assert the concept learning resource (E.N OSARONWI IAUE PH )

The aim Learning resources center's general aim is to ensure learning educational suitable environment that allows learner benefit from any kind of learning resources.
Learning resources centers, material ingredients
A) Self-learning auditorium: Self-learning auditorium should facilitate access to all kind of information resources: printed, depending on learning instrument and computerized resources. Then this auditorium should be available, attractive and suitable for student of all grades. Self-learning auditorium includes the following: –
Reception and visitors serving area, cataloguing, borrowing and – management. – Reading and perusal area. – Self-learning area (using several resources) – Electronic learning area – Area when can be maintained learning resources (printed and not printed) – Catalogues area (using computer)

B) Group-learning auditorium: The most important characterizing this auditorium is: it has a various equipment and uses, whereas available projectors depend on computer, radio or live presentation through digital camera. There is available, also, flexible furniture which can be reshaped to suit all kind of group and cooperative learning. And it also prepared for simple designing and production of educational materials and several media.

Collections
Educational resources are considered as most important element of the center, and without it the center cannot achieve its main role. Building and developing collections to be made according to specific policy, made and adapted in order to satisfy center's goals. This policy should ensure the building and development of integrated collection that can help and enrich educational curricula.

Learning resources center specialist's role
As a teacher, the library media specialists works with students and other members of the learning community to analyze learning and information needs, to locate and use resources that will meet those needs, and to understand and communicate the information the resource provides. The library media specialist is knowledgeable about current research on teaching and learning and skilled in applying its findings to a variety of situations – particularly those that call upon students to access, evaluate, and use information from multiple sources in order to learn, to think, and to create and to apply knowledge. In short, the library media specialist teaches students to use information for critical thinking and problem solving using the information literacy standards for student learning set.

A learning resources center's success depends firstly on the range of its engagement in modern learning
methods implementation, which gives more concentration to learner role in learning process, and evaluates work mechanism, in learning resources centers on the bases that learning resources center is not a place supported with learning resources accordingly, but educational action and substantial element of different elements of classroom lesson. The Work mechanism in learning resources centers requires following two methods and merging between them.

1. Benefiting from learning resources centers requires each teacher to implement one lesson weekly (or
according to school classes number) in the learning resources center and to depend, in this lesson, mainly on group learning method (cooperative learning) .

2. In the second method, benefiting from learning resources centers does not require teacher to implement class lesson in learning resources center, but he has to follow up the same previous procedures, then allow the students to implement their projects referring to learning resources center outside the lesson time, and students to be given, in this case, more time to implement the project, then require do a presentation and discussion in the class.

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8623 Elementary Education Assignment 1

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8623 Elementary Education Assignment 1

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BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q 1. Elucidate the role of public and private sector in elementary education. Discuss the initiatives of government of Pakistan in this context.

Answer:
Education plays a pivotal role in the rise and fall of the nations especially in the 21st century importance of education influence much to meet the fast growing challenges. It is mainly due to the emergence of global competition in education and technology. This competitive environment is the core need for progress of any country. All countries including Pakistan have different school systems but when we divide them we find two major categories of school systems: private and public schools. In Pakistan, private schools are getting mass acceptance today to ensure sustained progress of the country.
During 1990s and 2000s, private sector emerged as a key provider of education services in Pakistan both in absolute terms and relative to the public sector. Private educational institutions are playing key role not only in eradicating illiteracy but also enhancing the level of students as well as teachers by providing better academic environment. Private sector contributed significantly in eradicating illiteracy in the emerging economies. If private schools are properly managed they can uplift educational standard in Pakistan as well.

The educational landscape of Pakistan has gone through numerous transformations in the past two decades. Enrollment levels and gender parity index have been on the rise. The changes in the education sector that have been taking place in Pakistan have created an environment with numerous opportunities as well as challenges in terms of policy development. Even though the enrollment in government schools is much bigger than any other sector, the declining trend in favor of non –state providers is significant.

Education, especially primary education is mostly considered a public service which should be provided to the citizens without discrimination, irrespective of affordability and mainly as the government’s responsibility. This ideology was behind the nationalization of all education institutions in 1972, which severely interrupted the role of the robust private sector particularly at the post elementary level. However, like other services provided by the government, education provision has been severely constrained by governance, quality and effectiveness.

After the end of nationalization in 1979, Pakistan has witnessed an exponential increase in the role of private sector service providers. The negative experiences of government schools have instigated parents to shift children from government to private schools. Private schools no longer remain an urban or elite phenomenon, but rather poor households also use these facilities to a large extent, due to their better locations, reasonable fees, teachers’ presence and better-quality learning, especially in the fields of mathematics and language. Even though private schools started off as an urban phenomenon, more recently they have mushroomed in rural areas as well.

Several characteristics are responsible for making private schooling more attractive to parents compared to government schools; these include better test scores, better physical infrastructure, and lower rates of teacher absenteeism. Some of the other factors are:

1- Income of parents
2- Teacher quality factors influencing school choice:

Parents’ knowledge of the teacher’s educational qualifications
Parents’ opinion of the teacher’s regularity
Parents’ rating of the teacher’s teaching skills

3- Facilities in School
4- Child safety
5- Quality of education
6- School Fee
7- Medium of Instruction
8- Better results

Even if we disregard the debate of whether the learning levels are better in private or government schools, the fact remains that the learning levels for both types of institutes remain poor in an absolute sense. The private schools advantage over the public schools is marginal up if we look at the problems of education in the country holistically speaking. Therefore, the policy developers should cater to supporting and improving both the sectors and not either of the two.

The outcomes of private versus public schools’ debate may be a popular discourse, however, at a policy level it is essential to understand that the current education emergency in Pakistan cannot be confronted with just a single player in the education sector. Multiple players, other than the government alone are required in the process to combat the problems. The government needs private sector’s help to contest the challenges. Various other challenges including the flood, security issues and dislocations of citizens due to the regional conflicts in the country also pose major concerns that the households and state need to plan around in the future. The need of the hour is a collective action by all the stakeholders, including the households, government, private sector and the civil society.

It can be a better option if the government uses its resources not on increasing the number of schools but rather on the quality of existing schools. Increasing access to education for children by increasing the number of schools should be a policy left for the private sector and the government itself should concentrate on improving the quality of physical facilities and teachers in the existing schools. By doing this, the benchmark for the private schools will also increase, thus increasing both access to, and quality of education.
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Q 2. Describe in the light of Piaget’s theory the cognitive and intellectual development of a child at different levels.

Answer:
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget’s stages are:

Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

How Piaget Developed the Theory
Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student, publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.

Much of Piaget’s interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding hypothesis that children’s minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds. Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think is different from the way adults think.

Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children, he suggested. Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus older children. Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget’s discovery “so simple only a genius could have thought of it.”

Piaget’s stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget’s view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations.

The Stages
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that included four distinct stages:

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations

Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening

Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence) They are separate beings from the people and objects around them. They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them. During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child’s entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses. It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries about how the world works. The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of development. By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms.

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think very concretely about the world around them.

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.

For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation. While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts. During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems

Abstract thought emerges
Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information
The final stage of Piaget’s theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage. It is important to note that Piaget did not view children’s intellectual development as a quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages. A child at age 7 doesn’t just have more
information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.
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Q 3. Personality development occurs early in life but later years provide an opportunity for the modification of previously developed trends’. Discuss.

Answer:
Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes that makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by the ongoing interaction of temperament, character, and environment.
Description
Personality is what makes a person a unique person, and it is recognizable soon after birth. A child’s personality has several components: temperament, environment, and character. Temperament is the set of genetically determined traits that determine the child’s approach to the world and how the child learns about the world. There are no genes that specify personality traits, but some genes do control the development of the nervous system, which in turn controls behavior. A second component of personality comes from adaptive patterns related to a child’s specific environment. Most psychologists agree that these two factors—temperament and environment—influence the development of a person’s personality the most. Temperament, with its dependence on genetic factors, is sometimes referred to as “nature,” while the environmental factors are called “nurture.”

While there is still controversy as to which factor ranks higher in affecting personality development, all experts agree that high-quality parenting plays a critical role in the development of a child’s personality. When parents understand how their child responds to certain situations, they can anticipate issues that might be problematic for their child. They can prepare the child for the situation or in some cases they may avoid a potentially difficult situation altogether. Parents who know how to adapt their parenting approach to the particular temperament of their child can best provide guidance and ensure the successful development of their child’s personality.

Finally, the third component of personality is character—the set of emotional, cognitive, and behavioral patterns learned from experience that determines how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. A person’s character continues to evolve throughout life, although much depends on inborn traits and early experiences. Character is also dependent on a person’s moral development .
In 1956, psychiatrist Erik Erikson provided an insightful description as to how personality develops based on his extensive experience in psychotherapy with children and adolescents from low, upper, and middle-class backgrounds. According to Erikson, the socialization process of an individual consists of eight phases, each one accompanied by a “psychosocial crisis” that must be
solved if the person is to manage the next and subsequent phases satisfactorily. The stages significantly influence personality development, with five of them occurring during infancy, childhood, and adolescence.

Infancy
During the first two years of life, an infant goes through the first stage: Learning Basic Trust or Mistrust (Hope) . Well-nurtured and loved, the infant develops trust and security and a basic optimism. Badly handled, the infant becomes insecure and learns “basic mistrust.”

Toddlerhood
The second stage occurs during early childhood, between about 18 months to two years and three to four years of age. It deals with Learning Autonomy or Shame (Will) . Well-parented, the child emerges from this stage with self-confidence, elated with his or her newly found control. The early part of this stage can also include stormy tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism, depending on the child’s temperament.

Preschool
The third stage occurs during the “play age,” or the later preschool years from about three to entry into formal school. The developing child goes through Learning Initiative or Guilt (Purpose) . The child learns to use imagination; to broaden skills through active play and fantasy; to cooperate with others; and to lead as well as to follow. If unsuccessful, the child becomes fearful, is unable to join groups, and harbors guilty feelings. The child depends excessively on adults and is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination.

School age
The fourth stage, Learning Industry or Inferiority (Competence) , occurs during school age, up to and possibly including junior high school. The child learns to master more formal skills:
relating with peers according to rules progressing from free play to play that is structured by rules and requires teamwork (team sports) learning basic intellectual skills (reading, arithmetic)
At this stage, the need for self-discipline increases every year. The child who, because of his or her successful passage through earlier stages, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative, will quickly learn to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future and will feel inferior.

Adolescence
The fifth stage, Learning Identity or Identity Diffusion (Fidelity) , occurs during adolescence from age 13 or 14. Maturity starts developing during this time; the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-doubt and experiments with different constructive roles rather than adopting a negative identity, such as delinquency. The well-adjusted adolescent actually looks forward to achievement, and, in later adolescence, clear sexual identity is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him or her), and gradually develops a set of ideals to live by.
The Child Development Institute (CDI) rightfully points out that very little knowledge is available on the type of specific environment that will result, for example, in traits of trust being more developed in a person’s personality. Helping the child through the various stages of emotional and personality development is a complex and difficult task. Searching for the best ways of accomplishing this task accounts for most of the research carried out in the field of child development today.
Renowned psychologist Carl Rogers emphasized how childhood experiences affect personality development. Many psychologists believe that there are certain critical periods in personality development—periods when the child will be more sensitive to certain environmental factors. Most experts believe that a child’s experiences in the family are important for his or her personality development, although not exactly as described by Erikson’s stages, but in good agreement with the importance of how a child’s needs should to be met in the family environment. For example, children who are toilet trained too early or have their toilet training carried out too strictly may become rebellious. Another example is shown by children who learn appropriate behavior to their sex lives when there is a good relationship with their same-sex parent. Another environmental factor of importance is culture. Researchers comparing cultural groups for specific personality types have found some important differences. For example, Northern European countries and the United States have individualistic cultures that put more emphasis on individual needs and accomplishments. In contrast, Asian, African, Central American, and South American countries are characterized more by community-centered cultures that focus on belonging to a larger group, such as a family, or nation. In these cultures, cooperation is considered a more important value than competitiveness, which will necessarily affect personality development.
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Q 4. Explain the inter-relationship of language skills. How does the classroom environment affect them?

Answer:
The significance of listening skill in effective communication has been recognized for a century. Rankin (1926) conducted a study and found that listening skill was the most dominant skill for the mode of human communication. However, there were no more similar studies until the 1940s. The base of listening inquiry was primarily laid academically in the late 1940s and the founders (James Brown, Ralph Nichols and Carl Weaver) of the listening skill were considered as the “fathers of listening” (Vocile, 1987). Listening skill was taken into the second and foreign language research field in the mid 20th Century and many researchers put listening as the focus of their studies. After half a century, a professional committee International Listening Association (ILA) was established in 1979 to develop listening skill (Feyten, 1991). Knowing how to entail listening instruction and assessment in the school syllabi was the main target of the pedagogy. Steven (1987) pointed out that many studies provide a focus on either understanding listening comprehension or listening critically – agree or disagree with oral input. Similarly, Floyed (1985) defines listening as a process entailing hearing, attending to, understanding, evaluating and responding to spoken messages. He further believes that listeners should be active participants in communication process. The nature/purpose of listening skills varies as the context of communication differs. Wolvin and Coakley (1988) propose five different kinds of listening.

First, discriminative listening helps listeners draw a distinction between facts and opinions.
Second, comprehensive listening facilitates understanding oral input.
Third, critical listening allows listeners to analyse the incoming message before accepting and rejecting it.
Fourth, therapeutic listening serves as a sounding board and lack any critiques, e.g., advising.
Finally, appreciative listening contributes listeners to enjoy and receives emotional impressions. All the varieties of listening help to demonstrate that listening is an active process rather than a passive product. The authors define the process of listening as making sense of oral input by attending to the message. Thus, this study adopts the second definition of listening – understand the oral input mentioned by Wolvin and Coakley as a tool to evaluate the research assumption. The current study seeks to delve into the correlation between listening and other skills in International English Language

Testing System.
Language development involves four fundamental and interactive abilities: listening, speaking, reading and writing. The attempt has widely been made to teach four macro skills in second and foreign language for more than 60 years. Berninger and Winn (2006) emphasize that external and internal environment interacts with functional systems to extent, which the nature-nurture interaction at birth evolves over the course of time. The question is how much and how long the basic skill of listening gains attention in second and foreign language learning while listening is recognized to play a significant role in primary and secondary language acquisition (Ellis, 1994; Faerch & Kasper, 1986). In the 1970s, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) method was introduced to develop language learning proficiency. Some prominent researchers (Asher, 1977; Krashen, 1992) highlighted the significance of listening in the pedagogy. Krashen (1992) has argued that language acquisition highly depends on the decoding process of making sense of incoming messages. Language acquisition never occurs without access to the comprehensible language input (Rost, 1994) because in addition to visual learning, more than three quarters (80 %) of human learning occurs through listening direction (Hunsaker, 1990). Returning to language acquisition, Nunan (2003) suggested that listening is the gasoline that fuels the acquisition process. Thus, the main reason experts emphasize the significance of listening in language acquisition is the frequency of listening in language development. However, much of the relevant research incorporated into listening as an inevitable medium to drive primary and secondary language acquisition. What is more, none of them focuses on the relationship between listening skill and other language skills – speaking, reading and writing in English as a Foreign Language (EFL). The current research study aims to fill this gap by providing empirical data obtained in a large-scale investigation of 1800 participants taking the international known language proficiency test – IELTS administered in the capital of Iran, Tehran.
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Q 5. Differentiate between role-play and simulation. Discuss the use of each for making teaching learning process effective at elementary level.

Answer:
There is a difference between simulations (where students act out real-life situations, for example the student checks in at “the airport”, but students do play themselves) and role plays where students take on different characters. In a role play, for example, one student may be asked to take on the role of “an angry landowner” in a role play which is concerned with discussing the possible construction of a new road. Another may be asked to play the role of the “road company representative”. Role plays will thus require more “imagination” on the part of the student to be able to get “into” the role.

Some students will find being asked to play a different person in a role play quite liberating. Some students who are normally quite shy can open up considerably in a role play lesson. The teacher, though, must attempt to maintain the “pretend” part of the simulations and role plays: i.e. the students ARE in an airport and not the classroom. Teachers can aid this process by use of realia and other props. Students who don’t enter into the ‘fantasy world’ can ruin it for everyone else.

Teacher intrusion must be kept to an absolute minimum during role plays and simulations….preferably, zero. We use role plays to allow students to test out learnt language in as realistic a situation as possible. They are, in a sense, a halfway house between a sterile classroom practice activity and the often frightening reality of the real world for students. Students can thus feel free to experiment with their language in a safe environment. Teacher intrusion is possible if the participating students, for example, are not understanding at all what they should be doing. Otherwise, teacher input should be left for the post-activity feedback session.

Feedback on what students have just done is vital. The role-play or simulation could be videotaped or recorded for example, which would allow a more detailed and thus useful analysis of their performances. Students need to see this as an important part of self evaluation. If students can learn to appreciate the weaknesses of their performance, they will only benefit. A student who says “he asked me about the ticket prices and I tripped up over the numbers again – I need to focus on that” is one who is well aware of where future performance needs to improve. The priority in the mind of the teacher, though, should remain communicative efficacy. Long feedback sessions of the mistaken use of the present perfect during the role play can be left for another time.

The more natural setting of a well set-up role play can also be used to introduce the unpredictability which makes communicating in the real world so daunting for many foreign language learners. This can be done either with the teacher playing “rogue” characters or handing out a couple of unusual role cards to other students. Teachers should seek to mix things up if you feel the simulations and role-plays are becoming too predictable for the class. As we said before, the safe environment offered by role plays means a few surprises can quite safely be thrown at students to see how they cope.

The Role of the Teacher
The teacher must first of all be convinced of what she is doing. She must have the conviction that drama can be an effective tool in language teaching. She must have clear objectives as to her role and the use of dramatic activities in achieving her goals. She is the one who sets the mood of the class. She must change her attitude towards her role in the classroom. In the drama classroom she needs to be less domineering and gradually withdraw. Her main function should be that of an initiator controlling but not directing the situation. Her rapport with the students is important. The students should feel at ease and relaxed in the classroom. Certain warming activities can help to achieve this. This will be discussed later.

Although the teacher is to slowly withdraw from the main scene, she still needs to be in control of all that is going on in class. She can still do this without appearing domineering if she has clear objectives and has prepared herself thoroughly. She must give clear instructions to the students to carry out their various tasks. She must also have close control of time so that her plans can be carried out accordingly. Thus do not be over ambitious in the aims of the lessons.

For lower level or weaker classes, there is a need for language preparation before the class. Lists of words, phrases, functions and sentence types, which are relevant to the activities to be carried out, have to be prepared before hand. These have to be presented to the students before the activities so that they can use them as aids/tools in their tasks.

Role of the Learner
In recent years there has been a move towards the “whole-person approach. The learner thus becomes the centre of focus and at the centre of the language learning process. This is influenced by the “effective humanistic approach” to language teaching. With this in mind, language learning must therefore appeal to the language learner intellectually and emotionally. Stevick (1980), states that language learning must appeal to the creative, intuitive aspect of personality as well as the conscious and the rational part.

Drama activities provide opportunities for active student participation. The activities involve the student’s whole personality and not merely his mental process. Effective learning takes place as the student involves himself in the tasks and is motivated to use the target language. As he uses the language, he becomes more aware of his ability to use the language and this will hopefully increase his motivation to learn.

In drama activities, the student is encouraged to discuss, evaluate and describe the activities. He has to explain, interpret and make decisions. The student thus has little time to be idle or daydream for he is an active participant in the lesson. Students may take some time to get used to this active role and the teacher may have to slowly but firmly initiate this change in the role and even attitudes

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8622 Non Broadcast Media Assignment 1

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 2 Jan 2021 17:25:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8622 Non Broadcast Media Assignment 1

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Course: Non-Broadcast Media in Distance Education (8622)
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Explain the steps for choice of media and also identify the factors affecting the media.

Answer:
They know the importance of social media to their business and it’s on you to make it happen with a social media plan. Results don’t just happen. So how do you craft a winning social media plan that drives growth for your client? It’s not easy to find the balance, especially when you’re working solo. The battle for attention is fiercely competitive and the social media market is increasingly crowded. The platforms themselves don’t make it any easier, with algorithm changes and new features being added constantly. This is nowhere more evident than on Facebook. Even though there are 2 billion monthly Facebook users, organic reach for business Pages continues to decline rapidly.

What does this mean for you when you’re planning out your client’s social media activities?

You need a social media marketing plan to keep your efforts on course to delivering value and return on investment (ROI) for your clients. Here’s how to structure your plan in seven steps:

Step 1 – Set goals for your social media plan
“Alice: Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?
The Cheshire Cat: That depends a good deal on where you want to get to.
Alice: I don’t much care where.
The Cheshire Cat: Then it doesn’t much matter which way you go.”
– Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland

If you don’t have a goal, you’re not going to get anywhere. At least, not anywhere meaningful. Setting goals is the first port of call when crafting your plan.

But, how do you determine what goals should be included in your social media plan?

Align your goals to your client’s business objectives
Where does your client want to get to? It’s so important to have this clear before you start developing a plan. You can also ask them what they’ve done in the past, what worked and what didn’t. Once you understand your client’s business goals, you’ll be able to prioritize the actions that will help achieve those goals.

If you haven’t been doing this up until now, answering this simple question will have a profound impact on your ability to prove your effectiveness as a social media manager.

Agree on the goals of your social media plan
Now that you know what your client’s business goals are for the quarter, you can set goals for your social media plan. The SMART system is a helpful tool to help you define your goals. Here’s a quick overview of the system:

Specific – what exactly are we trying to achieve?
Measurable – what are the numbers, so we’ll know when we’ve achieved it?
Achievable – how is this going to get done?
Relevant – is this the right goal for this time and place? Are we the right people for this goal?
Time-sensitive – when will this goal be achieved?
For more help with SMART goals, Smart Insights shares common mistakes on setting marketing objectives and the 10 measure design tests to make sure you’re focussing on metrics that matter. Following the SMART goal process will help you come up with a goal that’s in clear alignment with your client’s business objectives. Achieving your goals will naturally yield results your client needs and deliver ROI.

Step 2 – Decide which networks to focus on
When you don’t have a huge team behind you, you need to know which networks will deliver the best results for your clients. And, you need to be ruthless when prioritizing where to focus your efforts. The good news is not all networks are equally valuable to your client’s business. This can be due to demographics, how the different platforms are used or because of the type of product or service your client offers.

Factors affecting the media:
The problem of selection of the best medium or media for a particular advertiser will vary greatly, depending on the particular situation, circumstances and different other factors in which a person is conducting individual business. Media selection involves a basic understanding of the capabilities and costs of the major media. The problems which the advertising has to face in the selection of media are:

Profile of the target market
Coverage or exposure
Frequency
Continuity
Impact
Copy formulation
Media cost and media availability.

In addition to these problems there are a number of other major factors which influence the decision of the advertiser and therefore, the same must be considered while selecting the media. The most significant of these factors are:

Objectives of the campaign

Budget available
Research concerning client
The product

Type of message or selling appeal

Relative cost
Clutter
The potential market
Miscellaneous factors.

The media selecting decisions should be made by having a comprehensive understanding of these factors. But it should be kept in mind that in many cases it is the combination of these factors that determines the selection of media, and not any one individual factor.

The Objectives of the Campaign
This factor is in some respects quite closely related to the preceding factor. In those cases when the advertiser uses a medium to advertise in an area where retail distribution is not adequate, his/her decision on media selection is influenced both by his/her distribution pattern and the objectives he/she has in mind.

The objectives of the campaign also influence media selection from a somewhat different standpoint. An institutional advertising campaign may be run in a different media than would a product advertising campaign for the same company. In the case of product for which the dealer is very important in the ultimate sale to the consumer, and far more significant than the influence of consumer advertising, the advertiser may select media primarily for the effect the will have on dealers. So, the objective of influencing dealers will be the prime factor in the selection of the medium to use.

The Budget Available:
The advertising budget is concerned with two major decisions about how the advertising effort will be carried out. First, how much is to be spent for advertising in the coming period? Second,, how much budget is to be allocated to different areas within the company’s total sales territory? And how much budget be allocated for media? Because the budget determines the weight of advertising effort which is an important variable in determining the effectiveness of the entire advertising effort. The product might be one for which actual demonstration on TV would be highly desirable. Yet the advertiser would be unable to sponsor (or even cosponsor) such a programme because its cost would exceed the total advertising budget. The advertiser might believe it desirable to use a multi-colour advertisement in a magazine not only to reach desired prospects, but also to influence the trade favourably. But if he still finds that his budget does not permit even that type of ad in the magazine, then the advertiser must turn to a medium in which he can get sufficient participation or a sufficient schedule of insertions to achieve an effective programme. So the availability of funds must be considered in planning-and selection of media.
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Q.2 Discuss the utility of chalkboard/blackboard, bulletin board and flannel board in the teaching learning process.

Answer:
Utility of chalkboard/blackboard:
Using blackboard (chalkboard) is a must for teaching in schools and colleges.
Though the technology has gone up with high visual interactive boards taking the place of chalkboards, the teaching with a chalkboard is still irreplaceable.
The chalkboard has many advantages both for the teacher and also the students. Using the board makes the subject more narrative, easy to teach for the tutor and also let the student understand better.

Advantages of chalkboard for teachers:
Ease of presentation: A teacher can quickly deliver the subject by writing on the chalkboard. Students do not like oral presentation without some writing done.

The chalk board with clear graphs and display make it easy to read, understand and also note down the topic for students

In math’s use of a blackboard with chalk to write problems is the only way of teaching to the students.
For languages where students find it difficult for some spellings, the teacher can scribble it on the board to copy.

In science, for biology subject’s teacher can draw diagrams as this helps even students draw them in their books and thereby get practice for writing in exams.

In physics, derivation can be easily derived in a manner understandable to students by use of a chalkboard.

In chemistry stoichiometry of equation, formulas, chemical reactions can well be taught by use of a board.

Gain attention and interest of students in the subject: Students and audiences do not like long speech lectures. They may remain interested for the first 10 min. or so, and their minds stay away from class. This can be avoided by using chalkboard writing as both combinations of hearing and writing will keep their attention and interest in class intact for a longer time.

Writing on blackboards helps students take note of class. This class note helps them to study the topic easily at homes or during exams.

Bulletin board:
Bulletin boards serve multiple purposes. They can convey a variety of information from meeting announcements and parent news to curriculum overviews and displays of student work. They can also make learning visible. Why: Bulletin boards reflect a class or school’s identity. In and outside the classroom, bulletin boards that make learning visible show what we value, offer opportunities for reflection, help learners make connections within and across subject matter, and contribute to a shared and public body of knowledge. Bulletin boards can also foster a sense of belonging to a learning community. What: Bulletin boards that make learning visible focus on what was learned as well as what was done. They reveal the learning process as well as product, and balance content learning with learning about learning. They often include what the adult learned as well as the students. Here are some questions to guide you when deciding what to include on your bulletin board (see Creating Bulletin Boards worksheet):

• What is your goal in making the board and who is your audience?
• What kind of learning are you most excited about? What are your students excited about?
• What might you include that would promote additional learning?
• Is your commentary or interpretation supported by what you share on the board?

Covered in colored cloth, a flannel board is a beautiful way to teach very young children about the alphabet, allegorical tales and more. A flannel board, or felt board, helps a child explore stories, use their imagination, improve fine motor skills and open up their creativity with shapes, colors and
objects. Sturdy but covered in soft cloth, a flannel board is a benefit to small children as well as teachers who are looking for a way to change up typical teachable moments.

Flannel Board Ideas
Made for retelling simple stories from classic books such as Mother Goose or the Brothers Grimm, flannel boards are fun on many levels. Add googly eyes, buttons and other craft items to increase the level of play on a flannel board. Get creative.
For counting, cut out tan triangles and use them for cones and add up the scoops of ice cream or semicircle shapes in a wide variety of colors. Make monsters by trimming the corner on one side of a square and add hair, eyes, mustaches and more. Have a competition as to who can come up with the scariest, most colorful or decorated monster on a flannel board.
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Q.3 Discuss the importance of slides and films strips projects in education?

Answer:
Media range from the simple and available, such as chalkboards, to the complex and costly, such as television or video, film or filmstrips. You are not likely to use all the instructional media that we discuss in this book. In fact, you should not attempt to. However, after considering the factors in media selection, compare what you already have with the media described here. Select a few that are feasible. You can change them after carrying out an evaluation such as the one discussed at the end of this chapter. You can also incorporate some of the ideas suggested here to modify media currently in use. From our experience, the novice lecturer tends to use too many instructional media, leading to confusion among the students. On the other hand, the old professor tends to resist trying out new technologies, and sticks to old, tried methods, which may prove unexciting. A middle course is the best. Now let’s move on to discuss some specific media.

Photography: Photos, Slides and Slide-tapes, Filmstrips
The commonest photographic products that we use as instructional media are photographs (black and white or coloured), slides or film strips.

Advantages of Photography
A picture tells more than a thousand words.
Photographs, slides and filmstrips are easier to produce than drawings or paintings. They can ‘tell a story’. They make ‘invisible’ things become visible and they are easy to use in self-instruction. They are useful to compare different events. In fact, photography is a graphic method to capture and record reality. Whenever you are limited in space or time and cannot show real objects or events to your students, photography can help you with realistic visual representations of the objects or events.

A logical sequence of photographs can be combined into a story which will be either self-explanatory or require only a little text. In ready made filmstrips, the photo story is usually accompanied by a text for the instructor, or a cassette tape which presents the story to the audience. Self-instruction is also facilitated by photographs. This advantage is often used in textbooks.

Imagine you would like to demonstrate the shape of bacteria to 500 students in the lecture hall. Only five microscopes are available, and two of them are out of order. Since bacteria cannot be observed with the naked eye, micro-photography can solve this problem.

The capacity of photography goes beyond micro- and macro-exposures. Infra-red or X-ray exposures are particularly interesting in scientific lectures. They can make things, such as the bones in our bodies or the digestive system in living organisms, visible.

When comparing time sequences or different locations, photography is unbeatable. The change of the clinical picture during a disease or the effect of a drug to cure a disease, can easily be shown by a photograph. So can changes in the weather.

Overhead Projector
Transparencies are acetate or plastic sheets, normally about letter size (A4), on which you can write your information. The transparency is then used with an overhead projector to show the written material on a screen or wall (Figure 6.8). This instructional medium is probably next to the chalkboard and handouts in frequency of use. Unlike chalkboards, which are restricted to small classes, the OHP can be used with medium or large classes. Use it to demonstrate visually important points, show diagrams, highlight issues, build up information as you teach, and to support other methods of communication visually.
Before you make transparencies, you should plan them carefully just as you planned your printed media.
Notice the position of the presenter and the pointer (marker/pen) being used. Do you always face your students when you use an overhead projector or do you face the screen?

Preparing an Overhead Transparency
Here are some useful steps in preparing overhead transparencies.
Select the material that you will use for your transparencies. If there is no acetate paper, then clear plastic sheets, or old but well cleaned x-ray plates will do.
Measure your page according to the size of the OHP screen. Leave a margin at the sides, top and bottom. This will ensure that all your information can be displayed at once if necessary.
Plan your text and diagrams carefully. Try to summarize the main points. You should not attempt to convey your entire talk on the OHP,
Remember that you can also add information to your original transparency as you talk. This can be done by using special pens.
Choose your colour pens. There are basically two kinds of pens which you can use for writing or drawing on transparencies: (a) spirit-based pens whose images are permanent, meaning that the writing or drawing can only be erased using special solvents such as methylated spirits, and (b) water based pens whose images can be erased with plain water.
Use large bold lettering and clear simple drawings with as few lines and labels as possible (Laver, 1990).
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Q.4 Discuss the characteristics of optional and essential media and also specify the process of media utilization.

Answer:
If mediators describe the physical agencies which make communication possible, characteristics describe the essential qualities of a medium. These qualities exist, to some extent, independently of either the mediators that constitute the medium, the effects the medium has, or the way people use it. It is reasonable to view characteristics as a high level description of what a medium’s possibilities. They state what can happen when people take advantage of a medium’s potential. Viewed from this perspective, the potential inherent in characteristics sees realization in a medium’s actual effects (a third, still to be examined, view of media).

Restating this view slightly, characteristics express abstract qualities that are inherent to various combinations of physical agencies (mediators). Mediators are concrete and observable. Characteristics are also observable, but are an abstraction related to the way mediators are used. Using biology as a metaphor in which we can express this vocabulary, a discussion of “biological mediators” might say that a bird has wings and a fish has fins. A similar discussion of “biological characteristics” might say that a bird is capable of flying and a fish is capable of swimming. In this view, the difference is one of structure versus behavior. Characteristics are, then, a view of the essential behavior of media.

In a third perspective of characteristics, they describe the essential relationship of a medium’s mediators (as agency) to agents (the people that use media) and acts (the messages we transmit via media). In this view we see a medium’s mediators as having specific essential impacts on the messages and communicators that a medium mediates:

? A capacitive filter, for instance, will slow the message flow and deliver messages in bundles. The slowed message flow can be regarded as an expression of a characteristic of media. The bundled message flow can be regarded as an expression of a characteristic of media. Both characteristics describe the relationship of a medium to its messages.

? Simultaneous and parallel interfaces between communicators, in another instance, entail both interface symmetry (both communicators have the same interface) and a requirement for synchrony (both communicators must use the medium at the same time). Both synchrony and interface symmetry can be regarded as characteristics of media. Both characteristics describe the relationship of a medium to its users.

Each of these perspectives, characteristics as potential, characteristics as behavior, and characteristics as relationship, contributes to the description of what constitutes a medium’s characteristics. Each perspective is correct. None is entirely complete. One shows how characteristics (as potential) work to create effects (as realization). One shows how mediators (as structure) work to create characteristics (as behavior). The third shows how characteristics express the relationship between mediators and the people and messages which they mediate.

Message Characteristics and Communicator Characteristics
The third view is, perhaps, the richest. It views characteristics as the intersection of medium and agent communicator; of medium and communication act. Characteristics are not, in this view, a simple function of mediator selection. Characteristics instead represent an interaction effect in which mediators have individual and collective effects on both messages and the people that create and receive them. Characteristics can be regarded as behavior or effects in this view, but they are effects and characteristics of clusters of mediators rather than of media per se. This view provides, moreover, in its description of characteristics as expressing the relationship between media and both agents and acts, a useful way of organizing the characteristics of media:

? Media can be said to have message characteristics, including message speed, the distance a message can traverse, the persistence of a message, and the medium’s bandwidth.
? Media can also be said to have communicator characteristics, including audience size, inter activeness, synchrony, ease of use, and interface symmetry.

These characteristics should be regarded as a few obvious selections from a probably infinite variety of media characteristics. Some of the characteristics of media will, like those named above, be easy to observe in a reliable manner. Others will not. It will be relatively easy to operationalize a scale on which the relative speed of media in delivering messages can be compared. It will be extremely difficult to operationalize a set of definitions that classify media as “hot” or “cool” (McLuhan, 1965). It will be relatively easy to state the senses that a medium affects and a summary measure of how many senses are affected. It will be relatively difficult to create a true measure of a medium’s information bandwidth.

This study views characteristics as a summary statement of a medium’s relationship with its messages and mediators and will repeatedly use this view as a tool for comparing computer conferencing with other media. We will tend to take the easy road, concentrating on a small range of characteristics which are relatively easy to operationalize and reliably observe. The characteristics either:
? make sense as key differentiating characteristics of communication media from the standpoint of existing models of communication.
? are exposed in our study of computer conferencing as key to differentiating computer conferencing from other media.
? are exposed in this chapter, particularly in the discussion of mediators, as key to differentiating media.
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Q.5 Discuss nature and role of non-broadcast media in distance education?

Answer:
Non Broadcast Media
Non Broadcast audio is completely the opposite of broadcast (Obviously!) The main powers that non broadcast material can have, is that it enables you to pause, stop, rewind and fast forward video and, or audio as and when you feel like or if there is a need too. As non broadcast is not live or a continuous stream of media, it can also be played at any time of any day etc. Some examples of this can be videos on YouTube. You are able to view freely and leisurely as and when you please. The same goes for BBC iPlayer or your music on iTunes. Non broadcast can also be playing a CD, Listening to your iPod or MP3 player, or even watching a dvd on your TV. all of these examples mentioned are linked with each other because they can all come to a halt at any time and are not broadcasted as a continuous stream. where this is from.

Advantages & Disadvantage
the advantages are it has no TV licence you can access it when you want it is also potentially better quality ( more than one colour not black and white ) more accessible your also in control which is important and even more exciting because you can do many things with it The difference between Broadcast, and Non Broadcast, is that one has satellites and transmission masts to produce good media material that is only controlled by certain people ( not everyone ) and has a few features to the public, where as the other may want more internet connection for iPlayer and many more and we are able to locate and access the material, if it was to be pause, rewind, fast forward or to even stop.
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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8623 Elementary Education Assignment 2

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 2 Jan 2021 17:17:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8623 Elementary Education Assignment 2

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Course: Elementary Education (8623)
Level: B. Ed (1.5 year) Semester: Spring, 2019
Assignment No: 2

Q 1. Define instructional technology and compare different kinds of projected and non-projected aids.

Answer:

Instructional technology is a specific technology field that deals with creating resources for learning. The nature of instructional technology is traced back to academics like B.B. Seels and R.C. Ritchie, who defined it as "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning." From this definition, it is clear that instructional technology does involve things like Web-based training and other learning resources. It is more of a comprehensive term for all of those designs that accommodate successful learning technologies. Different kinds of projected and non-projected aids: Using non-projected visuals Teachers can use these for learners of all ages. They can involve groups to work collaboratively to prepare a presentation, with drawings and charts. There are many types of different charts: Organization charts, Classification charts, Time lines, Tabular charts, and Flowcharts. There are many types of graphs: Bar graphs, Pictorial graphs, Circle graphs, Line graphs. Posters Posters are easy to produce .They are used to catch and hold the viewer’s attention at least long enough to communicate a brief message quickly for a new topic or a special event. Cartoons Cartoons are very popular and familiar visual design. Cartoons are also easily and quickly read and appeal to learners of all ages. You can use cartoons to reinforce a point of instruction.

**Limitation
-Durability: It is easy to damage with regular learner use it. There is a problem to keep non-projected visuals- Storage. -May be too small for group viewing: non-projected visuals are not suitable for use for group because they are small.

**Using non projected visuals in the classroom

1. Use visuals whenever possible to demonstrate ideas.

2. Present a single idea in each visual. Break down complex visuals into simpler ones or build them up step-by-step.

3. Minimize text on each visual; maximum of six words per line and six lines per visual.

4. Cover irrelevant material with plain paper.

5. Use just one visual at time.

6. Teach your learners to understand visuals

7. Provide written cues to highlighted important information contained in the visuals.

Advantages

* Readily available

* Inexpensive

* No equipment required

* Easy to use

* Available for all levels of instruction

* Available for all disciplines

* Simplification of complex ideas.

Non-projected media can make your instruction more realistic and engaging Posters, cartoons, charts, pictures and graphs and what students produced by themselves can provide powerful visual support for learning abstract ideas. The non-projected media can be presented in the classroom or used as part of classroom activity. No need to use equipment for observation so non-projected visual are easy to use. Projected visual are detained as media design in which still images are enlarged and displayed on a screen .The types of projected visuals that we can use in the classroom are software, digital visuals and document cameras.

** Some general guidelines for using projected visuals

* Use visual variety. * Rehearse your narration.

* Keep it moving and limit your discussion.

* Pause for discussion.

* Avoid irrelevant images.

* Test it visually. The advantages for using projected visuals ·

Easy to create and use · Not projected for you and your students: It helps you on track · Supports inclusion of multimedia ·

Supports interactivity: it easy to go to any slide in the presentation Or link one to included multimedia files ·

Fields multiple formats: Using the mouse to create handouts, Notes pages, and outlines.

** Limitation

* Just words: Many students are visual learners, so they may not learn if there are not any visuals.

* Too much on one slide: Limit the number of words on each slide up to 36 words.

* Too many “bells and whistles”: Irrelevant sounds can be distracting.

Educational technology is often considered, erroneously, as synonymous with instructional innovation. Technology, by definition, applies current knowledge for some useful purpose. Therefore, technology uses evolving knowledge (whether about a kitchen or a classroom) to adapt and improve the system to which the knowledge applies (such as a kitchen’s microwave oven or educational computing). In contrast, innovations represent only change for change sake. Given this distinction, it is easy to argue that educators are correct to resist mere innovation, but they should welcome educational technology. Unfortunately, the history of educational technology does not support this hypothesis. Finally, non-projected media and materials is this time is very useful into the rural area which is not been reach into the advancement of our technology and it is very important indeed only seldom uses the projected media and materials. On the other hand, projected media and material very often uses by rich and advance in technology countries its important to them. These two materials both are useful for both learners and teachers indeed.

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Q 2. Discuss different types of behavior problems usually seen in children at elementary level. How can be the teachers prepared to tackle these problems?

Answer

It is common for children to break the rules and go against the norm to ‘test’ authority. Only that way do they understand what behavior is appropriate and what is not. Read on to learn about the behaviors that kids tend to exhibit from time to time and how you can handle a child with behavior problems.

1. Disrespect and backtalk When your three-year-old daughter talks back to you, it may seem funny and adorable. But when your seven-year-old girl shouts out a ‘no’ every time you tell her to do something, it can get on your nerves. If not handled properly, backtalk can lead to arguments between parents and children. So what do you do?

• If your child talks back but follows your instructions, then ignore it. Ignoring backtalk may be okay if the behavior is not threatening or destructive.
• If the child follows instructions, even though he talks back, appreciate that they did what you asked, even if they didn’t want to. You can then explain that it is okay to be angry, but not okay to speak to you disrespectfully.
• But if the child’s responses are threatening others or self, then you need to pay attention to what they say and handle it carefully.
• Do not respond impulsively. Let the child calm down and then address what he or she said. Tell them calmly about what behavior is acceptable and what is not.
• Set limits and make them aware of the consequences. Do not threaten, just state plain facts that if they talk back, they won’t get ice cream or go to the movie. For example, tell them if they continue to yell and shout, then they will have to forgo the dinner. However, if they stop shouting and listen to you, then they will get something nice for the dinner. Such give-and-take will look less controlling but giving the option to the child themselves.
• Set expectations, but you can be a little flexible sometimes if it makes them happy.
• Finally, take a quick check of how you behave with the kids or others when the kids are around. Are you rude or disrespectful? If yes, you need to start by changing your behavior.

2. Abusive language Children scream and yell when they are angry. But if they start swearing even before they are all of ten years old, you should be worried. They may start yelling or using abusive language to bring you into an argument or simply to get their way. When your child uses offensive language and swears, here is what you should do.
• Make sure you are not using such language in front of kids.
• Have zero tolerance for verbal abuse at home. There is no excuse for swearing or cursing. So if they use such language, there is a consequence.
• Explain the consequences clearly and ensure they are in place. So if your nine-year-old girl is grounded for one day for abusive language, she will have to miss her soccer practice or music class. There should be no two ways about it.
• If your toddler is using such language, correct them immediately. Tell them it is a “bad word” and people do not like that word or kids who use that word.
If you have used that word in front of your child, apologize immediately. You can even ask your child to remind you that it is a bad word, should you ever say it in front of him.

3. Aggressive or violent behavior It is okay for children to get angry. But if that anger becomes violent or turns into aggressive behavior in children it is a problem. Mood disorders, psychosis, conduct disorder, trauma, impulsiveness or frustration can cause aggression in young children. At times, your child may resort to violence for self-defense. Aggression can also be a learned behavior. How is the environment at home? Or is the child learning to be violent, at school? If your child tends to react to a negative response by hitting, biting or kicking, this is what you should do.
• The easiest way to respond to aggression in children is to yell back at them. But if you do so, you end up teaching them the wrong things. Your kids look up to you to learn how to control their impulses and emotions. So rather than raising your voice, lower your tone and tell them to calm down.
• Reflect their feelings, empathize, but make it clear that hitting or kicking or biting is not allowed. You could say something like “I know you are angry. But we do not bite, hit or kick. No hitting!”
• Tell them what the consequences would be if they turn violent. If you are dealing with a younger child, tell them what they can do instead. Give them an alternative, but don’t leave them hanging. For instance, teach them to use words and phrases like “I’m angry,” or “I don’t like it,” or“I’m not happy about it” when they are upset, instead of resorting to physical violence.
Most importantly, be a good role model and avoid giving them physical punishment. Also, reward positive, non-aggressive behavior.

4. Lying It is common for children to lie. It is also common for parents to worry when they catch the kids lying. You may feel betrayed, hurt and even wonder if you can trust the child again. But here is what you should do to prevent your kid from lying.
• Do not take it personally. Think about it from your child’s perspective to understand what compelled him to lie.
• Kids may lie when they are scared that the truth might have negative consequences. Appreciate the positives rather than punishing negative behavior to prevent your child’s need for lying.
• Teach them to be honest. Start by being a role model.
• Have consequences for lying. No arguments or discussions about it. Your kid lies, he gets to deal with the consequences.

5. Bullying Bullying is a serious problem and could result in emotional and physical abuse of the victim. Children tend to bully others to feel powerful. Also, bullying resolves their social problems easily. When dealing with feelings becomes difficult, kids tend to take on bullying to fix things. If you find that your child has been bullying others, you should act immediately.
• Start teaching your kids from an early age that bullying is wrong. More importantly, explain to them what or who a bully is and give them examples of what bullies do. For example, you can say, “A bully is someone who calls people names, or does mean things to them, or takes their property by force.”
• Set rules and standards in the house early on. Make a statement like “we do not bully in this house” or “You do not get away with such behavior in this house”.
• Watch out for signs of bullying: see if your older kids are trying to bully the younger ones, and rectify the behavior immediately.

6. Manipulation Manipulation is tricky and a very exhausting behavior to handle. Children tend to act out, lie, or cry to get what they want. If you give in to the bad behavior in children, your child feels justified. For example, if your child throws a tantrum in public for a candy bar and you buy her one, she has just manipulated you. In simple words, when your child manipulates you, she has power over you. As an adult, you can always break the pattern and stop falling for your child’s manipulative behavior.
• Expect your child to fight every time you say ‘no’. That way, you can figure out how to deal with their behavior and not fall for manipulation.
• Make it clear that when you say ‘no’, it means no. You can give them a brief explanation of your position, but don’t get into justifying it.
• Avoid discussion, but don’t shut them off completely. Try to listen to their side of the argument as long as the child is respectful and not rude or abusive.

7. Lack of motivation and laziness Your child doesn’t seem interested in doing anything at all. Be it schoolwork, art or music practice or even playing, he refuses to participate. Motivating kids is not easy, especially if they are lazy and tend to find an excuse for not doing anything. When your son or daughter is unmotivated, here is how you can help.
• Don’t get anxious by your child’s behavior. When you do, you may be seen as pushy, and that can encourage them to resist you.
• You can tell them the stories about your childhood and share your experiences to inspire and encourage them to try something new.
• Do not force your child to take up a hobby. Give them options and let them choose. Kids are more interested in something that they choose.
• Take a step back and check: are you forcing your kid to do something? Ask what your child really wants and what motivates him? See your child as a separate person to identify what motivates them.
• Try to find ways to get your kids motivated on their own. Self-motivation is more powerful than being driven by others.
• Encourage younger children to take up daily chores by making them fun. You may set a competition of who picks up the most number of toys or bits of paper from the floor or who makes their bed first.
• For older children, making them responsible for tasks such as washing the dishes, setting the table or cleaning up to set the expectations clear. Set limits like we will watch a movie once you have finished your chore.

8. Behavior problems in school “I hate school!” Is that something you hear your five-year-old say every morning? Kids often give parents a hard time by refusing to go to school or complete homework assignments in time. Children could refuse to go to school for many reasons: bullying, academic issues, resistance to authority and rules, or anxiety of being separated from parents.
• Start by getting to the root of the issue. Find out why your child hates school or refuses to do his homework. You may want to help him with his homework if he has trouble with it.
• Your child may take time to perform academically and be okay with school. Understand that the change will not happen overnight.
• Offer incentives, not bribes, to encourage positive behavior. For example, you can say, “you have earned an ice cream tonight because you did your homework without any reminders”.
• Ask the child if they want you to talk to the teacher about a problem that they are facing. Let them feel and understand that you are available for them when they face a problem in school. Encourage them by asking what they like doing in the school. Help them with their homework, and make it more interesting.
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Q 3. What should be the characteristics of a well- managed classroom. Also identify principles related to sound management?

Answer:

Students, as well as teachers, spend a majority of their time in classrooms and in school. The classroom should, therefore, be a stress-free environment where students and teachers feel comfortable spending so much time. It is essential to have a well-managed classroom to improve classroom efficiency and create an environment conducive to learning. A well-managed classroom is not limited to discipline, unlike the popular belief that discipline is the only vital management skill a teacher must have. There are various characteristics that describe a well-managed and efficient classroom. Student Engagement Classroom management includes various aspects, but one of the most vital is that the students are engaged. A well-managed classroom will keep the students engaged at all times in the learning process. Students are involved in the learning process, which helps foster higher-level thinking skills in students. Teaching creatively can be a major factor in student engagement because a lesson that is not interesting will cause the students to stop listening and become distracted. A more creative teaching method will capture the student's attention and allow them to focus. Clear Expectations Expectations such as class objectives are clear in a well-managed classroom. Students know the material they will be tested on, as well as the teacher's expectations for the various assignments they will be graded on. This also allows for efficiency in the classroom because students manage their time accordingly to move from one task to another effectively. A good way to ensure that students are clear on what the class objectives are is to write the daily tasks on the board at the beginning of each lesson, as well as write any exam dates in a place that students can see regularly.

Effective Time Management
To minimize wasted time and improve efficiency, a well-managed classroom has good time-management skills. The students know which areas in the classroom are accessible to them, as well as where items are placed in the classroom. They also know exactly what to expect from each class in order to ensure good time management. Procedures for distractions such as using the bathroom are in place to avoid minimizing the time students can spend on tasks during class time. Positive Work Environment A positive work environment is one of the main characteristics of a well-managed classroom. Students are comfortable asking the teacher questions. The classroom environment is also stress-free to ensure a good workflow and positive environment. Decorating the classroom, as well as allowing the students to participate in classroom decorating, can help encourage a positive work environment. Firm Discipline Discipline is an important factor in well-managed classrooms and one of the main characteristics. Students have clear and firm guidelines on which behaviors are allowed in the classroom and which are not, which allows students to remain disciplined and encourage an efficient workflow. Simple things such as guidelines on going to the bathroom or raising their hands when speaking are in place to help keep a positive and effective work environment. Students should also be given positive reinforcement and praise for appropriate behavior and good work to help encourage them and others in the classroom. Principles related to sound management in classroom: Effective classroom management requires awareness, patience, good timing, boundaries, and instinct. There’s nothing easy about shepherding a large group of easily distractible young people with different skills and temperaments along a meaningful learning journey. So how do master teachers do it?

To get a deeper understanding of experienced teachers’ go-to classroom management strategies, we took an informal poll on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Unsurprisingly, there is no silver bullet for classroom management success. That said, as we pored over the more than 700 responses, we did see some clear trends. Here are the most often cited and creative approaches.

1. TAKE CARE OF YOURSELF TO TAKE CARE OF YOUR STUDENTS As the airline safety videos say: Put on your own oxygen mask first. To learn effectively, your students need a healthy you, said our experienced teachers. So get enough sleep, eat healthy food, and take steps to attend to your own well-being. In her first year of teaching, Jessica Sachs “was working 15-hour days and was completely stressed out. My husband finally said to me, ‘The most important thing that you do at school is make decisions. If you are too tired to do that properly, it won’t matter how well-prepared you were the night before.’” A few deep breaths can go a long way to helping you identify frustration before you act on it. Mindy Jones, a middle school teacher from Brownsville, Tennessee, notes that “a moment of patience in a moment of frustration saves you a hundred moments of regret.”

2. FOCUS ON BUILDING RELATIONSHIPS This was the theme we heard the most: Building healthy student-teacher relationships is essential to a thriving classroom culture, and even sets the stage for academic success. The phrase “build relationships” occurred 27 times during the Facebook and Instagram discussions, and other variants of that wording appeared 78 times. “Rapport is huge!” confirmed middle school teacher Kim Manzer, before adding that she always makes the time to talk to students as a whole class or one on one. Simple efforts like greeting kids outside the classroom before the start of the day pay outsized dividends. “They appreciate it so much when I just stop to listen and take interest.” Teacher Amanda Tait from Prince George, British Columbia, adds a little spice to the ritual: “I always meet them at the door and we do a ‘high-five, chicken-five,’ touching elbows with a ‘wing.’”

3. SET RULES, BOUNDARIES, AND EXPECTATIONS (AND DO IT EARLY)
Students don’t thrive amid chaos. They need some basic structure—and consistency—to feel safe and to focus. But maintaining a culture of mutual respect doesn’t mean your goal is to “make pals,” noted middle school reading coach Heather Henderson. “You can’t be their friend. You can be kind, loving, and supportive, but you still have to be their teacher.” Establish the code of conduct early in the year, and be sure that everyone—including the teacher—makes an effort to stay true to it. Predictability counts: “Follow through with rewards and consequences. If you say it, mean it. And if you mean it, say it. Be clear, be proactive, and be consistent,” said Lori Sheffield.

4. TAKE A STRENGTH-BASED APPROACH In a long back-and-forth about classroom management practices, it might have been the most memorable quote: “Find ways to make your hardest kid your favorite kid,” said Karen Yenofsky, turning a nearly perfect phrase and triggering an avalanche of teacher love. “When you connect with them... it makes everything smoother.” That’s not easy, of course. A strength-based lens means never forgetting to look beneath the surface of behavior, even when it’s inconvenient. “Find the root of the problem,” urged teacher Judi Michalik of Bangor, Maine. “I have never met a student that doesn’t want to be successful. If they are misbehaving it is kind of like when a baby cries; there is something wrong in their world. If they are misbehaving for attention then find out why they need the attention and how you can give them what they need.”

5. INVOLVE PARENTS AND GUARDIANS “Never forget that every student is someone’s child,” writes Molly Francis, echoing many teachers in our thread. “Parents/guardians/caregivers want to hear that you see the good in their child. A positive connection with home can often help in the classroom.” The popular apps Remind and Class Dojo were frequently praised, and appear to be well on the way to replacing phone calls—both from teachers to guardians, and in the other direction, too.

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Q 4. Discuss teacher made achievement tests? Construct six items of each, short answers, completion, true false, matching, multiple choice and essay type from the English of class VII (Public Sector)?

Answer:

Carefully constructed teacher-made tests and standardised tests are similar in many ways. Both are constructed on the basis of carefully planned table of specifications, both have the same type of test items, and both provide clear directions to the students. Still the two differ. They differ in the quality of test items, the reliability of test measures, the procedures for administering and scoring and the interpretation of scores. No doubt, standardised tests are good and better in quality, more reliable and valid. But a classroom teacher cannot always depend on standardised tests. These may not suit to his local needs, may not be readily available, may be costly, may have different objectives. In order to fulfill the immediate requirements, the teacher has to prepare his own tests which are usually objective type in nature. Teacher-made tests are normally prepared and administered for testing classroom achievement of students, evaluating the method of teaching adopted by the teacher and other curricular programmes of the school. Teacher-made test is one of the most valuable instrument in the hands of the teacher to solve his purpose. It is designed to solve the problem or requirements of the class for which it is prepared. It is prepared to measure the outcomes and content of local curriculum. It is very much flexible so that, it can be adopted to any procedure and material. It does not require any sophisticated technique for preparation. Taylor has highly recommended for the use of these teacher-made objective type tests, which do not require all the four steps of standardised tests nor need the rigorous processes of standardisation. Only the first two steps planning and preparation are sufficient for their construction. Features of Teacher-Made Tests: 1. The items of the tests are arranged in order of difficulty. 2. These are prepared by the teachers which can be used for prognosis and diagnosis purposes.
3. The test covers the whole content area and includes a large number of items. 4. The preparation of the items conforms to the blueprint. 5. Test construction is not a single man’s business, rather it is a co-operative endeavour. 6. A teacher-made test does not cover all the steps of a standardised test. 7. Teacher-made tests may also be employed as a tool for formative evaluation. 8. Preparation and administration of these tests are economical. 9. The test is developed by the teacher to ascertain the student’s achievement and proficiency in a given subject. 10. Teacher-made tests are least used for research purposes. 11. They do not have norms whereas providing norms is quite essential for standardised tests. Steps/Principles of Construction of Teacher-made Test: A teacher-made test does not require a well-planned preparation. Even then, to make it more efficient and effective tool of evaluation, careful considerations arc needed to be given while constructing such tests. The following steps may be followed for the preparation of teacher-made test: 1. Planning: Planning of a teacher-made test includes: a. Determining the purpose and objectives of the test, ‘as what to measure and why to measure’. b. Deciding the length of the test and portion of the syllabus to be covered. c. Specifying the objectives in behavioural terms. If needed, a table can even be prepared for specifications and weightage given to the objectives to be measured. d. Deciding the number and forms of items (questions) according to blueprint.
e. Having a clear knowledge and understanding of the principles of constructing essay type, short answer type and objective type questions.
f. Deciding date of testing much in advance in order to give time to teachers for test preparation and administration. g. Seeking the co-operation and suggestion of co-teachers, experienced teachers of other schools and test experts. 2. Preparation of the Test: Planning is the philosophical aspect and preparation is the practical aspect of test construction. All the practical aspects to be taken into consideration while one constructs the tests. It is an art, a technique. One is to have it or to acquire it. It requires much thinking, rethinking and reading before constructing test items. Different types of objective test items viz., multiple choice, short-answer type and matching type can be constructed. After construction, test items should be given lo others for review and for seeking their opinions on it. The suggestions may be sought even from others on languages, modalities of the items, statements given, correct answers supplied and on other possible errors anticipated. The suggestions and views thus sought will help a test constructor in modifying and verifying his items afresh to make it more acceptable and usable. After construction of the test, items should be arranged in a simple to complex order. For arranging the items, a teacher can adopt so many methods viz., group-wise, unit-wise, topic wise etc. Scoring key should also be prepared forthwith to avoid further delay in scoring. Direction is an important part of a test construction. Without giving a proper direction or instruction, there will be a probability of loosing the authenticity of the test reliability. It may create a misunderstanding in the students also.

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Q 5. Describe the role of teacher training in deterioration of the education system. Suggest measures for improvement?

Answer:
It has been found that only 10 % of Indian youth go to college. This percentage is 40-50% in developed countries. As per the available reports, two third of the Indian universities are providing sub-standard education while 90 % colleges in India are below average. Today, most of the institutions have become factory of degrees only. Students / teachers are running after attaining or providing degrees and not towards the gaining knowledge and wisdom. Attendance in the institution has dropped drastically and class room teaching is becoming only a ritual, to be followed mechanically. Though, it is said that the destiny of nation is shaped only in the class rooms, very little importance is being given to class room teaching. The overall scenario of higher education in India does not match with the global quality standards. It does not foster the global competencies and even does not make significant contribution to the national development. The present education system does not match with the needs and expectations of the employment sector. The role of the teacher assumes greater significance in this deteriorating scenario of higher education. It is a daunting task for the teachers to improve the quantity, quality and equality in higher education. It is said that a good teacher can bring the entire world to the class room. The teacher being a sculptor has to play multidimensional role to inculcate the nuances of subjects to the heterogeneous cult of students. He has to inspire to students to show interest in their subjects, even if he confronts students who are completely demotivated and dispirited. Quality education is the solution to all the problems and teachers are the main ingredients in giving quality education.

The success of any education system depends on the quality of teachers, which, in turn, depends on the effective teaching / learning process. Teachers' role is of vital significance for the development of society and appropriate changes in the society. Thus, the quality of higher education depends upon quality of those who impart it. Teachers are the most important components of any educational system. Teachers play most crucial role in the development of the education system as a whole and also in imparting and maintaining the standards of higher education. In the present scenario, the 'personality' of the teachers has deteriorated. Teaching is considered as one of the noblest professions but unfortunately this profession is losing its status in the society because of modernization, political influence, castism, corruption and other unfair means. For many teachers, especially in medical and dental sciences, teaching profession has become easy source of earning money. Making many money by unfair means like malpractices in examination resulted in decline of the quality of teaching values. Changing social attitude, non-responsiveness and poor level of accountability, emphasis on western system of education, impact of modernization, absence of the traditional Indian education system, etc. are the factors responsible for the degradation of teaching values in the society. “The primary task of a society is to find a real teacher, one who performs his duty with perfection and dedication and is a perfect moral example for the society” - Rabindranath Tagore Thus, teachers play critical role in taking quality education and in shaping the future and destiny of a nation. Teachers teach the ways of life, channelize youth power and mold their character. In a real sense, the teachers are the backbone of the nation.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8624 Secondary Education Assignment 2

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 2 Jan 2021 17:15:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8624 Secondary Education Assignment 2

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Course: Secondary Education (8624)
Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years)
Semester: Spring, 2019
ASSIGNMENT No. 2

Q.1 Define evaluation. Differentiate between internal and external examination. Critically analyze the process of evaluation in Pakistan.

Answer:

Evaluation is a systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and significance, using criteria governed by a set of standards. It can assist an organization, program, design, project or any other intervention or initiative to assess any aim, realisable concept/proposal, or any alternative, to help in decision-making; or to ascertain the degree of achievement or value in regard to the aim and objectives and results of any such action that has been completed. The primary purpose of evaluation, in addition to gaining insight into prior or existing initiatives, is to enable reflection and assist in the identification of future change. Evaluation is often used to characterize and appraise subjects of interest in a wide range of human enterprises, including the arts, criminal justice, foundations, non-profit organizations, government, health care, and other human services. It is long term and done at the end of a period of time.

Differentiate between internal and external examination:
It is possible to have an examination that is not external. The end-of-semester test or exam for Year 12s is not unusual in Queensland schools under a system of school-based assessment. It has all the properties of an external exam except that it is set and marked by teachers in the school. School assessment in the form of an end-of-semester test could actually be called an internal exam because they have so much in common. Both are designed to function according to the definition of an examination: to assess “the attainment and skill of students in a particular subject, whether by objective-type or conventional written, oral or practical questions” and “all of the papers refer to a syllabus”. Typically, an external exam has a “paper” (or two) for a particular subject and the questions on the paper are unknown to students in advance of the exam. All students do the exam on the same day at the same time, with the same restrictions on equipment (e.g. pencil or pen and paper, calculator or not), and are given the same time to complete the exam (3 hours is the norm). The exam is closely supervised. The end-of-semester test that is part of the assessment program for some subjects in Queensland, and which has been labelled an "internal exam" above, has similar features although the exam might be of two hours' duration rather than three. The key difference is the locus of control. The point being made here is that the exam experience is not foreign to Queensland students. Nor is it associated with the senior public exams of the period from about 1890 to 1972. The same is the case for Queensland teachers unless they are older than 60 or were educated outside Queensland. It is worth mentioning here that the QCS Test is not an external exam even though it does have an external locus of control (set by QSA) and is administered under standardised conditions. But it is not subject-specific and based on a subject syllabus; it assesses cross-curriculum skills. It belongs to a family of tests that are developed according to some technical specifications not elaborated on here. An aspect of QCS Test pertinent to this discussion is that it is of seven hours' duration (over two days) compared with the two hours proposed for the new external assessment. In Queensland's current system of school-based assessment, teachers devise and mark the assessments – projects, reports, investigations, orals, artefacts, practical work, performances, presentations, essays, rich tasks, constructed responses, mid-semester tests and so on. The locus of control is internal (moderation brings an external quality assurance element – not relevant in this discussion) and the variation in assessment modes is vast. We use the term school assessment rather than school-based assessment to describe teachers-devised assessments and reserve the term school-based assessment for describing the system. School assessments have the capacity to provide evidence of student achievement that is not possible to obtain from an external exam. The point being made here is that a combination of School Assessment and External Assessment is more valid than one of those assessments alone. What is the external assessment in the review's proposed model? Is it the same as an external exam? Table 3 compares and contrasts the proposed external assessment and an HSC-like exam.

Process of evaluation in Pakistan: Evaluation in education always varies in different context. What may seem suitable in one context may not be appropriate in other context. Event the purposes and procedures of educational evaluation will vary from instance to instance. What is quite appropriate for one school may be less appropriate for another. Looking at the current Educational Evaluation in Pakistani context, it is observed that educational evaluation was practised at institutional level only and even that was not structured and organized. The Deans or the Administrative Heads applied various tools for course and faculty evaluation, even that appraisal varied in approach in-quality of tools. Program Evaluation was a rare practice and that was done by very few prestigious private sector universities. With the emergence of Higher Education Commission Pakistan, it was realized that a separate Quality Assurance Agency needs to be established for a structured Academic Evaluation. The Agency established Quality Enhancement Cells in Public and Private sector universities in a phase wise manner for conducting program evaluation through self assessment. At the same time, course evaluation and faculty evaluation were also added to program assessment along with other feedback tools.

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Q.2 What is the need of comparative education. Compare secondary education system of UK, USA and Pakistan. Give suggestion to improve secondary education system in Pakistan in light of this comparison.

Answer:
Comparative education is a discipline in the social sciences which entails the scrutiny and evaluation of different educational systems, such as those in various countries. Professionals in this area of endeavor are absorbed in advancing evocative terminologies and guidelines for education worldwide, enhancing educational structures and producing a context to which the success and effectivity of education programs and initiatives can be assessed. Comparative education is the comparative study of educational theories and practices in various countries. Comparative education attempts to use cross-national data to test propositions about the relationship between education and society and between teaching practices and learning outcomes. Comparative education considers the implications of comparative studies for the formation and implementation of policies in education, social, national and international development. Comparative education invites contributions from associated disciplines in the fields of government, management, sociology, and technology and communications which affect educational research and policy decisions. Comparative education aims at:

(1)explaining educational systems, processes, or outcomes;

(2)helping the development of educational institutions and practices; (3)emphasizing the relationships between education and society;

(4)forming generalized statements about education relevant in more than one country.

Compare secondary education system of UK, USA and Pakistan Education in Pakistan is function under both the federal and provincial sectors. However, policies and other regulatory frameworks are developed by the Ministry of Education that is based at Islamabad. The Ministry of Education also develops the educational policies at a national level while involving all the stakeholders in implementation. Provincial level stakeholders are also involved in the formulation of these policies. Most at times, provinces have been involved in the formulation and implementation of their own polices according to various situations that they meet. For instance, the available resources can be used effectively to develop provincial plans that are in line with the federal or national plans and execute them. It is the role of the Executive District Officer to deal with the educational affairs at various schools since the adoption of the 2002 devolution plan (Kazmi, S. W., 2005). The Executive District Officers have had issues like supervision, policy implementation, recruitment, monitoring of schools and transfer of teachers. The EDO is based at the district government level is also supported by the District Education officers or just DEOs. There is also a deputy DEO who support the DEO at the district government level.

The provincial government is responsible for other roles in the educational sector like teacher training, formulation of policies and allocating a budget to a district government. secretary is usually the head of the Education Department at the provincial level. However, in other cases, there are two heads or secretaries, a special secretary for Higher Education and special secretary for Schools. There are other staff who help the secretaries at the provincial level including the deputy secretary. On the other hand, UK’s education system responsibilities are left for the individual countries rather than provinces and districts (Heyneman, S. P., 1995). In these individual countries, the education stakeholders have established institutions to handle various roles within the Education Department. Though there is a difference with Pakistan on the way the roles and responsibilities are split, the functionality of the basic units still remains the same. An example, there are some fundamental institutions established in UK that has similar roles as the provinces in the Pakistan. These institutions include;

• Department of education in North Ireland
• Department for Education and Skills or DfES in England,
• Welsh Office in Wales, and
• SEED or Scottish Executive Education Department in Scotland.

Each of the above institutions has its own subclass of institutions for specific roles like the development and training, administration and even policy management (Blanden, J., & Machin, S., 2004). An example of those subclasses include the General Teaching Council (GTC) in Scotland and England’s Training and Development Agency (TDA). These institutions help each country’s national sectors for education and are therefore responsible for development and implementation of policies and other educational plan. Structure of the education systems.

Education system in Pakistan is a three tier meaning that they have an elementary level (for grades 1-8), secondary level (for grades 9-12) and a higher education level (after grade 12). The elementary level education is further divided into two sublevels; grades 1-5 which is called primary and grades 6-8 which are called middle elementary. Education in Pakistan is not made compulsory for the children even at the primary elementary level and this has contributed to low literacy within the country. This is evident through the statistics and research that have been conducted for the education level in Pakistan. For instance, 5.5 million children between the age of 5 and 9 can be seen out of school (Memon, G. R., 2007). Primary and/or Elementary education A major difference in the structure of education between Pakistan and U.K is that the children in Pakistan are enrolled in elementary schools or even primary at the age of 5 while this is not the case in U.K. In particular, England enrollment of 5 year old children in elementary schools is not statutory as well as in Scotland. Matheson (2000) states that unlike in England, Scotland rarely has a fast and hard cut-off dates for those children at the age of five or the “rising-five” as they are often called. Pakistan on the other hand has rural schools having children joining elementary schools at six years old or more. Primary education in some parts of UK is split into Key Stage 1 which is for the children between 5 to 6 years and key stage 2 which is for the children between the ages of 7 and 11. Wales and England in particular have split the elementary education in two key stages. Primary education in Scotland takes seven years and Matheson (2007) even supports that there is no middle schools for Scots and the primary takes seven years. In comparison to Scotland, England has six years of primary with an additional middle school in the educational structure. Secondary education In Pakistan, secondary education spans from grade 9 to grade 11 and therefore takes four years of the education period (Khalid, S. M., & Khan, M. F., 2006). Mostly, these system is catered for in higher secondary education centers and government secondary schools. Most of these higher secondary and government secondary have middle classes. Secondary schools in the United Kingdom cater for children’s education who are between the age of 12-17 or at times others with the age of 18 and they are allowed to proceed to A-Levels. In Ireland, various religious sects or communities bring about the educational differences. Basically, education or schools are managed by three major groups (Lindley, J., 2009);

1. Catholic
2. Protestants The Smart Education
3. Community supported schools or parent-community integrated schools

This is clear that the only distinguishing characteristic of the North Ireland schools is the ‘segregation’ which is brought about the school managers under religion basis. Other countries in the UK do not have such a situation and their schools can be managed by any individual. Parents have developed certain attitudes when sending their children in other ‘religions’ and therefore most parents educate their children in schools that has their religion standards. However, those schools in North Ireland that have adopted the English education system have children who are Muslims, Jewish, Anglican and Roman Catholics. Schools in Pakistan and the Wales have less diversity and can be uniformly grouped together in terms of the public sector. Generally, all the state schools in Pakistan are either, elementary, primary, secondary or higher secondary schools. However, there are some few comprehensive technical and pilot secondary schools in Pakistan but they all add up to a very little portion as compared to other state schools just like in Wales. In fact, these schools comprise of approximately 1% in Pakistan and Wales while in England they comprise of 4% (Halpin et al, 1997). Secondary education is selectively organized in North Ireland while comprehensively organized in England, Wales and Scotland. This can be attributed to the religious sects and communities that manage schools in Ireland. UK has a compulsory 14-16 years of education while Pakistan does not have any compulsory years for any level of education. Another striking difference in the structure of education system between the UK and Pakistan is evident in the state schools resources. Pakistan has relatively low teaching resources in the state schools (Malik, S., & Courtney, K., 2011). There is also inadequate numbers of trained teachers and other physical resources in Pakistan as compared to UK. In fact, some of the good infrastructure and educational resources that are associated with private schools in Pakistan can be considered to be at par with those at schools in UK.

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Q.3 Compare Sixth, Seventh and eight five years plans regarding targets and achievements in secondary education?

Answer:

SIXTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1983-88) Sixth five year plan was launched on 1st July, 1983. The draft of this plan was prepared and implemented by newly created Ministry of Planning. SIZE OF PLAN: The total size of the plan was Rs.495 Billion. This amount was allocated between public and private sector in respective amounts of Rs.295billion and Rs.200 Billion. TARGETS:
• To increase GNP by 6.5% per annum
• To increase family income by Rs.900 per annum
• To increase industrial production by 9% per annum
• To increase agriculture production by 5% per annum
• To provide jobs to 4 Million people during the plan period
• To provide electricity facility to 88% of village population
• To increase exports from $2.43 billion to $4.91 Billion
• Rehabilitation of 30 lac acres of land destroyed by water logging

STRATEGY:
• Increased opportunities for small farmers and provision of infrastructure
• Creation of 4 billion new jobs by emphasizing on small scale production in agriculture and industry
• To encourage provincial govt. and local bodies to participate in investment plans and policy making
• Provision of funds to backward areas especially to Balochistan and tribal areas
• Encouraging exports, discouraging imports and reducing dependence on foreign assistance

ACHIEVEMENTS:
• GNP rate grown to 6.6% as compared to the target of 6.5%
• Per capita income increased from Rs.820 to Rs.935
• Growth of industrial sector was 7.7%. The target was 9%
• Growth in agriculture sector was 3.9%
• Exports increased to 11% per annum
• Inflation rate reduced from 8.8% to 6%

CRITICAL OVERVIEW:
• In this plan the main weakness was its excessive reliance on
• domestic borrowings to balance budget
• Allocations to the sectors were not fair, 80% was allocated to
• energy sector and remaining to others.
• The language of sixth plan was not realistic.
• The major weakness of 6th plan was absence of any concrete
• plan for expenditure control
• The Burdon of subsidies and non development expenditures was
• very high.

SEVENTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1988-1993) SIZE OF PLAN: An amount of Rs.660.2 billion had been allocated to 7th plan to meet the financial needs and expenditures. Rs.322.95 Billion was allocated to public sector and Rs.292.4 Billion was allocated to private sector.
TARGETS:
• To attain annual growth rate of 6.5% of GNP
• Increase in per capita income to Rs.3,562 at the end of plan’s period
• 4.7% growth rate in agriculture sector
• 8.1% growth rate per annum in industrial sector
• Oil extraction target was 76,000 barrels per day
• Road constructions up to 8500 KM
• 6.1 Million new job opportunities
• The plan target of monetary assets was 12.5%

ACHIEVEMENTS:
• GDP rate increased to 5%
• Increase in per capita income to Rs.3,562 at the end of plan’s
• period
• 3.8% growth rate in agriculture sector
• 5.9% growth rate per annum in industrial sector
• Oil extraction target was 76,000 barrels per day
• Road constructions up to 8500 KM
• 6.1 Million new job opportunities
• The plan target of monetary assets was 12.5%
• The expenditure on public sector development was Rs.511 Million

CRITICISM:
• There was not fair allocation of resources among different sectors
• There was undue delay in preparation of policies and projects
• Employment situation became worse; no consideration was given to this issue
• Projects of previous government were disclosed by new government
• There was no proper implementation of this plan

EIGHTH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1988-1993) SIZE OF PLAN: Size of the plan was Rs.1, 701 Billion. An amount of Rs.752 Billion was to be spent on public sector and Rs.949 Billion on private sector. TARGETS:
• GDP growth rate of 7%
• 4.9% growth rate in agriculture sector
• 9.9% growth rate per annum in industrial sector
• Growth rate of services 6.7%
• Reduce Fiscal deficit to 4% of GDP
• Reduce inflation rate to 6%
• Generate 6.2 Million new job opportunities
• Ensure minimum investment of Rs.949 Billion
• Increase literacy rate from 35% to48%
• Population growth rate 2.7%
• Coverage of rural water supply to 71% of population.
• Construction of Ghazi Bhrotha Hydel project and completion of
• Hub Power Project in private sector
• Power generation capacity to 16,422 MW

STRATEGY:
• Encouraging participation of private enterprises
• Industrial and commercial policies to attract private and foreign investment
• Expansion of infrastructural facilities
• Ensuring micro-economic stability
• Developing human resource
• Poverty elevation by equitable distribution of national income
• Expanding production avenues to create employment opportunities

ACHIEVEMENTS:
• Growth rate in GDP was 4.08% as compared to the target of 7% per annum
• Growth rate of manufacturing sector was just 2.68% which was very low as compared to the target of 9.9%
• 11.4% growth rate in mining sector
• The target of 2.7% in growth rate of population was achieved

CRITICISM:
• Due to absence of accurate data of population there was no proper allocation of resources.
• The performance of agriculture and industrial sector remains questionable
• Due to heavy dependence upon imports there was deficit balance of payment
• There was no proper implementation of policies due to lack of expenditure controls
• There was excessive dependence upon foreign sources
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Q.4 What is the status of teacher education in Pakistan? What do yo understand by BS Education Model, B.Ed 14+1 Model and B.Ed12=3 Model?.

Answer:
Teachers’ professional education is viewed as one of the most important factors in improving students’ learning. Keeping this in view many developed and less developed countries pay significant attention to improve the practices of teacher education. In order to develop capable teachers they make conscious efforts to establish and maintain quality teacher education institutions. The history of teacher education in Pakistan starts with the establishment of the country. However, this area has been facing various challenges such as lack of consistent policy, inconsistency in curriculum, low resources, lack of quality teachers, low quality of teaching process, lack of standard, etc. Today, a range of public and private institutions are engaged in preparing school teachers. In Pakistan, like many other countries, public institutions are the main source for developing teachers through pre-service and in-service programmes. However, many studies have raised the question on the quality of delivery mechanism of the institutions while forwarding recommendations for improvement. Historically, different reforms have been brought to improve the condition of teacher education in the country. Currently, teacher education in Pakistan is passing through a transition as an innovation has been initiated by the Government of Pakistan with the support of USAID through their Pre-Service Teachers Education Programme (STEP) project. This reform is attempted in order to improve the quality of teacher education by including different innovations. In this regard, a new curriculum has been developed for pre-service programmes such as a two-year Associate Degree in Education (ADE) and a four-year BEd (Hons). Effort has been made to design the curriculum keeping in view the modern educational principle along with the contextual relevancy. These programmes are gradually replacing the previous pre-service and in-service programmes such as Primary Teacher Certificate (PTC), Certificate in Teaching (CT) and the one-year Ed programme. In addition, an effort is being made for the accreditation and standardisation of teacher training institutions through this initiative. The ADE and BEd programme has been initiated in some colleges and will be gradually implemented in remaining colleges throughout the country in the coming years. In addition, to attract the best mind towards the teaching profession a stipend is also offered to student-teachers for providing them financial support.

The significance of such educational innovation cannot be overlooked for improvement of teacher education in the country. However, there are areas that need serious considerations for the effectiveness and sustainability of the new reform initiatives. Firstly, the new developed curriculum is based on the modern educational principles. Teachers are provided a course outline with the expectation that they will explore the teaching learning material for classroom instructions. However, it was observed that some of the teachers are struggling with identifying teaching resources due to the unavailability of the reference books and lack of Internet facility in their colleges/institutions. This situation may affect the teaching-learning process of the ADE courses. Hence there is a need to provide the reference books and Internet facility to the faculty members in order to make the teaching-learning process smooth. Second, Internet is considered as one of the important sources for identifying teaching-learning material. However, it was observed that some of the faculty members are not literate in computers and Internet. So they are facing challenges in accessing the teaching-learning resources that are available on the Internet or in soft version. Therefore, the faculty members of colleges need to be helped in acquiring workable computer and Internet skills. Third, the new curriculum demands new teaching strategies such as collaborative, inquiry and activity-based teaching approach. However, a majority of the faculty in the teacher institutions are not oriented with the teaching strategies demanded by the ADE and BEd programme. Therefore, the professional development of the faculty at teacher training institutions should be given priority along with the curriculum development. Furthermore, there is a sense of uncertainty about the sustainability of the new initiatives after completion of the Pre-STEP project. Many educational initiatives in the past died away with closure of the projects. Therefore there is a dire need to develop a clear road map for the continuity and sustainability of reforms.

It was also observed that some school teachers are being deputed in teacher education colleges due to lack of adequate number of teachers in there. Due to the different approach of pedagogy and andragogy, these teachers treat the prospective teacher like children, which demotivates them. Thus when the school teachers are deputed in colleges they should be oriented with the andragogy of teaching an adult. Finally, a sense of insecurity can be observed among the student-teachers about their job prospects after the completion of their ADE or BEd honours. How will they stand apart from the teacher who has done one year BEd and other courses, is a question to ponder upon. A clear policy is required about job opportunities for the prospective teachers so that they can focus their studies. These issues need to be addressed in order to sustain and maintain the quality of the new reforms. A vigilant plan and sincere implementation will, of course, be helpful in transforming the teacher education practices in the country. In short, the importance of quality teacher education cannot be overlooked for improving the quality of teaching-learning in the school. The new educational innovation will, definitely, lead to improve teacher education practices in Pakistan. However, there is a dire need to look reflectively at how to sustain the initiatives and make it productive. BEd (4 years) program's focus on education and training of prospective teachers grows out of a profound belief in the transformative power of education. Our mission is to promote the development of highly qualified and efficient teaching professionals who are prepared to creatively contribute to the social, cultural, and educational development of a globally oriented, pluralistic, and diverse society. BEd (4 years) program will be a composite program blending Core Courses, Foundation Courses, Professional Courses, and Specialization Courses. The teacher trained through new program will be able to teach at Secondary and Higher Secondary Levels and will be an equivalent of the existing master's degree. ***********************************************************************************

Q.5 Discuss the need and scope of in-service teacher education. Is there need to give in-service training of computer education to teachers to improve their methods of teaching?

Answer:
Inservice teacher education is broadly defined as any learning opportunity for practicing teachers. The term inservice teacher designates a teacher that has certification or is already teaching in a classroom, in contrast to a preservice teacher, who is in the process of preparing to become a teacher. Preservice and inservice teacher learning have changed over time. This is due to the evolution of how the field has moved. In particular, there has been a shift from many educators aligning with behavioral theories of teaching and learning to more constructivist, sociocultural, and situated theories of teaching and learning. Inservice teacher education has gone from one-shot workshops where an expert imparts knowledge to teachers in a traditional lecture-style workshop to more professional learning opportunities where teachers engage in communities of learning: unpacking content, examining teachers’ instruction, and analyzing student thinking. Through this evolution, inservice teacher education has become synonymous with professional development or professional learning. These trends and the different ways that the field of education conceptualizes teaching and learning have broad yet important implications for inservice teacher education and professional development. In particular, the language and jargon associated with the field has changed to reflect the transformed theories or stances. For instance, the terms inservice teacher education and staff development are now more commonly referred to as teacher professional development and professional learning respectively. Due to this evolution of the field and the aligned adjustments in terminology in this article, we purposefully use the vocabulary that is consonant with the article under review in this volume.

Additionally, this annotated bibliography builds on the Oxford Bibliographies in Education article by Stephanie Hirsch, Joellen Killion, and Joyce Pollard titled “Professional Development,” but provides a distinct framework and selection of annotations. We have selected articles that focus on the impact of professional development on one or more of the following: teachers’ knowledge, teachers’ instructional practices, and student learning. We also put forth a new theoretical construct to analyze research on inservice teacher education and professional development. Synthesizing and detailing the best current knowledge on teacher professional development (PD), this annotated bibliography highlights (1) research on the impact of different models of inservice teacher education on teacher learning and instruction and/or student learning, (2) handbooks and handbook chapters related to inservice learning and professional development, and (3) salient reports, theoretical articles, and meta-analyses that have been written on professional development and inservice teacher education. In-service training of computer education to teachers: In Greece, the teaching of Computing and ICT in secondary education is conducted by teachers holding an undergraduate degree in Computer Science, Computer Engineering or Applied Informatics. Secondary Education in Greece is divided into two cycles: compulsory lower secondary and non-compulsory Upper Secondary Education. Compulsory lower secondary education is provided in Gymnasium, while non-compulsory upper secondary education is provided in one of two types of schools: the General Lyceum (GL) and Vocational Lyceum (EPAL). In General Lyceum, both day and evening, ICT has been taught as an elective or direction course since 1999. In the last two classes of General Lyceum, students select one of three directions, (technological, scientific or theoretical). If students in the last grade select the technological direction, they attend a course in algorithms and programming, entitled “Application Development in a Programming Environment”, for which they are assessed through national exams. The grade acquired in this examination is part of the consideration used in selecting students for admission in higher education programmes. The overall aim of the course is to develop analytical and synthetic thinking, acquire methodological skills and be able to solve simple problems within a programming environment. Many basic algorithmic and programming concepts, such as conditions, expressions and logical reasoning, are fundamentals of general knowledge and skills to be acquired in general education; most of these concepts are not presented in other disciplines [6]. The curriculum states that this subject must be taught (at least partially) in a computer lab. The Greek Pedagogical Institute (Ministry of Education) has certified specific Educational Software to support the lab work. During the lab hour, teachers can use the technological tools to facilitate the learning process.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8624 Secondary Education Assignment 1

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8624 Secondary Education Assignment 1

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

AIOU Solved Assignments 1
Code 8624 Spring 2019 Course: Secondary Education (8624)
Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years)
ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 a) Define secondary education. Draw organizational structure of secondary education?

Answer:

Secondary education in Pakistan begins from grade 9 and lasts for four years. After end of each of the school years, students are required to pass a national examination administered by a regional Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (or BISE). Upon completion of grade 9, students are expected to take a standardized test in each of the first parts of their academic subjects. They again give these tests of the second parts of the same courses at the end of grade 10. Upon successful completion of these examinations, they are awarded a Secondary School Certificate (or SSC). This is locally termed a ‗matriculation certificate‘ or ‗matric‘ for short. The curriculum usually includes a combination of eight courses including electives (such as Biology, Chemistry, Computer and Physics) as well as compulsory subjects (such as Mathematics, English, Urdu, Islamic studies and Pakistan Studies). Students then enter an intermediate college and complete grades 11 and 12. Upon completion of each of the two grades, they again take standardized tests in their academic subjects. Upon successful completion of these examinations, students are awarded the Higher Secondary School Certificate (or HSSC). This level of education is also called the FSc/FA/ICS or ‗intermediate‘. There are many streams students can choose for their 11 and 12 grades, such as pre-medical, pre-engineering, humanities (or social sciences), computer science and commerce. Each stream consists of three electives and as well as three compulsory subjects of English, Urdu, Islamiat (grade 11 only) and Pakistan Studies (grade 12 only). Alternative qualifications in Pakistan are available but are maintained by other examination boards instead of BISE. Most common alternative is the General Certificate of Education (or GCE), where SSC and HSSC are replaced by Ordinary Level (or O Level) and Advanced Level (or A Level) respectively. Other qualifications include IGCSE which replaces SSC. GCE and GCSE O Level, IGCSE and GCE AS/A Level are managed by British examination boards of CIE of the Cambridge Assessment and/or Edexcel International of the Pearson PLC. Generally, 8-10 courses are selected by students at GCE O Levels and 3-5 at GCE A Levels. Advanced Placement (or AP) is an alternative option but much less common than GCE or IGCSE. This replaces the secondary school education as ‗High School Education‘ instead. AP exams are monitored by a North American examination board, College Board, and can only be given under supervision of centers which are registered with the College Board, unlike GCE O/AS/A Level and IGCSE which can be given privately. The bulk of the secondary schools come under the aegis of the Ministry of Education. They follow a common curriculum, imparting a general education in languages (English and Urdu ), Pakistan Studies, Islamiyat and one of the following groups: Science, ―General‖ or Vocational. The Science group includes Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Biology; the ―General‖ group includes Mathematics or Household Accounts or Home Economics, General Science and two general education courses out of some 40 options. The Vocational group provides choices from a list of commercial, agricultural, industrial or home economics courses. There are also ―non-examination‖ courses such as Physical Exercise of 15-20 minutes daily and Training in Civil Defense, First Aid and Nursing for a minimum of 72 hours during grades 9 and 10. The Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) taken at the end of the tenth grade is administered by the government‘s Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education. Admission to the ―intermediate‖ colleges and Vocational schools is based on score obtained at the SSCE. The grading system is by ―divisions‖ one to three. In order to be placed in the First Division, a student must score a minimum of 60 percent of the total of 1000 ―marks;‖ those obtaining 45 to 59 percent are placed in the Second Division ; and those getting between 264 and 499 out of 1000 are placed in the Third
Division, while below 264 are declared failed. For those accustomed to U.S. grading, these norms would appear low. Those in the First Division would compare favorably with A students in American schools.

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Q.1 b) Enlist types of schools in Pakistan at secondary level. Is there any need of training of secondary school teachers? Discuss?

Answer:

Following the primary education from ages 5 to 9 is the 3-year Middle School (sixth to eighth grades for children ages 10 to 12), a 2-year secondary school (ninth and tenth grades culminating in ―matriculation‖) and higher secondary or ―intermediate‖—eleventh and twelfth grades). Some accounts, including official reports, include the post-primary Middle School as part of the ―secondary‖ stage. On the other hand, some include the ―Intermediate‖ or ―Junior College‖ as part of the ―secondary‖ distinguishing it as ―higher secondary.‖ In 1991, there were 11,978 secondary schools with an enrollment of 2.995 million students and 154,802 teachers with a student-teacher ratio of 19:l. Because of the relatively low enrollment at the primary education level and high dropout rates at the Middle School (see the section on Preprimary & Primary Education), the Seventh and Eighth Five Year Plans substantially augmented allocations at the primary and Middle School levels. The government also sought to decentralize and democratize the design and implementation of the education strategy by giving the parents a greater voice in running school. It also took measures to transfer control of primary and secondary schools to nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs). There is a major qualitative difference between government-run schools and ―public‖ schools (public in the British usage, which means real exclusive, elite schools). These charge very high fees affordable only by the economically topmost level of the society, probably no more than five percent of the families, some of whom prefer to send their children to even more exclusive schools in the Western world, notably, Great Britain. Such ―public‖ schools are mostly located in major cities and in the ―hill stations‖ and attract children from the wealthy and the powerful including the higher levels of bureaucracy and the military. They generally prepare students for the Cambridge Examination, maintain excellent facilities including laboratories and computers and highly-trained teachers. Thanks to economic growth of the country including foreign trade, employment in multinationals and according to some, higher levels of corruption, the number of families which can afford the high fees of the ―public‖ schools has been increasing since the 1960s. It is also considered a mark of high status to have one‘s children admitted to such schools because of the possibility that it may result in developing contacts which may be useful in their future careers. There are, therefore, tremendous pressures on such schools for admission. There were also ―socialistic‖ pressures. In 1972, following the rise of Zulfikar Bhutto to power, some of these ―public‖ schools were compelled to reserve one-fifth of their places for students on academic merit basis, thus helping the less affluent to get into such schools. The bulk of the secondary schools come under the aegis of the Ministry of Education. They follow a common curriculum, imparting a general education in languages (English and Urdu ), Pakistan Studies, Islamiyat and one of the following groups: Science, ―General‖ or Vocational. The Science group includes Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Biology; the ―General‖ group includes Mathematics or Household Accounts or Home Economics, General Science and two general education courses out of some 40 options. The Vocational group provides choices from a list of commercial, agricultural, industrial or home economics courses. There are also ―non-examination‖ courses such as Physical Exercise of 15-20 minutes daily and Training in Civil Defense, First Aid and Nursing for a minimum of 72 hours during grades 9 and 10. The Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSCE) taken at the end of the tenth grade is administered by the government‘s Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education. Admission to the ―intermediate‖ colleges and Vocational schools is based on score obtained at the SSCE. The grading system is by ―divisions‖ one to three. In order to be placed in the First Division, a student must score a minimum of 60 percent of the total of 1000 ―marks;‖ those obtaining 45 to 59 percent are placed in the Second Division ; and those getting between 264 and 499 out of 1000 are placed in the Third Division, while below 264 are declared failed. For those accustomed to U.S. grading, these norms would appear low. Those in the First Division would compare favorably with A students in American.

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Q.2 a) Define role of Ministry of Education during pre-eighteen amendment and post eighteen amendment?

Answer:

THE 18th Amendment to the constitution of Pakistan is an important step forward for the parliamentary system in the country. It promises more autonomy to the provinces — a popular demand put forward by a number of political parties. Apart from the political restructuring it mandates, the amendment also holds some major implications for the country‘s system of education. Through it a new article, 25A, has been inserted into the constitution that reads: ―Right to education: The state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of five to 16 years in such manner as may be determined by law.‖ This is an important undertaking by the state since education, in contemporary times, is considered an important tool for enhancing one‘s chances for socioeconomic development. In Pakistan, a large number of students do not have access to schools or drop out before they reach the fifth grade. A major reason behind the high dropout rate is poverty, and as a result a large number of children remain illiterate and cannot become part of the literate human resource group which is vital for the development of a country. An effective implementation of this article of the constitution would without doubt pave the way for enriching the national human capital. Another major implication of the 18th Amendment for education is that the curriculum, syllabus, planning, policy, centres of excellence and standards of education will fall under the purview of the provinces. This is a big step forward for education. The 18th Amendment, passed unanimously by parliament, was the result of a rare consensus between all the major political parties. After becoming a part of the constitution, however, some strong voices of dissent were raised by different quarters, including the Ministry of Education. A campaign has been initiated to spread the idea that the provinces are not ready to take up the massive challenge of dealing with the provision of education. This claim is made on the assumption that the provinces do not have the capacity or the financial resources to cope with the huge challenge in front of them. It has been argued that the contents of the curricula should remain with the federation since the provinces could take liberties which may result in putting the unity and ideology of the country at risk. Critics have asked how standards would be maintained across the provinces and how quality would be assured. And what if all the provinces introduced regional languages in schools? Would this weaken the federation? Looking at the above points, one can understand the federation‘s concern regarding the future of education once it becomes a provincial responsibility. However, this concern seems to emanate primarily from a lack of trust in the capacity and ability of the provinces. It is interesting to note, though, that the provinces are already providing for school and college education and they do have the capacity (in terms of intellectual resources) to handle the job. As far as funds are concerned, the provinces have been funding education from their budgets. The federation would give partial grants to the universities only. The provinces should have the autonomy to design the curricula according to contextual needs and learners‘ requirement. If the federation is very concerned about the curriculum issue, it can keep Islamiat and Pakistan Studies under its control. The curricula for other subjects should be designed by the provinces concerned. Education standards can be monitored through provincial quality assurance departments and the inter-provincial coordination committee. Similarly, the provinces may introduce regional languages as a subject in their respective provinces as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is attempting to do. This right was already there, even before the 18th Amendment. The diversity of languages is more likely to strengthen the federation, rather than weaken it. Recall that the denial of the demand to name Bangla as a national language in addition to Urdu played a major part in the separation of East Pakistan. A cursory glance at the points above tells us that all the problems can be resolved without much ado. It seems, however, that concerns about the incapability of provinces to deal with educational responsibilities emerge from a trust deficit where the centre, in its self-righteous manner, doubts the competence and integrity of the provinces. Why is that so? Why this reluctance on the part of the federation? Why these fears that the provinces may mess up the education system?

To understand this, we need to realise that education has a strong link with power. Education, as political theorist Gramsci suggested, can pay an important part in controlling minds. Historically education has been used to take and maintain control of marginalized countries and groups, so if education becomes a provincial matter, certain powerful groups and organizations see it as a shift in power which is not in their favour. The outcome is a lot of hue and cry, and the offering of lame excuses. What is required at this point is a positive attitude by the federation, a trust in the competence, integrity and patriotism of the provinces. As has been suggested, there are two kinds of federations in the world: hold-together and come-together. We need to make a move from holding the provinces together to persuading them to come together. The 18th Amendment provides an excellent opportunity for such a paradigm shift.

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Q.2 b) Write in detail on role of Federal Government Institutions?

Answer:

Peculation abounds on new priorities and the fate of current programs and policies in the U.S. Department of Education under the direction of Betsy DeVos, Donald Trump‘s nominee for education secretary. One thing is certain, there will be changes in the offing under the new administration, which is as averse to government regulation as it is inclined toward free market forces, which, in education, includes for-profit charter schools and vouchers. Noting that much of what has been written on education policy involves where the federal government should stay out of education governance, the Brookings Institution sought to initiate a public conversation on what the federal government can and should do. The result is Memos to the President on the Future of Education Policy, a series of 12 articles written by education leaders and policymakers with diverse perspectives that are intended to make ―an affirmative case for an important but limited federal role‖ in education policy. The preface to the series, A principled federal role in PreK-12 education, explores the history and evolution of federal policy around public education in the period soon after the Revolutionary War. The authors begin in 1791 with ratification of the Tenth Amendment, which gave states jurisdiction over all powers not reserved for the federal government in the U.S. Constitution, including education, and continues to current programs aimed at providing equal access to quality education for all students regardless of race, income, gender, ethnicity, language, and immigration status. The civil rights movement has been a major force in periods of heightened federal involvement. The U.S. Supreme Court ushered in this era with its 1954 Brown v. Board of Education ruling. A decade later, driven by President Lyndon B. Johnson‘s bold vision for a ―Great Society,‖ Congress approved two unprecedented pieces of legislation: The Civil Rights Act of 1964, followed in 1965 by the first Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). A SUPPORTING ROLE The fundamental question in this and the other papers is what can the federal government do to encourage and support states and districts in their work to improve learning for all students? The authors derived a common set of four proactive principles, which recommend that the federal government should: ensure that no student is denied the right to equal educational opportunity based on race, ethnicity, gender, disability, or other protected status; provide compensatory funding to facilitate access to educational opportunity for high-need students, including, but not limited to, students living in poverty and students with disabilities; support education research and development, and the gathering and dissemination of information about the scope and quality of the nation‘s education system, to inform policy and practice at the state and local levels; and in a manner consistent with both its unique advantages and limited capacity, support the development and conditions to promote continuous improvement of state and local education systems. The overall message here is that the federal government has the responsibility to insure the right to a free and high quality education for all K-12 students by protecting their civil rights and by providing resources for the most in need, using public data and high quality research, and by providing support and infrastructure for schools, districts, and states to help them continuously improve in their work. ***********************************************************************************

Q.3 BISE stands for ? What are the functions of BISE? Discuss administration of examination under BISE and are they fulfilling their responsibility as required?

Answer:

BISE stands for Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education BISE came into being as a result of the break-up of Peshawar Board in 1990 under the North West Frontier Province Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education Act 1990. Due to increase in work load on matric section, the conduct section has been divided into two separate sections. Conduct 1 to deal with matric and conduct 2 to deal with intermediate. A printing section has also been created for printing of question papers. The Board is governed by a Calendar based on NWFP BISE Act 1990. The act along with regulations and rules provide a complete compendium of instructions for running the Board. Within the parameters laid down by this act, the Board makes rules and regulations for its running. In addition the Controlling Authority also has the powers to provide directions to the Board to regulate any activity. Five districts, namely Haripur, Abbottabad, Mansehra, Battagram and Kohistan. This encompasses an area of 17,194 square kilometres and a population of 3.47 millions. Government schools, including Higher Secondary Schools and colleges, Tehsil-wise, both male and female. Private Schools, male and female, Tehsil-wise. Private Colleges, male and female, Tehsil-wise. Summary of institutions affiliated with the Board. All students of 9 th and 11 th class are required to be registered with the Board. The student population here is that of registered students. In our Board area, however, a very large private student population is also there, whose examination requirements are also met by the Board. Objectives of the Board Hold and conduct all Examinations pertaining to Intermediate Education, Secondary Education, Classical and Pakistani Languages and such other Examinations as may be determined by Government. Lay down the conditions for admission to its Examinations to determine the eligibility of candidates and to admit them to such Examinations. Prescribe courses of study for its Examinations Lay down conditions for recognition of institutions. Accord, refuse or withdraw recognition, wholly or partly. Inspection of institutions and arrange for inspection of recognized institutions and call for inspection reports in respect of such institutions. Institute and award scholarships, medals and prizes in the prescribed manner. Grant certificates and diplomas to persons who have passed its Examinations and to withdraw such certificates and diplomas Functions of the Board The functions of the Board are:- Hold and conduct all Examinations pertaining to Intermediate Education, Secondary Education, Classical and Pakistani Languages and such other Examinations as may be determined by Government. Lay down the conditions for admission to its Examinations to determine the eligibility of candidates and to admit them to such Examinations. Prescribe courses of study for its Examinations. Lay down conditions for recognition of institutions. Accord, refuse or withdraw recognition, wholly or partly. Inspection of institutions and arrange for inspection of recognized institutions and call for inspection reports in respect of such institutions. Institute and award scholarships, medals and prizes in the prescribed manner. Grant certificates and diplomas to persons who have passed its Examinations and to withdraw such certificates and diplomas. In order to enable the Board to perform these multifarious functions efficiently and effectively, these Boards were established as independent autonomous bodies with the Governor of the province as the

Controlling Authority.

Professionally Board is the most competent body, as it comprises the highest functionaries of the provincial Education setup as members etc.

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Q.4 Write a detail history, status and functions of Federal directorate of Education. Discuss Beaconhouse School system and the City School considering their differences?

Answer:

Federal Directorate of Education (FDE), Islamabad was established as an attached department of Ministry of Education in 1967 for providing educational facilities at various levels in ICT. Upon devolution of the MoE, Federal Directorate of Education started working as attached department of Capital Administration & Development Division (CA&DD) since April 2011. The status of CA&DD was changed to Ministry of Capital Administration & Development in May 2012. The new government formed after General Election 2013, the MoCA&D was again changed to Capital Administration and Development Division w.e.f June 2013. FDE endeavors to provide conducive environment of teaching and learning with focus on academic excellence, surging desire for knowledge, attitudinal change including tolerance and compassion, developing a sense of purpose and high achievement with the vision for tomorrow. FDE continually envisages to generate and sustain an enabling educational environment with a view to: Tap innate potential of our students. Nurture core values with due regard to our socio-cultural moorings. Develop dynamic and productive Pakistanis capable of competing in the evolving international scenario. Inculcate the spirit of community service (through Scouting and Girl Guiding) FDE‘s reforms and Measures to improve quality of Education: In-service Teachers‘ Training Uni – system of Education Introduction of IT Education at various levels English Teachers for Primary Classes Institution of Parent Teacher Association (PTA) Promulgation of Education Code Free Text Books.

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Q.5 a) Define curriculum according to different educationists. Differentiate among curriculum, syllabus, course contents and scheme of studies?

Answer:

Curriculum Definition Collection A. Bestor (1956): The curriculum must consist essentially of disciplined study in five great areas:

1) command of mother tongue and the systematic study of grammar, literature, and writing.

2) mathematics,

3) sciences,

4) history,

5) foreign language.

Albert Oliver (1977): curriculum is ―the educational program of the school‖ and divided into four basic elements:

1) program of studies,

2) program of experiences,

3) program of service,

4) hidden curriculum.

B. Othanel Smith (1957): A sequence of potential experiences is set up in the school for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting. This set of experiences is referred to as the curriculum. Bell (1971): the offering of socially valued knowledge, skills, and attitudes made available to students through a variety of arrangements during the time they are at school, college, or university. Bobbit (1918): Curriculum is that series of things which children and youth must do and experience by way of developing abilities to do the things well that make up the affairs of adult life; and to be in all respects what adults should be. Caswell and Campbell (1935): curriculum is composed of all of the experiences children have under the guidance of the teacher.‖ Daniel Tanner and Laurel N. Tanner (1988) ―that reconstruction of knowledge and experience systematically developed under the auspices of the school (or university), to enable the learner to increase his or her control of knowledge and experience.‖

David G. Armstrong (1989): ―is a master plan for selecting content and organizing learning experiences for the purpose of changing and developing learners‘ behaviors and insights.‖ Decker Walker (1990): A curriculum consists of those matter: A. that teachers and students attend to together, B. that students, teachers, and others concerned generally recognize as important to study and learn, as indicated particularly by using them as a basis for judging the success of both school and scholar, C. the manner in which these matters are organized in relationship to one another, in relationship to the other elements in the immediate educational situation and in time and space. Differentiate among curriculum, syllabus, course contents and scheme of studies: Definition of Syllabus The syllabus is defined as the documents that consist of topics or portion covered in a particular subject. It is determined by the examination board and created by the professors. The professors are responsible for the quality of the course. It is made available to the students by the teachers, either in hard copy or electronic form to bring their attention towards the subject and take their study seriously. A syllabus is considered as a guide to the in charge as well as to the students. It helps the students to know about the subject in detail, why it is a part of their course of study, what are the expectations from students, consequences of failure, etc. It contains general rules, policies, instructions, topics covered, assignments, projects, test dates, and so on. Definition of Curriculum The curriculum is defined as the guideline of the chapters and academic content covered by an educational system while undergoing a particular course or program. In a theoretical sense, curriculum refers to what is offered by the school or college. However, practically it has a wider scope which covers the knowledge, attitude, behaviour, manner, performance and skills that are imparted or inculcated in a student. It contains the teaching methods, lessons, assignments, physical and mental exercises, activities, projects, study material, tutorials, presentations, assessments, test series, learning objectives, and so on. The curriculum is well planned, guided and designed by the government or the educational institution. It is aimed at both physical and mental development of a student. It is the overall learning experience that a student goes through during the particular course of study. Key Differences Between Syllabus and Curriculum The basic differences between syllabus and curriculum are explained in the point given below: The syllabus is described as the summary of the topics covered or units to be taught in the particular subject. Curriculum refers to the overall content, taught in an educational system or a course. Syllabus varies from teacher to teacher while the curriculum is same for all teachers. The term syllabus is a Greek origin, whereas the term curriculum is a Latin origin. The curriculum has a wider scope than the syllabus. The syllabus is provided to the students by the teachers so that they can take an interest in the subject. On the other hand, normally the curriculum is not made available to the students unless specifically asked for. Syllabus is descriptive in nature, but the curriculum is prescriptive. Syllabus is set for a particular subject. Unlike curriculum, which covers a particular course of study or a program. Syllabus is prepared by teachers. Conversely, a curriculum is decided by the government or the school or college administration. The duration of a syllabus is for a year only, but curriculum lasts till the completion of the course. Conclusion Curriculum and Syllabus are the terms of education, imparted to the students by teachers. It means the knowledge, skills or qualifications that are passed on from one generation to another. A subject syllabus is a unit of the curriculum. The two terms differ in a sense that curriculum is a combination of some factors which helps in the planning of an educational program, whereas a syllabus covers the syllabus.

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Q.5 b) What are the criteria for the selection of text books?

Answer:

Adopting, modifying, or creating an open textbook for your course is a big decision, requiring you to evaluate new resources often on your own. When you begin evaluating open textbooks, use the following criteria:

 Clarity, Comprehensibility, and Readability o Is the content, including any instructions, exercises, or supplemental material, clear and comprehensible to students?

o Is the content well-categorized in terms of logic, sequencing, and flow?

o Is the content consistent with its language and key terms?

 Content Accuracy and Technical Accuracy

o Is the content accurate based on both your expert knowledge and through external sources?

o Are there any factual, grammatical, or typographical errors?

o Is the interface easy to navigate? Are there broken links or obsolete formats?

 Adaptability and Modularity

o Is the resource in a file format which allows for adaptations, modifications, rearrangements, and updates?

o Is the resource easily divided into modules, or sections, which can then be used or rearranged out of their original order?

o Is the content licensed in a way which allows for adaptations and modifications?

 Appropriateness

o Is the content presented at a reading level appropriate for higher education students?

o How is the content useful for instructors or students?

o Is the content itself appropriate for higher education?

 Accessibility

o Is the content accessible to students with disabilities through the compatibility of third-party reading applications?

o If you are using Web resources, does each image have alternate text that can be read?

o Do videos have accurate closed-captioning?

o Are students able to access the materials in a quick, non-restrictive manner?

o See our Accessibility page for more details.

 Supplementary Resources

o Does the OER contain any supplementary materials, such as homework resources, study guides, tutorials, or assessments?

o Have you reviewed these supplementary resources in the same manner as the original OER?

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8625 Higher Education Assignment 2

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8625 Higher Education Assignment 2

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Course Higher Education (8625)
Level Bed (1.5Year)
Assignments NO 02

Q.1 Describe the system of higher education in Germany ,compare this system with higher education system of Pakistan.

Germany, higher education are offered at three types of Higher Education Institutions.
o Universities(Universitäten)
These institutions offer the whole range of academic disciplines. In the German tradition, universities focus in particular on basic research so that advanced stages of study have mainly theoretical orientation and research-oriented components.

o Universities of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschulen)
These institutions concentrate their study programmes in engineering and other technical disciplines, business-related studies, social work, and design areas. The common mission of applied research and development implies a distinct application oriented focus and professional character of studies, which include integrated and supervised work assignments in industry, enterprises or other relevant institutions.

o Universities of Art/Music (Kunst- und Musikhochschulen)
These institutions offer studies for artistic careers in fine arts, performing arts and music; in such fields as directing, production, writing in theatre, film, and other media; and in a variety of design areas, architecture, media and communication. Besides these three main types, which may be either state institutions or private institutions recognised by the state, some special categories exist, like church-maintained colleges, universities of cooperative education (Berufsakademien), colleges of education or colleges of public administration. In their operations, including the organisation of studies and the designation and award of degrees, all types are subject to higher education legislation.

Types of programmes
German higher education used to be offered in integrated "long" (one-tier) programmes leading to Diplom- or Magister Artium degrees or completed by a Staatsprüfung (State Examination).

German higher education is currently adapting to the three cycle degree system of the European Higher Education Area. Therefore, the old one-tier programmes are successively being replaced by a the new system. Bachelor and Master's programmes are now offered at most institutions instead of the integrated "long" programmes, except for most study programmes in law and medicine. The Bachelor and Master's programmes are designed to provide an enlarged variety and flexibility to students in planning and pursuing educational objectives and they also intend to enhance international compatibility of studies and thus international mobility. Increasingly, higher education institutions offer study programs taught in English to attract a larger number of incoming students. Doctorate or PhD programmes are for the most part not yet subject to state regulations, but there exists a clear trend towards more integrated programmes.

Overview degree structure
Comparison Between Germany and Pakistan Higher Education:
INIDICATORS FOR THE QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION OF PAKISTAN

Higher educational policy making is a very important aspect for the quality of Higher Education, because all the planning, implications, controls, results etc. are included in this policy making discussion and indicators can be effectively used for policy decisions (Cohen, 1980). In Pakistan National Educational Policy in 1979 had been decided that the universities would be facilitated with adequate educational scientific equipment and laboratories facilities, libraries with update equipment. A national System for admission in a university has been developed and launched (Read Pakistan, 2015).

Pre- and In-service teacher training programs had been organized by the national academy of Higher Education. And the standard amendment in university act has been made for the betterment of the university management. According to the factors/indicators which had been decided in the national education policy 1979, the first university in the private sector, the Agha Khan University was established in 1983, then Lahore university of management science (LUMS) in 1985. This has set the trend for establishment of other private universities in the private sector according to these standard indicators. Factors like the administration management, quality of teachers, accreditation, student clubs, and 80% attendance strict call have also been included in policy in 1992. 1998-2010 policy brought additional to upgrade the quality of Higher Education by bringing teaching, learning and research process in line with international standards. Furthermore quality of students like standard of student intake and infrastructure e.g. curricula are considered as the major quality factors of Higher Education. For all these things policy making and its implementation is a very important issue.

It can also assumed that there is no uniform implementation criteria of HEC for universities. Although the universities are passing through a transition period e.g. due to lack of enough financial resources, the proper yardstick of HEC to assess the quality of the universities is violated badly by the institutes. For example private universities violate the standard criteria for selection of the appropriate faculty members and for the admission of students. Public universities have competitive faculty compared to private institutes but the infrastructure of public universities is not so standard. So both public and the private universities have strengths and weaknesses.

It is responsibility of HEC to develop and maintain the standard uniform quality criteria. This is to ensure the provision of quality education at Pakistani Universities. Nevertheless it is now quite interesting to know about the quality of a higher educational system of Germany.

1 SHORT INTRODUCTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION OF GERMANY

There are different higher educational institutes with equivalent status in Germany, which provide the different types of Higher Education.

The higher educational institutes are based on universities, universities of applied sciences and colleges of art and music. These institutes are accredited and are private, state higher educational institutions and financed and run by state, recognized private institutions, the protestant and catholic churches. Some universities are area specific such as Medicine, Art, and Technology. Whereas the practical work contained area of Engineering, Business and Social Sciences have been offered by applied sciences university’s which mostly private higher educational institutes of this country are. However, the overall educational institutes have been decreased, but the Higher Educational institutes in Germany have risen to 24% from 1996/7 (Bildungsbericht, 2014).

Due the founding of in the meanwhile large number of applied universities, but with less number of students the number of higher educational institutions becomes more and more. Students are mostly being registered in state universities. One reason can be the significant rising number of study courses on offer, which are approximately 9500 Bachelor and 7000 Master programs (Autorengruppe Bildungsberichterstattung (2014), Bildung in Deutschland 2014). .

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Q.2 Explain the concept and nature of financing in education. how stage in higher education can be minimized.

Concept and nature of financing in education:
Financial literacy is important because it equips us with the knowledge and skills we need to manage money effectively. Without it, our financial decisions and the actions we take—or don’t take—lack an informed foundation to maximize their success. And this can have dire consequences.

Nearly half of Americans don’t expect to have enough money to retire comfortably.
Credit card debt has reached its highest point ever.
Forty percent of Americans can’t afford a $400 emergency expense.

Given the above statistics, it might not be surprising that nearly two-thirds of Americans can’t pass a basic test of financial literacy.

To explore the importance of financial literacy, we turned to personal finance experts working in colleges, high schools, and credit unions. Together, the populations they serve span a broad range of ages, incomes, and backgrounds. These educators witness first-hand the impact that financial literacy—or the lack of financial literacy—can have on a person’s life.

We posed the same question to each of them: “Why is financial literacy important?” Here’s what they had to say. For college students, financial literacy is important because the formula for college success today only has two factors: grades and money. Professors and instructors thoroughly educate students on academic requirements and grading policies. It’s often new financial responsibilities and realities that campuses are not adequately educating or preparing students for success.

Research has even shown that students are more likely to drop out of school because of “outside pressures” than poor grades. Student success is no longer constrained to classrooms or defined by academic performance alone. The future success of our students relies on providing opportunities for them to learn, develop, and strengthen core life skills they need today and more importantly tomorrow as successful graduates. Our team is proud to be creating a new paradigm within higher education by bringing the topic of money out of the shadows. We have become national leaders in our field by confirming that personal financial education services are no longer an exception for today’s students—they are an expectation.”

DEVELOPMENT:
The following basic questions were formulated before the methodology development:
• What basic principles should be used as a basis for the methodology?
• Should the ranking be presented in the format of a traditional system of leagues or a system of comparison/correlation of the universities?
• What data should the ranking be based on?

Round University Ranking (RUR) is an international ranking of leading world universities published by the RUR Ranking Agency (Moscow, Russia). The ranking provides comparison of 930 leading universities from 80 countries around the world for 8 years (2010-2017) according to 20 indicators distributed into 4 areas: teaching, research, international diversity, and financial sustainability. Such a wide coverage, both geographically and temporally, makes RUR ranking a unique tool for choosing universities for study and work, as well as comparing higher education institutions on a global scale. Round University Ranking (RUR) is based on the data provided by Clarivate Analytics (formerly the IP&Science business of Thomson Reuters).

RUR ranking is:
• a navigator in the world of higher education enabling applicants and their parents to choose the appropriate higher institution and the way of training;
• a tool for students helping to choose a higher education institutions for their short-term programs or change their main place of study;
• a tool for teachers and professors enabling them to find suitable vacancies and make decisions about cooperation with their colleagues in the other universities;
• an assessment tool for the management of universities evaluating the competitiveness of a university on the national and global scale and making the appropriate management decisions aimed at comprehensive improvement of the university’s international competitiveness;
• one of the assessment tools for business evaluating the university and making decisions about cooperation with a particular higher education institution;
• a tool for the state to comprehensively assess the country's higher education system as well as a way of maintaining national prestige.

Publication bias
Publication bias is an issue that can lead to biased results in a meta-analysis. Publication bias occurs when not all research has been published or reported. Studies may not be reported or published because of non-significant results, or because the results are not valued properly by journal editors or by other researchers. When these studies report different results from those in the analysis, bias arises. The majority of the studies used in this review are journal articles (46.15%). Roughly half of the studies are located outside journals, and the possibility exists that we do not have to cope with publication bias. However, we also want to draw attention to two caveats. First of all, most articles in this review sample are in the field of education economics. A tradition in this field is that unpublished articles are often made available online because of the long time that elapses before publication. As a result, some of our “unpublished” papers may be published in the future. Secondly, it is not really clear what unpublished means in the digital area. Indeed, most documents can be easily obtained via internet searches independently of being controlled by commercial publishers.

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Q.3 Discuss the scope and significance of assessment in higher education. Identify different kinds of assessment techniques use d by the university teacher .

Scope and significance of assessment in higher education.
I'm sure you know the feeling of anticipation when you are about to take a quiz or test. Did you take detailed class notes and study enough? And you surely have been assigned with various essays. Did you give yourself enough time to research, write, and revise your essay in order to meet the requirements.

Exams and essays along with speeches and projects are forms of assessment. Assessment is a critical step in the learning process. It determines whether or not the course's learning objectives have been met. A learning objective is what students should know or be able to do by the time a lesson is completed. Assessment affects many facets of education, including student grades, placement, and advancement as well as curriculum, instructional needs, and school funding.

The Effects of Assessment
Let's look at a couple of the main effects of assessment:

Student Learning
Assessment is a key component of learning because it helps students learn. When students are able to see how they are doing in a class, they are able to determine whether or not they understand course material. Assessment can also help motivate students. If students know they are doing poorly, they may begin to work harder.

Imagine this situation:
Johnny is a chemistry student. He just took his first exam in his class. He earned a 56%; he needs a 79% to pass the class. The low exam score lets Johnny know that he missed something important he should have learned. Perhaps, he did not understand the material, or maybe he did not study long enough. Whatever the case, the assessment results let Johnny know that he did not successfully learn the material and that he must try something new in order to earn a better score.

Teaching
Just as assessment helps students, assessment helps teachers. Frequent assessment allows teachers to see if their teaching has been effective. Assessment also allows teachers to ensure students learn what they need to know in order to meet the course's learning objectives.

Imagine this situation:
Pre-assessment or diagnostic assessment
Before creating the instruction, it’s necessary to know for what kind of students you’re creating the instruction. Your goal is to get to know your student’s strengths, weaknesses and the skills and knowledge the posses before taking the instruction. Based on the data you’ve collected, you can create your instruction.

Formative assessment
Formative assessment is used in the first attempt of developing instruction. The goal is to monitor student learning to provide feedback. It helps identifying the first gaps in your instruction. Based on this feedback you’ll know what to focus on for further expansion for your instruction.

Summative assessment
Summative assessment is aimed at assessing the extent to which the most important outcomes at the end of the instruction have been reached. But it measures more: the effectiveness of learning, reactions on the instruction and the benefits on a long-term base. The long-term benefits can be determined by following students who attend your course, or test. You are able to see whether and how they use the learned knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Confirmative assessment
When your instruction has been implemented in your classroom, it’s still necessary to take assessment. Your goal with confirmative assessments is to find out if the instruction is still a success after a year, for example, and if the way you're teaching is still on point. You could say that a confirmative assessment is an extensive form of a summative assessment.

Norm-referenced assessment
This compares a student’s performance against an average norm. This could be the average national norm for the subject History, for example. Other example is when the teacher compares the average grade of his or her students against the average grade of the entire school.

Criterion-referenced assessment
It measures student’s performances against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or learning standards. It checks what students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education. Criterion-referenced tests are used to evaluate a specific body of knowledge or skill set, it’s a test to evaluate the curriculum taught in a course.

Ipsative assessment
It measures the performance of a student against previous performances from that student. With this method you’re trying to improve yourself by comparing previous results. You’re not comparing yourself against other students, which may be not so good for your self-confidence.
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Q.4 Highlight the future trends in higher education and role of technology in distance mode of learning.

The Future of Higher Education:
The most important challenge involves a shift in the way students consume higher education. Instead of attending a single institution, students receive credit in multiple ways, including from early-college/dual-degree programs, community colleges, online providers, and multiple universities. Students are voting with their feet, embracing online courses and undermining core curricula, which served as a cash cow, by turning to alternate providers, and pursuing fewer majors that require study of a foreign language.

As a result, colleges must become more nimble, entrepreneurial, student-focused, and accountable for what students learn. I am a historian and far better at interpreting the past than forecasting the future.” This report goes on to predict 15 innovations that will alter the face of higher education.

The future of higher education depends on innovation.
We have put together 4 articles consisting of educated predictions, research, and reports that can provide an indication as to what the future holds for universities and business schools: “The most important challenge involves a shift in the way students consume higher education. Instead of attending a single institution, students receive credit in multiple ways, including from early-college/dual-degree programs, community colleges, online providers, and multiple universities. Students are voting with their feet, embracing online courses and undermining core curricula, which served as a cash cow, by turning to alternate providers, and pursuing fewer majors that require study of a foreign language.

Full Story: The Chronicle
Everything from the emergence of MOOCs to new learning styles and mounting financial and sustainability pressures are impacting the education landscape. Every day higher education leaders are developing new strategies to leverage these developing challenges and opportunities.

The common denominator amidst all this change: students. To best recruit and retain students, universities need to evaluate how they offer a student life experience that prepares students to be healthy and dynamic people in the future. That means universities need to embrace sustainability and wellness as key components of campus life. Spelman College recently differentiated itself by diverting all of its athletic funding to create a “Wellness Revolution,” focused on best promoting the health of its students.

Expect that in the coming years, long-standing models of higher education that prefer tradition and stability will be supplemented, if not displaced, by new models that embrace organizational innovation, responsivity, and adaptation.

A dual transformation design strategy has proved especially effective for addressing both legacy and emerging markets. According to this approach, operations acting in parallel—one to develop strategies that optimize the core organization to become more responsive to the new profile of demands it faces, and a second to design and implement disruptive innovations that provide a basis for future growth, agility, and responsivity.1 We provide here a set of recommendations for how dual transformation can be implemented in higher education. virtual reality, robotic telepresence and cyber defense will be driving forces in digital learning at colleges and universities over the next 20 years.

Role Technology in Distance Education
The concept of ‘Distance Education‘ is not new, and can be traced as far back as the first century. The Apostle Paul wrote to the early Christian Churches, teaching them from a distance even from his prison cell. But, organizational use of distance learning methods was first introduced in the 19th century. One of the first universities to deliver distance learning in an organized manner was Pennsylvania State University which established its first distance learning network in 1886.

Today, distance education calls upon an impressive, range of technologies to enable teachers and students who are separated by distance, to communicate with each other either in real time (synchronous) or delayed time (asynchronous). Due to modern communication and technologies, today the educational transactions through distance mode is being utilized by students and teachers engaged in both formal and open system of education. Rai (2000) has defined three types of distance education systems, viz., Institute-centered, Person-centered and Society-based.

(i). Institute – Centered Distance Education System: In this system there is a predominance of systematic models of education. The institutional mission focuses on the cost-effectiveness and cost-efficiency of the system. Academics become consultants to the institution for material design and development. All other functionaries in the institution are assigned key functions with accountability and individual responsibility.

(ii). Person – Centered Distance Education system: Under this system of distance education, the programmers are more individualized and negotiable as the aim is to serve the individual learner. Individualized learning is personally negotiated and is followed up by tutors/counselors.

(iii). Society Based Distance Education System: In the society based distance education system learning, materials are developed in accordance with the needs of the community. These are used in community situations where the teacher strives to involve the entire community i n the study of the learning materials. The teacher functions as a facilitator to identify learning goals, to evaluate learning materials, etc.

Before discussing the various media and technologies of distance education, appropriate to deliberate upon its objectives in brif the distance education attempts :
 to provide an opportunity of education to those who had discontinued their formal education due to one reason or other at any age and class. The working persons, economically and otherwise disabled persons or persons residing in remote areas may improve and advance their academic career through distance education;
 to provide quality education and training to large number of students at lower costs than conventional education system;
 to make access to higher education;

 to promote education as a lifelong activity by providing necessary access to the masses, particularly to the disadvantageous groups like those living in rural areas, the employed, women, weaker sections of the society and many others wishing to acquire and upgrade knowledge and skills, at their door steps;
 to provide a flexible and diversified innovative education system which is open in the methods of learning, pace, place, eligibility criterion as well as in every operation of the program;
 to promote courses leading to gainful employment, tailored to specific vocational/professional needs, as also being relevant to local needs;

Media in distance education is a kind of delivery system, which includes all kinds of mechanical devices directed to educational use. These devices are used to communicate knowledge or ideas to a large number of people who are located in far off rural and remote areas. Distance education program can be enriched and made more attractive, effective and satisfying for learning by using a variety of media i n accordance with the content. The facilities that can be provided for these programmes should attempt an exploitation of the potential of the variety of powerful media rendered by modem technology.

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Q.5 Write the comprehensive note on the following

a) Quality and Access in higher education.
Assessment is a systemic process in higher education that uses empirical data on student learning to refine programs and improve student learning.[1] As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable and clear student learning outcomes for learning, provisioning a sufficient amount of learning opportunities to achieve these outcomes, implementing a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and interpreting evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations, and using the collected information to inform improvement in student learning.

Quality in education
Access to education is important, but just as important is actually learning basic knowledge and skills in the classroom. Many children across the world cannot read, despite of having attended school for several years.

High-quality education is a prerequisite for learning and human development. Quality is affected by factors both inside and outside the classroom – everything from the availability of a teacher and teaching aids to the child’s starting point when it comes to mother tongue language or general health, for example.

Overall, securing high-quality education is a considerable challenge, particularly for countries with limited resources, where educational systems are prevented from functioning normally. Assessment in higher education can focus on the individual learner, a course, an academic program, or the institution.

1. Course-level Assessment
2. Program-level Assessment

Course-level Assessment
Assessment embedded at the course level (sometimes referred to as embedded assessment or authentic assessment) typically involves the use of assignments.[3] Students receive feedback on their performance on assignments and faculty gain knowledge of student learning to use for grading.[4] The work assessed within courses best relates to specific program-level student learning outcomes. Angelo and Cross[5] believe assessment in the classroom is an important part of the faculty feedback loop which can provide meaningful information about their effectiveness as teachers while also giving students a measure of their progress as learners.

Student Perception of Feedback[Studies show feedback is valued by students.[6] Feedback that is timely, specific and delivered individually helps to reinforces this perception.[7] This type of feedback, usually referred to as Just In Time, helps to create a feedback loop between student and teacher. Students generally find more utility from formative feedback when they are also presented with strategies of how to use the feedback.[8] These strategies help with perception because they tackle lack of understanding of academic discourse which hinders students' ability to use the feedback effectively.[6]

Quality of Feedback on Assessment[Timing is crucial in the delivery of feedback to students.[9] Kift and Moody claim that the complexity of the assignment should dictate how soon feedback should provided. For simpler tasks, feedback should be provided within 24 hours. However, if the task is more complicated, giving students time for reflection before providing feedback is more beneficial. "Effective feedback should be task related and focus on student performance rather than personal attributes of the student." [10] Studies have shown that the way feedback is delivered can have
either positive or negative effects on the student.[11] Corrective feedback helps to move student learning forward and improves future assessments.

b). Life long Learning
Lifelong learning is the broad term for education that is conducted beyond school. Therefore it’s voluntary, rather than compulsory, and is completely self-motivated – with the main goal being to improve personal or professional development. here are many different ways to carry on your education – whether it’s by taking a course, or continuing your personal development in a less formal setting. And it doesn’t necessarily have to come at a cost.

To help you see which options are open to you, here’s everything you need to know about lifelong learning: some examples of lifelong learning?
Because it’s such a broad term, there are many different ways you could continue adding to your knowledge.

Some examples of lifelong learning include:
 Internships and apprenticeships
 Vocational courses
 Teaching yourself a new language
 Studying a new subject
 Learning to use new pieces of technology
 Playing a new game or sport
 Adding to your skillset during employment
 Gaining knowledge and learned behaviours from your environment

However, this is by no means an extensive list – and any attempts to actively build your skills will generally fall under the category of lifelong learning.
What are the benefits of lifelong learning?
There are a number of advantages to this form of studying. Including:
 To gain a new qualification
 To add to your transferable skills
 To increase your employability and promotion prospects
 To earn more money
 To fill a skills gap
 To broaden your knowledge
 To better contribute to the community
 Mental stimulation
 Personal and professional satisfaction
 sing that formal qualifications aren’t the only way to identify desirable staff.
 The knowledge gained through previous experience, as well as any skills which have been self-taught or learned along the way, could greatly benefit the business.

Lifelong learning also ensure their employees continue to develop, and shows their desire to grow on a professional level. f you’re considering continuing your education but you’re not sure where to start, here are some of our top tips:

Utilise technology – Whatever subject you’re interested in, there are a wealth of online resources out there to help you learn. Listen to podcasts, download eBooks, take a distance learning course or join forums to continue your development.

Ask your employer – If you’re already in work, ask your employer to help you with personal development planning. Chances are they already offer a lot of training internally, and may even subsidise the cost of a new certification if it helps add value to the business.

Stay motivated – Because this form of learning is completely voluntary, it will often require self-motivation and dedication to stay focused. Offer yourself incentives to keep going, or ask a friend or family member to help you stay on track.

Add some structure – Try setting aside the same amount of time for studying each night, or each week, make sure you stick to it, and try and write down a goal for each session. Take your learning seriously, and you’re far more likely to stick to it.

Take every opportunity – It isn’t just a new certification you can gain from lifelong learning. There are plenty of opportunities out there to add to your knowledge, from taking a class in the local community centre, to joining reading groups or even watching webinars.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8625 Higher Education Assignment 1

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 2 Jan 2021 15:25:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8625 Higher Education Assignment 1

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Course Higher Education (8625)
Level BEd (1.5Year)
Assignments NO 01

Q.1 Elaborate the role of higher education in socio economic development .also discuss the major function a university play in society.

Role of higher education in socio economic development:
The Importance of Education in Economic Development
(A)Various government initiatives are being adopted to boost the growth of distance education market, besides focusing on new education techniques, such as Learning and M-learning.

(B) Education sector has seen a host of reforms and improved financial outlays in recent years that could possibly transform the country into a knowledge haven. With human resource increasingly gaining significance in the overall development of the country, development of education infrastructure is expected to remain the key focus in the current decade. In this scenario, infrastructure investment in the education sector is likely to see a considerable increase in the current decade Moreover, availability of English speaking tech-educated talent, democratic governance and a strong legal and intellectual property protection framework are enablers for world class product development, as per Mr. Amity Pandas, President-Engineering and Site Leader for Cisco (India).

(C) The Government of India has taken several steps including opening of IIT’s and IIM’s in new locations as well as allocating educational grants for research scholars in most government institutions. Furthermore, with online modes of education being used by several educational organizations, the higher education sector in India is set for some major changes and developments in the years to come.

(D) Prior to the nineteenth century, systematic investment in human capital was not considered especially important in any country. Expenditures on schooling, on-the-job training, and other similar forms of investment were quite small. This began to change radically during this century with the application of science to the development of new goods and more efficient methods of production, first in Great Britain, and then gradually in other countries.

(E) Many countries are now on the brink of a further increase in access to secondary and higher education and in effecting spectacular improvements in the quality of education offered at all levels. As increasing numbers of students complete their basic education, their demand for education at higher levels is similarly increasing. Educating girls and women is probably the single most effective investment a developing country can make, whether or not women work outside the home. It creates a multitude of positive remunerations for families including better family health and nutrition, improved birth spacing, lower infant and child mortality, and enhanced educational attainment of children.

The major function a university play in society.
It is commonly perceived that education is the most powerful weapon in alleviating poverty, elevating economic growth, producing skilled human resource, creating a healthy and enlightened social environment and making self-sufficient nations. Poverty and education are paradoxically related to each other: if one is improved, the other is decreased.

In a socially, economically, religiously and culturally diverse state like Pakistan, higher education institutions and universities, imparting education and conducting cutting edge research, are the central mechanisms that can raise the declining social and economic infrastructure of the country. Since the 2000s, there has been rapid growth in these institutions and universities across Pakistan as is evident from the sharp rise in their numbers from just 32 in 2001 to 160 at present.

Pakistan, despite rapid growth in the education sector during the past decade, suffers from severe challenges in its educational development. These challenges include lack of access to higher education for the majority of its youth, results oriented standards of pedagogical techniques, brain drain of qualified human resource and lack of adaptability to changing paradigms of academic research. Out of a population of 190 million, only five percent of them have access to university level education. It is worth mentioning that, by the end of 2022, Pakistan needs 36 million new jobs if the economy grows up to six percent annually.

Therefore, it is the premier duty of all national universities to produce graduates who fulfil the criteria of the national, social and economic needs of the country. In this regard, the role of career counselling and placement offices at the university level becomes very important. In the 21st century, the paradigm of universities has shifted from traditional aspects of teaching and learning towards building communities, economies and patterns of leadership.

Education, either basic or higher, plays a key role in the development of human capital that subsequently brings about the establishment of sound economies and harmonious communities. There is an immediate need to initiate radical educational reforms so that these challenges can be addressed proactively. The following is an exercise in this regard.

To begin with, the ministry of education, ministry of finance, planning commission, standing committees on basic and technical education and the higher education commission of Pakistan should assist these universities, both public and private, in establishing on-campus university-community partnership centres. These centres should work on the pattern of think tanks and should devise mechanisms to address dominant social problems, prepare modules and schemes for the outreach of educational facilities and bridging linkages with communities for sharing of knowledge. Secondly, since Pakistan is a traditional society with different demographical characteristics, whereby more than 30 percent of the population lives below the poverty line, and more than 600,000 young graduates are adding to unemployment every year, these higher learning institutions and universities should develop terms of reference (Torso) to provide financial assistance to talented individuals who otherwise cannot afford university education.

Thirdly, to streamline and ensure effective utilisation of public funds allocated for development of higher education in Pakistan by the concerned commissions and universities, the concerned ministries and planning commissions should primarily focus on building grass-root level education in primary schools, especially in Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

Fourth, universities should focus on creating an entrepreneurial culture among their graduates. They should produce job creators rather than producing job seekers. This can be attained through the establishment of effective business incubation centres, encouraging partnerships between industry and academia and placing career counselling offices that should work on intellectual and professional development of the graduates during the course of their studies in order to prepare them today for the challenges of tomorrow.

Fifth, education never means to earn; it means to spend. The best way to spend is spending on education and research that later on addresses the social, political, environmental and economic problems of Pakistan. Universities can play a vital role in this regard through fostering reciprocal partnerships with other educational organisations and community development centres to identify real life problems. Community development participation should be made mandatory for teachers and students at the university level. If the prestigious Australian Endeavour Award can assign 35 percent of its total evaluation marks towards the contribution of individual applicants towards community services than why can students at our universities in Pakistan not be prepared on similar lines? Moreover, since Pakistan has always been a victim of natural calamities such as floods and earthquakes, it will be beneficial if various emergency training programmes and courses related to disaster management are incorporated in the curriculum.

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Q.2 explains the status of higher education in Pakistan and critically discusses planning of higher education in Pakistan.

Status of higher education in Pakistan:
Education is the basic right of every citizen living in any country and this right is provided amicably by all developed countries on a priority basis. But in Pakistan, consumers of educational services – parents and students – have been left with little choice or idea when it comes to seeking higher education. Higher education is a powerful and essential tool for building a modern, knowledgeable, cultured and peaceful society. It imparts in-depth knowledge related to different spheres of life. By giving a wider perspective of the world.

Higher education is no longer a luxury, it is essential for survival. The core mission of higher education is to educate, to train, to undertake research and to provide service to the community. In the context of globalization, the scope and demand for higher education is increasing day by day and this demand can only be fulfilled by quality higher education. Improving the quality of higher education is the need of the hour.

Pakistan’s higher education is not ranked anywhere among the world higher education systems in terms of quality. The quality of higher education depends on various factors such as favorable environment for teaching and learning, infrastructure, teachers, curriculum, effective feedback, research opportunities and monitoring systems.

The problems plaguing the educational system of Pakistan are multidimensional. They include the population explosion, lack of resources, scarcity of qualified manpower, inconsistency in the policies of various regimes, political instability, inefficient educational management system, wastage of resources, poor quality of intake, managerial inefficiency, overcrowded classrooms, inadequate student services, inadequate material resources, non accountability of institutions, inefficiency in teaching, poor research and lack of research opportunities and poor implementation of policies and programs. The institutions have not only been multiplied, the student enrolments at colleges and universities have registered an exceptionally high rate of growth. The demands of higher education have thus increased by leaps and bounds. Despite quality control and consolidation, these problems will continue to grow constantly for a long time to come.

The major structural issues in higher education system of Pakistan are leading to poor governance of the educational institutions and questionable quality of education. Governance differences are present both in public and private sector universities. The private sector board portrays a more efficient system compared to the public sector board that lacks autonomy and is under strong political influence. In most of the private and public sector universities in Pakistan, the board of governors is a combination of alumni, donors, appointees, public figures, government nominees etc. It is very rare to find a member on the board being appointed because they possess knowledge of how universities need to perform, or they have outstanding academic contribution. Private sector universities in Pakistan have grown by a large number in the last two decades. However, at one end, the growth of such institutions provides more variety to students; there are some universities with questionable status.

Organizational structure issues are the main cause of inefficiency of higher education institutions. Institutional autonomy should be advanced in a context which seeks greater accountability from institutions and a more systematic approach to the structure of higher education institutions. The board of governors of universities seems unaware of these structural issues of universities. This leads to universities being unable to cope with the challenges. These challenges include the evolution of new markets and the creation of new professions and vocations.

Governance issues at structural, academic, and organizational level are hindrances in quality education. Universities remain so overly centralized that decision making remains distorted. There is a need for decentralization in terms of decision making.

Higher education system in Pakistan is far from developed. The issue of governance and the role of board of governors in both the public and the private sectors are critical and there is need for better management to ensure quality assurance. Higher education in Pakistan is not at par with international standards leaving a dearth of qualified graduates who can help with the rebuilding of the higher education institutions. On academic level there must be right balance between research and teaching, since research is essential for the development of faculty and the improvement of teaching. Unfortunately, in majority of the universities in Pakistan, emphasis is only placed on teaching leading to large class sizes and high teaching loads leaving no room for proper research.

Pakistan cannot progress until its higher education system is qualitatively strong enough because this poor quality is resulting in low employability, low performance of the specialized individuals, and lack of innovative and creative ideas. These are the key elements of success and progress in present time. All in all, there is a need to enlarge the adaptive capacity and quality of the higher education system so that it is more responsive to the changing world and meets the diversified needs of economy — both domestic and global. For this purpose, diversification of the Pakistani higher education system must be pursued as a goal. This can be achieved by having a proper mix of public and private, formal and non-formal institutions. Special initiatives are required to enhance employability. Curriculum and content must be continually renewed through authorities and skill development network may be set up. Collection of data on job market trends, its analysis and dissemination are important. Drawbacks mentioned above need to be transformed into the strength of the Pakistan higher education system, but this can only be done with strong willpower, determination and willingness to change.

Planning of higher education in Pakistan:
Planning and Development (P&D) directorate of PHEC provides guidance on integrated planning and development processes to establish expectations for project scope, budget, and schedule to the PHEC and to participate in strategic policy matters of public sector universities of Punjab province.

Project inception and preliminary planning require thoughtful definition of goals and needs, master planning to accommodate anticipated future needs, funding requirements, budget cycles and/or financial impacts and project phasing. P&D directorate facilitate the Higher Education Institutions in this regard. The main objectives of all the activities are to establish and strengthen the higher education institutions, improving access to education and developing research facilities. The responsibilities of P&D includes;

Coordination with other ministries & directorates
Planning and designing of short and long term plans.
Developing and writing projects.
Assessment/Evaluation of PC-Is submitted by the Universities.
Conduct feasibility study for establishment of new institution in Punjab.
Preparation of draft ACT, PC-1s and other documents required for development of new institutions.

The role of P&D directorate is also to oversee the development projects funded through Annual Development Program (ADP), Government of Punjab for higher education at Punjab Higher Education Commission (PHEC), universities, and at Degree Awarding Institutions. The P&D directorate is also maintaining the key statistics of public HEIs in Punjab province.

P&D directorate is additionally engaged with establishment of new universities / HEIs in the Punjab province and for this purpose P&D directorate has also develop policy guidelines for establishment of new universities and sub-campuses of Universities / HEIs in the Punjab province.

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Q.3 critically discusses the role of different organization for development of higher education in Pakistan.

The functions of PHEC, defined per the Punjab Higher Education Commission Act 2014, are following:

Coordinate with Higher Education Commission in a result oriented manner
Formulate guidelines and recommend policies in line with national standards prepared by the Higher Education Commission under which public and private institutions may be opened and operated in the province
Prescribe guidelines and conditions under which institutions, other than universities and degree awarding institutions, may offer qualifications in the higher education sector
Cause monitoring and evaluation of the performance of the institutions and carry out accreditation of institutions including their sub-campuses, out posts, faculties, departments and disciplines through Accreditation Committee
Provide guidelines to ensure good governance and management of institutions to maintain bewildering standards of higher education in the Punjab
Assist and advise the Government in quality enhancement and quality assurance of colleges
Cause third party performance audit of higher education institutions and furnish a copy of results to the concerned body for corrective measures and follow ups
Cause ranking of the higher education institutions of the Punjab
Submit precise grant in aid requirements of the institutions to the Government
Allocate funds to public sector institutions out of bulk financial provision received from the Government and other sources for such purpose on performance and need basis
Advise Institutions in raising funds from sources other than the Government
Support in creating linkages between institutions and industry as well as national and international organizations that support research and development in the higher education
Facilitate the introduction of educational and training programs that meet the needs of the market and promote the study in every field of national and international importance in the institutions
Ensure imparting marketable education and skills in the institutions and promote self-employment through entrepreneurship and small & medium enterprises
Advise institutions to ensure a proper balance between teaching and research
Undertake various faculty development programs for improving the quality of teaching and research in the institutions
Develop guidelines and facilitate the implementation of a system of quality assurance of institutions, based on the standards developed by the Higher Education Commission
Encourage, support and facilitate training programs, workshops and symposia at provincial and regional levels in public and private sector institutions
Prepare, in consultation with the institutions, plans for the development of higher education
Promote formal links between institutions to make the most effective use of expertize and specialized equipment and promote provincial, national and international linkages with respect to knowledge sharing, collaborative research, personnel exchange and cost sharing
Take measures, including allocation of funds, for award of fellowships, scholarships, travel and research grants
Establish endowment funds for higher education with contributions from the Government as well as non-governmental national and international sources
Collect such information and statistics on higher education and institutions as it may deem fit
Set up various committees consisting of provincial, national and international experts to advise the Commission on its affairs
Advise the institutions on framing of subordinate legislation; and
Perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may be incidental to the discharging of the above functions or as may be assigned to it by the Government
To resolve trust as well as support issues within the organization, i.e., to make sure there is an inherent level of trust among the members and that they support each other when needed.
To encourage employees to avoid procrastination of problems and find effective solutions, pronto.
To manage the regularly-arising conflicts at the workplace.
To employ new methods to improve the current operations of the firm.
To improve the satisfaction level among the employees, i.e., periodic appreciation, fair delegation of responsibility, etc.
To establish a camaraderie among the employees by helping them co-operate and collaborate better amongst themselves.
To increase the overall problem-solving capability of the organization for successful results.

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Q.4 Describe the provision of higher education in national policy 2009.

National Education Policy 2009
Islamabad, Aug 20: The National Education Policy (NEP) 2009 prepared by the federal government seeks transformation of society along the lines of Islamic teachings and revitalise existing education system to cater to social, political and spiritual needs of individuals and society.

The NEP has nine chapters and describes overarching challenges, articulates the ways of filling the commitment-implementation gap, puts forward the provisions of Islamic education and transformation of the society on Islamic and human values, outlines reforms and policy actions to be taken at the sub-sector level, and broadly suggests a framework for implementation of the policy.

According to the policy's draft, teaching Islamiyat to Muslim students is meant to provide them with opportunities to learn understand and apply the fundamental principles of Islam in their lives. This, it says, will reform and develop society on the principles of the Holy Quran and Sunnah. The policy declares Islamic education as duty of the society and the state. It says ideology of Islam forms the genesis of the State of Islamic Republic of Pakistan and its fundamental principles were defined in the Objectives Resolution, 1949, which part of the Constitution.

Titled as Islamic Education, the NEP's Chapter Four gives out the vision for teaching Islamic Studies. It says as provided in the Constitution, all steps will be taken to enable Muslims of Pakistan, individually and collectively, to order their lives in accordance with the fundamental principles and basic concepts of Islam, and to provide facilities whereby they may be enabled to understand the meaning of life according to the Holy Quran and Sunnah.

According to the NEP, Islamiyat will be taught as a compulsory subject from Grade-I to Grade-XII, extending up to graduation level in all general and professional institutions, and advanced Islamic Studies will be offered as an elective subject at grades IX-X and XI-XII. The policy divides the Islamiyat curriculum into five main parts – Al-Quran Al Kareem; Imaniyaat and Ibaadat; Seerat-e-Tayyiba; Ethics and Good Behaviour, and Prominent Personalities of Islam. The first part includes the reading of the Holy Quran (Nazira), the memorising selected small Suras of the Holy Quran (Hifz), the memorisation and translation of selected small Suras and the Quranic supplications, and selected Hadith.

According to it, the Islamic teachings will be made part of teacher training curricula and the curricula of other training institutions. It says Arabic teachers, preferably having the qualification as Qaris, will be appointed to such institutions. The policy promises to ensure that textual and other learning materials don't contain anything repugnant to Islamic injunctions and controversial material against any sect or religious or ethnic minorities.

The policy recommends teaching Ethics and Moral Education instead of Islamiyat to non-Muslim children, and appointment of subject specific teachers for the purpose.

DOVETAILING GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES

Recently many new initiatives have been taken by the government aiming at providing missing facilities. Traditional approach of improving infrastructure and providing brick and mortar is no doubt necessary, but not sufficient for quality education delivery and sustainable economic development in the existing burgeoning global competitive milieu. Some initiatives also focus/target on improving teaching quality and learning environment, building capacity of education managers and administrators, etc. Apart from the Ministry of Education, many other initiatives have been launched in the recent past by different Ministries, organizations and departments like National Commission for Human.

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Q.5 Elaborate the need and scope of research in higher education what steps can be taken to promote research culture in Pakistan.

Scope Research in Higher Education is directed to those concerned with the functioning of the post-secondary education, including two-year and four-year colleges, universities, and graduate and professional schools. It is of primary interest to institutional researchers and planners, faculty, college and university administrators, student personnel specialists and behavioral scientists. Generally, empirical studies are sought which contribute to an increased understanding of an institution or allow comparison between institutions, which aid faculty and administrators in making more informed decisions about current or future operations, and which improve the efficiency or effectiveness of the institution.

Increasing graduation rates and levels of educational attainment will accomplish little if students do not learn something of lasting value. Yet federal efforts over the last several years have focused much more on increasing the number of Americans who go to college than on improving the education they receive once they get there.

By concentrating so heavily on graduation rates and attainment levels, policy makers are ignoring danger signs that the amount that students learn in college may have declined over the past few decades and could well continue to do so in the years to come. The reasons for concern include:

College students today seem to be spending much less time on their course work than their predecessors did 50 years ago, and evidence of their abilities suggests that they are probably learning less than students once did and quite possibly less than their counterparts in many other advanced industrial countries.
Employers complain that many graduates they hire are deficient in basic skills such as writing, problem solving and critical thinking that college leaders and their faculties consistently rank among the most important goals of an undergraduate education.
Most of the millions of additional students needed to increase educational attainment levels will come to campus poorly prepared for college work, creating a danger that higher graduation rates will be achievable only by lowering academic standards.
More than two-thirds of college instructors today are not on the tenure track but are lecturers serving on year-to-year contracts. Many of them are hired without undergoing the vetting commonly used in appointing tenure-track professors. Studies indicate that extensive use of such instructors may contribute to higher dropout rates and to grade inflation.
States have made substantial cuts in support per student over the past 30 years for public colleges and community colleges. Research suggests that failing to increase appropriations to keep pace with enrollment growth tends to reduce learning and even lower graduation rates. While some college leaders are making serious efforts to improve the quality of teaching, many others seem content with their existing programs. Although they recognize the existence of problems affecting higher education as a whole, such as grade inflation or a decline in the rigor of academic standards, few seem to believe that these difficulties exist on their own campus, or they tend to attribute most of the difficulty to the poor preparation of students before they enroll.

Seven things that could help you promote good research integrity, and contribute to
improving research culture:
1. Small steps can make a big difference
Facilitating open discussions can help foster a more collaborative environment, by giving researchers the chance to share their experiences of not only their successes, but also their “failures”. This helps to build respect and trust within the research team, by talking openly and giving support when things don’t always go right. The Tobacco and Alcohol Research Group, based at the University of Bristol, have a range of different communication channels to support their work, with one focused specifically on “triumph and disaster”, which dispels the assumption that senior academics have had continuous successes to get to their esteemed positions.

2. Establishing support systems can boost morale and enhance a positive research
Providing and promoting career counselling, coaching and support services available to staff may help to reduce pressures within a research environment, which is imperative to staff well-being. This can help in limiting stress and time pressures, and connect researchers to other resources available at their institution, such as forms for deadline extensions, assistance programmes, career services and mental health and well-being services. The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center provides a career-counselling service solely to their scientists, providing the opportunity to discuss their career paths and the steps they need to take to progress.

3. Ensure everyone is on the same page
Research teams could openly discuss, amend and build on existing guidelines, to develop a consensus on their collective and individual behaviours and attitudes. This could be used to develop a group standard or pledge, ensuring all team members are aware of what is expected in the research environment. This helps to enhance a positive culture by refining standards and “norms”. The Barcelona Biomedical Research Park developed a code of good scientific practice, which sets out the expectations of individuals and the collective research team.

4. Research culture “cafes” are an excellent way to share best practice
Encourage researchers and support staff to find time and space to meet to share ideas and experiences. By involving other departments, institutions and sectors, discussions can focus on improving research integrity and culture, to share best practice on what has worked, what hasn’t and its impact. The Barcelona Biomedical Research Park is one example of where this has been put into practice.

5. Organization, department and team leaders leading by example in promoting an excellent research culture
Often seen as “role models” to their early-career peers, organization, department and team leaders who are at the forefront of promoting a positive research culture – such as by taking part in training, encouraging discussions to address difficult questions in an open and honest way and by having an open door policy – set a “norm” and redefine standards. Participants at the Royal Society’s research culture workshops gave examples of leaders initiating small but impactful ways to set culture and improve morale in the workplace. An example of this is setting regular hours, to tackle the perception that only academics working extensive hours are successful.

6. Discuss training gaps for all team members
Career progression is a key factor in retention and enhances not only the quality of research for the institution, but for the research community as a whole. Researchers can feel more valued if skills needs are reviewed individually and as a group, ensuring they all possess the necessary skills for their role, such as statistics, data-handling, proposal-writing and resource management. And following on from this, identifying gaps and offering courses for development. Software Carpentry developed such an initiative, by running training workshops at the University of Florida, to increase the data literacy of university staff.

7. Embed research culture at an institutional level
Highlight the importance of research culture and engage all staff across the organization by hosting a research culture and integrity day. Presentations, workshops and panel discussions could be given from across the organization. Different departments could showcase the ways they have improved research culture and integrity, as well as addressing areas where there is still room for improvement. The University of Nevada organised an “Ignite Integrity week”where all staff were encourage to participate in activities to discuss good practice.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8620 Computers in Education Assignment 1

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 2 Jan 2021 14:48:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8620 Computers in Education Assignment 1

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Course: Computers in Education (8620)

Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years)

ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 How computer is a powerful tool. Describe the categories of computer and their uses?
Answer:

A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming. Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks. Computers are used as control systems for a wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls, factory devices such as industrial robots and computer-aided design, and also general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones. Computers are powerful tools because they can process information with incredible speed, accuracy and dependability. They can efficiently perform input, process, output and storage operations, and they can store massive amounts of data.

Computers enable users to access information whenever necessary and to share information with other users. They allow people to use the Internet, which is a global network connecting millions of individuals, educational institutions, businesses and government agencies.

Through the Internet, users communicate with each other, search for helpful information, buy products and services, and access various types of entertainment. A widely used component of the Internet is the World Wide Web, which consists of numerous documents known as Web pages. These pages are composed of text, video, sound, graphics and other types of content.

Desktop computers typically comprise a system unit, input devices and output devices that fit on a table, whereas notebook computers are small, portable machines. Many people use desktop and notebook computers to access the Internet or accomplish tasks that require the use of application programs.

Computers that fit in the hand are called handheld computers. Midrange servers are bigger and more powerful than workstation computers. The quickest and most powerful type of computer is called a supercomputer. Another extremely efficient computer is the mainframe, which can simultaneously manage thousands of linked users.

Categories of computer and their uses:
Below you’ll find an extensive, descriptive list of the five types of computers, from supercomputers to mobile computers, and everything in between.

Supercomputers
A supercomputer is pretty much exactly what it sounds like. It’s a term used to describe computers that have the most capable processing power of its time. Early supercomputers in the 60s and 70s used just a couple processors, while the 90s saw supercomputers with thousands of processors at a time. Today, modern supercomputers run hundreds of thousands of processors, capable of computing quadrillions of calculations in just a few nanoseconds. You probably won’t be needing that kind of power to access Facebook… Actually, supercomputers are used in computational science to calculate and carry out a plethora of complex tasks. Modeling molecular structures, weather forecasting, and the field of quantum mechanics, among others, rely on supercomputers and their intense processing power to solve their equations.

Mainframe Computers
Like supercomputers, mainframe computers are huge, towering machines with lots of processing power. Mainframe computers are mostly used by corporations, government agencies, and banks – organizations that need a way to store large quantities of information. They are not the same as supercomputers. The processing capabilities of mainframe computers are measured in MIPS, or millions of instructions per second. Supercomputers, on the other hand, are measured in FLOPS, or floating point operations per seconds.

Minicomputers
A minicomputer is a multiprocessing machine that can support up to about 200 users at the same time. It’s like a less powerful mainframe computer, and is about the size of a refrigerator. A server can be an example of a minicomputer, but not all servers are minicomputers. Despite their name, a minicomputer is not a personal computer like the desktop machine you might have at home or work. They are much larger than that. Because of the ways microcomputers – which we’ll cover next – have excelled in processing power even beyond minicomputers, and at a much smaller size, minicomputers have become pretty much obsolete.

Microcomputers
Microcomputers are the ones people are most familiar with on a daily, non-professional basis, but of course that doesn’t mean they’re exclusive to the home. Microcomputers are smaller computers that run on microprocessors in their central processing units. They are much, much cheaper than supercomputers, mainframe computers and even minicomputers, because they’re meant for everyday uses that are more practical than professional. The range of capabilities for microcomputers are still vast, though. A film editor might use a microcomputer to run many intensive editing programs at once, while a student might use a microcomputer for Facebook and word processing.

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Q.2 Survey five such instructions of your locality which have computer. Compare the printing devices they on the criteria of type, speed, print quality and cost.
Answer:

Wouldn’t it be great if you could have a paperless office?
Sadly though, there are still occasions when you need to print documents, such as things required by law, of you like the feel of a piece of paper in your hand. For many small businesses, printers look all the same to them. But choosing your printer can be a decision that leads to frustration, unneeded expenses, and hampered productivity if you don’t consider it carefully. We at Fueled, make it easy for you by highlighting the 10 features of a printer that you’ll want to think about before making a purchase.

1. Inkjet or laser
Although there isn’t much of a price difference these days, think about what kind of ink you want to use. Toners and ink cartridges can vary in budgets, so choose one that suits you the best.

2. How many functions do you want?
Some companies are happy with a printer and photocopier, while some might want an allin- one printer where you can scan, fax, print and photocopy. Go through to see what your office uses often, and what kind of existing equipment you have to decide. For example, if you already have a scanner, then you probably don’t need a printer/scanner.

3. Image quality
Think about what your needs are when printing images. Are you a design company that needs to print high quality to show their clients drafts of work, or are you a writing company that just needs to print text? It would be a shame to need high quality images but you bought a lesser quality printer.

4. Print speed
Think about the volume of paper you want to print. The more you need, the chances are you’ll probably want a faster printer.

5. Connectivity
Are you obsessed with wireless connections, or couldn’t care less? Do you want to print from your mobile device, or will a regular computer connection do?

6. Paper handling
Depending on what kind of paper you want to use, you will have to purchase specific printers for the job. Obviously someone who wants to print mainly on cardstock and photo paper will need a different printer than someone who wants to print on regular blank paper. Don’t forget about sizes of paper you want. If you need to print on larger pieces of paper, then don’t purchase a printer that is obviously too small for the job.

7. Office size
If your office is pretty much you on the go with a laptop, you might want to consider a portable printer. Otherwise, if you have some extra room and depending on print quality, you can easily afford a bigger one.

8. Other running costs
Other than ink cartridges, think about the brand of cartridges you want to use. If you get refillable cartridges, you might save some money, but if you let the ink run out completely, it might damage your printer. Also think about how much it would cost if your printer breaks down, or even how much energy it’ll use.
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Q.3 Define application software. How system software interacts with application software?
Answer:

Application software is a program or group of programs designed for end users. These programs are divided into two classes: system software and application software. While system software consists of low-level programs that interact with computers at a basic level, application software resides above system software and includes applications such as database programs, word processors and spreadsheets. Application software may be bundled with system software or published alone. Application software may simply be referred to as an application.

Different types of application software include:
• Application Suite: Has multiple applications bundled together. Related functions, features and user interfaces interact with each other.
• Enterprise Software: Addresses an organization’s needs and data flow in a huge distributed environment
• Enterprise Infrastructure Software: Provides capabilities required to support enterprise software systems
• Information Worker Software: Addresses individual needs required to manage and create information for individual projects within departments
• Content Access Software: Used to access content and addresses a desire for published digital content and entertainment
• Educational Software: Provides content intended for use by students
• Media Development Software: Addresses individual needs to generate and print electronic media for others to consume

How system software interacts with application software:
Computer software can be divided into two main categories: application software and system software. According to Brookshear [1997], “application software consists of the programs for performing tasks particular to the machine’s utilization. Examples of application software include spreadsheets, database systems, desktop publishing systems, program development software, and games.” Application software is generally what we think of when someone speaks of computer programs. This software is designed to solve a particular problem for users.

On the other hand, system software is more transparent and less noticed by the typical computer user. This software “provides a general programming environment in which programmers can create specific applications to suit their needs. This environment provides new functions that are not available at the hardware level and performs tasks related to executing the application program”

On the other hand, system software is more transparent and less noticed by the typical computer user. This software “provides a general programming environment in which programmers can create specific applications to suit their needs. This environment provides new functions that are not available at the hardware level and performs tasks related to executing the application program” [Nutt 1997]. System software acts as an interface between the hardware of the computer and the application software that users need to run on the computer. The diagram below illustrates the relationship between application
software and system software.

The most important type of system software is the operating system. According to Webopedia, an operating system has three main responsibilities:

Perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. Ensure that different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. Provide a software platform on top of which other programs (i.e., application software) can run.

The first two responsibilities address the need for managing the computer hardware and the application programs that use the hardware. The third responsibility focuses on providing an interface between application software and hardware so that application software can be efficiently developed. Since the operating system is already responsible for managing the hardware, it should provide a programming interface for application developers.

Perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. Ensure that different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. Provide a software platform on top of which other programs (i.e., application software) can run.

The first two responsibilities address the need for managing the computer hardware and the application programs that use the hardware. The third responsibility focuses on providing an interface between application software and hardware so that application software can be efficiently developed. Since the operating system is already responsible for managing the hardware, it should provide a programming interface for application developers.

Nutt [1997] identifies four common types of operating system strategies on which modern operating systems are built: batch, timesharing, personal computing, and dedicated. According to Nutt, “the favored strategy for any given computer depends on how the computer is to be used, the cost-effectiveness of the strategy implementation in the application environment, and the general state of the technology at the time the operating system is developed.” The table below summarizes the characteristics of each operating system strategy as described by Nutt [1997].
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Q.4 DeGlilo (1987) has suggested four different arrangment of layout of a computer centre. Explain with examples.
Answer:

Many high schools and colleges use computer labs to allow student access to the software necessary to complete coursework. Computer labs are also used to instruct students on computer use, programming, and related subjects. However, many institutions give little thought to the design and layout of the lab. Too often, they simply fill a room with computers and set up the machines any way they fit inside the room.

Why Computer Lab Design and Layout is Important
Computer labs must be designed intelligently and serve the purpose they were intended to serve. Imagine if parking lots did not have lines telling you where to park and everyone just drove in and parked wherever they wanted. Soon no one would be able to enter to exit. The lines in parking lots create important rules about how you should park in the lot.

Similarly, the design and layout of a computer lab creates rules and defines how the lab can be used. Thought given to the layout of a computer lab dictates the usefulness of the lab and increases user satisfaction which justifies its expense and assists in future investments in upgrades.

Certainly, the layout of the lab depends on the equipment, the furniture, and space available. The purpose of this document is to discuss some basic computer lab layouts and their advantages and disadvantages.

Any of these layouts can be modified to satisfy the individual needs of the institution. It just takes a little planning and imagination to adapt any of these designs to a specific application.

Classroom Computer Lab Designs
The classic classroom computer lab design serves as the default layout in many High School and Colleges. However, it does have two major advantages. First, it serves as a great instruction room where students learn computer topics from an instructor at the front of the room. With everyone facing the same direction, it allows instructors to see the faces of the students with which to read non-verbal cues as to whether students are learning the material or need more help. Second, it is similar to the layout of other classroom environment emphasizing that the students are there to learn.

One disadvantage of the classroom layout is the need to disturb other students along the rows of computers as students enter and exit the lab. For labs where students are coming and going, the classroom layout is not ideal. In addition, the classroom layout is not conducive to team work. It is difficult for students to work together, especially on collective projects and in peer-assist teaching models.

Four-Leaf Clover Computer Lab Layouts
The four-leaf clover design offers the most privacy for students and reduces to a minimum the possibility of cheating during tests or exercises. It also eliminates the need for students to disturb others when entering and exiting the lab and allows instructors to go from student to student to address individual problems and concerns.

One disadvantage of the four-leaf clover design has to do with attention spans. When students are sitting at their own computers, instructors will not be able to see what each student is doing at his/her workstation. Students may not be paying attention to lessons or may be surfing to inappropriate websites in labs equipped with Internet access.

Four-leaf clover designs can also be more expensive if each computer sits on its own table. Some computer lab furniture is made specifically for this design offering space for four computers on one table or desk. The next two designs are less traditional but offer some things the classroom layout and the four-leaf clover layout do not.

U-Shaped Computer Lab Designs
The U-shaped computer lab layout encourages engagement between instructors and students. Instructors can enter the U and engage with students one-on-one. This design also serves as the most conducive layout for computer maintenance as technicians do not have to disturb others to gain access to the computers. In addition, students will not interfere with other students’ work while entering and exiting the lab.

Unfortunately, the U-shaped design offers little opportunity for instructors to monitor what students are doing and looking at on their monitors. This design is not compatible with test taking and requires many assistants to monitor students. Furthermore, this design often takes up more space that other layouts.

Inverted U-Shaped Computer Lab Layouts
Like the U-shaped layout, the Inverted U-shape also offers engagement between instructors and students. In addition, the layout allows for the most convenient method of monitoring students. For individual learning, this layout minimizes the distance instructors must walk to move from workstation to workstation and student to student.

Like the classroom layout, traffic into and out of the Inverted U-shape can become constrictive especially when all of the students must enter and exit at the same time. This congestion is reduced if students are entering and exiting individually as in an open lab paradigm where students can come and go as they please. In addition, this layout takes up the same amount of space as the U-shaped design. If space is not a consideration, either of the U-shaped layouts is appropriate.

Conclusion
There are many options when designing the layout of a computer lab. The key is to make sure form is following function. Thought and planning at the beginning of designing the lab ensures that students and instructors are satisfied with what the lab offers. Choosing a suboptimal layout can negatively affect student learning and reduce the engagement between instructors and students.
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Q.5 Discuss functions of graphic software and its different types of packages.
Answer:

In computer graphics, graphics software refers to a program or collection of programs that enable a person to manipulate images or models visually on a computer. Computer graphics can be classified into distinct categories: raster graphics and vector graphics, with further 2D and 3D variants. Many graphics programs focus exclusively on either vector or raster graphics, but there are a few that combine them in interesting ways. It is simple to convert from vector graphics to raster graphics, but going the other way is harder. Some software attempts to do this.

In addition to static graphics, there are animation and video editing software. Different types of software are often designed to edit different types of graphics such as video, photos, and drawings. The exact sources of graphics may vary for different tasks, but most can read and write files. Most graphics programs have the ability to import and export one or more graphics file formats, including those formats written for a particular computer graphics program. Examples of such programs include GIMP, Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW, Pizap, Microsoft Publisher, Picasa, etc.

The use of a swatch is a palette of active colours that are selected and rearranged by the preference of the user. A swatch may be used in a program or be part of the universal palette on an operating system. It is used to change the colour of a text or image and in video editing. Vector graphics animation can be described as a series of mathematical transformations that are applied in sequence to one or more shapes in a scene. Raster graphics animation works in a similar fashion to film-based animation, where a series of still images produces the illusion of continuous movement.

This software enables the user to create illustrations, designs, logos, 3-dimensional images, animation and pictures. Graphics software creates, edits, and manages two-dimensional images. These computer graphics may be clip art, web graphics, logos, headings, backgrounds, digital photos, or other kinds of digital images.

Common Applications
Common graphics editors include Photoshop, Illustrator, Paint Shop Pro, CorelDRAW, The Apple Photos plugins from Macphun, Adobe Lightroom, Digital Image Suite, Canva, Picasa, and related programs.

What Isn’t Graphics Software?
Software that people think of as graphics software, but isn’t, include programs that don’t directly manipulate individual images. Page layout software such as InDesign, QuarkXpress, and Publisher fall into that category. Likewise, presentation software such as PowerPoint or Apple Keynote isn’t graphics programs. And in general, home publishing or creative printing software doesn’t rise to the occasion, either.

What are the Types of Graphics Software?
The two main categories of graphics programs are pixel-based image editors and vectorbased image editors. In a nutshell, an image is either comprised of a series of small dots (pixels) or a series of commands about how to draw an image (vectors). You’ll know the difference between pixel- and vector-based images by zooming on them. If they zoom very close without appearing fuzzy and blotchy, you’re working with a vector image. Some of the categories of specialized tools for managing graphics include:

Publishing Software
• Publishing software, also known as desktop publishing software, can also combine text and graphics but the tools in this breed of software are much more sophisticated. Desktop publishing software offers tools for precise control over text and graphics placement, leading, kerning, and some image editing functions. Highend desktop publishing software has the power to handle layouts for books, magazines, and other large publications.When desktop publishing software first emerged, the only products available were expensive, high-end publishing packages. More recently, the low-end desktop publishing market has exploded with products intended for small businesses and home users (SOHO).
• High-End Publishing Software:
• SOHO Publishing Software:
• Adobe InDesign
• Corel VENTURA
• QuarkXPress
• Adobe PageMaker
• Microsoft Publisher

Illustration Software
• Illustration software, although not technically considered layout software, is also beginning to incorporate more and more word processing and text manipulation features. Many of the illustration programs have the ability to flow text, check spelling and grammar, and adjust kerning and line spacing. It’s becoming more common to use illustration software for page layout on smaller projects such as postcards, greeting cards, brochures, business cards, letterhead and small booklets.
Illustration Software:
• Adobe Illustrator
• CorelDRAW
• Macromedia Freehand

Creative Printing Software
• Creative printing software is a market that has boomed recently as inkjet printers have become more affordable. This software is especially designed for creating greeting cards, postcards, business cards, signs, posters, t-shirt designs, and other crafts. As with all page layout software, they allow you to combine text and graphics in a single document, but the tools in this breed of software are often more specialized. You probably won’t find tools to adjust line spacing and kerning… what you will find are a number of fun, special effects such as curved and outlined text, image shaping and distortion, and possibly some limited image editing functions.
• Creative Printing Software:
• Print Artist
• The Print Shop
• PrintMaster
• Microsoft PowerPoint
• Harvard Graphics

Presentation Software
Presentation software is designed for creating on-screen presentations, reports, overhead transparencies, and slideshows. Like all the software mentioned above, it allows you to combine both text and graphics in a single document, but the final output is not always intended for printing.

Like creative printing software, presentation software offers limited text editing and manipulation with an emphasis on special effects, and possibly some basic image editing functions. Presentation software is unique in that you will almost always have functionality for working with charts and graphs. Also, most of this type of software allows you to incorporate multimedia into your documents.

Web Publishing Software
• Another development in recent years that is common among all the types of software above, is the ability to publish your work on the Internet. Just about every genre of software available today is adding built-in Internet tools. The low-end software will have the basics such as sending your files through e-mail or creating animated greetings; some may have basic Web page creation tools. The high-end software will have more sophisticated Web publishing tools for exporting to HTML or PDF (portable document format). And of course, there are many dedicated Web publishing programs. As you can see, the lines that distinguish the various types of layout software are beginning to blur. I hope this article has helped you to understand the differences between them, and how they all fit in to the world of graphics software.
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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8621 Broadcast Media Assignment 1

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 2 Jan 2021 14:48:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8621 Broadcast Media Assignment 1

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 Explain the nature and essential characteristics of broadcast media with reference to distance and non-formal education.
Answer:

The term ‘broadcast media’ covers a wide spectrum of different communication methods such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines and any other materials supplied by the media and press. What types of information are available in the broadcasting media?

The broadcasting media provides valuable information, for example speeches, documentaries, interviews, advertisements, daily news, financial markets and much more. The latest (newest/most up-to-date) information can be found here.

Where can I find it?
Transcripts (hard copies) of interviews, speeches, programmes, etc., are often available from the supplier of the information, e.g. SABC, M-Net, the specific radio station, etc.

Nowadays many of these transcripts etc., are made available on the Internet. The following are just a few links, there are many more.

Broadcast media is radio and television. Even amidst the pop culture dominance of the internet, broadcast media still commands the largest share of the advertising pie nationwide. Put the audio and visual media to work for you as your company earns larger market share, stronger branding, and increased sales. If you are looking for cost-efficient lead generation, you need to be looking at radio and television advertising.

Not only are radio and television the main media for advertising today, they are continually developing new ways to reach their audience. The SyFy cable network launched a show (“Defiance”) that combines interactions on a video game with the plot of a series show. Radio stations are supplementing on-air campaigns with digital media to provide on-air and on-screen promotions to those who stream the station through their computer.

Multiple studies have shown that combining radio and television can help advertisers reach audiences not achievable with only one medium or the other.

Distance education was started to revolutionaries the concept of higher education throughout the world and was considered as an attractive mode to democratize higher education. Distance education has emerged to be a popular non-formal channel to provide answer to equity, access, flexibility and cost-effectiveness. The first clear statement on distance education was made in the Report of the Education Commission (1964-66) where it is mentioned, “There must also be a method of taking education to the mill ions who depend upon their own effort to study whenever they have time to do so. We consider that correspondence or home-study courses provide the right answer for these situations.”

The Education Commission further stated, “It is obvious that these universities should not be the only agencies which should organize correspondence courses. Provision of correspondence courses should also be one important function of the extension service of developmental departments of government such as agriculture, industries and health. This should prove to be a valuable method of conveying to the educated and the neo-l iterate al like such knowledge and improved techniques as the departments concerned will to put across.“

The recommendation of the Education Commission was incorporated in the National Policy of Education ( 1986) that “……Part time educational and correspondence courses should be developed on a large scale at the university stage. Such facilities should also be developed for secondary school students, for teachers and for agricultural individual and other workers. Education through part time and correspondence courses should be given same status as full time education. Such facilities will bring smooth transition from school to work, promote the cause of education and provide opportunities to a large number of people who have the desires to educate themselves further but cannot do so on a full time basis.”

Moore ( 1972) gives more clear definition of distance education “The family of instructional methods in which the teaching behaviors are executed apart from the learning behaviors … so that communication between the learner and the teacher must be facilitated by print, electronic, popular and mechanical, or other devices.” Thus, the term flexible and open, distance education seems to be more appropriate because it is “arrangement to enable people to learn at the time, place and space which satisfies their circumstances and requirements.”

The concept of ‘Distance Education‘ is not new, and can be traced as far back as the first century. The Apostle Paul wrote to the early Christian Churches, teaching them from a distance even from his prison cell. But, organizational use of distance learning methods was first introduced in the 19th century. One of the first universities to deliver distance learning in an organized manner was Pennsylvania State University which established its first distance learning network in 1886.

(i). Institute – Centered Distance Education System: In this system there is a predominance of systematic models of education. The institutional mission focuses on the cost-effectiveness and cost-efficiency of the system. Academics become consultants to the institution for material design and development. All other functionaries in the institution are assigned key functions with accountability and individual responsibility.

(ii). Person – Centered Distance Education system: Under this system of distance education, the programmers are more individualized and negotiable as the aim is to serve the individual learner. Individualized learning is personally negotiated and is followed up by tutors/counselors.

(iii). Society Based Distance Education System: In the society based distance education system learning, materials are developed in accordance with the needs of the community. These are used in community situations where the teacher strives to involve the entire community i n the study of the learning materials. The teacher functions as a facilitator to identify learning goals, to evaluate learning materials, etc.

Before discussing the various media and technologies of distance education, appropriate to deliberate upon its objectives in brif the distance education attempts :

to provide an opportunity of education to those who had discontinued their formal education due to one reason or other at any age and class. The working persons, economically and otherwise disabled persons or persons residing in remote areas may improve and advance their academic career through distance education;
to provide quality education and training to large number of students at lower costs than conventional education system;
to make access to higher education;
to promote education as a lifelong activity by providing necessary access to the masses, particularly to the disadvantageous groups like those living in rural areas, the employed, women, weaker sections of the society and many others wishing to acquire and upgrade knowledge and skills, at their door steps;
to provide a flexible and diversified innovative education system which is open in the methods of learning, pace, place, eligibility criterion as well as in every operation of the program;
to promote courses leading to gainful employment, tailored to specific vocational/professional needs, as also being relevant to local needs;

In order to achieve the objectives of distance education and to make the education, meaningful, exciting, interesting level accessible to all, the new technologies need to be linked with the process of learning. The new technologies are not only capable of overcoming the barriers of distance but also able to change the very nature of the instructional process.

Media and Technologies in Distance Education
Media in distance education is a kind of delivery system, which includes all kinds of mechanical devices directed to educational use. These devices are used to communicate knowledge or ideas to a large number of people who are located in far off rural and remote areas. Distance education program can be enriched and made more attractive, effective and satisfying for learning by using a variety of media i n accordance with the content. The facilities that can be provided for these programmes should attempt an exploitation of the potential of the variety of powerful media rendered by modem technology.

Taylor (1997) offers the following classification of the model of distance education and the associated delivery technologies –

First Generation – The Correspondence Model

Print material
Second Generation – The Multimedia Model
Printed material
Audiotape
Videotape
Computer-based learning (CAI, CM!, CBT, CAL, etc.)
Interactive Videodisc and tapes

Third Generation – The Tele Learning Model

Audio tele-conferencing
Video conferencing
Audio graphic communication
Broadcast TV/Radio and Audio Tele-conferencing
Fourth Generation-The Flexible Learning Model
Interactive Multimedia (IMM)
Internet based access to WWW resources

Computer mediated communication

A variety of media are used in distance education by the open universities as well as by the institutes of distance learning. They can be basically classified into two groups:

print media and
non-print media.

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Q.2 Elaborate the planning process of broadcast media.
Answer:

There are so many types of media. Have you ever wondered how a company chooses? This lesson takes you through the process of media planning and looks at some examples.

What Is Media Planning?

You are creating advertising for a new product. To complete this task, you need to go through the media planning process. Media planning in advertising is the making of decisions to deliver a message to the target audience.

The Process

Now that you understand what media planning is, it is time to review the process. The process includes:

Market analysis
Establishing the media objective
Setting the strategy
Implementation
Evaluation and follow-up

Let’s look at these steps in more detail.

Market Analysis

Performing a market analysis involves determining who your audience is. The audience is the number and type of people your advertising targets. The audience can be classified according to age, sex, income, occupation, etc. Performing this analysis will help you to project costs and determine the right media for your campaign.

Establishing the Media Objective

The media objective is the goal of the media plan. To establish this objective, you must determine your goal for reach, frequency, circulation, cost, and penetration. Reach is the amount of people the message is in front of over a period of time. Frequency is the average number of times the message is in front of those people. Circulation is used for printed advertisements. This is the number of prints that are produced and sent out. Cost is broken down into two different sections: cost per thousand (CPM) and cost per person (CPP). It is important to understand the cost as you are budgeting. The cost will tell you which form of media is the best option for your business. Penetration is the number of audience members reached by the advertising. The company must determine if it wants to take over a market or just reach a certain group prior to setting the penetration goals and strategies.

Setting the Strategy

Now that you understand who you are marketing to and how much it will cost you, you will need to make a decision about what type of media you will use. Some options include Internet, television, radio, newspaper, consumer and business publications, and interactive media platforms. Which option reaches the largest audience? How often will it reach the audience? Does it fit in your budget?

Implementation

Now you have a plan. Now it’s time to set it in motion. This is when you buy media. Media buying is the purchasing of the space in the selected media. This involves committing to the media provider, submitting the ad, and paying the bill. This is the exciting part. You see all your hard work come together.

Evaluation and Follow-up

After everything is said and done, it is time to see how successful your media plan was. To do so, you need to follow-up and evaluate the results. Ask yourself, ‘Did we meet media objectives? How successful were the strategies?’ The success of this media plan will determine future media plans.

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Q.3 Discuss the role of educational TV with reference to Pakistan?
Answer:

Television has been given considerable importance in many countries as a source and a tool of teaching. The success stories of using television for education in many countries has negated the concept that television is basically on entertainment oriented medium and it is hostile to thoughts. Television is adaptable and can follow different approaches when used in the different educational situations. The medium is used for formal, non-formal and informal education. To support formal education, television usually function as supportive and reinforcement tool. Television can be attached with school curriculum and time tables. When systematically organized it takes the form of school broadcast. In non-formal education, television has a more specific role to play. When used as a part of multi-media communication tool, television can directly or indirectly teach the subject matter.

Importance of television to communicate information, idea, skills and attitudes has been affirmed by researches. You should attempt to study various reports published on educational television in different countries in different situations. In the words of Director BBC “next to home and school I believer television to have a more profound influence on human race then any other medium of communication.”

If media is to work as an effective teaching tool then certainly it is helping hand towards, achieving the aim and objectives of education. Media is an agent of boost cultural economic and social development activity. Television, as an important mass medium disseminates education through formal and information methods.

Television also continues to benefit the masses by making them conscious of the environment, rights, duties and privilege. It is a source of teaching etiquettes, language skills, hobbies, social relations and religious believes.

Role of television is neither fixed nor easily tangible and measurable. The role is directly related to the question of how the planners are serious and determined to use television. The role could either be enormous or, on the contrary very meager depending upon the specific tasks and available resources.

Generally television can help to achieve the following objectives:

Social quality in education
Enhance quality in education
Reduce dependency on verbal teaching and teachers
Provide flexibility of time and space in learning.
Stimulates learning
Provide mass education opportunities.

As far the impact of education television it should rather be studied in more narrow and specific areas. In the world of scram; TV is more effective in teaching mathematic, science and social studies. Where as history, humanities, and literature has not benefited from this medium the same degree.

The impact of television on macro level should be studied in three areas namely;

Teacher’s Competencies
Student’s Competencies
Effects on general viewers

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMES OF AIOU

AIOU is a distance learning institution. Students in this system are not supposed to come at campus for class study. However, the “open learning system” of AIOU is not absolutely parallel to that of independent studies by the private and external students who are registered with the boards or universities and appear only for the final examination. They get degree on successful completion of terms. AIOU learning system is more systematic and disciplined.

For the purpose of educational programme of AIOU, electronic media is used for a variety of purposes depending on the requirement of the courses and teaching methodologies. Follow is the summary of various uses of television;

To show practical application of principle already written in the textbooks and to show the laboratory work and demonstrations.
To humanize distance education and to improve language skills and teaching skills by showing model teaching techniques.
To show real life situation and microscope things on magnified scale
Animations, dramatic presentations, slow motions and case studies.

AIOU has so far produced more than four hundred television programmes and many non-broadcast audio-visual cassettes. Slide tapes and flip charts are also used as visual media. Television is used in sciences, technical and vocational subjects. The demonstration through television helps to substitute the laboratory experiments. In social science and language, television is used to show real life situation. Television also helps to understand information, which is too complex for the written or spoken explanation.

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Q.4 Write a detailed note on the British broadcasting co-operation (BBC).
Answer:

The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster. Its headquarters are at Broadcasting House in Westminster, London, and it is the world’s oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total, 16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting. The total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed-contract staff are included.

The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. Its work is funded principally by an annual television licence fee which is charged to all British households, companies, and organisations using any type of equipment to receive or record live television broadcasts and iPlayer catch-up. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBC’s radio, TV, and online services covering the nations and regions of the UK. Since 1 April 2014, it has also funded the BBC World Service (launched in 1932 as the BBC Empire Service), which broadcasts in 28 languages and provides comprehensive TV, radio, and online services in Arabic and Persian.

Around a quarter of BBC’s revenue comes from its commercial subsidiary BBC Studios Ltd (formerly BBC Worldwide), which sells BBC programmes and services internationally and also distributes the BBC’s international 24-hour English-language news services BBC World News, and from BBC.com, provided by BBC Global News Ltd.

From its inception, through the Second World War (where its broadcasts helped to unite the nation), to the 21st century, the BBC has played a prominent role in British culture. It is also known colloquially as “The Beeb”, “Auntie”, or a combination of both (as “Auntie Beeb” or “Auntie B”)..

In 1927 the government decided to establish the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) as a broadcasting monopoly operated by a board of governors and director general. The BBC was funded by a licence fee at a rate set by parliament. The fee was paid by all owners of radio sets. The BBC therefore became the world’s first public-service broadcasting organization. Unlike in the United States, advertising on radio was banned.

John Reith was appointed director-general of the BBC. Reith had a mission to educate and improve the audience and under his leadership the BBC developed a reputation for serious programmes. Reith also insisted that all radio announcers wore dinner jackets while they were on the air. In the 1930s the BBC began to introduce more sport and light entertainment on the radio.

The BBC began the world’s first regular television service in 1936. This service was halted during the Second World War and all BBC’s efforts were concentrated on radio broadcasting. In 1940 John Reith was appointed as Minister of Information

Writers such as J. B. Priestley, George Orwell, T. S. Eliot, William Empson, and Charlotte Haldane were recruited by the BBC and radio was used for internal and external propaganda. This included broadcasting radio programmes to countries under the control of Nazi Germany. These radio programmes went out in 40 different languages

The BBC television service was resumed in 1946 and by the early 1950s it became the dominant part of its activities. Its broadcasting monopoly came to an end with the introduction of commercial television under the Independent Television Authority in 1954. This was followed by the introduction of commercial radio stations in 1972.

It has been claimed that BBC is the most universally recognizable set of initials in the world. For example, by the end of the 20th century an estimated 150 million people were listening to BBC World Service radio.

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Q.5 Discuss the school broadcast media of Japan.
Answer:

The broadcasting system in Japan is divided into the public sector, represented solely by NHK (Nippon Hoso Kyokai, or the Japan Broadcasting Corporation), and the commercial sector.

NHK collects the mandatory viewing fees from households which own TV sets and makes it the source of fund for its wide activities. It operates a nationwide network with 2 MW radio, 1 FM radio, 2 VHF television and 2 BS televison channels. Also, it has a shortwave overseas radio Radio Japan.

As of 1992, there are 177 commercial broadcasting companies, 36 of which operate both TV and radio, 82 only TV and 59 only radio. Local TV stations form tie-up networks with major key companies in Tokyo, i.e. NTV, TBS, Fuji-TV (CX), TV-Asahi and TV-Tokyo. Majority (roughly 80%) of programs are provided by these dominating stations. Those commercial broadcasting companies rely on advertising revenue. As you can imagine, sponsors are very sensitive to the audience ratings, hence TV stations tend to make junky programs which only aim at ratings.

TBS-Aum scandal and undelying problem in TV journalism

All Japan’s newsmedia reported TBS-AUM scandal on March 26, 1996:

Tokyo Broadcasting System Inc. (TBS) executives confirmed at a news conference Monday that network employees had shown a group of AUM Shinrikyo followers a videotaped interview with anti-AUM lawyer Tsusumi Sakamoto. …

Sakamoto and his family were abducted and murdered about a week after the tape?s screening, on Nov. 3, 1989, allegedly by AUM followers. Police believe that AUM leader Shoko Asahara ordered the killings after being told about the interview. …

The taped interview, which was never aired, was supposed to have been for a TBS news report about the cult. The AUM members, including high-ranking cultist Kiyohide Hayakawa, were allowed to see the tape before the report was aired and, after protesting about it, TBS decided not to air the interview, according to prosecutors and some AUM followers.

(Mainichi Daily News)

Many people say that TBS got many scoops on Aum issue, including exclusive interview with Shoko Asahara, after it showed the video tape. Did they make a deal with Aum for audience ratings? Is “wide-show” program really a journalism?

This type of problems have been repeated. It seems that the problem is not only for the TBS but for all Japan’s TV journalism. Japan’s (TV) journalism is in danger!

Satellite broadcasting and Cable TV *

…At the end of May 1995 the new opening of terrestrial stations was stopped. The Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (MPT) judged that, in dawning age of multichannel television typified by the proliferation of satellite broadcasting and cable TV, there was no need for any further increase in the number of regional TV stations that have difficulty operating without the support of a major Tokyo-based broadcaster.

Satellites

The development of media using satellites is making commercial headway. Japan Satellite Broadcasting Inc., Japan’s first private satellite broadcasting company, launched its service in April 1991. Moreover, 11 companies using communications satellites got off the ground in 1995. Two private companies broadcasting music digitally via satellite using PCM technology were operating as of April 1996, and four companies commenced around-the-clock programming using communications satellites in 1992 and 1993.

Muliplex broadcasting, which utilizes the gaps to provide bilingual broadcasts, stereo sound, emergency broadcasts, and so on. In April 1996, MPT proposed in a report that all commercial TV stations should be obliged to provide teletext and sound commentary broadcasts for sight- and hearing-impaired viewers.

Cables

Until recently cable TV was used only in those areas where reception of radio waves in poor, such as secluded mountain regions and outlying islands. However, urban cable TV, defined as having over 10,000 tap-offs, more than five independent channels, and two-way functions, is now becomming an important medium in metropolitan areas, offering a multitude of programs on mumerous channels. Tokyo’s first cable TV station began broadcasting in the spring of 1987. As of March 1995 there were 61,606 cable TV stations around Japan, with 10.3 million subscribers, including 170 urban cable TV stations (Feb. 1995) with 2.0 million subscribers (Dec. 1994).

HDTV and Digital

Hi-Vision TV, the Japanese version of hight-definition television, is being developed primarily by NHK. With roughly twice the scan lines of standard TVs, Hi-Vision TV has made possible high-resolution, high-detail images. Apart from broadcasting, it is attracting attention in the fields of arts, medicine, and education.

TV broadcasting is also being influenced by the tide of digital technology. The standard so far has been analog technology, in which pictures and sound have to be transmitted on separate radio waves. But with digital technology, one radio wave can be compressed without loss of quality, four to seven channels can run on one conventional analog frequency band. In Japan two companies plan to begin digital services in 1996, although the timing of its introduction in satellite broadcasting is uncertain [see next section]. Since Hi-Vision TV uses analog technology [for encoding], its proponents are opposed to the introduction of digital technology.

Digital Boradcasting

On June 30, 1996, the Japanese satellite JCSAT-3 aired the first experimantal digital broadcasting. It is PerfecTV, the joint venture of four big Japanese trading companies, and will start commercial service in October ’96, prividing 61 TV and 104 sound channels selection. The registration fee will be 2,800 yen with about 50,000 yen for antenna and decoder, and monthly charge will be 2,190 yen for 12 channels set.

The U.S. DirecTV will enter the Japanese market, while Mr Murdoch, who recently took major stock of TV Asahi, announces that he will begin 100 channels J Sky B within two years. Thus, Japanese people will be able to enjoy a few hundreds programs shortly.

The ground broadcasting companies keep cool on the satellite fever. They think it is difficult for these new commers to provide quality programs to satisfy so many channels (I doubt current ground programs have any quality, then).

Another problem will be antenna. As of June 1996, current services with analog Commercial Satellite (CS) gain only a hundred thousand subscribers, while those using Boracasting Satellite (BS) achieved more (NHK’s BS has 7 million and Wowow 2 million). Because CS services require different antenna than BS service, they experience a serious handicap in Japanese housing situation. Many experts wonder if people dare to put one more antenna for the new digital satellite programs.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8619 Educational Technology Assignment 1

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 2 Jan 2021 14:48:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8619 Educational Technology Assignment 1

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 If you have to teach at primary level, how you will incorporate the basis of educational technology into your teaching? Discuss.
Answer:

Educational technology, sometimes shortened to EduTech or EdTech, is a wide field. Therefore, one can find many definitions, some of which are conflicting. Educational technology as an academic field can be considered either as a design science or as a collection of different research interests addressing fundamental issues of learning, teaching and social organization. Educational technology as practice refers to any form of teaching and learning that makes use of technology.

Nevertheless, there are a few features on which most researchers and practitioners might agree:

Use of technology is principled:

Technology means the systematic application of scientific knowledge to practical tasks. Therefore, educational technology is based on theoretical knowledge drawn from different disciplines communication, education, psychology, sociology, philosophy, artificial intelligence, computer science, etc.) plus experiential knowledge drawn from educational practice.

Educational technology aims to improve education. Technology should facilitate learning processes and increase performance of the educational system(s) as it regards to effectiveness and/or efficiency.

In this short introduction we will try to give a preliminary definition of the field.

Other definitions

Educational technology is a very wide field. Therefore one can find many definitions, some of which are conflicting.

Technology means the systematic application of scientific or other organized knowledge to practical task. Therefore, educational technology is based on theoretical knowledge from different disciplines (communication, psychology, sociology, philosophy, artificial intelligence, computer science, etc.) plus experiential knowledge from educational practise (Natalie Descryver)

Educational technology is the use of technology to improve education. It is a systematic, iterative process for designing instruction or training used to improve performance. Educational technology is sometimes also known as instructional technology or learning technology.

The study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.)

A definition centered on its process: “A complex, integrated process involving people, procedures, ideas, devices, and organization, for analyzing problems, and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of human learning”

“One definition of Educational Technology is that it is a systematic, iterative process for designing instruction or training used to improve performance” (Encyclopedia of Educational Technology)

Lachance et al. (1980:183) also focus on the the process idea: la technologie éducative en tant que processus systématique intégrant les diverses fonctions du processus éducatif. Elle vise, d’une part, à analyser des problèmes reliés à l’enseignement et/ou à l’apprentissage et, d’autre part, à élaborer, implanter et évaluer des solutions à ces problèmes par le développement et l’exploitation des ressources éducatives (cited by Lapointe, 1991).

Educational Technology (Information Technology) according to International Technology Education Association

Teaches with technology (uses technology as a tool)

Primarily concerned with the narrow spectrum of information and communication technologies

Primary goal: To enhance the teaching and learning process

Concept and scope of educational technology:

By scope of educational technology we mean the jurisdiction, the limits or the boundaries within which it works. It needs demarcation of the boundaries within which the process of education can go on. Being a fast growing modern discipline it is almost practical all through and is expanding with a tremendous speed, aiming at all- round development in the area of education.

The scope of Educational Technology can be accessed from the following points:

Determination of Objectives:

Educational Technology provides different methods and techniques for writing instructional objectives in behavioural terms such as Bloom Taxonomy Magar’s Approach and RCEM Approach. The needs and requirements of the people and hence education need be revised from moment to moment. Educational technology helps in fixing-up the right objectives in the light of the changed circumstances and changed environment.

2. Improvement in Teaching Learning Process:

It helps in improving the teaching learning process and makes it more purposive. It tries to discuss the concept of teaching, analysis of teaching process, variables of teaching, phases and levels of teaching, principles of teaching, maxims of teaching and relationship between teaching and learning.

3. Development of Teaching Learning Material:

Teaching learning materials are also as important as anything else in the teaching learning process. In this age of science and technology, the materials of teaching cannot be unscientific. Everything of the society including values of life need be reflected in the materials. Only right type of material will be able to modify the behaviour of the learner suitably making him a fit person for the society.

4. Improvement in Teaching Training:

The change of environment with ne curriculum and new materials need be handled by the teachers. The teachers equipped with old strategies and methodologies of teaching will remain misfits.

Right type of training to the teachers is the need of the hour. Educational Technology can render its valuable help in the training of teachers also. The use of video tapes and close circuit T.V. will help the teachers to remodel and reshape their teaching behaviours suitably.

It includes micro teaching, simulated teaching, term-teaching, teacher effectiveness, modification of teacher-behaviour, class-room interaction and interaction analysis, etc.

Need of educational technology in primary level:

Educational technology is a field of study that investigates the process of analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating the instructional environment and learning materials in order to improve teaching and learning. It is important to keep in mind that the purpose of educational technology (also referred to as instructional technology) is to improve education. We must define the goals and needs of education first and then we use all our knowledge, including technology, to design the most effective learning environment for students.

Instructional technology can also be seen as a process of solving educational problems and concerns, which might include motivation, discipline, the drop-out rate, school violence, basic skills, critical thinking, and the whole list of educational concerns. First, the problem is identified, an analysis of the factors of the problem is made, and possible solutions to the problem are presented. Then, the student population and the curriculum are analyzed. The next step is to select the most appropriate instructional strategies for the particular situation. Next, instructional materials and resources are selected that are suitable for the curriculum and the mode of instruction chosen. Finally, the program is implemented, evaluated, and revised as needed in order to meet the stated goals for school improvement.

The learning materials today have greatly expanded because of the various technological advances. Instructional materials include more conventional materials, such as the blackboard, overhead projectors, televisions, VCRs, overhead projectors, slide projectors, and opaque projectors, as well as newer materials, such as the computer, various software applications, LCD projectors, camcorders, digital cameras, scanners, the Internet, satellite, interactive TV, audio and video conferencing, artificial intelligence, and so on.

Teachers in the public schools and faculty at universities need to understand what types of materials are available, how to use them, why they should be used, when they should be used, and how to integrate them into the teaching/learning environment in order to meet the ultimate goal of improving education. Teachers also need to seriously consider how these newer materials can affect what and how we learn and teach.

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Q.2 Discuss Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Answer:

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.

Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and self-actualization.

Deficiency needs vs. growth needs

This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top level is known as growth or being needs (B-needs).

Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food, the more hungry they will become.

Maslow (1943) initially stated that individuals must satisfy lower level deficit needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. However, he later clarified that satisfaction of a needs is not an “all-or-none” phenomenon, admitting that his earlier statements may have given “the false impression that a need must be satisfied 100 percent before the next need emerges” (1987, p. 69).

When a deficit need has been ‘more or less’ satisfied it will go away, and our activities become habitually directed towards meeting the next set of needs that we have yet to satisfy. These then become our salient needs. However, growth needs continue to be felt and may even become stronger once they have been engaged.

Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person. Once these growth needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-actualization.

Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of a job, may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy.

Therefore, not everyone will move through the hierarchy in a uni-directional manner but may move back and forth between the different types of needs.

The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes:

Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates us, and so on.

1. Physiological needs – these are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.

If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met.

2. Safety needs – protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.

3. Love and belongingness needs – after physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behavior

Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).

4. Esteem needs – which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).

Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.

5. Self-actualization needs – realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming”(Maslow, 1987, p. 64).

Maslow posited that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy:

“It is quite true that man lives by bread alone — when there is no bread. But what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?

At once other (and “higher”) needs emerge and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new (and still “higher”) needs emerge and so on. This is what we mean by saying that the basic human needs are organized into a hierarchy of relative prepotency” (Maslow, 1943, p. 375).

Maslow continued to refine his theory based on the concept of a hierarchy of needs over several decades (Maslow, 1943, 1962, 1987).

Regarding the structure of his hierarchy, Maslow (1987) proposed that the order in the hierarchy “is not nearly as rigid” (p. 68) as he may have implied in his earlier description.

Maslow noted that the order of needs might be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences. For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfillment may supersede even the most basic needs.

Maslow (1987) also pointed out that most behavior is multi-motivated and noted that “any behavior tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather than by only one of them” (p. 71).

Hierarchy of needs summary

(a) human beings are motivated by a hierarchy of needs.

(b) needs are organized in a hierarchy of prepotency in which more basic needs must be more or less met (rather than all or none) prior to higher needs.

(c) the order of needs is not rigid but instead may be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences.

(d) most behavior is multi-motivated, that is, simultaneously determined by more than one basic need.

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Q.3 Discuss theories of learning? How can learning theories play an important role in learning?
Answer:

Learning theories are an organized set of principles explaining how individuals acquire, retain, and recall knowledge. By studying and knowing the different learning theories, we can better understand how learning occurs. The principles of the theories can be used as guidelines to help select instructional tools, techniques and strategies that promote learning.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism stems from the work of B.F. Skinner and the concept of operant conditioning. Behaviorism theorists believe that knowledge exists independently and outside of people. They view the learner as a blank slate who must be provided the experience. Behaviorists believe that learning actually occurs when new behaviors or changes in behaviors are acquired through associations between stimuli and responses. Thus, association leads to a change in behavior.

Learning process

The learning process is based on objectively observable changes in behavior. Behavior theorists define learning simply as the acquisition of a new behavior or change in behavior. The theory is that learning begins when a cue or stimulus from the environment is presented and the learner reacts to the stimulus with some type of response. Consequences that reinforce the desired behavior are arranged to follow the desired behavior (e.g. study for a test and get a good grade). The new behavioral pattern can be repeated so it becomes automatic. The change in behavior of the learner signifies that learning has occurred. Teachers use Behaviorism when they reward or punish student behaviors.

Examples and applications of behaviorist learning theory:

Drill / Rote work
Repetitive practice
Bonus points (providing an incentive to do more)
Participation points (providing an incentive to participate)
Verbal Reinforcement (saying “good job”)
Establishing Rules

Unfortunately, Behaviorism instruction does not prepare the learner for problem solving or creative thinking. Learners do what they are told and do not take the initiative to change or improve things. The learner is only prepared for recall of basic facts, automatic responses or performing tasks.

Cognitive Information Processing (Cognitivism)

Cognitive information processing is based on the thought process behind the behavior. The theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli (i.e. that think about what is happening). The changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indictor to what is going on in the learner’s head. The learner’s mind is like a mirror from which new knowledge and skills will be reflected.

Cognitive information processing is used when the learner plays an active role in seeking ways to understand and process information that he or she receives and relate it to what is already known and stored within memory. Cognitive learning theories are credited to Jean Piaget.

Learning process

Cognitive learning theorists believe learning occurs through internal processing of information. Unlike behaviorism, cognitive information processing is governed by an internal process rather than by external circumstance. The cognitive approach to learning theory pays more attention to what goes on inside the learner’s head and focuses on mental processes rather than observable behavior. Changes in behavior are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner’s mind.

Learning involves the reorganization of experiences, either by attaining new insights or changing old ones. Thus, learning is a change in knowledge which is stored in memory, and not just a change in behavior. Examples and applications of cognitive learning theory:

Classifying or chunking information

Linking Concepts (associate new content with something known)
Providing Structure (organizing your lecture in efficient and meaningful ways)
Real world examples
Discussions
Problem solving
Analogies
Imagery / providing pictures
Mnemonics

Constructivism

Constructivism is based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, based on individual experiences and internal knowledge. Learning is based on how the individual interprets and creates the meaning of his or her experiences. Knowledge is constructed by the learner and since everyone has a different set of experiences and perceptions, learning is unique and different for each person.

Constructivist theorists believe that learning is a process where individuals construct new ideas or concepts based on prior knowledge and/or experience. Each of us generates our own mental models, which we use to make sense of our experiences. We resolve conflicts between ideas and reflect on theoretical explanations. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate our new experiences. This theory is used to focus on preparing people to problem solve. Therefore, to be successful, the learner needs a significant base of knowledge upon which to interpret and create ideas. Additionally, with Constructivism, outcomes are not always predictable because learners are constructing their own knowledge. Thus Constructivism does not work when the results always need to be consistent. Examples and applications constructivism:

Case studies
Research Projects
Problem based learning
Brainstorming
Collaborative learning / group work
Discovery learning
Simulations

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Q.4 Discuss the hierarchy of objectives? Also differentiate between general and specific objectives? Give examples in support of your answer.
Answer:

The hierarchy of objectives is a tool that helps analyze and communicate the project objectives. It organizes these objectives into different levels of a hierarchy or tree. Different organizations use different names for the various levels and the types of objectives at each level, but otherwise there is a great deal of similarity in approach. This approach organizes objectives into three broad levels:

Policy
Strategic, and
Operational.

In general, these levels correspond to the top, middle, and working levels of management in an organization. Broad, general objectives, some people call them “goals”, that policymakers deal with, for example: “improve economic growth”, fall into the top level and are called “policy objectives”. Objectives that are narrower in scope, such as “increase literacy for teenage girls”, fall into the middle level and are called “strategic objectives”. Objectives that relate directly to a project’s deliverables fall into the operational level and are called “project objectives”. Objectives that relate to project inputs, i.e. what is needed to make a project function, are also considered operational and are called “input objectives”. Operational objectives are usually the concern of working management, including project managers.

Figure 1 shows an example of a hierarchy of objectives for an electric power plant. As shown, the hierarchy has four types of objectives: policy, strategic, project, and input and they are grouped into three levels: policy, strategic, and operational.

Policy Objective: The overall policy objective is to “Increase industrial production”. We then ask: How is this to be accomplished? That brings us to the next lower objective, the strategic objective.

Strategic Objective: One way that the country is trying to increase industrial production, the policy objective, is by producing “50 KW of electric power”. This is the strategic objective for the project. Of course, there may be other strategic objectives and additional projects that also support the overall policy objective. Again we ask: “How is the 50 KW of electric power to be obtained?” The answer takes us to the next lower level of objective in the hierarchy, i.e. the project objective.

Project Objective: The project objective in most cases is the same as the deliverable for the project. In this case, it is to “Build a new power plant.” Asking: “How is the power plant to be built?”, again takes us to the next lower level of objective, the input objective.

Input Objective: The input objectives relate primarily to the resources and conditions that are required to accomplish the project. For the power project, they consist of a “$10 million contract, land for the power plant, and necessary labor” as well as expertise

Differentiate between general and specific objectives:

Major difference between general objectives and specific objectives is that a general objective is a statement of the trend of the learning activity that describes the general orientation of a learning curriculum. A specific objective also defines the trend of the learning activity, but it is formulated in terms of observable behaviors. The general objective is the first level of specification derived from an aim.

Specific objective are usually expressed in terms of the student, and they are unequivocal, which means that they are expressed clearly and have only one interpretation. They also only describe behaviors that can be observed in the subject. UNESCO also indicates that specific objectives detail the unique conditions for the manifestation of certain behaviors and the criteria that must be met to determine whether the objective has been attained.

An example of a general objective is, “To make the student of information science capable of identifying the needs of users of a particular documentation system.” A specific objective derived from this general objective is, “The student must be able to identify different types of documentary information networks.” From these examples, it is evident that specific objectives are usually derived from general objectives.

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Q.5 Define motivation. Also discuss the methods of motivation which make the teaching learning process more effective and efficient.
Answer:

Motivation is the reason for people’s actions, willingness and goals. Motivation is derived from the word motive in the English language which is defined as a need that requires satisfaction. These needs could also be wants or desires that are acquired through influence of culture, society, lifestyle, etc. or generally innate. Motivation is one’s direction to behaviour, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behaviour, a set of force that acts behind the motives. An individual’s motivation may be inspired by others or events (extrinsic motivation) or it may come from within the individual (intrinsic motivation). Motivation has been considered as one of the most important reasons that inspires a person to move forward in life. Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors. Mastering motivation to allow sustained and deliberate practice is central to high levels of achievement e.g. in the worlds of elite sport, medicine or music.

Methods of motivation which make the teaching learning process more effective and efficient:

Teachers spend years of hard work and thousands of dollars to become experts in their content areas, with degrees and teaching certification to prove it. We develop curriculum maps and teaching calendars to be sure to cover the appropriate standards. We endure hours of professional development so that we are well versed in all the current educational pedagogy. We collaborate with colleagues so that we are all using best practices in the classroom. We develop assessments for students so that we can track their progress. When all this doesn’t work, we have intentional interventions aimed at getting students back on track.

And students are still failing.

The problem is that many students are not motivated to learn. Even with the perfect lesson plan in place, an unmotivated student will not learn. Some teachers claim that motivating students is not their job. It is a teacher’s job to know the content and to teach it well; the student must take responsibility for his or her learning and find his or her own motivation. This old-fashioned idea is what limits many teachers to being average. A great teacher recognizes that student motivation is necessary for success in learning and that teachers are in the perfect position to improve student motivation. Here are some strategies that can be used in the classroom to help motivate students:

Promote growth mindset over fixed mindset.

In her book, Mindset, Carol Dweck argues that students have an underlying belief about learning: either a fixed mindset or a growth mindset. A fixed mindset belief suggests that people are born with or without certain abilities and talents, and that abilities cannot be changed. Fixed mindset learners try to prove themselves and will often shy away from challenges because they do not want to appear to be struggling. A growth mindset learner, on the other hand, believes that abilities and talents can be cultivated and improved through hard work. Growth mindset students enjoy a challenge and see struggles and failures as necessary parts of growth. Learners with a growth mindset are certainly more motivated to work hard.

How do we foster a growth mindset in the classroom?

One of the most powerful elements of feedback for our learners is to praise them for their efforts and hard work. “I can tell that you have been practicing your reading,” or “The practice is paying off on your times tables,” tells learners that they have the power to improve their academic success. That said, we must stop praising ability: “Wow, you are such a smart math student,” or “You are such an incredible reader.” Praise for abilities over efforts reinforces the fixed mindset that students have the ability or they don’t and no amount of hard work on the learner’s part can change the outcome. We are all learners, and should be encouraged as such.

Throughout a learning cycle, teachers assess student progress by incorporating formative and summative assessments. The purpose of formative assessment is to pinpoint the learning needed for ultimate success on a later summative assessment. Formative assessment informs teachers and students about student and classroom needs for improvement so both can act accordingly to improve performance on the final assessment. Some formative assessments are: a thumbs up/thumbs down check for understanding, a quiz in small groups, or an exit slip at the end of a lesson. What is important is that students get timely and descriptive feedback from the assessment so that they can move forward in their learning. This cycle of learning will improve results on a later summative assessment.

As teachers, we can model the growth mindset. Have courage! Ask students for feedback about your teaching and be willing to make necessary changes. Be dedicated! Work hard for students and share how hard work and dedication translates to success and growth. This feedback shows that we, too, are learners. It also invites our students to continue on the learning journey alongside us. Students are always willing to work hard for a teacher that is reciprocating that hard work.

Develop meaningful and respectful relationships with your students.

If we are going to truly inspire and motivate all of our students, we should know each of them on a personal level. We need to know their interests and hobbies, who they hang out with, their family situations, and what gets them excited. Each student is going to require different motivational strategies, and we have to know them to be able to predict what strategies might work.

In order to begin that “knowing,” try allowing for five minutes where students may share “Good News.” For example, student A shares, “I am a new uncle! My sister had a new baby boy this weekend!” This is an opportunity for us to learn about our students as people and to let them know that we care about them individually. This also provides an avenue for teachers to share some details about their lives outside of school. When teachers are willing to share personally and become vulnerable, students are more likely to do the same. When learners see one another as whole people, they are more willing to take risks, and ask the questions they need to ask in order to obtain success.

We all learn differently. In each classroom several types of learners exist: visual, tactile, verbal and more reserved. We can see it as our responsibility to discover this by knowing them and endeavor to teach them accordingly. This work results in our ability to know our students which leads to a more cohesive, open learning community.

Grow a community of learners in your classroom.

Students need a classroom environment that is safe, where they are willing to take risks and struggle. To achieve this goal, the students and teacher must work together towards common collective goals. Students must be willing to work with and assist other students in class. Struggle should be acceptable and encouraged as a part of the learning process.

Traditional teaching consists of teachers lecturing and learners taking notes, followed by the learners doing independent work to check for understanding. Transforming this outdated model to include more time where students are talking to students brings about true community. Collaborative group work should be the activity between the teacher lecture and the independent work. This is the time when students can digest information and ask questions collectively. Learners participate in what could be considered the “problem solving” phase of their development with new ideas, and together they come to new learnings. This gradual release of responsibility from teacher to student encourages deeper understanding of lesson rather than rote memorization; thus the students are participants in their own learning, rather than witnesses to the instructor’s knowledge.

Student work should be proudly displayed throughout the classroom. This sends a message to students that they are active participants in creating the knowledge in the classroom. The teacher is not the sole holder of knowledge. Additionally, teachers can use language that promotes the community of learners – including the teacher – rather than a room full of individual learners. Using the words “we” and “our” rather than “I” and “you” has a significant impact on classroom culture, and how students function as interdependent learners.

Establish high expectations and establish clear goals.

Setting high expectations and supporting students as they struggle allows learners to rise to meet those expectations. When expectations are transparent, students know where their learning is headed and are motivated to get there because it seems possible: the path is visible. Working towards daily, weekly, and yearly goals gives students a purpose and a meaning for the hard work that they do.

Daily learning goals (learning targets, or “I can” statements) should be posted, visible and referenced on a daily basis. Establishing the “goal of the day” at the start of the lesson gives students a purpose for their learning. Students can also formatively assess themselves at the end of each lesson by checking to be sure they have met the learning goals.

Maintaining high expectations for academics is tantamount to learning, but high standards for behavior, academic language, group work, and even the length and format of individual work is also necessary for deep learning. We cannot assume that students know these expectations. They must be clearly outlined. If we expect students to interact in a certain way together, we need to teach them how, and hold them accountable. If we want an assignment displayed in a certain format, we need to model it and expect it. Once the routines to support expectations are established and clear to the learning community, learning becomes the most important action in the classroom.

Be inspirational.

Most adults can recall a specific teacher from their childhood who had a lasting impact. These are the teachers that have inspired, challenged, and motivated students enough to be memorable years later.

What makes these teachers inspirational?

Inspirational teachers represent success to their students. Teacher success might be: completing a 10K race, owning a small business, or receiving a teaching award. We each have successes to share. Through our triumphs, students can learn what success looks like and go after it. Once our students decide that they want success, they pay close attention to the behaviors and choices and even sacrifices that led us to our success. These behaviors include hard work, willingness to struggle, and ability to learn from our mistakes. Students internalize our behaviors and strategies as a way to accomplish their own goals.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8620 Computers in Education Assignment 2

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 2 Jan 2021 14:48:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8620 Computers in Education Assignment 2

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Course: Computers in Education (8620)

Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years)

ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 How computer is a powerful tool. Describe the categories of computer and their uses?
Answer:

A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming. Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks. Computers are used as control systems for a wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls, factory devices such as industrial robots and computer-aided design, and also general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones. Computers are powerful tools because they can process information with incredible speed, accuracy and dependability. They can efficiently perform input, process, output and storage operations, and they can store massive amounts of data.

Computers enable users to access information whenever necessary and to share information with other users. They allow people to use the Internet, which is a global network connecting millions of individuals, educational institutions, businesses and government agencies.

Through the Internet, users communicate with each other, search for helpful information, buy products and services, and access various types of entertainment. A widely used component of the Internet is the World Wide Web, which consists of numerous documents known as Web pages. These pages are composed of text, video, sound, graphics and other types of content.

Desktop computers typically comprise a system unit, input devices and output devices that fit on a table, whereas notebook computers are small, portable machines. Many people use desktop and notebook computers to access the Internet or accomplish tasks that require the use of application programs.

Computers that fit in the hand are called handheld computers. Midrange servers are bigger and more powerful than workstation computers. The quickest and most powerful type of computer is called a supercomputer. Another extremely efficient computer is the mainframe, which can simultaneously manage thousands of linked users.

Categories of computer and their uses:
Below you’ll find an extensive, descriptive list of the five types of computers, from supercomputers to mobile computers, and everything in between.

Supercomputers

A supercomputer is pretty much exactly what it sounds like. It’s a term used to describe computers that have the most capable processing power of its time. Early supercomputers in the 60s and 70s used just a couple processors, while the 90s saw supercomputers with thousands of processors at a time. Today, modern supercomputers run hundreds of thousands of processors, capable of computing quadrillions of calculations in just a few nanoseconds. You probably won’t be needing that kind of power to access Facebook… Actually, supercomputers are used in computational science to calculate and carry out a plethora of complex tasks. Modeling molecular structures, weather forecasting, and the field of quantum mechanics, among others, rely on supercomputers and their intense processing power to solve their equations.

Mainframe Computers
Like supercomputers, mainframe computers are huge, towering machines with lots of processing power. Mainframe computers are mostly used by corporations, government agencies, and banks – organizations that need a way to store large quantities of information. They are not the same as supercomputers. The processing capabilities of mainframe computers are measured in MIPS, or millions of instructions per second. Supercomputers, on the other hand, are measured in FLOPS, or floating point operations per seconds.

Minicomputers
A minicomputer is a multiprocessing machine that can support up to about 200 users at the same time. It’s like a less powerful mainframe computer, and is about the size of a refrigerator. A server can be an example of a minicomputer, but not all servers are minicomputers. Despite their name, a minicomputer is not a personal computer like the desktop machine you might have at home or work. They are much larger than that. Because of the ways microcomputers – which we’ll cover next – have excelled in processing power even beyond minicomputers, and at a much smaller size, minicomputers have become pretty much obsolete.

Microcomputers
Microcomputers are the ones people are most familiar with on a daily, non-professional basis, but of course that doesn’t mean they’re exclusive to the home. Microcomputers are smaller computers that run on microprocessors in their central processing units. They are much, much cheaper than supercomputers, mainframe computers and even minicomputers, because they’re meant for everyday uses that are more practical than professional. The range of capabilities for microcomputers are still vast, though. A film editor might use a microcomputer to run many intensive editing programs at once, while a student might use a microcomputer for Facebook and word processing.

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Q.2 Survey five such instructions of your locality which have computer. Compare the printing devices they on the criteria of type, speed, print quality and cost.
Answer:

Wouldn’t it be great if you could have a paperless office?

Sadly though, there are still occasions when you need to print documents, such as things required by law, of you like the feel of a piece of paper in your hand. For many small businesses, printers look all the same to them. But choosing your printer can be a decision that leads to frustration, unneeded expenses, and hampered productivity if you don’t consider it carefully. We at Fueled, make it easy for you by highlighting the 10 features of a printer that you’ll want to think about before making a purchase.

1. Inkjet or laser
Although there isn’t much of a price difference these days, think about what kind of ink you want to use. Toners and ink cartridges can vary in budgets, so choose one that suits you the best.

2. How many functions do you want?
Some companies are happy with a printer and photocopier, while some might want an allin- one printer where you can scan, fax, print and photocopy. Go through to see what your office uses often, and what kind of existing equipment you have to decide. For example, if you already have a scanner, then you probably don’t need a printer/scanner.

3. Image quality
Think about what your needs are when printing images. Are you a design company that needs to print high quality to show their clients drafts of work, or are you a writing company that just needs to print text? It would be a shame to need high quality images but you bought a lesser quality printer.

4. Print speed
Think about the volume of paper you want to print. The more you need, the chances are you’ll probably want a faster printer.

5. Connectivity
Are you obsessed with wireless connections, or couldn’t care less? Do you want to print from your mobile device, or will a regular computer connection do?

6. Paper handling
Depending on what kind of paper you want to use, you will have to purchase specific printers for the job. Obviously someone who wants to print mainly on cardstock and photo paper will need a different printer than someone who wants to print on regular blank paper. Don’t forget about sizes of paper you want. If you need to print on larger pieces of paper, then don’t purchase a printer that is obviously too small for the job.

7. Office size
If your office is pretty much you on the go with a laptop, you might want to consider a portable printer. Otherwise, if you have some extra room and depending on print quality, you can easily afford a bigger one.

8. Other running costs
Other than ink cartridges, think about the brand of cartridges you want to use. If you get refillable cartridges, you might save some money, but if you let the ink run out completely, it might damage your printer. Also think about how much it would cost if your printer breaks down, or even how much energy it’ll use.

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Q.3 Define application software. How system software interacts with application software?
Answer:

Application software is a program or group of programs designed for end users. These programs are divided into two classes: system software and application software. While system software consists of low-level programs that interact with computers at a basic level, application software resides above system software and includes applications such as database programs, word processors and spreadsheets. Application software may be bundled with system software or published alone. Application software may simply be referred to as an application.

Different types of application software include:
• Application Suite: Has multiple applications bundled together. Related functions, features and user interfaces interact with each other.
• Enterprise Software: Addresses an organization’s needs and data flow in a huge distributed environment
• Enterprise Infrastructure Software: Provides capabilities required to support enterprise software systems
• Information Worker Software: Addresses individual needs required to manage and create information for individual projects within departments
• Content Access Software: Used to access content and addresses a desire for published digital content and entertainment
• Educational Software: Provides content intended for use by students
• Media Development Software: Addresses individual needs to generate and print electronic media for others to consume

How system software interacts with application software:
Computer software can be divided into two main categories: application software and system software. According to Brookshear [1997], “application software consists of the programs for performing tasks particular to the machine’s utilization. Examples of application software include spreadsheets, database systems, desktop publishing systems, program development software, and games.” Application software is generally what we think of when someone speaks of computer programs. This software is designed to solve a particular problem for users.

On the other hand, system software is more transparent and less noticed by the typical computer user. This software “provides a general programming environment in which programmers can create specific applications to suit their needs. This environment provides new functions that are not available at the hardware level and performs tasks related to executing the application program” [Nutt 1997]. System software acts as an interface between the hardware of the computer and the application software that users need to run on the computer. The diagram below illustrates the relationship between application
software and system software.

The most important type of system software is the operating system. According to Webopedia, an operating system has three main responsibilities:

Perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. Ensure that different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. Provide a software platform on top of which other programs (i.e., application software) can run.

The first two responsibilities address the need for managing the computer hardware and the application programs that use the hardware. The third responsibility focuses on providing an interface between application software and hardware so that application software can be efficiently developed. Since the operating system is already responsible for managing the hardware, it should provide a programming interface for application developers.

Nutt [1997] identifies four common types of operating system strategies on which modern operating systems are built: batch, timesharing, personal computing, and dedicated. According to Nutt, “the favored strategy for any given computer depends on how the computer is to be used, the cost-effectiveness of the strategy implementation in the application environment, and the general state of the technology at the time the operating system is developed.” The table below summarizes the characteristics of each operating system strategy as described by Nutt [1997].

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Q.4 DeGlilo (1987) has suggested four different arrangment of layout of a computer centre. Explain with examples.
Answer:

Many high schools and colleges use computer labs to allow student access to the software necessary to complete coursework. Computer labs are also used to instruct students on computer use, programming, and related subjects. However, many institutions give little thought to the design and layout of the lab. Too often, they simply fill a room with computers and set up the machines any way they fit inside the room.

Why Computer Lab Design and Layout is Important
Computer labs must be designed intelligently and serve the purpose they were intended to serve. Imagine if parking lots did not have lines telling you where to park and everyone just drove in and parked wherever they wanted. Soon no one would be able to enter to exit. The lines in parking lots create important rules about how you should park in the lot.

Similarly, the design and layout of a computer lab creates rules and defines how the lab can be used. Thought given to the layout of a computer lab dictates the usefulness of the lab and increases user satisfaction which justifies its expense and assists in future investments in upgrades.

Certainly, the layout of the lab depends on the equipment, the furniture, and space available. The purpose of this document is to discuss some basic computer lab layouts and their advantages and disadvantages.

Any of these layouts can be modified to satisfy the individual needs of the institution. It just takes a little planning and imagination to adapt any of these designs to a specific application.

Classroom Computer Lab Designs
The classic classroom computer lab design serves as the default layout in many High School and Colleges. However, it does have two major advantages. First, it serves as a great instruction room where students learn computer topics from an instructor at the front of the room. With everyone facing the same direction, it allows instructors to see the faces of the students with which to read non-verbal cues as to whether students are learning the material or need more help. Second, it is similar to the layout of other classroom environment emphasizing that the students are there to learn.

One disadvantage of the classroom layout is the need to disturb other students along the rows of computers as students enter and exit the lab. For labs where students are coming and going, the classroom layout is not ideal. In addition, the classroom layout is not conducive to team work. It is difficult for students to work together, especially on collective projects and in peer-assist teaching models.

Four-Leaf Clover Computer Lab Layouts
The four-leaf clover design offers the most privacy for students and reduces to a minimum the possibility of cheating during tests or exercises. It also eliminates the need for students to disturb others when entering and exiting the lab and allows instructors to go from student to student to address individual problems and concerns.

One disadvantage of the four-leaf clover design has to do with attention spans. When students are sitting at their own computers, instructors will not be able to see what each student is doing at his/her workstation. Students may not be paying attention to lessons or may be surfing to inappropriate websites in labs equipped with Internet access.

Four-leaf clover designs can also be more expensive if each computer sits on its own table. Some computer lab furniture is made specifically for this design offering space for four computers on one table or desk. The next two designs are less traditional but offer some things the classroom layout and the four-leaf clover layout do not.

U-Shaped Computer Lab Designs
The U-shaped computer lab layout encourages engagement between instructors and students. Instructors can enter the U and engage with students one-on-one. This design also serves as the most conducive layout for computer maintenance as technicians do not have to disturb others to gain access to the computers. In addition, students will not interfere with other students’ work while entering and exiting the lab.

Unfortunately, the U-shaped design offers little opportunity for instructors to monitor what students are doing and looking at on their monitors. This design is not compatible with test taking and requires many assistants to monitor students. Furthermore, this design often takes up more space that other layouts.

Inverted U-Shaped Computer Lab Layouts
Like the U-shaped layout, the Inverted U-shape also offers engagement between instructors and students. In addition, the layout allows for the most convenient method of monitoring students. For individual learning, this layout minimizes the distance instructors must walk to move from workstation to workstation and student to student.

Like the classroom layout, traffic into and out of the Inverted U-shape can become constrictive especially when all of the students must enter and exit at the same time. This congestion is reduced if students are entering and exiting individually as in an open lab paradigm where students can come and go as they please. In addition, this layout takes up the same amount of space as the U-shaped design. If space is not a consideration, either of the U-shaped layouts is appropriate.

Conclusion
There are many options when designing the layout of a computer lab. The key is to make sure form is following function. Thought and planning at the beginning of designing the lab ensures that students and instructors are satisfied with what the lab offers. Choosing a suboptimal layout can negatively affect student learning and reduce the engagement between instructors and students.

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Q.5 Discuss functions of graphic software and its different types of packages.
Answer:

In computer graphics, graphics software refers to a program or collection of programs that enable a person to manipulate images or models visually on a computer. Computer graphics can be classified into distinct categories: raster graphics and vector graphics, with further 2D and 3D variants. Many graphics programs focus exclusively on either vector or raster graphics, but there are a few that combine them in interesting ways. It is simple to convert from vector graphics to raster graphics, but going the other way is harder. Some software attempts to do this.

In addition to static graphics, there are animation and video editing software. Different types of software are often designed to edit different types of graphics such as video, photos, and drawings. The exact sources of graphics may vary for different tasks, but most can read and write files. Most graphics programs have the ability to import and export one or more graphics file formats, including those formats written for a particular computer graphics program. Examples of such programs include GIMP, Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW, Pizap, Microsoft Publisher, Picasa, etc.

The use of a swatch is a palette of active colours that are selected and rearranged by the preference of the user. A swatch may be used in a program or be part of the universal palette on an operating system. It is used to change the colour of a text or image and in video editing. Vector graphics animation can be described as a series of mathematical transformations that are applied in sequence to one or more shapes in a scene. Raster graphics animation works in a similar fashion to film-based animation, where a series of still images produces the illusion of continuous movement.

This software enables the user to create illustrations, designs, logos, 3-dimensional images, animation and pictures. Graphics software creates, edits, and manages two-dimensional images. These computer graphics may be clip art, web graphics, logos, headings, backgrounds, digital photos, or other kinds of digital images.

Common Applications
Common graphics editors include Photoshop, Illustrator, Paint Shop Pro, CorelDRAW, The Apple Photos plugins from Macphun, Adobe Lightroom, Digital Image Suite, Canva, Picasa, and related programs.

What Isn’t Graphics Software?
Software that people think of as graphics software, but isn’t, include programs that don’t directly manipulate individual images. Page layout software such as InDesign, QuarkXpress, and Publisher fall into that category. Likewise, presentation software such as PowerPoint or Apple Keynote isn’t graphics programs. And in general, home publishing or creative printing software doesn’t rise to the occasion, either.

What are the Types of Graphics Software?
The two main categories of graphics programs are pixel-based image editors and vectorbased image editors. In a nutshell, an image is either comprised of a series of small dots (pixels) or a series of commands about how to draw an image (vectors). You’ll know the difference between pixel- and vector-based images by zooming on them. If they zoom very close without appearing fuzzy and blotchy, you’re working with a vector image. Some of the categories of specialized tools for managing graphics include:

Publishing Software
• Publishing software, also known as desktop publishing software, can also combine text and graphics but the tools in this breed of software are much more sophisticated. Desktop publishing software offers tools for precise control over text and graphics placement, leading, kerning, and some image editing functions. Highend desktop publishing software has the power to handle layouts for books, magazines, and other large publications.When desktop publishing software first emerged, the only products available were expensive, high-end publishing packages. More recently, the low-end desktop publishing market has exploded with products intended for small businesses and home users (SOHO).

• High-End Publishing Software:
• SOHO Publishing Software:
• Adobe InDesign
• Corel VENTURA
• QuarkXPress
• Adobe PageMaker
• Microsoft Publisher

Illustration Software
• Illustration software, although not technically considered layout software, is also beginning to incorporate more and more word processing and text manipulation features. Many of the illustration programs have the ability to flow text, check spelling and grammar, and adjust kerning and line spacing. It’s becoming more common to use illustration software for page layout on smaller projects such as postcards, greeting cards, brochures, business cards, letterhead and small booklets.
Illustration Software:
• Adobe Illustrator
• CorelDRAW
• Macromedia Freehand

Creative Printing Software
• Creative printing software is a market that has boomed recently as inkjet printers have become more affordable. This software is especially designed for creating greeting cards, postcards, business cards, signs, posters, t-shirt designs, and other crafts. As with all page layout software, they allow you to combine text and graphics in a single document, but the tools in this breed of software are often more specialized. You probably won’t find tools to adjust line spacing and kerning… what you will find are a number of fun, special effects such as curved and outlined text, image shaping and distortion, and possibly some limited image editing functions.
• Creative Printing Software:
• Print Artist
• The Print Shop
• PrintMaster
• Microsoft PowerPoint
• Harvard Graphics

Presentation Software
Presentation software is designed for creating on-screen presentations, reports, overhead transparencies, and slideshows. Like all the software mentioned above, it allows you to combine both text and graphics in a single document, but the final output is not always intended for printing.

Like creative printing software, presentation software offers limited text editing and manipulation with an emphasis on special effects, and possibly some basic image editing functions. Presentation software is unique in that you will almost always have functionality for working with charts and graphs. Also, most of this type of software allows you to incorporate multimedia into your documents.

Web Publishing Software
• Another development in recent years that is common among all the types of software above, is the ability to publish your work on the Internet. Just about every genre of software available today is adding built-in Internet tools. The low-end software will have the basics such as sending your files through e-mail or creating animated greetings; some may have basic Web page creation tools. The high-end software will have more sophisticated Web publishing tools for exporting to HTML or PDF (portable document format). And of course, there are many dedicated Web publishing programs. As you can see, the lines that distinguish the various types of layout software are beginning to blur. I hope this article has helped you to understand the differences between them, and how they all fit in to the world of graphics software.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8627 Foundation of Science Education Assignment 1

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Fri, 31 Jul 2020 13:45:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8627 Foundation of Science Education Assignment 1

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q.1 Discuss in detail the contributions of Muslims in the field of Science. (20)

Muslims Contribution To Science:

Astronomy :

Muslims have always had a special interest in astronomy. The moon and the sun are of vital importance in the daily life of every Muslim. By the moon, Muslims determine the beginning and the end of the months in their lunar calendar. By the sun the Muslims calculate the times for prayer and fasting. It is also by means of astronomy that Muslims can determine the precise direction of the Qiblah, to face the Ka'bah in Makkah, during prayer. The most precise solar calendar, superior to the Julian, is the Jilali, devised under the supervision of Umar Khayyam. The Qur'an contains many references to astronomy.

"The heavens and the earth were ordered rightly, and were made subservient to man, including the sun, the moon, the stars, and day and night. Every heavenly body moves in an orbit assigned to it by God and never digresses, making the universe an orderly cosmos whose life and existence, diminution and expansion, are totally determined by the Creator." [Qur'an 30:22]

These references, and the injunctions to learn, inspired the early Muslim scholars to study the heavens. They integrated the earlier works of the Indians, Persians and Greeks into a new synthesis. Ptolemy's Almagest (the title as we know it is Arabic) was translated, studied and criticized. Many new stars were discovered, as we see in their Arabic names - Algol, Deneb, Betelgeuse, Rigel, Aldebaran. Astronomical tables were compiled, among them the Toledan tables, which were used by Copernicus, Tycho Brahe and Kepler. Also compiled were almanacs - another Arabic term. Other terms from Arabic are zenith, nadir, albedo, azimuth.

Muslim astronomers were the first to establish observatories, like the one built at Mugharah by Hulagu, the son of Genghis Khan, in Persia, and they invented instruments such as the quadrant and astrolabe, which led to advances not only in astronomy but in oceanic navigation, contributing to the European age of exploration.

Geography:

Muslim scholars paid great attention to geography. In fact, the Muslims' great concern for geography originated with their religion. The Qur'an encourages people to travel throughout the earth to see God's signs and patterns everywhere. Islam also requires each Muslim to have at least enough knowledge of geography to know the direction of the Qiblah (the position of the Ka'bah in Makkah) in order to pray five times a day. Muslims were also used to taking long journeys to conduct trade as well as to make the Hajj and spread their religion. The far-flung Islamic empire enabled scholar-explorers to compile large amounts of geographical and climatic information from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Among the most famous names in the field of geography, even in the West, are Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Batuta, renowned for their written accounts of their extensive explorations. In 1166, Al-Idrisi, the well-known Muslim scholar who served the Sicilian court, produced very accurate maps, including a world map with all the continents and their mountains, rivers and famous cities. Al-Muqdishi was the first geographer to produce accurate maps in color. It was, moreover, with the help of Muslim navigators and their inventions that Magellan was able to traverse the Cape of Good Hope, and Da Gama and Columbus had Muslim navigators on board their ships.

Humanity:

Seeking knowledge is obligatory in Islam for every Muslim, man and woman. The main sources of Islam, the Qur'an and the Sunnah (Prophet Muhammad's traditions), encourage Muslims to seek knowledge and be scholars, since this is the best way for people to know Allah (God), to appreciate His wondrous creations and be thankful for them. Muslims were therefore eager to seek knowledge, both religious and secular, and within a few years of Muhammad's mission, a great civilization sprang up and flourished. The outcome is shown in the spread of Islamic universities; Al-Zaytunah in Tunis, and Al-Azhar in Cairo go back more than 1,000 years and are the oldest existing universities in the world. Indeed, they were the models for the first European universities, such as Bologna, Heidelberg, and the Sorbonne. Even the familiar academic cap and gown originated at Al-Azhar University.

Muslims made great advances in many different fields, such as geography, physics, chemistry, mathematics, medicine, pharmacology, architecture, linguistics and astronomy. Algebra and the Arabic numerals were introduced to the world by Muslim scholars. The astrolabe, the quadrant, and other navigational devices and maps were developed by Muslim scholars and played an important role in world progress, most notably in Europe's age of exploration.

Muslim scholars studied the ancient civilations from Greece and Rome to China and India. The works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid and others were translated into Arabic. Muslim scholars and scientists then added their own creative ideas, discoveries and inventions, and finally transmitted this new knowledge to Europe, leading directly to the Renaissance. Many scientific and medical treatises, having been translated into Latin, were standard text and reference books as late as the 17th and 18th centuries.

Mathematics:

It is interesting to note that Islam so strongly urges mankind to study and explore the universe. For example, the Holy Qur'an states:

"We (Allah) will show you (mankind) Our signs/patterns in the horizons/universe and in yourselves until you are convinced that the revelation is the truth." [Qur'an, 14:53]

This invitation to explore and search made Muslims interested in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, and the other sciences, and they had a very clear and firm understanding of the correspondences among geometry, mathematics, and astronomy.

The Muslims invented the symbol for zero (The word "cipher" comes from Arabic sifr), and they organized the numbers into the decimal system - base 10. Additionally, they invented the symbol to express an unknown quantity, i.e. variables like x.

The first great Muslim mathematician, Al-Khawarizmi, invented the subject of algebra (al-Jabr), which was further developed by others, most notably Umar Khayyam. Al-Khawarizmi's work, in Latin translation, brought the Arabic numerals along with the mathematics to Europe, through Spain. The word "algorithm" is derived from his name.

Muslim mathematicians excelled also in geometry, as can be seen in their graphic arts, and it was the great Al-Biruni (who excelled also in the fields of natural history, even geology and mineralogy) who established trigonometry as a distinct branch of mathematics. Other Muslim mathematicians made significant progress in number theory.

Medicine:

In Islam, the human body is a source of appreciation, as it is created by Almighty Allah (God). How it functions, how to keep it clean and safe, how to prevent diseases from attacking it or cure those diseases, have been important issues for Muslims.

Prophet Muhammad himself urged people to "take medicines for your diseases", as people at that time were reluctant to do so. He also said: "God created no illness, but established for it a cure, except for old age. When the antidote is applied, the patient will recover with the permission of God."

This was strong motivation to encourage Muslim scientists to explore, develop, and apply empirical laws. Much attention was given to medicine and public health care. The first hospital was built in Baghdad in 706 AC. The Muslims also used camel caravans as mobile hospitals, which moved from place to place.

Since the religion did not forbid it, Muslim scholars used human cadavers to study anatomy and physiology and to help their students understand how the body functions. This empirical study enabled surgery to develop very quickly.

Al-Razi, known in the West as Rhazes, the famous physician and scientist, (d. 932) was one of the greatest physicians in the world in the Middle Ages. He stressed empirical observation and clinical medicine and was unrivaled as a diagnostician. He also wrote a treatise on hygiene in hospitals. Khalaf Abul-Qasim Al-Zahrawi was a very famous surgeon in the eleventh century, known in Europe for his work, Concessio (Kitab al-Tasrif).

Ibn Sina (d. 1037), better known to the West as Avicenna, was perhaps the greatest physician until the modern era. His famous book, Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb, remained a standard textbook even in Europe, for over 700 years. Ibn Sina's work is still studied and built upon in the East.

Other significant contributions were made in pharmacology, such as Ibn Sina's Kitab al-Shifa' (Book of Healing), and in public health. Every major city in the Islamic world had a number of excellent hospitals, some of them teaching hospitals, and many of them were specialized for particular diseases, including mental and emotional. The Ottomans were particularly noted for their building of hospitals and for the high level of hygiene practiced in them.
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Q.2 “There is a scientific reason in every natural phenomenon”. Give examples from the Real life. (20)

A phenomenon, in a scientific context, is something that is observed to occur or to exist. This meaning contrasts with the understanding of the word in general usage, as something extraordinary or outstanding.

Phenomena are categorized in a number of ways. Here are a few of the many possibilities, with examples:

1. Natural phenomena are those that occur or manifest without human input. Examples of natural phenomena include gravity, tides, biological processes and oscillation.
2. Social phenomena are those that occur or exist through the actions of groups of humans. Six degrees of separation, for example, is a phenomenon that is demonstrated in social networking.

Psychological phenomena are those manifested in human behaviors and responses. The sunk cost effect, for example, is the tendency for humans to continue investing in something that clearly isn’t working. Another psychological phenomenon, the Hawthorne effect is demonstrated by an improvement in human behavior or performance as a result of increased attention from superiors, clients or colleagues.
Visual phenomena include optical illusions, such as the peripheral drift illusion in which people perceive movement in static images like Kitaoka Akiyoshi's rotating snakes (See the image in our definition of the peripheral drift illusion).

1) Sailing Stones in Death :

The stones move only every two or three years and most tracks develop over three or four years. At Racetrack Playa, these tracks have been studied since the early 1900s, yet the origins of stone movement are not confirmed and remain the subject of research for which several hypotheses exist.

2) Gravity

Believe it or not many scientists believe that the law of gravity is somewhat broken. Experiments by Saxl and Allais found that Foucault pendulums veer off in strange directions during solar eclipses. Interplanetary NASA satellites are showing persistent errors in trajectory. Neither of these is explained or predicted by the standard theory of gravity known as Einstein's General Relativity.

3) Dark Matter

Dark Matter of an unknown form makes up most of the matter of the universe. This matter is not predicted by the standard physics models. The so-called "Theory of Everything" does not predict and does not un Each year, hundreds of fireballs spontaneously explode out of Thailand’s Mekong River. Known as “bung fai paya nak” or “Naga fireballs,” they have appeared on the “late autumn night of the full moon at the end of the Buddhist Lent for as long as anyone can remember,” according to a 2002 Time magazine story about the phenomenon. Some believe the balls come from the breath of Naga, a mythical serpent that haunts the river. (Locals use old grainy pictures and postcards of the mythical beast to prove its presence to tourists.) Others believe the fireballs are actually pockets of methane bubbling up from the river, but many locals remain convinced that the fireballs are of a supernatural origin.

4) The Naga Fireballs

Each year, hundreds of fireballs spontaneously explode out of Thailand’s Mekong River. Known as “bung fai paya nak” or “Naga fireballs,” they have appeared on the “late autumn night of the full moon at the end of the Buddhist Lent for as long as anyone can remember,” according to a 2002 Time magazine story about the phenomenon. Some believe the balls come from the breath of Naga, a mythical serpent that haunts the river. (Locals use old grainy pictures and postcards of the mythical beast to prove its presence to tourists.) Others believe the fireballs are actually pockets of methane bubbling up from the river, but many locals remain convinced that the fireballs are of a supernatural origin.

5) The suicidal birds of Jatinga

a village on a ridge, is located in Dima Hasao District, Assam State in India. It is 330 km south of Guwahati. It is most famous for the phenomenon of birds “committing suicide”. For last 100 years many species of birds commit mass suicides in this village and no one knows why. Many people have reported birds falling out of the sky out of the blue. However a new theory says that birds are actually killed by locals and not actually commit suicide. But that is just a theory so far.
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Q.3 Differentiate Inductive and Deductive method of science. (20)

The Differences Between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is reasoning where the premises support the conclusion. The conclusion is the hypothesis, or probable. This means that the conclusion is the part of reasoning that inductive reasoning is trying to prove. Inductive reasoning is also referred to as 'cause and effect reasoning' or 'bottom-up reasoning' because it seeks to prove a conclusion first. This is usually derived from specific instances to develop a general conclusion.

Kevin and Andrew are now arguing about math. Kevin says that all big brothers are good at math. Andrew is an only child, but he's pretty sure that this argument cannot be valid.

Kevin makes a conclusion based on the following premises: 'My older brother is good at math. My friend's older brother is good at math. My neighbor's big brother is a math tutor. Therefore, all older brothers are good at math.' You've probably heard people use this type of reasoning in life. We know this can't be true.

You probably know that being an older brother doesn't inherently make you good at math. What Kevin has done is made a generalized conclusion: all older brothers are good at math based on three premises of specific instances: Mine, my friend's and my neighbor's older brother are all good at math. These specific instances are not representative of the entire population of older brothers. Because inductive reasoning is based on specific instances, it can often produce weak and invalid arguments.

You can remember inductive reasoning like this: inductive reasoning is bottom-up reasoning; it starts with a probable conclusion and induces premises.

You can remember inductive reasoning like this: inductive reasoning is bottom-up reasoning; it starts with a probable conclusion and induces premises.

Now let's talk about deductive reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is reasoning where true premises develop a true and valid conclusion. In the case of deductive reasoning, the conclusion must be true if the premises are also true. Deductive reasoning uses general principles to create a specific conclusion. Deductive reasoning is also known as 'top-down reasoning' because it goes from general and works its way down more specific.

A deductive approach usually begins with a hypothesis, whilst an inductive approach will usually use research questions to narrow the scope of the study.

For deductive approaches the emphasis is generally on causality, whilst for inductive approaches the aim is usually focused on exploring new phenomena or looking at previously researched phenomena from a different perspective.

This approach necessitates the researcher beginning with a completely open mind without any preconceived ideas of what will be found. The aim is to generate a new theory based on the data.

Once the data analysis has been completed the researcher must examine existing theories in order to position their new theory within the discipline.

Grounded theory is not an approach to be used lightly. It requires extensive and repeated sifting through the data and analysing and re-analysing multiple times in order to identify new theory. It is an approach best suited to research projects where there the phenomena to be investigated has not been previously explored.
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Q.4 What is Realists’ view of knowledge about science? (20)

What is scientific realism?
An important strand in the story of the philosophy of science in the past three decades has been a struggle between realists and anti-realists. The debate turns around the most adequate way of interpreting scientific theories that refer to unobservable entities, processes, and properties. Realists maintain that the entities postulated by scientific theories (electrons, genes, quasars) are real entities in the world, with approximately the properties attributed to them by the best available scientific theories. Instrumentalists, on the other hand, maintain that theories are no more than instruments of calculation, permitting the scientist to infer from one set of observable circumstances to another set of observable circumstances at some later point in time.

Traditionally, scientific realism asserts that the objects of scientific knowledge exist independently of the minds or acts of scientists and that scientific theories are true of that objective (mind-independent) world. The reference to knowledge points to the dual character of scientific realism.

On the one hand it is a metaphysical (specifically, an ontological) doctrine, claiming the independent existence of certain entities. On the other hand it is an epistemological doctrine asserting that we can know what individuals exist and that we can find out the truth of the theories or laws that govern them.

Opposed to scientific realism (hereafter just 'realism') are a variety of antirealisms, including phenomenalism and empiricism. Recently two others, instrumentalism and constructivism, have posed special challenges to realism. Instrumentalism regards the objects of knowledge pragmatically, as tools for various human purposes, and so takes reliability (or empirical adequacy) rather than truth as scientifically central.

A version of this, fictionalism, contests the existence of many of the objects favoured by the realist and regards them as merely expedient means to useful ends. Constructivism maintains that scientific knowledge is socially constituted, that 'facts' are made by us. Thus it challenges the objectivity of knowledge, as the realist understands objectivity, and the independent existence that realism is after. Conventionalism, holding that the truths of science ultimately rest on man-made conventions, is allied to constructivism.

Arguing for realism
Late nineteenth and early twentieth century debates over the reality of molecules and atoms polarized the scientific community on the realism question. Antirealists like MACH, DUHEM and POINCAR… ñ representing (roughly) phenomenalist, instrumentalist and conventionalist positions ñ at first carried the day with a sceptical attitude toward the truth of scientific theories and the reality of the 'theoretical entities' employed by those theories (see PHENOMENALISM; CONVENTIONALISM).

Led by the successes of statistical mechanics (see THERMODYNAMICS) and relativity (see RELATIVITY THEORY, PHILOSOPHICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF), however, PLANCK and EINSTEIN helped turn the tide toward realism. That movement was checked by two developments. In physics the quantum theory of 1925ñ6 quickly ran into difficulties over the possibility of a realist interpretation (see QUANTUM MECHANICS, INTERPRETATIONS OF) and the community settled on the instrumentalist programme promoted by BOHR and HEISENBERG. This was a formative lesson for logical empiricism whose respect for developments in physics and whose positivistic orientation led it to brand the realism question as metaphysical, a pseudo-question (see LOGICAL POSITIVISM). Thus for a while empiricist and instrumentalist trends in science and philosophy eclipsed scientific realism.
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Q.5 Write brief notes on the following:
a) Salient features of philosophy of Idealism (10)

Idealism

As with most philosophical controversies, this one isn’t black-and-white. Most scholars fall somewhere in between total realism and total idealism. In addition, you can be a realist about some objects and an idealist about others! For example, some philosophers are realists when it comes to everyday objects like shoes and sandwiches, but idealists when it comes to ethics or consciousness.

In addition, idealists point out that perception depends on the mind, which means ideas will always interfere with our perception, and this is something that idealists and realists can agree on at least to some extent.

When you see a car, for example, idealists argue that you’re not directly perceiving the car but rather perceiving it through a kind of lens or fog imposed by all your knowledge, ideas, and associations related to cars. Thus, our ideas are like colored glasses that can never be removed – they distort everything we see and make it impossible to sense the world reliably.

1. Idealism Believes in the Universal Mind:
Besides the physical or material universe, there is also a spiritual universe which is permeated by the Universal Mind of God. He is the Creator and others are the created. Human mind is a part of the Universal Mind and is dependent of Him. God or the Universal Mind is the source of all human values and the goal of all human activities is the realization of this Universal Mind is one’s own self.

Upanishads provide the fundamental theme of Indian idealistic thought—the divinity of man and the spiritual principle governing cosmos:

The following table illustrates the classification.
Philosophies
Monism – Dualism – Pluralism
Materialism – Idealism – Pragmatism
Naturalism

Mechanistic – Biological – Physical
He who sees all beings in the very Self, and the Self in all beings, feels no hatred by virtue of that realization,

God is one. He is supreme and true. He is the creator free from fear and inborn self-existent and the enlightener.”—Jap Ji.

2. Idealism Regards Man as a Spiritual Being:
Idealism believes that man is a mere animal. He is essentially a spiritual being whose chief aim is to develop his spiritual nature. It is this spirituality that distinguishes man from other lower creatures. The underlying principle of the idealistic philosophy is “Mind or spirit is the essential world stuff and that mind is not merely brain and its activity, but is in itself a real thing.” Reality is found in the mind of man and not in the external world. Upanishads proclaim the identity of universal soul (Brahman) and the individual soul (Atma). Vedanta explains the same, and teaches how to realize self as the ultimate (3T? The self is to be seen (3TCTT 3TT? qsqr :). That is the ultimate goal of life according to Indian idealism. In the domain of spiritualism, there is no room for competition, hypocrisy and jealously. There is only brotherhood of man and fatherhood of God.

3. The World of Ideas and Values is more important than the world of Matter:
Idealism has full faith in eternal values which never change. They can neither be created nor destroyed. According to Plato, the outstanding eternal values are Truth, Goodness and Beauty. They are exactly similar to the attributes of God as expressed by the sages and seers of ancient Indian in the words. Man cannot create these values.

He can only discover them if he tries. According to idealism, “Everything which we truly judged to be good or beautiful is so because it partakes of the nature of Absolute Goodness or Beauty. It is Absolute Beauty which makes all beautiful things, beautiful. ” Shankaracharya even objects to the reality of the physical world. To Kant and Schpenhauer the objective world does not exist apart from the subjective thought. Matter may be a projection of mind, or even a creation of mind.

4. Real knowledge is perceived in mind:
The knowledge which is gained through the activity of mind is more important than the knowledge, acquired through senses.

5. Stress on the Principle of Unity of Diversity:
Idealists stress on the Principle of Unity in Diversity. They believe that implicit in all the diversities is an essential unity. Prof. H. N. Home says, “An idealistic philosophy of education, then, is an account of man finding himself as an integral part of universe mind.”
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b) Reasons of Uplift of Science in the history of Muslim World.(10)

Islam originated and has developed in an Arab culture, other cultures which have adopted Islam have tended to be influenced by Arab customs. Thus Arab Muslim societies and other Muslims have cultural affinities, though every society has preserved its distinguishing characteristics. Islamic culture inherited an Arab culture born in the desert, simple but by no means simplistic. It has an oral tradition based on the transmission of culture through poetry and narrative. However, it has been the written record that has had the greatest impact on civilization. Islam civilization is based on the value of education, which both the Qur'an and the Prophet stressed.

The Sciences

From the second half of the eighth century to the end of the eleventh century, Islamic scientific developments were the basis of knowledge in the world. At a period of history when the scientific and philosophical heritage of the ancient world was about to be lost, Islamic scholars stepped in to preserve that heritage from destruction. Indeed, without the cultivation of science in these early centuries by Islamic scholars, it is probable that texts which later exercised a formative influence over Western culture would never have survived intact.

It is certain, moreover, that the modern world would look much different than it does today. For the culture and civilization that were founded on Islam not only preserved the heritage of the ancient world but codified, systematized, explained, criticized, modified, and, finally, built on past contributions in the process of making distinctive contributions of their own. The Wonders and Curiosities of Creation

The story of Islam's role in the preservation and transmission of ancient science, to say nothing of its own lasting contributions, is truly fascinating—and a bit of a puzzle. Why is it that so many ancient Greek texts survive only in Arabic translations? How did the Arabs, who had no direct contact with the science and learning of the Greeks, come to be the inheritors of the classical tradition.

The answers to these questions are to be found in a unique conjunction of historical forces. From the first, it appears, the Umayyad dynasty located in Damascus evinced an interest in things Greek, for they employed educated Greek-speaking civil servants extensively. Early friezes on mosques from the period show a familiarity with the astrological lore of late antiquity.

Trade and Commerce as a Cultural Vehicle

Because Arabs historically had a tradition of trade and commerce, the Muslims continued that tradition. It was due to their superiority in navigation, shipbuilding, astronomy, and scientific measuring devices that Arab and Muslim commerce and trade developed and reached so many peoples throughout the world. The Arabs were at the crossroads of the ancient trade routes from the Mediterranean, the Arabian Gulf, East Africa, and the Indian subcontinent, all the way to China.

he word "Arabesque" entered into the Western lexicon as a description of the intricate design that characterized Arab Muslim art. But the great mosques that were first built throughout the Islamic world were not only places of worship but places of learning which remained as great examples of architecture and design. Through them civilization was transmitted in an artistic environment that was at once intellectually inspiring and emotionally uplifting. The Haram Mosque of Mecca, the Mosque of Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem, the numerous mosques in Cairo—AlAzhar, Amr, Sultan Hassan, Baybars the Great Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, the Quairawan in Tunisia, the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, the Cordoba Mosque in Spain and the Kutubiyah in Marakesh are among the most noteworthy. In addition to distinctive Islamic Fundamentalism.
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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8627 Foundation of Science Education Assignment 2

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Fri, 31 Jul 2020 13:22:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8627 Foundation of Science Education Assignment 2

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q.1 Discuss Pre-Operational stage in Piaget’s theory of intellectual development. (20)

The Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

The formal operational stage is the fourth and final stage of Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. It begins at approximately age 12 and lasts into adulthood. At this point in development, thinking becomes much more sophisticated and advanced. Kids can think about abstract and theoretical concepts and use logic to come up with creative solutions to problems. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

Piaget's Research

Piaget tested formal operational thought in a few different ways. Two of the better-known tests explored physical conceptualization and the abstraction of thought.

Conceptualizing Balance

One task involved having children of different ages balance a scale by hooking weights on each end. To balance the scale, the children needed to understand that both the heaviness of the weights and distance from the center played a role.

Younger children around the ages of 3 and 5 were unable to complete the task because they did not understand the concept of balance. Seven-year-olds knew that they could adjust the scale by placing weights on each end, but failed to understand that where they put the weights was also important. By age 10, the kids considered location as well as weight but had to arrive at the correct answer using trial-and-error.

It wasn't until around age 13 that children could use logic to form a hypothesis about where to place the weights to balance the scale and then complete the task.

Abstraction of Ideas

In another experiment on formal operational thought, Piaget asked children to imagine where they would want to place a third eye if they had one. Younger children said that they would put the imagined third eye in the middle of their forehead. Older children, however, were able to come up with a variety of creative ideas about where to place this hypothetical eye and various ways the eye could be used.

For example, an eye in the middle of one's hand would be useful for looking around corners. An eye at the back of one's head could be helpful for seeing what is happening in the background.

Creative ideas represent the use of abstract and hypothetical thinking, both important indicators of formal operational thought.

Deductive Logic

Piaget believed that deductive reasoning becomes necessary during the formal operational stage. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to determine a particular outcome. Science and mathematics often require this type of thinking about hypothetical situations and concepts.

Abstract Thought

While children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational stage. Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term planning.

Problem-Solving

In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. During the formal operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive development are often able to plan quickly an organized approach to solving a problem.

Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning

Piaget believed that what he referred to as "hypothetical-deductive reasoning" was essential at this stage of intellectual development. At this point, teens become capable of thinking about abstract and hypothetical ideas. They often ponder "what-if" type situations and questions and can think about multiple solutions or possible outcomes.While kids in the previous stage (concrete operations) are very particular in their thoughts, kids in the formal operational stage become increasingly abstract in their thinking.As children gain greater awareness and understanding of their own thought processes, they develop what is known as metacognition, or the ability to think about their thoughts as well as the ideas of others.

Current Observations

The following observations were made about the formal operational stage of cognitive development:

From Neil J. Salkind, Ph.D., author of An Introduction to Theories of Human Development: "The formal operational thinker has the ability to consider many different solutions to a problem before acting. This greatly increases efficiency, because the individual can avoid potentially unsuccessful attempts at solving a problem. The formal operational person considers past experiences, present demands, and future consequences in attempting to maximize the success of his or her adaptation to the world."
From Christine Brain and Priscilla Mukherji, authors of Understanding Child Psychology: "In the formal operational stage, actual (concrete) objects are no longer required and mental operations can be undertaken 'in the head' using abstract terms. For example, children at this stage can answer questions such as: 'if you can imagine something made up of two quantities, and the whole thing remains the same when one quantity is increased, what happens to the second quantity?' This type of reasoning can be done without thinking about actual objects."

Q.2 Discuss the role of “Intellectualism” in teaching of science. (20)

Teaching Intellectualism: The “development of intelligence” is often deemed to be the essential goal related to the identification and services provided to gifted students. The value of intellectualism often is perceived to be an outcome of the development and practice of one’s intellect. Of importance is the question: Does being intelligent mean that one automatically also is an intellectual? Of importance is the relationship between the concepts of intelligence and intellectualism and the means by which intellectualism is nurtured in conjunction with intelligence.

The concept of intellectualism is the ability to recognize and utilize one’s intelligence; it is the ability to practice and appreciate one’s intellect (abilities, intelligence). The concern confronting educators is the need to facilitate the gifted students’ interest in, satisfaction for, and seeking of opportunities to use intelligence with the understanding of its ramifications leading to “becoming an intellectual.” Intellectualism can be manifested in many and varied ways: intellectual curiosity, intellectual leadership, intellectual energy, etc. A major effort underscoring the development of students’ intelligence is to simultaneously develop their perspectives on the purpose of appreciating and becoming an intellectual. To this end, the following lesson is attached so that educators can initiate the lesson: Intellectualism. Note that the lesson and the materials used to present the lesson follow. The lesson has been taught to students, third to eighth grade.

Please teach the lesson to your students. Take pictures of any charts created. Please feel free to email us your thoughts, reflections, and work samples. We are interested to see all of the many ways that you are developing intellectual thinkers in your classroom.

Lesson Title: Intellectualism
Objective: Students will be able to define and apply the concept of an “intellectual” to fiction and non-fiction excerpts of biographies and autobiographies. They will share their findings in a debate.

Syntax: Present the Puzzlement

Activity:
Present the four different scenarios to the students.
Scenario #1: The student was perplexed over the problem. She decided to research the problem to develop a solution to the problem.
Scenario #2: The student was thinking about the problem and said that he would spend time thinking about the solution even though he wanted to practice chess.
Scenario #3: The student examined the problem and thought about how to prove with evidence his ideas about solving the problem.
Scenario #4: The student wanted to solve the problem with the information she learned about her favorite topic of study – insects.

Teacher Notes – The puzzlement can be presented in one of three ways:
(a) present students with all four scenarios,
(b) present students with a few of the scenarios, or
(c) combine the scenarios into one large student description.

A combined scenario — “A student really wanted to learn about her favorite topic of study — the environment and the issue of trash in the ocean. The student examined the problem and thought about how to best learn about her topic. The student decided to research the problem to develop a solution. The student spent lots of time thinking and researching the problem even though all of her friends were outside playing soccer.”

Ask the students in the class what questions they have about thinking and learning from the four scenarios that relate to the concept of being a student.
Write the questions on a chart.

Solicit Questions: Our Questions

Syntax:
Activity:
Teacher Notes – Create a chart or a place to document students’ questions about thinking and learning based on the scenario. Chart all questions as the students ask them. It is essential that the questions are compiled and saved, as they will be used throughout the lesson as students work to answer them.

Research:
Instruct students to work in groups to respond to the total set or individual questions within the set.
Provide excerpts from biographies and/or autobiographies as research materials to answer the questions the students generated about thinking and learning from the scenarios presented to them.

Teacher Notes – Introduce students to the characteristics of an Intellectual An intellectual is a person who thinks in a logical way. An intellectual is involved in serious study and thought. An intellectual enjoys thinking about problems and their solutions. An intellectual reflects on their learning.
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Q.3 Critically evaluate the application of science in improving the quality of life in Pakistani context. (20)

Science has improved our lives in many dimensions. From healthcare to food and from transportation to entertainment our lives are literally lightened up by the advents of science. I would be listing few of them down.

Electrification of our Lives:

Anyone can attest that electricity has changed our lives forever. We are now able to live on very difficult, otherwise unlivable places due to this. Our daily lives are not imaginable without the use of this great science wonder. improving crop production: with the advancement of crop sciences, soil sciences and genetics we are now harvesting several times more then our great-grandparents used to cultivate.

Enhancing Meat Sources: Before the innovation of broiler chicken breeds eating meat was considered as a luxury among the even middle-class folks. Now we can fulfill our protein needs thanks to science.

Better Communication: My father got the news of his father’s death after 3 days. And now we can see live events even from space and beyond. Certainly, science got the credit for enabling my grandmother to talk to me live from her home.

Miraculous Healthcare: Previously humankind was plagued by a plethora of diseases. One could have died from tetanus or could get crippled with polio. Thanks to science we know viruses and bacterial diseases better and able to cure many of them. Our life expectancy is greatly improved globally as so did the survival of newborns.

Improvement in Transportation: Advances in science enabled us to improve our mode of transportation from horseback to steam engines to oil revolution to now battery powered commute. Progress in this typical area permit the happening of globalization and rest is just the history.

Did I forget to mention Computer? Computers have changed our lives just as much as electricity. And without computer sciences modern post-2000 world is unfathomable.

The meeting was not intended to define an official North American position; rather, participants were invited in their capacity as professional scientists, to present their personal perspectives on the changing role of science in society and governance in an open forum. From this frank and penetrating exchange, a number of general observations and conclusions emerged that are relevant to the concept and agenda of the World Science Conference. These are accompanied by suggestions for action recommended by some or several participants.

Science in Transition

In the past, our scientific methods and institutions have tended to emphasize the study of individual natural processes rather than systems, analysis more than synthesis, and understanding nature more than predicting its behaviour. And in many instancesscienchas focussed on short-term, small-scale problems, often in monodisciplinary mode, rather than on long-term, large-scale or integrated problems. While these approaches and perspectives have built up a considerable base of knowledge and led to a vast portfolio of useful technologies, especially in the 20th century, many of the problems now facing humankind can be solved only if we approach science more holistically. Greater effort is needed to understand integrated natural systems on multiple time and space scales.
Scientific findings must also be applied at the right scales. The impact of technological interventions on individual people, communities and the environment must also be carefully considered. To do this, science needs to become more multidisciplinary and its practitioners should continue to promote cooperation and integration between the social and natural sciences. A holistic approach also demands that science draw on the contributions of the humanities (such as history and philosophy), local knowledge systems, aboriginal wisdom, and the wide variety of cultural values.
The influence of science on people’s lives is growing. While recent benefits to humanity are unparalleled in the history of the human species, in some instances the impact has been harmful or the long-term effects give causes for serious concerns. A considerable measure of public mistrust of science and fear of technology exists today. In part, this stems from the belief by some individuals and communities that they will be the ones to suffer the benefit only a privileged minority. The power of science to bring about change places a duty on scientists to proceed with great caution both in what they do and what they say. Scientists should reflect on the social consequences of the technological applications or dissemination of partial information of their work and explain to the
Scientific findings must also be applied at the right scales. The impact of technological interventions on individual people, communities and the environment must also be carefully considered. To do this, science needs to become more multidisciplinary and its practitioners should continue to promote cooperation and integration between the social and natural sciences. A holistic approach also demands that science draw on the contributions of the humanities (such as history and philosophy), local knowledge systems, aboriginal wisdom, and the wide variety of cultural values.
The current trend toward privatization in many countries is influencing the focus and practice of science. While in some instances the net result may be to increase research capacity and knowledge in selected areas, there is major concern that the trend may be undermining public-sector science, especially fundamental research and efforts to solve socially important problems of no interest to commercial enterprises. Patent protection of private intellectual property, for example, makes the job of public research more difficult. There is also concern over the social implications of private ownership and control of technology, and its effect on broad public scientific literacy, and on options for public choice.
Another major trend shaping science is globalization. The end of the Cold War, growing technology demand from emerging economies, world recognition of the interconnectedness of the planet’s biophysical systems and improved communications, especially via the Internet -- all these forces are boosting cross-border scientific cooperation and information exchange between individual researchers, institutions and governments. However, much of the expansion is occurring in just a handful of scientifically advanced countries. For science to be truly global, more effort is needed to ensure all countries, rich and poor, and a wide range of world cultures are included in collaborative research and technology transfer. This is especially important in areas like global climate change which will affect, sooner or later, all human beings. With the right policies in place, joint scientific work in critical areas such as the Arctic, for example, could serve as a model for other types of global cooperation.
A major challenge for global science is to find institutional arrangements conducive to success. The proliferation of international networks and programs, the so-called "acronym jungle", reflects a rather ad hoc approach, necessitated in part by the narrowness of purposes of established scientific institutions and the lack of strategic, integrated support by national governments in areas like global change or international aid. What is needed is the formation of true international partnerships that allow scientists in different disciplines and countries to fully support each other’s aims and share resources and management duties to mutual advantage.

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Q.4 “Teaching of Science can help to improve the environment in Pakistan.” Discuss. (20)

1. Teaching of Science can help to improve the environment

Replacing thermal power fuel
Pakistan produces about 81 percent of its electricity through oil and gas which costs us about 9.4 billion dollars. To put it in other terms, that is about 53 percent of our total exports and is the biggest cost on our import bill. Now given that our reliance on thermal power is so large, we simply cannot dismantle it and magically move to hydro power, however we can change the fuel used to gain thermal power. Instead of using oil and gas, both of which are getting more expensive and have volatile international prices, we can move to using coal.

But not the Thar coal, I will explain why later, but imported coal. If we were to import clean coal and use that as a fuel instead of oil and gas, it would cost us less as the price of coal is more stable than that of oil and gas in the international market. This can bring some sort of price stability in our electricity prices that keep changing due to changes in international market . Moving past the myth of Thar coal

Yes, there is coal in Thar, but assuming that it can be used immediately or it will solve all our energy problems is a myth propagated by a few people and political parties for their personal gains. Experts agree that Thar coal is highly unstable – making it difficult to transport it from one location to another – and even its gasification is not risk-free.

On location gasification also requires heavy investment, which has practical difficulties due to the unstable nature of the coal deposits. So instead of wasting time and effort on this, we should focus on importing coal to replace the ever increasing oil and gas bill.

3. Improved energy mix
Energy mix refers to the sources of energy we utilize in Pakistan to fulfil our overall energy needs. I need to give credit to the PML-N on this one as they are the first ones to talk of the holistic energy mix and not just the CNG or the electricity crisis.

The fact is that all our energy is interdependent.I have previously advocated that we need to move off CNG as we simply do not have enough of it to supply to all the commercial, industrial and home users. Its about time that any future energy strategy Pakistan is supposed to have comes with a proper energy mix to solve our issues.

We need more hydel plants and renewable energy projects. In the next five years, the aim should be at getting five percent of our total power supply from renewable sources and to also use the nuclear power we are so proud of, to provide electricity. Right now, we are at about three percent power generation from nuclear sources, which have to go up to at least percent. Hence an overall improved energy mix is what can solve our issues in the long run.

4. Stand alone power projects

This is a suggestion that I gave at the conference and I am advocating it now again. About 40 percent of Pakistan is off the national grid; that means they effectively get to no electricity.

The way our grid operates, it is already suffering from heavy line losses and other technical issues, which makes it extremely hard and costly to get 40 percent of the Pakistan on to the national grid. However there are solutions to this.

We can finance independent stand alone power projects that can function in areas where there is no national grid, this way the local communities and businessmen can set up their own energy solutions without taking prior permission from the National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA) like they have to now. This will enable them to set up small scale solar panels and plants in their communities and sell electricity locally. Small wind farms can also be used in areas which are close to wind corridors.

The bottom line is, let the people who are living in areas that don’t come under the national grid, do whatever they can to supply themselves with electricity without any government involvement.

5. Dismantle the national grid
The national grid needs to be dismantled and provincialised, because under the 18th amendment, the profits of power generation go to the province that is producing the power, meaning if electricity is being produced at Tarbela, royalties of that are being paid to KP Government by all other provinces. However, they sell it to the national grid and then the national grid sells it down to the District Electrical Supply Companies who further sell the power to the consumers. This way, if there is a shortfall, national grid chooses the electricity supply patterns and hence decides which areas suffer outages the most.

If we dismantle the national grid and change the electricity supply to an open market, where provincial grids can buy energy directly from the source, it would improve the power supply and be more financially beneficial for the power producing province. This way, the provinces with the most issues with electricity supply can simply outbid the others to get enough for their local demand. This would not be privatization but ‘provincialization’, and will encourage provincial governments to start doing more for their people instead of relying on the federal government.

This can eventually lead to provinces working harder to upgrade their grids and reduce their line losses as their people would know exactly who to blame if the power goes out. I think it is time we started thinking on these lines given that the 18th amendment has already been passed and provincial autonomy is our future.
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Q.5 Discuss the problems in science teaching with special reference to Pakistan. (20)

Introduction

It is mandated in the Constitution of Pakistan to provide free and compulsory education to all children between the ages of 5-16 years and enhance adult literacy. With the 18th constitutional amendment the concurrent list which comprised of 47 subjects was abolished and these subjects, including education, were transferred to federating units as a move towards provincial autonomy.

The year 2015 is important in the context that it marks the deadline for the participants of Dakar declaration (Education For All [EFA] commitment) including Pakistan. Education related statistics coupled with Pakistan’s progress regarding education targets set in Vision 2030 and Pakistan’s lagging behind in achieving EFA targets and its Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) for education call for an analysis of the education system of Pakistan and to look into the issues and problems it is facing so that workable solutions could be recommended.

What is Education System?

The system of education includes all institutions that are involved in delivering formal education (public and private, for-profit and nonprofit, onsite or virtual instruction) and their faculties, students, physical infrastructure, resources and rules. In a broader definition the system also includes the institutions that are directly involved in financing, managing, operating or regulating such institutions (like government ministries and regulatory bodies, central testing organizations, textbook boards and accreditation boards). The rules and regulations that guide the individual and institutional interactions within the set up are also part of the education system.

Education system of Pakistan:

The education system of Pakistan is comprised of 260,903 institutions and is facilitating 41,018,384 students with the help of 1,535,461 teachers. The system includes 180,846 public institutions and 80,057 private institutions. Hence 31% educational institutes are run by private sector while 69% are public institutes.

Education system of Pakistan:

Analysis of education system in Pakistan

Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in the country by education policies at domestic level and getting involved into international commitments on education. In this regard national education policies are the visions which suggest strategies to increase literacy rate, capacity building, and enhance facilities in the schools and educational institutes. MDGs and EFA programmes are global commitments of Pakistan for the promotion of literacy.

A review of the education system of Pakistan suggests that there has been little change in Pakistan’s schools since 2010, when the 18th Amendment enshrined education as a fundamental human right in the constitution. Problems of access, quality, infrastructure and inequality of opportunity, remain endemic.

Issues

A) MDGs and Pakistan

Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging behind in achieving its MDGs of education. The MDGs have laid down two goals for education sector:

Goal 2: The goal 2 of MDGs is to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) and by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. By the year 2014 the enrolment statistics show an increase in the enrolment of students of the age of 3-16 year while dropout rate decreased. But the need for increasing enrolment of students remains high to achieve MDGs target. Punjab is leading province wise in net primary enrolment rate with 62% enrolment. The enrolment rate in Sindh province is 52%, in Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KPK) 54% and primary enrolment rate in Balochistan is 45%.

Goal 3: The goal 3 of MDGs is Promoting Gender Equality and Women Empowerment. It is aimed at eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 and in all levels of education not later than 2015. There is a stark disparity between male and female literacy rates. The national literacy rate of male was 71% while that of female was 48% in 2012-13. Provinces reported the same gender disparity. Punjab literacy rate in male was 71% and for females it was 54%. In Sindh literacy rate in male was 72% and female 47%, in KPK male 70% and females 35%, while in Balochistan male 62% and female 23%.

B) Education for All (EFA) Commitment

The EFA goals focus on early childhood care and education including pre-schooling, universal primary education and secondary education to youth, adult literacy with gender parity and quality of education as crosscutting thematic and programme priorities.

Problems: The issues lead to the comprehension of the problems which are faced in the development of education system and promotion of literacy. The study outlines seven major problems such as:

1) Lack of Proper Planning:

Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals. However it seems that it will not be able to achieve these international commitments because of financial management issues and constraints to achieve the MDGs and EFA goals.

2) Social constraints:

It is important to realize that the problems which hinder the provision of education are not just due to issues of management by government but some of them are deeply rooted in the social and cultural orientation of the people. Overcoming the latter is difficult and would require a change in attitude of the people, until then universal primary education is difficult to achieve.

3) Gender gap:

Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include poverty, cultural constraints, illiteracy of parents and parental concerns about safety and mobility of their daughters. Society’s emphasis on girl’s modesty, protection and early marriages may limit family’s willingness to send them to school. Enrolment of rural girls is 45% lower than that of urban girls; while for boys the difference is 10% only, showing that gender gap is an important factor.

4) Cost of education:

The economic cost is higher in private schools, but these are located in richer settlements only. The paradox is that private schools are better but not everywhere and government schools ensure equitable access but do not provide quality education.

5) War on Terror:
Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also affected the promotion of literacy campaign. The militants targeted schools and students; several educational institutions were blown up, teachers and students were killed in Balochistan, KPK and FATA. This may have to contribute not as much as other factors, but this remains important factor.

6) Funds for Education:
Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national level, 89% education expenditure comprises of current expenses such as teachers’ salaries, while only 11% comprises of development expenditure which is not sufficient to raise quality of education.

7) Technical Education:
Sufficient attention has not been paid to the technical and vocational education in Pakistan. The number of technical and vocational training institutes is not sufficient and many are deprived of infrastructure, teachers and tools for training. The population of a state is one of the main elements of its national power. It can become an asset once it is skilled. Unskilled population means more jobless people in the country, which affects the national development negatively. Therefore, technical education needs priority handling by the government.

Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack of access, poor quality, equity, and governance have also contributed in less enrolments.

Solutions

There is a need for implementation of national education policy and vision 2030 education goals. An analysis of education policy suggests that at the policy level there are several admirable ideas, but practically there are some shortcomings also.

It may not be possible for the government at the moment to implement uniform education system in the country, but a uniform curriculum can be introduced in educational institutes of the country. This will provide equal opportunity to the students of rural areas to compete with students of urban areas in the job market.

Since majority of Pakistani population resides in rural areas and the access to education is a major problem for them, it seems feasible that a balanced approach for formal and informal education be adopted. Government as well as non-government sector should work together to promote education in rural areas.

The government should take measures to get school buildings vacated which are occupied by feudal lords of Sindh, Balochistan and Punjab. Efforts should be made to ensure that proper education is provided in those schools.

The federal government is paying attention to the vocational and technical training, but it is important to make the already existing vocational and technical training centres more efficient so that skilled youth could be produced.

EFA Review Report October 2014 outlines that despite repeated policy commitments, primary education in Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving its target of universal primary education. Currently the primary gross enrolment rate stands at 85.9% while Pakistan requires increasing it up to 100% by 2015-16 to fulfil EFA goals. Of the estimated total primary school going 21.4 million children of ages 5-9 years, 68.5% are enrolled in schools, of which 8.2 million or 56% are boys and 6.5 million or 44% are girls. Economic Survey of Pakistan confirms that during the year 2013-14 literacy remained much higher in urban areas than in rural areas and higher among males.

C) Vision 2030

Vision 2030 of Planning Commission of Pakistan looks for an academic environment which promotes the thinking mind. The goal under Vision 2030 is one curriculum and one national.
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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8626 Teacher Education in Pakistan Assignment 2

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Mon, 1 Jun 2020 12:42:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8626 Teacher Education in Pakistan Assignment 2

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q 1. a) Explain the purposes and significance of teaching practice in teacher education curriculum.

Ans: Teaching practice is an important component of becoming a teacher. It grants student teachers experience in the actual teaching and learning environment (Ngidi & Sibaya, 2003:18; Marais & Meier, 2004:220; Perry, 2004:2). During teaching practice, a student teacher is given the opportunity to try the art of teaching before actually getting into the real world of the teaching profession (Kasanda, 1995). Student teachers also know the value of teaching practice and as remarked by Menter (1989:461), they perceive it as 'the crux of their preparation for the teaching profession' since it provides for the 'real interface' between studenthood and membership of the profession. As a result, teaching practice creates a mixture of anticipation, anxiety, excitement and apprehension in the student teachers as they commence their teaching practice (Manion, Keith, Morrison & Cohen, 2003; Perry, 2004:4).

Marais & Meier (2004:221) assert that the term teaching practice represents the range of experiences to which student teachers are exposed when they work in classrooms and schools. Marais and Meier (2004:221) further argue that teaching practice is a challenging but important part of teacher training, especially in developing countries such as South Africa, where the effectiveness of the teaching practice can be diminished or eroded by a range of challenges, such as geographical distance, low and uneven levels of teacher expertise, a wide-ranging lack of resources as well as a lack of discipline among a wide cross-section of learners and educators. These challenges, if not addressed, may affect student teachers' performance during teaching practice and may in the long run affect their perception of the teaching profession (Quick & Sieborger, 2005).

Menter (1989:460) notes that there has been a shift in the literature from the concept of teaching practice (associated with an apprenticeship model) to the concept of field/school experience (associated with an experiential model). Lave & Wenger (1991) point out that however way it may be envisaged, the notion of teaching practice is entrenched in experience-based learning initiated by Dewey (1938), Vygotsky's (1978) social cognitive theory, and founded in the premise of situated learning. Consequently as suggested by the South African Norms & Standards for Educators (Republic of South Africa, 2000:12), teaching practice is meant to provide for the authentic context within which student teachers are exposed to experience the complexities and richness of the reality of being a teacher. This process allows the student teacher an opportunity to establish whether the right career choice has been made or not. However, despite its importance, Killen & Steyn (2001) note that teaching practice sometimes becomes a demoralising and sometimes very frightening experience.

Several studies have been conducted on student teacher's experience and anxieties during teaching practice (Ngidi & Sibaya, 2003; Marais & Meier, 2004)to mention but two. However a review of the literature indicates that there are limited studies that have been conducted regarding ways in which students' experiences during teaching practice influence their perception of and attitudes towards the teaching profession.

The study examined the experiences of Vaal University of Technology (VUT) Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) student teachers during their teaching practice in the Vaal Triangle. The study was prompted by a class discussion where students were requested to give reasons for choosing the teaching profession. The majority of the students in that class indicated that they were doing the course by default. The students saw it as a stopgap while they waited for better career opportunities in other fields. Most of the students were from other countries and had been offered government bursaries to enrol for the PGCE programme. These students enrolled because they had no alternative, since they were not able to get jobs after their undergraduate qualification and because there was funding available for them to do the PGCE course. The majority of student teachers indicated that they had no intention of teaching after the course. During the year, some students maintained the same attitude while others felt that teaching was "not such a bad thing after all". All students had continued with the course until the time they had had to go for teaching practice.

While curriculum specialists, administrators and outside educational companies spend countless hours developing curriculum, it is the teachers who know best what the curriculum should look like. After all, they work directly with the students meant to benefit from the curriculum. In order to create a strong curriculum, teachers must play an integral role in every step of the process.

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Q 1. b) How teaching practice is different from internship? Develop guideline to optimize the benefits of teaching practice.

Ans: Understanding the difference between a practicum and an internship can better prepare students for the curriculum demands of their degree programs. Essentially, educational practicums and internships are supervised on-site work experiences that allow students to practice and demonstrate their developing skills and competencies in their chosen career. While these experiences bear some similarities in design, their purpose and scope are quite different.

The Practicum Experience

Practicums are field experiences that allow a student to observe and document how working professionals perform their job responsibilities. Students will also participate to a limited extent in performing tasks under supervision by program professors and on-site staff. Concurrently, students enroll in a course which outlines the expectations and requirements of the practicum.

The expectations associated with a practicum vary according to the career. For example, a practicum in teaching may require assisting the teacher with implementing small group instruction, whereas a practicum in nursing may entail recording vital signs for one or two patients under supervision. General characteristics of practicums include:

Shadowing one or more assigned employees who will guide the on-site experience.
Observing and correlating practices in the field with theories and methods previously studied.
Recording data or assisting with tasks as directed by on-site personnel.
Completing practicum course assignments.

Participation at the practicum site is typically two or three times per week for a few hours per session. No remuneration is expected for a practicum, but it does qualify for academic credit.

The Internship Experience

As compared to practicums, internships take on the characteristics of a real job focusing on independent application of skills and knowledge in the workplace setting. Students are placed with on-site professionals who manage their workload and oversee their performance much as an administrator in an actual employment setting would. Additionally, program instructors visit the student two to three times during the internship to evaluate their progress and performance.

A major difference between a practicum and a internship involves the degree of expected involvement of the student with hands-on work. The expansion of task expectations can be demonstrated using the previous examples from the education and medical fields. Compared to a practicum student, student teaching interns would not only assist with lesson planning but collaborate with their supervising teachers to create and instruct wholegroup lessons independently. In a similar fashion, nursing interns would go beyond mere charting of vital signs. They would be expected to understand and independently perform evaluation procedures on multiple patients, then accurately record their results and consult with their nursing supervisor about them.

Internships are usually considered to be full-time experiences, following the work schedule of the assigned placement. They also receive academic credit, and in some cases, may provide a stipend for services rendered.

As an avenue for preparing graduates for careers, academic practicum and internship experiences are valuable tools for learning. They not only afford students opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge and practice their skills in real world settings but prepare students for the realities of the workplace. By understanding the differences between a practicum and an internship, students have the advantage of being better prepared to navigate the curriculum of the degree programs they are pursuing.

Guideline to optimize the benefits of teaching practice:

Through the decisions they make, excellent teachers translate the DAP framework into high quality experiences for children. Such teaching is described in NAEYC’s position statement on Developmentally Appropriate Practice, pages 16-23: "Guidelines for Developmentally Appropriate Practice." These guidelines address five key aspects of the teacher's role:

Creating a caring community of learners
Teaching to enhance development and learning
Planning curriculum to achieve important goals
Assessing children's development and learning
Establishing reciprocal relationships with families

Let’s think of these guidelines as five points on a star—a “mariner’s star” to guide our journey to help children learn best. Each point of the star is a vital part of good practice in early care and education. None can be left out or shortchanged without seriously weakening the whole.

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Q 2. Elaborate the problems in integration of computer assisted instruction in teachers training. Develop a plan for the integration of computers in teachers training.

Ans: Computer-assisted instruction" (CAI) refers to instruction or remediation presented on a computer. Many educational computer programs are available online and from computer stores and textbook companies. They enhance teacher instruction in several ways. Computer programs are interactive and can illustrate a concept through attractive animation, sound, and demonstration. They allow students to progress at their own pace and work individually or problem solve in a group. Computers provide immediate feedback, letting students know whether their answer is correct. If the answer is not correct, the program shows students how to correctly answer the question. Computers offer a different type of activity and a change of pace from teacher-led or group instruction.

Computer-assisted instruction improves instruction for students with disabilities because students receive immediate feedback and do not continue to practice the wrong skills. Computers capture the students' attention because the programs are interactive and engage the students' spirit of competitiveness to increase their scores. Also, computer assisted instruction moves at the students' pace and usually does not move ahead until they have mastered the skill. Programs provide differentiated lessons to challenge students who are at risk, average, or gifted.* The most striking innovation in the field of educational technology is the use of computers in the instructional process. Computer Assisted Instruction is a natural outgrowth of the application of the principles of Programmed Instruction. The main objective of CAI is to provide the needed flexibility for individualizing the educational process. It meets the need of a specific learner in a way in which it almost impossible to do so in a face-to-face student teacher relationship. A computer is such a device which can cater to the needs of the individual learners by storing a large amount of information. It can process the information suiting to the needs of the individual learner. It can cater to great variety of educational needs that range widely with respect to educational levels, subject matter, and style of instruction and level of learning from drill and practice to problem solving. Use of computer to assist in the presentation of instructional materials to a student, to monitor learning progress, or to select additional instructional materials in accordance with the needs of individual learners.

Modes of CAI

Drill and Practice: This mode is designed to teach basic facts. The student is asked to type in answers to questions and the computer tells him about the correctness of his response. The pupil is presented with more questions until the material is committed to memory. Control of learning rests with the computer since it initiates and controls the students’ activity. Although dill and practice programmes might help students memorize facts and information they can go beyond this and ask questions which involve the use of procedural knowledge to supply answers and provide reinforcement and feedback.

Tutorial: Tutorial is used to teach basic concepts or methods. The tutorial type utilizes written explanations, descriptions, questions, problems and graphic illustrations for teaching concepts much like a tutor. Tutorial mode is very useful when students show varying levels of conceptual understanding and it can provide for individual tutoring needs that may be difficult to satisfy through traditional instructional arrangements. The computer specifies the tasks and on submission of answers by the students, the computer checks and provides feedback. Control of the learning situation rests with the computer.

Simulation: Simulation deals with the representation of an event, system or equipment. This is an excellent mode which enables students to investigate and experiment with system and processes which are complex, dangerous and expensive. It has the unique ability to compress time and produce expensive, delicate or dangerous systems and equipment Simulation allows students to investigate the optimum conditions for carrying out a particular process and gain an appreciation of the situation and constrains.

Modeling: Computer programs can be used to build complex mathematical models and explore them quantitatively, rapidly and in great detail. It is also easy to compare alternative models and investigate their relative behavior with respect to any parameters.

Educational Gaming: It can be programmed where the student is placed in a competitive position with either another student or the computer itself. These are best suited to teach rules, procedures, etc.

How is CAI implemented?

Teachers should review the computer program or the online activity or game to understand the context of the lessons and determine which ones fit the needs of their students and how they may enhance instruction.

Can this program supplement the lesson, give basic skills practice, or be used as an educational reward for students?
Is the material presented so that students will remain interested yet not lose valuable instruction time trying to figure out how to operate the program? Does the program waste time with too much animation?
Is the program at the correct level for the class or the individual student?

Teachers should also review all Web sites and links immediately before directing students to them. Web addresses and links frequently change and become inactive. Students might become frustrated when links are no longer available. Reading programs are beneficial to reading instruction because they allow students to learn at their own pace; teach phonics with sound, student interaction, and immediate feedback; and allow students to read animated books. Some programs read stories that students write on the computer. Students may be scheduled for instructional or remedial time with the computer. The computer program may also be a station in a classroom learning center or used as a reward for positive behavior or work completion.

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Q 3. Describe the concept of Micro-teaching. How it helps to improve the competences of teachers, provide example.

Ans: Micro-teaching is a teacher training and faculty development technique whereby the teacher reviews a recording of a teaching session, in order to get constructive feedback from peers and/or students about what has worked and what improvements can be made to their teaching technique. Micro-teaching was invented in the mid-1960s at Stanford University by Dwight W. Allen, and has subsequently been used to develop educators in all forms of education.

In the original process, a teacher was asked to prepare a short lesson (usually 20 minutes) for a small group of learners who may not be have been their own students. This was then recorded on video. After the lesson, the teacher, teaching colleagues, a master teacher and the students together viewed the videotape and commented on what they saw happening, referencing the teacher's learning objectives. Seeing the video and getting comments from colleagues and students provided teachers with an often intense "under the microscope" view of their teaching.

A review of the evidence for micro-teaching, undertaken by John Hattie as part of his Visible Learning project, found it was an effective method for improving student outcomes.

Objectives of Microteaching

To enable teacher trainees to learn and assimilate new teaching skills under controlled conditions.
To enable teacher trainees to master a number of teaching skills.
To enable teacher trainees to gain confidence in teaching.

Characteristic of Microteaching

Microteaching is a highly individualized training device
Microteaching is an experiment in the field of teacher education which has been incorporated in the practice teaching schedule
It is a student teaching skill training technique and not a teaching technique or method
Microteaching is micro in the sense that it scale down the complexities of real teaching
Practicing one skill at a time
Reducing the class size to 5 – 10 pupil
Reducing the duration of lesson to 5 – 10 minutes
Limiting the content to a single concept
immediate feedback helps in improving, fixing and motivating learning
The student are providing immediate feedback in terms of peer group feedback, tape recorded/CCTV
Microteaching advocates the choice and practice of one skill at a time

Steps of Micro-teaching: The Micro-teaching programme involves the following steps:

Step I Particular skill to be practiced is explained to the teacher trainees in terms of the purpose and components of the skill with suitable examples.

Step II The teacher trainer gives the demonstration of the skill in Micro-teaching in simulated conditions to the teacher trainees.

Step III The teacher trainee plans a short lesson plan on the basis of the demonstrated skill for his/her practice.

Step IV The teacher trainee teaches the lesson to a small group of pupils. His lesson is supervised by the supervisor and peers.

Step V On the basis of the observation of a lesson, the supervisor gives feedback to the teacher trainee. The supervisor reinforces the instances of effective use of the skill and draws attention of the teacher trainee to the points where he could not do well.

Step VI In the light of the feed-back given by the supervisor, the teacher trainee replans the lesson plan in order to use the skill in more effective manner in the second trial.

Step VII The revised lesson is taught to another comparable group of pupils.

Step VIII The supervisor observes the re-teach lesson and gives re-feed back to the teacher trainee with convincing arguments and reasons.

Step IX The ‘teach – re-teach’ cycle may be repeated several times till adequate mastery level is achieved.

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Q 4. Highlight the difference in the teacher education curriculum of United Kingdom and Pakistan.

Ans: In Pakistan, education is a federal as well as provincial function. There is a Ministry of Education at Islamabad, which formulates the policies and plans at national level. It involves the provinces in the formulation of national education policies and plans. The provinces develop their own plans and execute according to their situations and available resources in the light of national education policies. Since the introduction of devolution plan in education sector in 2002, most affairs of the school education are dealt with the Executive District Officers (Education). For example, policy implementation, and supervision and monitoring of schools, recruitment and transfers of teachers are the main functions of the district governments. EDO (Education) is supported by district education officers (DEOs) and deputy district education officers (Dy. DEOs) and other staff. The other key roles and responsibilities like policy formulation, teacher training, and budget allocation to district governments to a large extent are still with the provincial governments. At provincial levels, the administrative head of the Education Department is ‘Secretary’ or in certain cases there are two secretaries: one for schools, designated as ‘Special Secretary (Schools) and the other ‘Special Secretary (Higher Education)’. They are supported by a number of additional and deputy secretaries and other staff. In the UK, on the other hand, education is the responsibility of each country. In each country, there is a separate institution which deals with all the affairs of education, though the role and functions differ more or less. For example, in England, there is a Department for Education and Skills (DfES); in Wales, Welsh Office; in Scotland, Scottish Executive Education Department (SEED); and in Northern Ireland, the Department of Education. There are some other bodies in each state like Training and Development.

Agency (TDA) in England; there is no such agency in Scotland, rather General Teaching Council (GTC) undertakes all such functions. Each country is responsible for framing its own policies and plans.

Curriculum:

Nature, Formulation and Responsible Authority In Pakistan, school curricula for grades 1-12 is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, Curriculum Wing, Islamabad. In each province there is a Curriculum Bureau or Curriculum Research and Development Centre (CRDC) which provides academic support to the Ministry of Education, Islamabad. Curriculum formulation is a lengthy process, as the ministry has to take expert opinions from all regions of the country. The curriculum draft is finalized by the National Curriculum Review Committee, Islamabad. Thus uniform curriculum of each subject is followed all over the country; although textbooks in different subjects may vary across the provincial text book boards (PTB). The higher education curriculum in Pakistan is the function of the respective departments of the universities or colleges. The title of courses and broader framework are usually discussed in the faculty, and then each teacher plans in his/her own way to impart instructions in the classrooms.

United Kingdom’s System of Education

In Britain compulsory schooling takes place between the ages of five and sixteen. The over riding objectives of the government’s education policies are to raise standards at all levels of ability, increase parental choice, make further and higher education more widely accessible and more responsive to the needs of the economy, and to achieve the best possible returns from the resources invested in the education service. (Britain 1990) [7] Parents are legally bound to ensure that their children aged five to sixteen regularly receive efficient full time education. Most students receive free education financed from public funds, and a small proportion attends private schools independent of public financial support. Pupils follow a common curriculum leading to the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) and Vocational Certificate of Secondary Education (VCSE). Students are allowed to select a number of GCSEs, VCSEs as per their personal preferences and aptitudes. Quite a few schools cater for the educational needs of the students for additional two years till they sit for the Advanced Level of General Certificate of Education. (GCE A Levels)

Primary and Secondary Schools

Ninety percent of boys and girls are taught together in most primary schools. Most independent/private fee-charging schools are mixed at the primary level and single-gender at the secondary level. These schools are registered with, and inspected by the government and governed by an independent board. No fees are charged in government schools, which are governed by the Local Education Authorities (LEA). There is no statutory requirement to provide education for the under-fives, but nursery education is well established now. Compulsory education begins at five at infant schools and at seven they go to junior/primary schools. The average age of passing out from primary school and entry into secondary school is eleven years. Schools are organized in a number of ways including secondary schools with age range, from 11 to 18; middle schools whose students move on to senior comprehensive schools at the age of 12 to 16. Tertiary colleges offer a full range of vocational and academic courses for students over 16.

Examinations

At the completion of the secondary education at UK, at the age of sixteen, secondary school students appear for the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). This examination in order to raise the standard of performance has replaced General Certificate of Education (GCE), Ordinary Level (O Level), and the Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) since 1988. GCSE examination is taken after five years of Secondary Education and evaluated at a seven point scale of grades, A to G. The GCSE Advanced level (A Level) examination is taken after two years of further study. Its successful completion qualifies the student for induction into universities.

Educational Standards

Her Majesty’s inspectors report to ministers on the quality of education provided at all schools colleges and universities. They also advise the Local Education Authorities (LEA) and the government, and publish the reports.

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Q 5. Discuss the importance of establishment of partnership between the teachers training institutions of Pakistan.

Ans: Society has developed itself into a complex system of organisations and interactions, therefore the demands on schools and schooling has become greater. The need for professional teachers grew with it. With the recognition of teaching as a profession it has been acknowledged that all teachers require specialised training, in order to develop the knowledge and competencies necessary to take on teaching. However, educating teachers in specialized institutes was not the whole answer in the demand for qualified teachers. At the end of the 1980s the growing dissatisfaction with ‘teaching practice’ culminated in a UNESCO report. (Down, 1995). Teacher preparation was regarded as insufficient, due to a lack of linkages between for instance subject matter and teaching processes, and preparation for diverse class/school situations. Furthermore, the lack of training of cooperating teachers and the lack of credibility of college or university supervisors was seen as a real problem. (Down, 1995). As a result of this, pre-service teacher education practically all over Europe, the USA and Australia went through vigorous changes. One model which tried to address these concerns was one which encouraged a strong partnership between universities, colleges and schools. (Down, 1995). Since then, in different countries in and outside Europe, several models of partnerships and types of cooperation between schools and institutes for teacher education emerged, under the general heading of school-based teacher education. (e.g. Furlong, 1996, Bulloch, 1997 and Snoek, 2001).

What is school-based teacher education?

Teaching is a very complex profession and formative in nature, one grows within the profession and hence through daily experiences. Becoming a teacher is not only a matter of getting access to a certain body of knowledge and acquiring adequate skills. Becoming a teacher is transformational in nature. It is, first and foremost, about developing one’s own personal and professional identity. Such an identity can be obtained and enriched by taking part in school practices and in the daily life of teachers. The metaphor used by Sfard to indicate this type of learning is participation, one which encourages the acquisition of knowledge, skills and the development of values, attitudes and beliefs within a school environment and not solely within the confines of teacher education institutions (Sfard, 1998). School-based teacher education is based on these assumptions. Partnerships between school and teacher education institutes nowadays are about the possibilities for student-teachers to really participate in school practice and at the same time to acquire the knowledge, skills and values necessary to become qualified teachers. Leading principle in designing the curricula are the problems and questions teachers have to deal within the practice of their daily life at school. School-based teacher education in our view is only possible when schools and teacher education institutes work intensively together and recognize the strengths and possibilities each of them can offer to student-teachers learning. As a consequence of this, teachers who teach teachers (teacher educators) can be found in schools as well as in the institutes for teacher education. The question how to link theory to practice however is still an issue within school-based teacher education. Collaboration between schools and institutes in order to improve school development and teacher education is a prerequisite to that objective. This form of collaboration is known as collaborative school-based teacher education and it elaborates on the ideas of the professional development schools (PDS). In Professional Development Schools teacher education is embedded in the overall school development (ten Dam, 2006).

The educational climate within the Faculty of Education has witnessed, especially over the last ten years, “a shift from individualism to social relationships” (Bezzina & Camilleri, 1998). The B.Ed. (Hons.) programme is based on the following main features: “participation, consultation, support, collaboration, reflection, motivation, openness and empowerment”. Various initiatives have been undertaken (e.g. Tomorrow’s Teachers Project, 1997) which have helped both the individuals members within the Faculty but also the Faculty’s own identity and character to grow. Our discourse, together with that of our students has taught us over the years that we need to seriously address the dichotomy between what is learnt at University and the realities in schools. Our discourse, together with a growing literature in the field of Professional Development Schools (Darling-Hammond, 1994; Metcalf-Turner & Fischetti, 1996) have highlighted the benefits that can be gained through school-centred initial teacher training. Therefore the main purpose of the Faculty of Education Professional Development School Partnership will be simultaneous renewal of the teacher education programme at the university and teaching and learning in schools. The setting up of Faculty-School Partnerships offers us the possibility of exploring different ways of learning as a result of which there will be greater relevance to the teaching-learning context (Teitel, 1998; Zeichner and Miller, 1997). PDSs create opportunities, which allow us, st annual atee Association of Teacher Education in Europe conference 749 as teacher educators, to take on different roles. It is within such a context that we expect beginning teacher educators to feel at their best. They have just left the classrooms and are therefore ideally positioned to establish the necessary philosophical and pedagogical underpinnings necessary for any professional discourse to take place. Experience has shown us the need to work together with teachers in schools. On the one hand we need teachers at the school site who, through their diverse qualities, will be good models to prospective teachers. In this respect teachers can serve as mentors or co-operating teachers, both fulfilling different but complimentary roles. On the other hand, the university lecturer has the opportunity of getting closer to the school and establishing the ground for educational discourse to take place between the student-teachers and lecturers alike.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8626 Teacher Education in Pakistan Assignment 1

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8626 Teacher Education in Pakistan Assignment 1

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BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q 1. Compare the aims and objectives of teacher education as given by Aggerwal and given in the National Education Policy 2009.

Ans: The National Education Policy (NEP) 2009 (“the Policy”) is the latest in a series of education policies dating back to the very inception of the country in 1947. The review process for the National Education Policy 1998-2010 was initiated in 2005 and the first public document, the White Paper, was finalised in March 2007. The White Paper, as designed, became the basis for development of the Policy document. Though four years have elapsed between beginning and finalisation of the exercise, the, lag is due to a number of factors including the process of consultations adopted and significant political changes that took place in the country.

Two main reasons prompted the Ministry of Education (MoE) to launch the review in 2005 well before the time horizon of the existing Policy (1998 - 2010)1 : firstly, the Policy did not produce the desired educational results and performance remained deficient in several key aspects including access, quality and equity of educational opportunities and, secondly, Pakistan’s new international commitments to Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Dakar Framework of Action for Education for All (EFA). Also the challenges triggered by globalisation and nation’s quest for becoming a knowledge society in the wake of compelling domestic pressures like devolution and demographic transformations have necessitated a renewed commitment to proliferate quality education for all.

This document is organized into nine chapters. Chapter 1 describes overarching challenges, identifying two fundamental causes that lie behind the deficiencies in performance (the commitment gap and the implementation gap), and outlines the way forward. Chapters 2 and 3 articulate the ways of filling the Commitment Gap (system values, priorities and resources) and Implementation Gap (Ensuring good governance) respectively. Chapter 4 puts forward he provisions of Islamic Education and transformation of the society on Islamic human values. Chapters 5 to 8 outline reforms and policy actions to be taken at the sub-sector levels. Chapter 9 broadly suggests a Framework for Implementation of the Action Plan of this Policy document. Annex- I describes the current state of the education sector. Available indicators have been assessed against data in comparable countries.

Most of the issues recognised in this document were also discussed in previous policy documents. A new policy document on its own will not ameliorate the condition but all segments of society will have to contribute in this endeavour. However, the document does recognise two deficits of previous documents i.e. governance reform and an implementation roadmap, which if redressed, can improve the performance of the present Policy.

The policy discusses issues of inter-tier responsibilities wherein the respective roles and functions of the federal-provincial-district governments continue to be unclear. Confusion has been compounded, especially, at the provincial-district levels after the ‘Devolution Plan’ mainly because the latter was not supported by a clear articulation of strategies. The other issue identified for governance reforms is the fragmentation of ministries, institutions etc. for management of various sub-sectors of education and, at times, within each sub-sector. Problems of management and planning have also been discussed and recommendations prepared.

This document includes a chapter that describes the implementation framework. The framework recognises the centrality of the federating units in implementation of education policy measures. The role of the Federal Ministry of Education will be that of a coordinator and facilitator so as to ensure sectoral and geographic uniformity in achievement of educational goals nationally.

Encouraging private investment in education. There shall be regulatory bodies at the national and provincial levels to regulate activities and smooth functioning of privately managed schools and institutions of higher education through proper rules and regulations. A reasonable tax rebate shall be granted on the expenditure incurred on the setting-up of educational facilities by the private sector. Matching grants shall be provided for establishing educational institutions by the private sector in the rural areas or poor urban areas through Education Foundations. Existing institutions of higher learning shall be allowed to negotiate for financial assistance with donor agencies in collaboration with the Ministry of Education. Educational institutions to be set up in the private sector shall be provided (a) plots in residential schemes on reserve prices, and (b) rebate on income tax, like industry. Schools running on non-profit basis shall be exempted from all taxes. Curricula of private institutions must conform to the principles laid down in the Federal Supervision of curricula, Textbooks and Maintenance of Standards of Education Act, 1976. The fee structure of the privately managed educational institutions shall be developed in consultation with the government.

Innovative Programes

The National Education Testing Service will be established to design and administer standardized tests for admission to professional institutions. Qualifying these tests will become a compulsory requirement for entry to professional education. This mechanism is expected to check the incidence of malpractice in examinations. Likewise, standardized tests shall be introduced for admission to general education in universities.

Implementation Monitoring And Evaluation

A comprehensive monitoring and evaluation system has been envisaged from grass-roots to the highest level. The District Education Authority will be established in each district to ensure public participation in monitoring and implementation. The education Ministers at the Federal and Provincial levels will oversee monitoring committees, responsible for implementation at their levels. The Prime Minister and Provincial Chief Ministers will be the Chief of National and Provincial Education Councils respectively which will ensure achievements of targets. Existing EMIS at Federal and Provincial levels shall be strengthened to make them responsive to the need of Monitoring and Evaluation System (MES).The Academy of Educational Planning and Management (AEPAM) shall be strengthened and tuned up to meet the emerging demands of MES and its obligations at national and provincial levels. Data collected through Provincial EMISs and collated by AEPAM through National Education Management Information System (NEMIS) shall be recognized as one source for planning, management, monitoring, and evaluation purposes to avoid disparities and confusion. Databases of critical indicators on qualitative aspects of educational growth shall be developed and maintained by AEPAM for developing sustainable indicators of progress, based on more reliable and valid data to facilitate planning, implementation and follow-up. A School Census Day shall be fixed for collecting data from all over the country.

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Q 2. a) Highlight the responsibilities of a teacher provide reference from Islamic Sources?

Ans: A right can be interpreted as an authority or power that ethically one can work, own, abandon, use or demand something. The right can also mean a calling of the will of others to the mediator of reason, contrary to the power or physical strength to recognize the authority that exists on the other. Every human has a right, so the teacher has some rights too. The teacher is the one who gives knowledge to the learners. Teachers in the community view are those who carry out education in certain places (not only in formal educational institutions) teachers have heavy duties and responsibilities. The teacher is a leader figure.

“And among men and moving creatures and the cattle (are) various [their] colors likewise. Only fear Allah among His slaves those who have knowledge. Indeed, Allah (is) All-Mighty, Oft-Forgiving.” (Fatir 35:28)

Teachers have spent time with learners in educating the nation’s children so that teachers have some rights like below.

1. Lead his pupil

The duty of a teacher is to make her pupils become smarter and have a good akhlaq. In this case, the teacher should lead his pupils to obtain the objectives that they are looking for.
“From Ibnu Umar ra said: The Messenger of Allah said: each of you is a shepherd and each responsible for the shepherd: the leader is a shepherd, the husband is a shepherd to his family members, and his wife is a shepherd in the middle of her husband’s household and against her. Every one of you is a shepherd, and each is responsible for what is the shepherd. “(H.R. Bukhari – Muslim)

2. Salary/wage

Regarding the receipt of this salary at first, there was a dispute. Regarding this salary, the pikers and philosophers differ in the opinion of the teacher receiving the salary or rejecting it. The most famous refused to receive a salary is Socrates, then followed by the Muslim philosophy of al-Ghazali, concluding forbidden salaries. While Al-Qabisi has different opinions, he considers receiving the salary may be held. Al-qabisi’s reason, teachers receive salaries because educators have become professions, of course, they are entitled to get prosperity in economic life, in the form of salary or honorarium.

Teachers are part of the state apparatus that serves for the benefit of the State through the education sector, appointed civil servants, given salaries and educational personnel allowances. But if compared with developed countries, the income is not satisfactory but the task is noble, not an obstacle for teachers in educating students. For teachers whose status is non-civil servants then they are on the salary of the foundation, not even a few they do not get it but they still serve in order to seek Allah SWT pleasure.

“Give a worker his wages before his sweat is dry.” (HR Ibnu Majah)

3. Getting the award and appreciation

The teacher is the spiritual father of the students. He is the one who provides spiritual nourishment and improves the behavior of learners. That is the profession of teachers must be honored, given its very significant role in preparing future generations. Respecting teachers means respect for our children. The nation who wants to advance is a nation that is able to give awards and respect to the teachers.

4. Give his pupil a lesson

It is the duty of the teacher to give his pupil a lesson. This lesson will make his pupils more knowledgeable and smarter. There should not be an intervention for the teacher to give the lesson.

“As We sent among you a Messenger from you (who) recites to you Our verses and purifies you and teaches you the Book and the wisdom and teaches you what not you were knowing.” (Al-Baqarah 2:151)

5. Give his pupil a direction

Pupils are like people that don’t know a direction and still not knowing anything. As a teacher, he should give his pupils a direction and make them have a clear path in the future.“You will not achieve that science except with six things. I will explain to you broadly: intelligently, earnestly, patiently, there is provision, there is a guiding teacher and a long time. ” (Burhanuddin al-Zarnuji)

6. Have freedom of expression

The teacher should have freedom of expression because how a teacher can transfer his knowledge to his pupils without freedom. Obstacles and intervention should be cleared. “I am the servant of the man who taught me a letter. If he wants to sell me and can also set me free. “ (Sayyidina Ali r.a.)

7. Judge which is the right and the wrong one

There are some cases that make the teacher should choose between two options. As the pupils, they need to accept the judgment of the teacher.

“Indeed, Allah orders you to render the trusts to their owners, and when you judge between the people to judge with justice. Indeed, Allah excellently advises you with it. Indeed, Allah is All-Hearing, All-Seeing.” (An-Nisa 4:58)

8. Get respect from people

The words of Allah and the words of the Apostle describe the high position of the one who has knowledge (teacher). It is argued that the knowledge can lead people to always think and analyze the nature of all phenomena that exist in nature, so as to bring people closer to Allah. With the ability that exists in humans are born theories for the benefit of human beings. So, we need to respect the teacher who is willing to give us the knowledge. “Stand up and respect the teacher and reward him, a teacher is almost as an Apostle.” (Syauki)

9. Accept or reject gift

Teachers should avoid livelihoods that are contemptible in the view of syara ‘and away from situations that can bring slander and do not do something that can drop the price in the eyes of the people. They also need to choose carefully between accept or reject a gift from the parents or pupils to avoid slander.

“O you who believe[d]! Eat from (the) good (of) what We have provided you and be grateful to Allah if you alone worship Him.” (Al-Baqarah 2:172)

10. Advise his pupil

The teacher should advise and correct those who do not maintain good manners in class, such as insulting friends, laughing loudly, sleeping, talking to friends or not accepting the truth. By doing this, the teacher can create a good behavior and akhlaq to his pupils.

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Q 2. b) Highlight the teaching methods and techniques recommended by Muslim scholars. Discuss the usability of these methods in the current teaching learning environment?

Ans: The very first teachers were commissioned by the Prophet, and like him they taught for free. Next to him they were the architects of an educated society whose leaders were truly its teachers. Members of this society, the teachers and the taught, were collectively and individually responsible for upholding its moral standards and correcting lapses: `bidding to honour, forbidding dishonour.' The number of kuttabs (learned) and mu'allams (teachers) in the Muslim world increased rapidly and on a large scale until almost every village had its own kuttab if not more than one. In Palermo, for example, Ibn Hawqal on his visit to Sicily claimed to have counted about 300 elementary teachers. A contemporary of Caliph Umar's, Jubayr b. Hayya, who was later an official and governor, was a teacher in a school in Taif. Famous men like al-Hadjadd and the poet's al-Kumayt and al-Tirimmah are said to have been schoolmasters.

In the search for knowledge, al-Faruqi insists, `everybody felt himself to be a conscript.' In early times it was thought wrong to take pay for teaching, especially the Qur'an and religion. This was carried to extremes; a man fell into a well and would not let a pupil pull him out, lest this should be considered payment for his teaching. A scholar bought some things at a shop, more than he could comfortably carry, so the shop-keeper offered to carry some for him. On the way the shop-keeper asked a question. Before he would answer it, the scholar took from him what he was carrying. The voluntary help would have become payment. A youth studied the traditions without paying any fee, but when he asked to read al-Mutanabbi with the commentary of Abu Zakariya, his teacher demanded a fee because it was poetry; the boy's father paid five dinars in advance. A man took a mithqal of silver a day for teaching someone the Qur'an; the instruction lasted for five or six months but at the end the money was returned to the student because the payment had been only a test of his zeal.

How were these scholars able to devote so much to the performance of such intellectual feats? According to Pedersen, it was largely because most of them lived a life of 'great contentment.' Learning, the life of the intellect, was 'intimately bound up with religion, and to devote oneself to both afforded an inner satisfaction and was [a] service to God [...] it not only made men of letters willing to accept deprivation; even more, it prompted others to lend them aid.' The Mosques received a wide variety of aid and grants for scholars from a number of institutions. `No matter what their social origins, the subsistence of the scholars was assured, often in ‘liberal measures'.'

Caliph Umar (12-23 A.H./634-644CE) is famed for his saying: `Teach your boys swimming, archery, horsemanship, famous proverbs; and good of poetry.' Another public curriculum is ascribed to Ibn al-Tawam who is recorded to have said: `To do their duty towards their sons, fathers must educate them with writing, arithmetic and swimming.' When those who had learnt the Qur'an took up the task of educating children, the Qur'an became the centre of this elementary course. Learning the Qur'an then preceded everything, and next came religious instruction. With grammar and arithmetic, the primary course was concluded.

Ibn al-Hajj (d. 736H/1336CE) has much to say about the school in general as here summed up by Tritton:

‘The schools should be the bazar or a busy street, not in a secluded place. The emphasis on publicity is strong; the master must not send an elder boy to his house with a message lest rumour should start about the relations of the boy with the women-folk. The Mosque is no place for a school for some people send little boys to school to get them out of the way and such children defile their clothes and the place where the Qur'an is taught. The school is a place for teaching, not an eating house, so the boys should not bring food or money to buy it, but should go home for meals. A check should be kept on the time taken for the trip to prevent idleness. One reason for this ruling is respect for the feelings of poor boys who might be jealous of the food brought by the well-to-do. If food had to be brought, the master might not share it with the boys nor send any of it to his house. He might take their leavings or, if a boy ate none of his food, he might have it all but, in either case, he must tell the parents.'

From the early times, renowned scholars taught in schools. Thus Dahak ibn Muzahim, the exegist, traditionist and grammarian, who died in either 105H/723CE) or 106H/724 CE, had a school in Kufa, said to have been attended by 3,000 children, where he used to ride up and down among his pupils on an ass. As language was of the utmost importance, we find a Bedouin being appointed and paid as a teacher of the youth in Basra [26]. Writers of that period were not class based, but came from all walks of life. For example, al-Ahmar (d. 194H/810CE), who taught the children of Harun al-Rashid, gave his lectures drenched in musk and incense and supplied his audience with all necessary writing materials. His contemporary, al-Farra, however, was modestly dressed and sat on the floor, while his audience squatted in the dust in front of him. Normally the author would sit cross-legged with his listeners seated in a circle. Next to him would be his most trusted student who would faithfully transcribe all that his teacher said.

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Q 3. a) Highlight the impact of recent changes in the teacher education system of Pakistan on teacher’s competencies.

Ans: The rapid changes and increased complexity of today’s world present new challenges and put new demands on our education system. There has been generally a growing awareness of the necessity to change and improve the preparation of students for productive functioning in the continually changing and highly demanding environment. In confronting this challenge it is necessary to consider the complexity of the education system itself and the multitude of problems that must be addressed. Clearly, no simple, single uniform approach can be applied with the expectation that significant improvements of the system will occur.

Indeed, any strategy for change must contend with the diverse factors affecting the education system, the interactions of its parts, and the intricate interdependencies within it and with its environment.

As we consider these problems, we become increasingly cognizant of the various possibilities of using concepts and methods of the study of complex systems for providing direction and strategies to facilitate the introduction of viable and successful changes. A key insight from complex systems is that simple solutions are not likely to be effective in cases such as the education system, and that providing a balance or coexistence of what seem to be opposites may provide the greatest opportunities for successful courses of action. In the following we consider

Integrating the commonly polarized goals of education; i.e. the goal that focuses on transmitting knowledge with the goal that emphasizes the development of the individual student.
Adapting teaching to different student characteristics by using diverse methods of teaching. Adaptation to the ability levels, patterns of different abilities, learning styles, personality characteristics, and cultural backgrounds.
Integrating the curriculum by developing inter-disciplinary curriculum units that enable students to acquire knowledge from different disciplines through a unifying theme while having the opportunity to contribute in different and special ways to the objectives of the integrated units.

Educational Goals

The approaches to teaching can be categorized according to major educational goals that affect teaching strategies. On one hand the goal of education is viewed as the transmission of knowledge by the teachers to the students. On the other hand the goal of education is viewed as facilitating students’ autonomous learning and self expression. The former approach which converges toward the teaching of specified subject matter, may be termed ‘convergent’ teaching and the latter approach which stresses open ended self-directed learning may be termed ‘divergent’ teaching. The convergent approach is highly structured and teacher-centered; the students are passive recipients of knowledge transmitted to them and learning achievements are measured by standardized tests. The divergent approach is flexible, student-centered, where the students are active participants in the learning process and learning achievements are assessed by a variety of evaluation tools such as selfevaluation in parallel to teacher evaluation; documentation portfolios; and special projects (see also Niche Selection (link to be added soon)).

In the highly complex education system there may be various combinations of the different approaches to teaching and probably no ‘pure’ convergent or divergent teaching. Still, the tendency in the education system of today is toward the convergent approach. In fact, among the current suggestions for implementing educational reforms to deal with the considerable problems of the education system, there has been a strong emphasis on setting convergent goals, an aspect of which is the use of across-the-board standardized testing. Testing has been commonly viewed as a prudent way to determine the success or failure of the teaching and learning process. There has been a relatively limited use of other means of evaluation which are more complicated and more demanding in terms of application and interpretation.

As educators seek ways to meet the demands put upon the education system in today’s world of rapid changes and ever increasing complexity, it may be helpful to recognize that there is a need for both convergent and divergent approaches to teaching and learning. Educators who stress the importance of the acquisition of specific knowledge as a useful way to prepare the students for productive future functioning, must come to realize that even for the purpose of this goal alone, a divergent approach is needed today. With the great proliferation of knowledge and rapid changes in most fields as well as the appearance of many new fields, it is critical to develop students’ capacity for self-directed learning and self growth. On the other hand, those who emphasize the importance of autonomous growth and creative self-expression, must realize that the students need academic skills (such as reading, writing, calculating, etc.) as prerequisites for productive self expression. Since the creative process involves new ways of using existing knowledge, it is important to provide opportunities for students to acquire such knowledge (which can be acquired by convergent teaching). Hence, convergent and divergent teaching strategies are both needed and the challenging question is how to find the balance between them within the complexity of the process of teaching and learning. It is likely that the two approaches may increasingly become not mutually exclusive but interrelated and interdependent.

An important development is the growing awareness that academic achievement could improve by adapting teaching to students individual differences. This awareness is finding its most distinct expression in the education system’s attempts to deal with the issues of students with special needs. However, other aspects of adaptation to students’ individual differences get far less attention.

In general, adaptation to individual differences under convergent teaching tends to be limited. The students are all expected to strive toward one goal of learning specified required knowledge; some may attain it and others may fall by the wayside or be given some remediation with limited results. Nevertheless, there are various possibilities of effective adaptation to individual differences under convergent teaching. In addition to adaptation in the rate of learning, where each student can be allowed to work at his/her own pace, there are many possibilities of adaptation through the use of diverse methods of teaching. Even when all the students are taught the same material, teachers can use different methods, different techniques or different media, to cater to individual differences in abilities and personality characteristics. Such a ‘multi-convergent’ approach can be more effective in giving the students opportunities to use their aptitudes and inclinations for learning and attaining higher achievements. As the students experience success and consequently a sense of competence, their motivation is enhanced to pursue further learning. Such an approach has a better potential for success than the common reality of students with learning difficulties, who often struggle through remediation with a sense of inadequacy and discouraging experiences of failure.
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Q 3. b) Discuss the problems of teacher educators also give suggestion to overcome these problems

Ans: Problems of government school teachers in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

1. Financial problems: Due to receiving less financial support, the sector of education has remained the most under paid and poor in performance. This fact has rendered the education sector as the most unattractive profession in the country. Teacher community, being the most finically poor in society, often look for other sources of earning such as going abroad for working and run their own businesses at the cost of their professional integrity (Zafar, 2003). In this regard teachers are less motivated towards and take least interest in their school duties. In many cases teachers get salaries without attending the schools because of their businesses. This has retarded the process of quality teaching and learning in schools (Shahzadi and Perveen, 2002).

2. Political interference: Education system of Pakistan is highly politicized. In the majority of cases teachers are inducted on the basis of their political affiliations rather than on merit, who often serve as political workers instead of performing their professional duties. Similarly due to political involvement in the education sector, often the established procedure of appointment is violated. These politically selected incompetent teachers become a permanent liability on the economy and a reason of the collapse of the educational system (Shah, 2003). Further, their unlawful promotions and politics in the schools impede the educational progress in terms of quality teaching and learning as well as jeopardize the spirit of coordination among the teaching community. It is also important to mention here that often teachers who do not listen to the dictations of the political actors are severely punished in social or financial terms and sometimes transferred to remote areas. This absence of professional freedom of teachers has badly affected the degree of success of their duties. They work with least interest and motivation (Saleem, 2002).

3. Social recognition: According to Rehman (2002) teaching is considered the most respectful professions in all societies of the world. In some countries teaching is taken as the most honorable and lucrative profession. In developed nations teachers are adored and occupy a reverential social position in society. However, in Pakistan teachers, particularly school teachers, in theory are exalted but the reality is the other way round. In Pakistan, teaching profession does not enjoy a great social status in the society. Teaching is considered the most underpaid and less attractive profession. as compared to other professions like medical or engineering and so on. Malik (1991) discovered that in Pakistan the social status of teachers is accepted only at the extent of Holy Scripture. For example, ideologically teaching is deemed as the prophetic profession and teachers as the promoters of prophetic job. However, in practice this does not exist. Teachers stand at the last edge of the social ladder in society. This phenomenon has decreased the self-esteem of teachers. In these conditions the profession of teaching is the most little attractive field of service for the youth. Normally teaching is the last option in the priority list of different professions.

4. Accommodation and facilities: Government does not provide any residential accommodation to school teachers. Teachers posted in remote areas or outstations face problem of accommodation and shelter. Teachers cannot afford to rent houses on the salary which is given to them and hardly make their living. Due to non-availability of official accommodation teachers do long absentees and are not able to perform their duties with full attention and satisfaction (Government of Punjab, 2004; Hussain, 2001). It has been observed that teachers who are posted in remote areas are more interested in return transfer to their near stations from the time of transfer to the school. This practice negatively affects the performance of the teachers and leads to disturbance and mental agonies.

5. Frequent transfers: Teachers in Pakistani schools are always at the sweet will of education officers and school administration. The transfers are usually made on the basis of favoritism and nepotism. Due to this practice most of the teachers remain in high mental agony, disturbance and pressures (Khan, 1980). Often transfers to remote areas are made to teach a lesson to the teachers who are either disobedient or have affiliation with opposing political party. Sometimes the newly transferred teachers do not find enough time to get adjusted to the new environment. The practice of frequent transfer of teachers creates not only disturbances for the teachers, their families and children but also affects the quality of teaching and learning in the schools (Farooq, 1993).

6. Professional development: Teaching is a profession which needs continual updating. In this regard teachers should be aware of the new changes occurring in the society and around the world. Likewise they need to be continuously abreast with latest theories, research and other addition to the pool of knowledge. It has been observed that teachers who are not professionally sound and upgraded are not able to cope with the different changes and challenges in the society, country and the world at large. On the contrary teachers who acquire latest knowledge and develop their skills can effectively manage the process of teaching and learning. They teach and learn better (Farooq, 1990). Effective teachers need to be effective learners as well. However, the professional development of teachers has not been given any proper attention in Pakistan. Resultantly, teachers are found weak in solving students’ academic and social problems. Further, it is observed that students graduating from the (government) schools have poor communication skills and find it difficult to deal with problems of life. As students in Pakistanis schools memorize the concepts for examination purpose, they lack analytical, reflective and critical skills like their teachers. This situation has affected the overall degree of quality of education in the country (British Council, 1988)

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Q 4. a) Describe the nature, scope and the significance of in-service training teacher education.

Ans: Teachers’ professional education is viewed as one of the most important factors in improving students’ learning. Keeping this in view many developed and less developed countries pay significant attention to improve the practices of teacher education. In order to develop capable teachers they make conscious efforts to establish and maintain quality teacher education institutions.

The history of teacher education in Pakistan starts with the establishment of the country. However, this area has been facing various challenges such as lack of consistent policy, inconsistency in curriculum, low resources, lack of quality teachers, low quality of teaching process, lack of standard, etc. Today, a range of public and private institutions are engaged in preparing school teachers. In Pakistan, like many other countries, public institutions are the main source for developing teachers through pre-service and in-service programmes. However, many studies have raised the question on the quality of delivery mechanism of the institutions while forwarding recommendations for improvement.

Historically, different reforms have been brought to improve the condition of teacher education in the country. Currently, teacher education in Pakistan is passing through a transition as an innovation has been initiated by the Government of Pakistan with the support of USAID through their Pre-Service Teachers Education Programme (STEP) project. This reform is attempted in order to improve the quality of teacher education by including different innovations.

In this regard, a new curriculum has been developed for pre-service programmes such as a two-year Associate Degree in Education (ADE) and a four-year BEd (Hons). Effort has been made to design the curriculum keeping in view the modern educational principle along with the contextual relevancy. These programmes are gradually replacing the previous preservice and in-service programmes such as Primary Teacher Certificate (PTC), Certificate in Teaching (CT) and the one-year Ed programme. In addition, an effort is being made for the accreditation and standardisation of teacher training institutions through this initiative.

The ADE and BEd programme has been initiated in some colleges and will be gradually implemented in remaining colleges throughout the country in the coming years. In addition, to attract the best mind towards the teaching profession a stipend is also offered to student-teachers for providing them financial support.

Firstly, the new developed curriculum is based on the modern educational principles. Teachers are provided a course outline with the expectation that they will explore the teaching learning material for classroom instructions. However, it was observed that some of the teachers are struggling with identifying teaching resources due to the unavailability of the reference books and lack of Internet facility in their colleges/institutions. This situation may affect the teaching-learning process of the ADE courses. Hence there is a need to provide the reference books and Internet facility to the faculty members in order to make the teaching-learning process smooth.

Second, Internet is considered as one of the important sources for identifying teaching learning material. However, it was observed that some of the faculty members are not literate in computers and Internet. So they are facing challenges in accessing the teaching faculty members of colleges need to be helped in acquiring workable computer and Internet skills.

Third, the new curriculum demands new teaching strategies such as collaborative, inquiry and activity-based teaching approach. However, a majority of the faculty in the teacher institutions are not oriented with the teaching strategies demanded by the ADE and BEd programme. Therefore, the professional development of the faculty at teacher training institutions should be given priority along with the curriculum development.

Furthermore, there is a sense of uncertainty about the sustainability of the new initiatives after completion of the Pre-STEP project. Many educational initiatives in the past died away with closure of the projects. Therefore there is a dire need to develop a clear road map for the continuity and sustainability of reforms.

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Q 4. b) Enlist the incentives that may motivate the teachers for in-service training.

Ans: This week, Education World's "Principal Files" team chats about what they do to keep good teachers motivated. What special things do they do to inspire teachers to keep learning and improving their skills? What do they do to keep up staff morale and make their schools fun places to work? Our principal team shares their best ideas for encouraging teachers to keep on plugging.

Given the state of school budgets, it is extremely difficult for most principals to do substantial things to motivate and inspire teachers. But sometimes little things can make an even bigger difference! That's why Education World recently asked our Principal Files principals to share with us some of their best ideas for keeping teachers motivated. As usual, our principals responded with dozens of practical ideas.

This month's P-Files question reminded principal Les Potter about Robert Greenleaf, author of Servant Leadership. Greenleaf's idea is that "administrators need to serve the worker," explained Potter. "At our school we try to do that. We work hard at making things less difficult and complicated. We try to cut down the amount of paperwork our faculty must do, limit the number of staff meetings, streamline procedures..."

Administrators at Potter's school try to show teachers every day that they care in many ways. "We have an open-door policy, they see us picking up trash and cleaning cafeteria tables, we arrive on campus before they do and we are here when they leave, and we do not have designated parking or other perks sometimes associated with management," Potter said.

"Administrators always have to put aside their own issues and do what is best for students and staff in a caring and sensitive way. We try not to say no to teachers, and we always treat them as adults."

Principal Tony Pallija agrees. He and the rest of his administrative team try to do lots of special things for the entire staff -- from special little gifts to Cookie Day. "We try to pretend we are at IBM -- we treat everyone as a professional and we celebrate whenever we can," said Pallija. "The material things are nice, but I have a motto that I try to live by each day: My job as principal is to make the teacher's job easier, better, so they can teach and students can learn."

"Developing a positive school climate is critical to an effective school," added Les Potter. "Morale is a very tentative issue. You can do 99 things right and make one mistake that will shoot morale forever."

Recognizing Those Who Go Above And Beyond!

All teachers yearn for reassurance that they are doing a good job. Most principals recognize teachers' efforts by offering positive feedback -- both publicly and privately. Weekly memos or e-mails, and regular staff meetings, are the perfect forums for recognizing special contributions that teachers or other staff members make.

Principal Jeff Castle includes such recognitions in staff memos and during a special celebration portion of each month's faculty meeting. He also makes a special point of spotlighting efforts teachers make to develop projects that involve students across grade levels or with other schools. Castle hopes those special recognitions encourage others to consider projects that extend learning outside the walls of individual classrooms.

"With all teachers have to do, motivation is the key to keeping them focused and feeling worthy," principal Larry Davis told Education World. Davis reports that at each month's staff meeting at his school two teachers are awarded the "Golden Apple" for their above-and beyond efforts. The neat thing about the Golden Apple is that the teachers select its recipients! Each of the winners of this month's Golden Apples are responsible for passing on the award to another worthy teacher at next month's meeting.

Many principals try to leave a little extra money in the budget to recognize outstanding efforts with small personal gifts such as prepaid phone cards or store gift certificates. Recently, one principal gave a phone card to a teacher who stepped in without being asked (because the principal was out of the building) and took over an after-school program for a teacher who was stuck in a dentist's chair having a tooth pulled.

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Q 5. Elaborate the structure of teaching education in Pakistan. Also critically analyze the affects of 18th amendment on teacher education program?

Ans: Primary School Teachers

Teacher training at the post secondary level takes place in Regional Institutes of Teacher Education (RITE), and at the Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad for a one-year program known as the Primary Teaching Certificate. In addition, prospective teachers are also prepared at the private sector institutions affiliated or enlisted with universities of public or private sector.

Secondary School Teachers

Government training institutes of education and different affiliated colleges in private sector train teachers for the secondary school level. They are awarded a Certificate of Teaching (CT) for one year study after passing the examination of Higher Secondary School Certificate.

Teacher Education at Universities

The prospective teachers aspiring to teach at the higher secondary school level study for one year at the Education Colleges for the Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree, after two year bachelor’s of Arts or Science (BA/BSc) education. Teachers possessing B.Ed degree are eligible to teach at the Secondary school level. Masters of Education (M.Ed) is a one year university education after completion of B.Ed.

Policy Priorities for Teacher Education

All the National Education Policies of Pakistan have accorded great importance to teacher education. The 1959 Commission on National Education stressed upon the necessity of adequate pre service teacher education gave recommendations about functions of teachers in a university and about selection and promotion of teachers. The Education Policy 1972-80 estimated the teacher producing capacity of then existing 12 teacher training colleges and 55 teacher education institutions in Pakistan, to be four thousand which was much less than the estimated demand of three hundred thousand additionally required teachers. It recommended the introduction of Education subject at Secondary, Higher Secondary and Degree level and students qualifying these subjects were suggested to be taken as primary, middle and high level teachers. Relaxation of training requirements for women teachers in special cases was recommended in order to increase the number of women teachers. An academy for teachers’ and educational Administrators’ training was recommended to be set up. The outdated nature of the teacher training courses was admitted, and their revision was recommended, along with this preparation of model standard textbooks for teacher trainees were advised.

The National Education Policy 1979 had vividly valued the significant role of teachers in the effective implementation of the education policies. It was asserted that teacher is the pivot of the entire educational system. In order to promote pre-service teacher education, all the Primary Teacher Training Institutions were planned to be upgraded to Colleges of Elementary Education. An Academy of Higher Education was approved to be established to provide in-service and pre-service training to the College and University teachers. Another Academy for Educational Planning and Management was also established to provide opportunities of training to administrators and supervisors working at different levels of the educational system. This National Education Policy envisaged that every teacher would be expected to undergo one in-service course during five-year cycle of his/her service. A system of National Awards for best teachers was planned to be instituted. Every year ten teachers of various levels and categories were planned to receive these awards from the President of Pakistan at national level. Similar awards were planned to be given to selected teachers by the respective provincial governors.

The Sixth five Year Plan (1983-88), earmarked sixty million rupees for the teacher education programs to establish additional primary and secondary teacher training institutes and to enhance the training capacity of the existing primary and secondary teacher training institutions, and departments of Education at the Universities. This plan was unique in the sense that it allocated special funds categorically for the teacher education programs. Prior to this the trend of blanket approval was in practice and the badly needed requisite improvement in the standard of teachers could not be facilitated. The incremental allocation, as given in the following table reflected the increased importance accorded to teacher education.

18th amendment on teacher education program:

The 18th Amendment to the constitution of Pakistan is an important step forward for the parliamentary system in the country. It promises more autonomy to the provinces — a popular demand put forward by a number of political parties.

Apart from the political restructuring it mandates, the amendment also holds some major implications for the country's system of education. Through it a new article, 25A, has been inserted into the constitution that reads: “Right to education: The state shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of five to 16 years in such manner as may be determined by law.” This is an important undertaking by the state since education, in contemporary times, is considered an important tool for enhancing one's chances for socioeconomic development.

In Pakistan, a large number of students do not have access to schools or drop out before they reach the fifth grade. A major reason behind the high dropout rate is poverty, and as a result a large number of children remain illiterate and cannot become part of the literate human resource group which is vital for the development of a country. An effective implementation of this article of the constitution would without doubt pave the way for enriching the national human capital.

Another major implication of the 18th Amendment for education is that the curriculum, syllabus, planning, policy, centres of excellence and standards of education will fall under the purview of the provinces. This is a big step forward for education.The 18th Amendment, passed unanimously by parliament, was the result of a rare consensus between all the major political parties. After becoming a part of the constitution, however, some strong voices of dissent were raised by different quarters, including the Ministry of Education. A campaign has been initiated to spread the idea that the provinces are not ready to take up the massive challenge of dealing with the provision of education. This claim is made on the assumption that the provinces do not have the capacity or the financial resources to cope with the huge challenge in front of them.

It has been argued that the contents of the curricula should remain with the federation since the provinces could take liberties which may result in putting the unity and ideology of the country at risk. Critics have asked how standards would be maintained across the provinces and how quality would be assured. And what if all the provinces introduced regional languages in schools? Would this weaken the federation?

Looking at the above points, one can understand the federation's concern regarding the future of education once it becomes a provincial responsibility. However, this concern seems to emanate primarily from a lack of trust in the capacity and ability of the provinces. It is interesting to note, though, that the provinces are already providing for school and college education and they do have the capacity (in terms of intellectual resources) to handle the job. As far as funds are concerned, the provinces have been funding education from their budgets. The federation would give partial grants to the universities only.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8628 Assessment in Science Education Assignment 2

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8628 Assessment in Science Education Assignment 2

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BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q.1 a) How does evaluation be done in terms of judgment in terms of external criteria? (10)

Evaluation Criteria

The OECD/DAC definition of evaluation has been adopted by Danida and all major development agencies internationally. The definition contains five evaluation criteria that should be used in assessing development interventions: relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability.'

These are general criteria that should be used as a basis for developing evaluative questions through the full range of evaluations topics, i.e. from single intervention through to thematic, and ways of conducting the evaluation, e.g. joint evaluation.

Taken together, these five criteria should provide the decision-maker with the essential information and clues to understand the situation and determine what should be done next.

To the extent that specific evaluations have specific purposes, that there is no one right way to conduct an evaluation and that these criteria are interdependent and not mutually exclusive, their relative meaningfulness for a specific evaluation should be assessed and trade-offs discussed in each case to ensure that key questions are addressed and to avoid unnecessary effort and expense.

In addition, use of the five criteria does not exclude that other criteria might be used as well to better focus the evaluation on specific characteristics of the intervention and its context.

The criteria for the evaluation of humanitarian assistance are a case in point: because of some unique features of humanitarian intervention, the Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action, ALNAP http://www.alnap.org, has introduced three additional evaluation criteria: connectedness, coherence and coverag

Evaluation criteria

Relevance
The extent to which the objectives of a development intervention are consistent with beneficiaries’ requirement, country needs, global priorities and partners’ and donors’ policies.

Efficiency
A measure of how economically resources/inputs (funds, expertise, time, etc.) are converted to results.

Effectiveness
The extent to which the development intervention’s objectives were achieved, or are expected to be achieved, taking into account their relative importance.

Impacts
The positive and negative, primary and secondary long-term effects produced by a development intervention, directly or indirectly, intended or unintended.

Sustainability
The continuation of benefits from a development intervention after major development assistance has been completed. The probability of long-term benefits. The resilience to risk of the net benefit flows over time.

Additional criteria for evaluation of humanitarian action

Connectedness
The need to ensure that activities of a short-term emergency nature are carried out in a context that takes longer-term and interconnected problems into account.

Coherence
The need to assess security, developmental, trade and military policies as well as humanitarian policies, to ensure that there is consistency and, in particular, that all policies take into account humanitarian and human rights considerations.

Coverage
The need to reach major population groups facing life threatening suffering wherever they are.

Relevance

Relevance is a measure of the extent to which development interventions meet population needs and country priorities, and are consistent with donor policies.

For example, in a road project relevance could be assessed in terms of the rationale for constructing the road: was it to serve a political agenda of the few or to exploit real economic potential? In a sector programme to support agriculture, relevance could be assessed in terms of domestic market responses to new crops, farmers’ responses to the various programme initiatives, etc.

A change in society’s policies or priorities could imply that the development interventions are now accorded lower priority, or lose some of their rationale. Once an endemic disease has been eradicated, for instance, it could mean there is no longer any need for a special health programme.

Efficiency
A measure of how economically resources/inputs (funds, expertise, time, etc.) are converted to results.
Efficiency is a measure of the relationship between outputs, i.e. the products or services of an intervention, and inputs, i.e. the resources that it uses.

An output is a measure of effort; it is the immediate observable result of intervention processes over which the managers of the intervention, i.e. the implementers, have some measure of control. An intervention can be thought of as efficient if it uses the least costly resources that are appropriate and available to achieve the desired outputs, i.e. deliverables, in terms of quantity and quality.

The quality of the inputs and the outputs is an important consideration in assessing efficiency: the most economical resource is not necessarily the most appropriate and the trade-offs between the quantity of outputs and their quality are a key factor of overall performance.

Furthermore, assessing the efficiency of an intervention generally requires comparing alternative approaches to achieving the same outputs and this will be easier for some types of intervention that for others.

Effectiveness
The extent to which the development intervention’s objectives were achieved, or are expected to be achieved, taking into account their relative importance.

Effectiveness is a measure of the extent to which the intervention’s intended outcomes, i.e. its specific objectives – intermediate results – have been achieved.

Explicitly, effectiveness is the relationship between the intervention’s outputs, i.e. its products or services – its immediate results – and its outcomes, meaning usually the intended benefits for a particular target group of beneficiaries.

As such, an intervention is considered effective when its outputs produce the desired outcomes; it is efficient when it uses resources appropriately and economically to produce the desired outputs.

For example, a teaching programme is considered effective if students learn, i.e. acquire intended knowledge, skills and abilities; it is considered efficient if it provides instruction, i.e. teaching time and materials, economically and of quality.

Impacts
The positive and negative, primary and secondary long-term effects produced by a development intervention, directly or indirectly, intended or unintended.

Impact is a measure of all significant effects of the development intervention, positive or negative, expected or unforeseen, on its beneficiaries and other affected parties.

Whereas effectiveness focuses on the intended outcomes of an intervention, impact is a measure of the broader consequences of the intervention such as economic, social, political, technical or environmental effects; locally, regionally, or at the national level; on the target group and other directly or indirectly affected parties.

For example an HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment programme targeting vulnerable groups could have broader effects both positive, such as a reduction in the incidence of tuberculosis on other groups, and negative, such as a reduction of funding to malaria prevention. Effects may also be economic in nature, e.g. size of the workforce, political, e.g. state budget allocation, and so on.

b) What are evaluation techniques for evaluation objectives? Describe in detail. (10)

Evaluation techniques Different evaluation techniques have different purposes, work in different contexts, and give you different types of feedback. Some techniques will be more useful for particular questions than others.

Evaluation techniques are often divided into quantitative and qualitative. You are likely to use both when evaluating information projects. The differences between the two are quite complex, but broadly speaking, quantitative evaluation counts numbers and qualitative explores processes, views, and feelings.

However, this rule does not hold up for all types of evaluation. Because of this, we have decided not to use this distinction. Instead, we describe the different evaluation techniques that can be used, and indicate the purposes, strengths and weaknesses they each have.

Getting feedback from users and others
If you want to know what people thought of the information (Did they like it? Did they think it was easy-to-read?) or how they used it, you can ask them in a range of different ways:

Self-completion questionnaires - by post or online (see 'Designing self-completion questionnaires'for guidance).
Face-to-face or telephone interviews.
Group discussions, including focus groups.
Intermediary or user diaries of activities and impressions.

All of these techniques will benefit from input from evaluators.

Some of these techniques - those that involve face-to-face interaction with intermediaries or users - are best undertaken by independent evaluators. If interviews are carried out by the creators of the information, it risks biasing people's responses.

Less interactive techniques like self-completion questionnaires and diaries are less prone to these bias issues, and so can be done without external help. However, you may still need the input of an evaluator to get the most out of them.

There is free software available that you can use to create simple online surveys or questionnaires.
For more complex surveys you will usually have to pay. www.surveymonkey.comLink opens in a new window www.questionpro.com/free-survey-software.htmlLink opens in a new window www.esurveyspro.comLink opens in a new window Understand how things work in practice.

If you want to know how things worked in practice (how it was really used, if users really understood it, etc), or to relate processes to the effectiveness of the information, you can find out by:

informal observation - being around and watching what goes on;
actively observing people doing things - intermediaries and users, users using the information;
going through the information with them and asking them to explain it.

These techniques are extremely valuable because they show how things work in the real world. Good observation is very difficult to do well (probably impossible if you have been involved with the project and therefore have particular expectations), and does need to be carried out by an independent evaluator in order to get the most from it.

A word on outcomes and impact
'Outcomes' or 'impact' are ways of describing the effect the project had. A lot of emphasis is currently put on outcomes, and it is common for people to regard outcomes as the central aim of project evaluation. And not without reason, it is clearly hugely valuable to examine the influence of a project.

There are however two downsides to this current popularity that you should be aware of. The first is that social changes are very hard and usually very costly to measure with any confidence. It might be possible to identify a 'reliable' outcome with a project that has many thousands of users, with control groups who do not get the service, operating over a five-year period, and controlling for other social changes. But this might well cost several million pounds. The second is that other useful evaluation techniques are often dismissed because they do not obviously measure outcomes. This is a mistake.

Outcomes or aims are decided when the project is designed. Your evaluation should focus on these, and try to get as close as you can to assessing how far they were achieved, within the limited budget and time frame you have.
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Q.2 Develop test for assessing different levels off evaluation skills. (20)

The Reading Comprehension section tests your ability to read and comprehend both academic and non-academic texts.
After you read each passage, read the questions that follow it and the four possible answers. Choose the best answer by filling in the space — see sample answer below — that corresponds to the letter of the answer you have chosen.
Sample: Reading Comprehension Questions
Questions 1–4 are about the following announcement.
Student Volunteers Needed!
On Saturday, December 12th, from 10 A.M. until 4 P.M., Carverton Middle School will be holding a music festival in the school gymnasium. The special event will feature a variety of professional musicians and singers.
Task Time Date

Make posters 1 P.M.–4 P.M. December 5th

Set up gym 11 A.M.–4 P.M. December 11th

Help performers 9 A.M.–4 P.M. December 12th

Welcome guests 10 A.M.–2 P.M. December 12th

Clean up gym 4 P.M.–7 P.M. December 12th

Interested students should speak with Ms. Braxton, the music teacher. Students who would like to help at the festival must have written permission from a parent or guardian.

1. What time will the festival begin?
A. 10 A.M.
B. 11 A.M.
C. 1 P.M.
D. 2 P.M.

2. In line 3, the word feature is closest in meaning to_______.
A. look
B. keep
C. include
D. entertain

3. What job will be done the day before the festival begins?
A. Making posters
B. Setting up the gym
C. Cleaning up the gym
D. Helping the performers

4. Who is told to talk to Ms. Braxton?
A. Parents

B. Students
C. Teachers
D. Performers

Questions 5–11 refer to the following story.
1. "Did you see that?" Joe said to his friend Bill.
2. "You're a great shooter!"
3. Bill caught the basketball and bounced it before
4. throwing it again. The ball flew into the net.
5. "Bill, you never miss!" Joe said admiringly.
6. "Unless I'm in a real game," Bill complained.
7. "Then I miss all the time."
8. Joe knew that Bill was right. Bill performed much
9. better when he was having fun with Joe in the school
10. yard than he did when he was playing for the school
11. team in front of a large crowd.
12. "Maybe you just need to practice more," Joe suggested.
13. "But I practice all the time with you!" Bill objected.
14. He shook his head. "I just can't play well when people are
15. watching me."
16. "You play well when I'm watching," Joe pointed out.
17. "That's because I've known you since we were five
18. years old," Bill said with a smile. "I'm just not
19. comfortable playing when other people are around."
20. Joe nodded and understood, but he also had an idea.
21. The next day Joe and Bill met in the school yard again
22. to practice. After a few minutes, Joe excused himself.
23. "Practice without me," Joe said to his friend. "I'll be
24. back in a minute."
25. Joe hurried through the school building, gathering
26. together whomever he could find—two students, a math
27. teacher, two secretaries, and a janitor. When Joe explained
28. why he needed them, everyone was happy to help.

29. Joe reminded the group to stay quiet as they all went
30. nothing to worry about for the next game!"
31. toward the school's basketball court. As Joe had hoped,
32. Bill was still practicing basketball. He made five
33. baskets in a row without noticing the silent people
34. standing behind him.
35. "Hey, Bill!" Joe called out finally.
36. Bill turned. A look of surprise came over his face.
37. "I just wanted to show you that you could play well
38. with people watching you," Joe said. "Now you'll have

5. What would be the best title for the story?
A. Joe Joins the Team
B. Practice Makes Perfect
C. Bill Wins the Big Game
D. Bill's Basketball Problem

6. In line 8, the word performed is closest in meaning to_______.
A. acted
B. played
C. moved
D. changed

7. Why is Bill upset?
A. He plays better in practice than he does during games.
B. The school yard is not a good place to practice.
C. Joe watches him too closely when he plays.
D. His team loses too many games.

8. Why does Bill play well when Joe is watching him?
A. He is comfortable with Joe.
B. Joe tells him how to play better.
C. He does not know that Joe is there.
D. He wants to prove to Joe that he is a good player.

9. Why does Joe decide to gather a group of people?
A. Because he wants more players for his team
B. Because he wants to help Bill feel less nervous
C. Because he wants to show them his talent
D. Because he wants more people to see the next game

10. At the end of the story, all of the following people watch Bill practice EXCEPT _______.
A. Joe
B. a janitor
C. a math teacher
D. the basketball coach

11. Why does the group have to be quiet when they go to the basketball court?
A. Because Joe is telling Bill what to do
B. Because they do not want Bill to know they were there
C. Because Bill likes to practice alone
D. Because the group needs to listen to Joe’s instructions

12. Which title best summarizes the main idea of the passage?
A. Wild Animals in Art
B. Hidden Prehistoric Paintings
C. Exploring Caves Respectfully
D. Determining the Age of French Caves

13. In line 4, the words pays heed to are closest in meaning to _______.
A. discovers
B. watches
C. notices
D. buys

14. Based on the passage, what is probably true about the south of France?
A. It is home to rare animals.
B. It has a large number of caves.
C. It is known for horse-racing events.
D. It has attracted many famous artists.

15. According to the passage, which animals appear most often on the cave walls?
A. Birds
B. Bison
C. Horses
D. Wild cats

16. In line 10, the word depict is closest in meaning to _______.
A. show
B. hunt
C. count
D. draw

17. Why was painting inside the Lascaux complex a difficult task?
A. It was completely dark inside.
B. The caves were full of wild animals.
C. Painting materials were hard to find.
D. Many painting spaces were difficult to reach.

18. In line 14, the word They refers to _______.
A. walls
B. artists
C. animals
D. materials

19. According to the passage, all of the following have caused damage to the paintings EXCEPT _______.
A. temperature changes
B. air movement
C. water
D. light

20. What does the passage say happened at the Lascaux caves in 1963?
A. Visitors were prohibited from entering.
B. A new lighting system was installed.

C. Another part was discovered.
D. A new entrance was created
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Q.3 Describe in detail the nature of practical skills and abilities. (20)

In the world of human resources and corporate education, the acronym KSA stands for Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities. It is most often used to define the requirements of a job opening and compare candidates when making a final selection. If you're looking for a job, a recruiter may be looking at your KSA profile.

KSA Background
Historically, the KSA framework was associated with the U.S. federal government. Its agencies applied the Knowledge, Skills and Abilities model to its recruiting activities for many years, although the practice has lately been phased out in favor of resume-focused recruiting. That doesn't mean it has disappeared, however. If anything, the use of KSA is expanding to include assessments of training and coaching needs in an existing workforce.

Defining Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities:
One of the criticisms of KSA is that it's easy to see those three terms as interchangeable or at the very least overlapping. However, they are distinctly different dimensions of an individual's qualifications.

Knowledge focuses on the understanding of concepts. It is theoretical and not practical. An individual may have an understanding of a topic or tool or some textbook knowledge of it but have no experience applying it. For example, someone might have read hundreds of articles on health and nutrition, many of them in scientific journals, but that doesn't make that person qualified to dispense advice on nutrition.

Skills are the capabilities or proficiencies developed through training or hands-on experience. Skills are the practical application of theoretical knowledge. Someone can take a course on investing in financial futures, and therefore has knowledge of it. But getting experience in trading these instruments adds skills.

Abilities are often confused with skills, yet there is a subtle but important difference. Abilities are the innate traits or talents that a person brings to a task or situation. Many people can learn to negotiate competently by acquiring knowledge about it and practicing the skills it requires. A few are brilliant negotiators because they have the innate ability to persuade.
Strengthening KSA Knowledge and skills are best developed through training activities that incorporate theoretical learning and hands-on application of key concepts and tools. For instance, a person who wants to be a project manager must understand the key concepts of that role such as scope, work breakdown structure, and critical path, but must also gain experience incorporating elements of those concepts into a real project.
Strengthening natural abilities is primarily a coaching challenge. Observation, feedback, and improvement can be applied to nurture abilities.

Drawbacks of KSA
The general criticisms of using a KSA framework for job applications or candidate evaluation tool include:

Long and sometimes redundant job descriptions
Complex and frustrating application processes
Confusion over the differences between the terms, especially skills and abilities Some job applications include a request to describe your KSA, usually in the form of a brief essay. Keep those three terms straight and you'll be halfway

They are all “must-haves” in our career. Recruiters look for knowledge, skills, and abilities during the hiring process. Managers use KSAs when they are considering employees for transfers and promotions. KSAs are used as the company creates and updates their replacement and succession plans.

As we talk more about the skills gap, it will be important to understand the difference because the way we obtain knowledge, skills, and abilities can vary. And if we’re an organization trying to figure out how to solve the skills gap that exists within our workforce, then we have to link the right solutions.

For instance, if the issue is knowledge, then maybe we can create an in-house library that employees can check out books on the topics. But if the challenge is skills, the answer might be training. And if abilities need to be improved, is it possible to developpersonal action plans that give employees the opportunity to refine their abilities.

Thank goodness we have the terminology purists to correct us on the words. There are times when it’s fine to use the terms interchangeably and others when we need to emphasize the exact term. Regardless, they’re all equally important.
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Q.5 a) What is diagnosis assessment? How does diagnosis assessment improve student’s science learning? (10)

Another type of assessment, which is given at the beginning of the course or the beginning of the unit/topic, is known as diagnostic assessment. This assessment is used to collect data on what students already know about the topic. Diagnostic assessments are sets of written questions (multiple choice or short answer) that assess a learner’s current knowledge base or current views on a topic/issue to be studied in the course. The goal is to get a snapshot of where students currently stand – intellectually, emotionally or ideologically – allowing the instructor to make sound instructional choices as to how to teach the new course content and what teaching approach to use. They are often used pre- and post-instruction, where students are given identical pre- and post-tests before and after the course. This method allows instructors and students to chart their learning progress by comparing pre- and post-tests results.

Diagnostic assessment is a form of pre-assessment that allows a teacher to determine students’ individual strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and skills prior to instruction. It is primarily used to diagnose student difficulties and to guide lesson and curriculum planning.

Psychology:

Instructor surveys students’ assumptions about the concepts that will be taught in the course (e.g. the nature of mind or behavior)

A Instructor surveys students prior experiences with group work and their attitudes towards group work, or conducts early term self-assessment

Physics:

Instructor uses a set of conceptual questions to assess students understanding of fundamental concepts at the start of the course

Course with sensitive/controversial topics

Instructor may survey students in order to reveal assumptions that they may bring to controversial questions
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b) Devise strategies for the assessment of student’s performance. (10)

Formative assessment strategies for teachers.

1. Analysis of Student Work

A great deal of information can be learned from students’ homework, tests, and quizzes—especially if the students are required to explain their thinking. When teachers take the time to analyze student work, they gain knowledge about:

A student's current knowledge, attitudes, and skills about subject matter
Strengths, weaknesses, and learning styles '
Need for further, or special, assistance

2. Strategic Questioning Strategies

Questioning strategies may be used with individuals, small groups, or the entire class. Effective formative assessment strategies involve asking students to answer well-thought-out, higher-order questions such as “why” and “how.” Higher-order questions require more in-depth thinking from the students, and help the teacher discern the level and extent of the students’ understanding.

Another strategic questioning strategy used in formative assessment is to give the students a "wait time" to respond. Studies have found that most students become more engaged in classroom dialogue when higher-order questions are combined with a wait period.

3. Think-Pair-Share

This is one of the many formative assessment strategies that is simple for teachers to use. The instructor asks a question, and students write down their answers. Students are then placed in pairs to discuss their responses.

Teachers are able to move around the classroom and listen to various discussions, gaining insight into an individual’s levels of understanding. After a time, the students discuss their responses with the entire class.

4. Exit/Admit Tickets

A simple but effective formative assessment is the Exit Ticket. Exit Tickets are small pieces of paper, or index cards, that students deposit as they leave the classroom. Students are required to write down an accurate interpretation of the main idea behind the lesson taught that day, and then provide more detail about the topic.

Teachers review the responses, and gain insight as to which students have fully learned the concept, and those that are still struggling. The information obtained can be used to plan a whole-group or partial-group lesson to re-teach the concept.

Admit Tickets are done at the very beginning of the class. Students may respond to questions about homework, or on the lesson taught the day before.

5. One-Minute Papers

One-minute papers are usually done at the end of the day. Students in groups (or individually) are asked to answer a brief question in writing. The papers are collected and analyzed by the instructor to gain awareness of the students’ understanding. One-minute papers have been found to be more effective when done on a frequent basis. Typical questions posed by teachers center around:

Main point
Most surprising concept
Questions not answered
Most confusing area of topic

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8628 Assessment in Science Education Assignment 1

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sun, 5 Apr 2020 15:00:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8628 Assessment in Science Education Assignment 1

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q.1 a) Write down the advantages and disadvantages of each mode of assessment.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Assessment Methods

Different methods of assessment have different strengths and weaknesses. You can match assessment methods to different student outcomes you have specified. The table below offers several examples.
Presentations

Best Application: Content knowledge and skills.
Advantages: Opportunities for authentic contexts. Allows students to demonstrate their work to an authentic audience. Allows for the integration of complex skills.
Disadvantages: Difficult to set up and administer, especially with a large number of students.

Written Products
Best Application: Content knowledge. Some content skills.
Advantages: Allows students to work over an extended period of time to incorporate revisions. Allows for student craftsmanship, pride, and personal embellishment.
Disadvantages: Difficult to assess individual contributions when the product is a group product. Judging what has been learned is not always evident from looking at products.

Tests
Best Application: Content knowledge.
Advantages: Allows for a standardized administration to large groups of students. Useful for assessing individual students.
Disadvantages: Difficult to assess skills through paper-and-pencil measures.

Self-Report
Best Application: Habits of mind.
Advantages: Allows for teacher to assess attitudes, reflections, and thinking processes of students. Allows students to identify the benefits of project work; good for identifying unanticipated consequences.
Disadvantages: Difficult to establish reliable criteria.
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b) Explain in detail the limitations of assessment. (10)

Assessment is the gathering of information in the form of data. Students' conceptual knowledge and skill levels are measured and assigned a grade in the form of a number or letter. Concepts are what students know about a topic, and skills are what students can do. An evaluation is then made as a way to judge student achievement. Administrators also equate student assessment as a method of measuring teacher accountability.

The limitations of assessment

Assessments may have a negative effect on student motivation, particularly for students performing below grade level.
Careless implementation of assessments may have negative consequences, especially when the needs of special education students are not considered. Using only a written formal assessment does not provide an overall picture of student achievement.
Students that perform better with oral and visual skills or who display superior creativity are at a disadvantage. Basing teacher effectiveness on standardized test scores may encourage teachers to narrow the curriculum to teach to the test.
While it is unclear whether alternative assessments are effective, what is clear is that this debate will not be going away any time soon.

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Q.2 Describe in detail three domains of educational objectives. (20)

Three Domains of Learning – Cognitive, Affective, Psychomotor

The Original Cognitive or Thinking Domain –
Based on the 1956 work, The Handbook I-Cognitive Domain, behavioral objectives that dealt with cognition could be divided into subsets. These subsets were arranged into a taxonomy and listed according to the cognitive difficulty — simpler to more complex forms. In 2000-01 revisions to the cognitive taxonomy were spearheaded by one of Bloom’s former students, Loran Anderson, and Bloom’s original partner in defining and publishing the cognitive domain, David Krathwohl. Please see my page entitled Anderson and Krathwohl – Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised for further details.

Remember while it is good to understand the history of the older version of this domain, the newer version has a number of strong advantages that make it a better choice for planning instruction today. One of the major changes that occurred between the old and the newer updated version is that the two highest forms of cognition have been reversed. In the older version the listing from simple to most complex functions was ordered as knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In the newer version the steps change to verbs and are arranged as knowing, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and the last and highest function, creating.

Taxonomies of the Cognitive Domain

Bloom’s Taxonomy 1956
1. Knowledge: Remembering or retrieving previously learned material. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are:

know identify relate list
define recall memorize repeat
record name recognize acquire

2. Comprehension: The ability to grasp or construct meaning from material. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are:
restate locate report recognize explain express
identify discuss describe discuss review infer
illustrate interpret draw represent differentiate conclude

3. Application: The ability to use learned material, or to implement material in new and concrete situations. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are:

apply relate develop translate use operate
organize employ restructure interpret demonstrate illustrate
practice calculate show exhibit dramatize

4. Analysis: The ability to break down or distinguish the parts of material into its components so that its organizational structure may be better understood.Examples of verbs that relate to this function are:

analyze compare probe inquire examine contrast categorize
differentiate contrast investigate detect survey classify deduce
experiment scrutinize discover inspect dissect discriminate separate

5. Synthesis: The ability to put parts together to form a coherent or unique new whole. In the revised version of Bloom’s synthesis becomes creating and becomes the last and most complex cognitive function. Examples of verbs that relate to the synthesis function are:

compose produce design assemble create prepare predict modify tell
plan invent formulate collect set up generalize document combine relate
propose develop arrange construct organize originate derive write propose

Anderson and Krathwohl’s Taxonomy 2001

1. Remembering: Recognizing or recalling knowledge from memory. Remembering is when memory is used to produce or retrieve definitions, facts, or lists, or to recite previously learned information.

2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from different types of functions be they written or graphic messages, or activities like interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, or explaining.

3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing. Applying relates to or refers to situations where learned material is used through products like models, presentations, interviews or simulations.

4. Analyzing: Breaking materials or concepts into parts, determining how the parts relate to one another or how they interrelate, or how the parts relate to an overall structure or purpose. Mental actions included in this function are differentiating, organizing, and attributing, as well as being able to distinguish between the components or parts. When one is analyzing, he/she can illustrate this mental function by creating spreadsheets, surveys, charts, or diagrams, or graphic representations.

5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing. Critiques, recommendations, and reports are some of the products that can be created to demonstrate the processes of evaluation. In the newer taxonomy, evaluating comes before creating as it is often a necessary part of the precursory behavior before one creates something.

The Affective or Feeling Domain:

Like cognitive objectives, affective objectives can also be divided into a hierarchy (according to Krathwohl). This area is concerned with feelings or emotions. Again, the taxonomy is arranged from simpler feelings to those that are more complex. This domain was first described in 1964 and as noted before is attributed to David Krathwohl as the primary author.

1. Receiving: This refers to the learner’s sensitivity to the existence of stimuli – awareness, willingness to receive, or selected attention.

feel sense capture experience
pursue attend perceive

2. Responding: This refers to the learners’ active attention to stimuli and his/her motivation to learn – acquiescence, willing responses, or feelings of satisfaction.

conform allow cooperate
\contribute enjoy satisfy

3. Valuing: This refers to the learner’s beliefs and attitudes of worth – acceptance, preference, or commitment. An acceptance, preference, or commitment to a value.

believe seek justify
respect search persuade

4. Organization: This refers to the learner’s internalization of values and beliefs involving (1) the conceptualization of values; and (2) the organization of a value system. As values or beliefs become internalized, the leaner organizes them according to priority.

examine clarify systematize
create integrate

5. Characterization – the Internalization of values:
This refers to the learner’s highest of internalization and relates to behavior that reflects (1) a generalized set of values; and (2) a characterization or a philosophy about life. At this level the learner is capable of practicing and acting on their values or beliefs.

he Psychomotor or Kinesthetic Domain:
Psychomotor objectives are those specific to discreet physical functions, reflex actions and interpretive movements. Traditionally, these types of objectives are concerned with the physically encoding of information, with movement and/or with activities where the gross and fine muscles are used for expressing or interpreting information or concepts. This area also refers to natural, autonomic responses or reflexes.

It is interesting to note that while the cognitive taxonomy was described in 1956, and the affective in 1964, the psychomotor domain were not fully described until the 1970s. And while I have chosen to use the work of Anita Harrow here, there are actually two other psychomotor taxonomies to choose from — one from E. J. Simpson (1972) and the other from R.H. Dave (1970).

Reflex movements:
Objectives at this level include reflexes that involve one segmental or reflexes of the spine and movements that may involve more than one segmented portion of the spine as intersegment reflexes (e.g., involuntary muscle contraction). These movements are involuntary being either present at birth or emerging through maturation.

Fundamental movements:
Objectives in this area refer to skills or movements or behaviors related to walking, running, jumping, pushing, pulling and manipulating. They are often components for more complex actions.

Perceptual abilities:
Objectives in this area should address skills related to kinesthetic (bodily movements), visual, auditory, tactile (touch), or coordination abilities as they are related to the ability to take in information from the environment and react.

Physical abilities:
Objectives in this area should be related to endurance, flexibility, agility, strength, reaction-response time or dexterity.

Skilled movements:
Objectives in this area refer to skills and movements that must be learned for games, sports, dances, performances, or for the arts.
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Q.3 a) How can table of specifications be developed for assessment? How is it helpful for assessment? (10)

Assessment of Learning

Table of Specification:
The purpose of a Table of Specifications is to identify the achievement domains being measured and to ensure that a fair and representative sample of questions appear on the test. Teachers cannot measure every topic or objective and cannot ask every question they might wish to ask. A Table of Specifications allows the teacher to construct a test which focuses on the key areas and weights those different areas based on their importance. A Table of Specifications provides the teacher with evidence that a test has content validity, that it covers what should be covered.

Designing a Table of Specifications:
Tables of Specification typically are designed based on the list of course objectives, the topics covered in class, the amount of time spent on those topics, textbook chapter topics, and the emphasis and space provided in the text. In some cases a great weight will be assigned to a concept that is extremely important, even if relatively little class time was spent on the topic.
Three steps are involved in creating a Table of Specifications:
1) choosing the measurement goals and domain to be covered,
2) breaking the domain into key or fairly independent parts- concepts, terms, procedures, applications, and
3) constructing the table. Teachers have already made decisions (or the district has decided for them) about the broad areas that should be taught, so the choice of what broad domains a test should cover has usually already been made. A bit trickier is to outline the subject matter into smaller components, but most teachers have already had to design teaching plans, strategies, and schedules based on an outline of content.

How can the use of a Table of Specifications benefit your students, including those with special needs?
A Table of Specifications benefits students in two ways. First, it improves the validity of teacher-made tests. Second, it can improve student learning as well. A Table of Specifications helps to ensure that there is a match between what is taught and what is tested. Classroom assessment should be driven by classroom teaching which itself is driven by course goals and objectives. In the chain below, Tables of Specifications provide the link between teaching and testing.

Objectives Teaching Testing:
Tables of Specifications can help students at all ability levels learn better. By providing the table to students during instruction, students can recognize the main ideas, key skills, and the relationships among concepts more easily. The Table of Specifications can act in the same way as a concept map to analyze content areas. Teachers can even collaborate with students on the construction of the Table of Specifications- what are the main ideas and topics, what emphasis should be placed on each topic, what should be on the test? Open discussion and negotiation of these issues can encourage higher levels of understanding while also modeling good learning and study skills.

References: Assessments, grading student work, and analyzing student performance on individual test items or criteria.

Examples of Reliability Measures:

Inter-rater – Two separate individuals (for instance, instructor and TF, or peers) evaluate and score a subject’s test, essay, or performance, and the scores from each of the raters are correlated. The correlation coefficient is then used as an estimate of reliability. Several other statistics can also be calculated by instructors to compare the scores from two raters. For instance, Cohen’s kappa considers the amount of agreement that may occur between two raters as a result of chance.
Test-Retest – Individuals take the same test on separate occasions and the scores can be correlated by instructors, using the correlation coefficient as the estimate of reliability. Because individuals learn from tests, this approach should be sensitive to the amount of time and degree of learning between test administrations.
Parallel Forms – Two equivalent tests, measuring the same concepts, knowledge, skills, abilities, etc., are given to the same group of individuals, and the scores can be correlated by instructors. The correlation coefficient is the estimate of reliability. Instructors should note that designing two separate but identical tests can be very difficult.
Split-Half – One test is divided into two sets of items. An individual’s score on half of the test is correlated with their score on the other half of the test. This approach accounts for testing fatigue and gradual shifts in approach as the test was designed. Instructors can decide to split a test in many different ways (i.e. even versus odd, first versus last, etc.), but should be aware that the splitting method will influence the correlation coefficient.
Cranach’s Alpha – Cranach’s Alpha is the most commonly reported measure of reliability when analyzing Liker type scales or multiple choice tests. It is generally interpreted as the mean of all possible split-half combinations, or the average or central tendency when a test is split against itself. For reference, an alpha above .7 is typically considered acceptable. Cranach’s Alpha can be calculated by instructors in Excel or any other statistical software package.

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b) Develop one table of specification of any unit from science curriculum. (10)

Answer: Table of Specializations:

A Table of Specifications is a two-way chart which describes the topics to be covered in a test and the number of items or points which will be associated with each topic. Sometimes the types of items are described as well.

The purpose of a Table of Specifications is to identify the achievement domains being measured and to ensure that a fair and representative sample of questions appear on the test. As it is impossible, in a test, to assess every topic from every aspect, a Table of Specifications allows us to ensure that our test focuses on the most important areas and weights different areas based on their importance / time spent teaching. A Table of Specifications also gives us the proof we need to make sure our test has content validity.

Tables of Specifications are designed based on:

Course objectives
Topics covered in class
Amount of time spent on those topics
Textbook chapter topics
Emphasis and space provided in the text

A Table of Specification could be designed in 3 simple steps:
1. Identify the domain that is to be assessed
2. Break the domain into levels (e.g. knowledge, comprehension, application …)
3. Construct the table:
The more detailed a table of specifications is, the easier it is to construct the test The purpose of a Table of Specifications is to identify the achievement domains being measured and to ensure that a fair and representative sample of questions appear on the test. Teachers cannot measure every topic or objective and cannot ask every question they might wish to ask. A Table of Specifications allows the teacher to construct a test which focuses on the key areas and weights those different areas based on their importance. A Table of Specifications provides the teacher with evidence that a test has content validity, that it covers what should be covered.

How can the use of a Table of Specifications benefit your students, including those with special needs?
A Table of Specifications benefits students in two ways. First, it improves the validity of teacher-made tests. Second, it can improve student learning as well.

A Table of Specifications helps to ensure that there is a match between what is taught and what is tested. Classroom assessment should be driven by classroom teaching which itself is driven by course goals and objectives. In the chain below, Tables of Specifications provide the link between teaching and testing.

Objectives Teaching Testing:
Tables of Specifications can help students at all ability levels learn better. By providing the table to students during instruction, students can recognize the main ideas, key skills, and the relationships among concepts more easily. The Table of Specifications can act in the same way as a concept map to analyze content areas. Teachers can even collaborate with students on the construction of the Table of Specifications- what are the main ideas and topics, what emphasis should be placed on each topic, what should be on the test? Open discussion and negotiation of these issues can encourage higher levels of understanding while also modeling good learning and study skills.

Analyze results by level and content area:
If students getting all lower level questions but missing higher level, then you're not doing your job; if all have got answers to one unit but not another, may have to reteach that unit, etc.

Table of specification
MCQs
Time allowed 60 min
Total marks 50
Sr# Contents Number of MCQs
1 Viruses 4
2 Types of viruses 4
3 Bacteria’s 5
4 Types of bacteria 4
5 Diseases caused by bacteria 5
6 Diseases caused by virus 4
7 Pollution 3
8 Skin issues 3
9 Infections 3
10 Diseases in gastro intestine l tract 2
11 Habitats of bacteria 5
12 Habitats of virus 2
13 Infectious diseases in children 1
14 Mortality rate of infectious diseases 4
15 Pollution hazards 1
Total MCQs 50 Total marks 50
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Q.4 a) How can assessment of knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics be done? Explain your answer with examples. (10)

Part: Although assessments are currently used for many purposes in the educational system, a premise of this report is that their effectiveness and utility must ultimately be judged by the extent to which they promote student learning. The aim of assessment should be “to educate and improve student performance, not merely to audit it” .To this end, people should gain important and useful information from every assessment situation. In education, as in other professions, good decision making depends on access to relevant, accurate, and timely information. Furthermore, the information gained should be put to good use by informing decisions about curriculum and instruction and ultimately improving student learning (Falk, 2000; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1995).

Assessments do not function in isolation; an assessment’s effectiveness in improving learning depends on its relationships to curriculum and instruction. Ideally, instruction is faithful and effective in relation to curriculum, and assessment reflects curriculum in such a way that it reinforces the best practices in instruction. In actuality, however, the relationships among assessment, curriculum, and instruction are not always ideal. That synergy can best be achieved if the three parts of the system are bound by or grow out of a shared knowledge base about cognition and learning in the domain.

Purposes and Contexts of Use
Educational assessment occurs in two major contexts. The first is the classroom. Here assessment is used by teachers and students mainly to assist learning, but also to gauge students’ summative achievement over the longer term. Second is large-scale assessment, used by policy makers and educational leaders to evaluate programs and/or obtain information about whether individual students have met learning goals.

The sharp contrast that typically exists between classroom and large-scale assessment practices arises because assessment designers have not been able to fulfill the purposes of different assessment users with the same data and analyses. To guide instruction and monitor its effects, teachers need information that is intimately connected with the work their students are doing, and they interpret this evidence in light of everything else they know about their students and the conditions of instruction. Part of the power of classroom assessment resides in these connections. Yet precisely because they are individualized and highly contextualized, neither the rationale nor the results of typical classroom assessments are easily communicated beyond the classroom. Large-scale, standardized tests do communicate efficiently across time and place, but by so constraining the content and timeliness of the message that they often have little utility in the classroom. This contrast illustrates the more general point that one size of assessment does not fit all. The purpose of an assessment determines priorities, and the context of use imposes constraints on the design, thereby affecting the kinds of information a particular assessment can provide about student achievement.

Inevitability of Trade-Offs in Design
To say that an assessment is a good assessment or that a task is a good task is like saying that a medical test is a good test; each can provide useful information only under certain circumstances. An MRI of a knee, for example, has unquestioned value for diagnosing cartilage damage, but is not helpful for diagnosing the overall quality of a person’s health. It is natural for people to understand medical tests in this way, but not educational tests. The same argument applies nonetheless, but in ways that are less familiar and perhaps more subtle.

Multiple assessments are thus needed to provide the various types of information required at different levels of the educational system. This does not mean, however, that the assessments need to be disconnected or working at cross-purposes. If multiple assessments grow out of a shared knowledge base about cognition and learning in the domain, they can provide valuable multiple perspectives on student achievement while supporting a core set of learning goals. Stakeholders should not be unduly concerned if differing assessments yield different information about student achievement; in fact, in many circumstances this is exactly what should be expected. However, if multiple assessments are to support learning effectively and provide clear and meaningful results for various audiences, it is important that the purposes served by each assessment and the aspects of achievement sampled by any given assessment be made explicit to users.

Later in the chapter we address how multiple assessments, including those used across both classroom and large-scale contexts, could work together to form more complete assessment systems. First, however, we discuss classroom and large-scale assessments in turn and how each can best be used to serve the goals of learning.

Classroom Assessment
The first thing that comes to mind for many people when they think of “classroom assessment” is a midterm or end-of-course exam, used by the teacher for summative grading purposes. But such practices represent only a fraction of the kinds of assessment that occur on an ongoing basis in an effective classroom. The focus in this section is on assessments used by teachers to support instruction and learning, also referred to as formative assessment. Such assessment offers considerable potential for improving student learning when informed by research and theory on how students develop subject matter competence.

As instruction is occurring, teachers need information to evaluate whether their teaching strategies are working. They also need information about the current understanding of individual students and groups of students so they can identify the most appropriate next steps for instruction.

Moreover, students need feedback to monitor their own success in learning and to know how to improve. Teachers make observations of student understanding and performance in a variety of ways: from classroom dialogue, questioning, seatwork and homework assignments, formal tests, less formal quizzes, projects, portfolios, and so on.

Black and William (1998) provide an extensive review of more than 250 books and articles presenting research evidence on the effects of classroom assessment. They conclude that ongoing assessment by teachers, combined with appropriate feedback to students, can have powerful and positive effects on achievement. They also report, however, that the characteristics of high-quality formative assessment are not well understood by teachers and

BOX 6–1 Transforming Classroom Assessment Practices
A project at King’s College London (Black and William, 2000) illustrates some of the issues encountered when an effort is made to incorporate principles of cognition and reasoning from evidence into classroom practice. The project involved working closely with 24 science and mathematics teachers to develop their formative assessment practices in everyday classroom work. During the course of the project, several aspects of the teaching and learning process were radically changed.

One such aspect was the teachers’ practices in asking questions in the classroom. In particular, the focus was on the notion of wait time (the length of the silence a teacher would allow after asking a question before speaking again if nobody responded), with emphasis on how short this time usually is. The teachers altered their practice to give students extended time to think about any question posed, often asking them to discuss their ideas in pairs before calling for responses. The practice of students putting up their hands to volunteer answers was forbidden; anyone could be asked to respond. The teachers did not label answers as right or wrong, but instead asked a student to explain his or her reasons for the answer offered. Others were then asked to say whether they agreed and why. Thus questions opened up discussion that helped expose and explore students’ assumptions and reasoning. At the same time, wrong answers became useful input, and the students realized that the teacher was interested in knowing what they thought, not in evaluating whether they were right or wrong. As a consequence, teachers asked fewer questions, spending more time on each.

That formative assessment is weak in practice. High-quality classroom assessment is a complex process, as illustrated by research described in Box 6– 1 that encapsulates many of the points made in the following discussion. In brief, the development of good formative assessment requires radical changes in the ways students are encouraged to express their ideas and in the ways teachers give feedback to students so they can develop the ability to manage and guide their own learning. Where such innovations have been instituted, teachers have become acutely aware of the need to think more clearly about their own assumptions regarding how students learn.

In addition, teachers realized that their lesson planning had to include careful thought about the selection of informative questions. They discovered that they had to consider very carefully the aspects of student thinking that any given question might serve to explore. This discovery led them to work further on developing criteria for the quality of their questions. Thus the teachers confronted the importance of the cognitive foundations for designing assessment situations that can evoke important aspects of student thinking and learning. (See Bonior [1991] and Paranoid [1998]) for further discussion of the importance of high-quality teacher questions for illuminating student thinking.)

In response to research evidence that simply giving grades on written work can be counterproductive for learning (Butler, 1988), teachers began instead to concentrate on providing comments without grades—feedback designed to guide students’ further learning. Students also took part in self-assessment and peer-assessment activities, which required that they understand the goals for learning and the criteria for quality that applied to their work. In these ways, assessment situations became opportunities for learning, rather than activities divorced from learning.

There is a rich literature on how classroom assessment can be designed and used to improve instruction and learning (e.g., Falk, 2000; Neoga, 1995; Shepard, 2000; Staginess, 1997; Wiggins, 1998). This literature presents powerful ideas and practical advice to assist teachers across the K-16 spectrum in improving their classroom assessment practices. We do not attempt to summarize all of the insights and implications for practice presented in this literature. Rather, our emphasis is on what could be gained by thinking about classroom assessment in light of the principles of cognition and reasoning from evidence emphasized throughout this report.

Formative Assessment, Curriculum, and Instruction
How might the culture of classrooms be shifted so that students no longer feign competence or work to perform well on the test as an end separate from real learning. To accomplish this kind of transformation, we have to make assessment more useful, more helpful in learning, and at the same time change the social meaning of evaluation.

Shepard proceeded to discuss ways in which classroom assessment practices need to change: the content and character of assessments need to be significantly improved to reflect contemporary understanding of learning; the gathering and use of assessment information and insights must become a part of the ongoing learning process; and assessment must become a central concern in methods courses in teacher preparation programs. Shepard’s messages were reflective of a growing belief among many educational assessment experts that if assessment, curriculum, and instruction were more integrally connected, student learning would improve.

A clear view of the learning goals.
Information about the present state of the learner.
Action to close the gap.

Cognitively Guided Instruction and Assessment
Carpenter, Enema, and colleagues have demonstrated that teachers who are informed regarding children’s thinking about arithmetic will be in a better position to craft more effective mathematics instruction.

Bottom of Form . Given a student’s solution to a problem, a classroom teacher can modify instruction in a number of ways:

By posing a developmentally more difficult or easier problem;
By altering the size of the numbers in the set; or
By comparing and contrasting students’ solution strategies, so that students can come to appreciate the utility and elegance of a strategy they might not yet be able to generate on their own. For example, a student directly modeling a joining of sets with counters

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b) Develop items for the assessment of knowledge of universal and abstraction in a field. (10)

Entity is part of a universal being, which embraces and transcends all reality.

Abstraction a fundamental moment of the cognitive process

We can point out that abstraction is a process by which the human intellect draws universal concepts out of individual object, regardless of their spatial-temporal characteristics. Plato placed among the function of dialectics that of distinguishing an idea from another so that it can be accountable to itself and others. The dialectic consists in the interaction between two opposing theses or principles (symbolically represented in Plato's dialogues by two real people) and is used as an investigative tool of truth.

Aristotle believed that the intelligible forms existed only in the sensitive objects, as sources of their universal characteristics, and that the soul could, by abstraction, make them stand out in their purity so as to achieve the ability to know them.

Aristotle distinguishes three degrees of abstraction.
There is a physics abstraction, which captures what is characteristic of a number of material bodies. This form of abstraction does not rise above the physical world; it only detects a kind of common footprint to several concrete things. The second level of abstraction is the mathematical one that rises above the purely material level and identifies the immaterial characteristics common to the corporeal things. In other words the mathematical abstraction takes into account the real, under the geometrical and physical aspect. In the end the metaphysical abstraction that is independent from the general characteristics of the matter, rises above the extension of the bodies to capture the essential features, the immaterial aspect (that is to declare the truth) of what is.

Abstraction a fundamental moment of the cognitive process
We can point out that abstraction is a process by which the human intellect draws universal concepts out of individual object, regardless of their spatial-temporal characteristics. Plato placed among the function of dialectics that of distinguishing an idea from another so that it can be accountable to itself and others. The dialectic consists in the interaction between two opposing theses or principles (symbolically represented in Plato's dialogues by two real people) and is used as an investigative tool of truth.

Aristotle believed that the intelligible forms existed only in the sensitive objects, as sources of their universal characteristics, and that the soul could, by abstraction, make them stand out in their purity so as to achieve the ability to know them.

Dialectics has for Hegel two meanings closely related: in a first sense it is the process by which the Absolute is recognized in reality that, at first, appeared to it as alien or opposed, removing or conciliating precisely that opposition; in a second sense it is the process by which reality, overcoming the divisions, stays peaceful - as Hegel says – in the unity of the Whole. Of the latter, arranged in detail by Aristotle the term is used to demonstrate the operation that takes the intelligible into the sensible.
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Q.5 a) how can a science assess application objectives? (10)

Objectives of Science Teaching
Constructivist Teaching
Learning takes place when there is a change in the learner’s existing ideas, either by adding some new knowledge or by reorganizing what is already known. There are three useful approaches to constructive science teaching.

Teacher demonstrates the unknown event
Teacher leads discussion and identifies examples drawn from student experiences
Students conduct the event and discuss the event

Characteristics of constructivist teaching

Prior awareness of the ideas that students bring to the learning situation
Clearly defined conceptual goals for learners
Use of teaching strategies which challenge or develop the initial ideas of students
Providing learners with opportunities to use the new ideas
Providing a classroom atmosphere that encourages students to suggest and discuss ideas
(1) a statement of what students will be able to do when a lesson is completed,
(2) the conditions under which the students will be able to perform the task, and
(3) The criteria for evaluating student performance.
While goals describe global learning outcomes, learning objectives are statements of specific performances that contribute to the attainment of goals. Learning objectives should help guide curriculum development, instructional strategies, selection of instructional materials, and development of assessments

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b) Develop five test items from general science to test application skills. (10)

Designing Science Assessments

In this report the committee has stressed the importance of considering the assessment system as a whole. However, as was discussed in

How Tests and Test Questions are developed

ETS develops assessments that are of the highest quality, accurately measure the necessary knowledge and skills, and are fair to all test takers. We understand that creating a fair, valid and reliable test is a complex process that involves multiple checks and balances.

That's why dozens of professionals — including test specialists, test reviewers, editors, teachers and specialists in the subject or skill being tested — are involved in developing every test question, or "test item." And it's why all questions (or "items") are put through multiple, rigorous reviews and meet the highest standards for quality and fairness in the testing industry.

Step 1: Defining Objectives Educators, licensing boards or professional associations identify a need to measure certain skills or knowledge. Once a decision is made to develop a test to accommodate this need, test developers ask some fundamental questions:

Who will take the test and for what purpose?
What skills and/or areas of knowledge should be tested?
How should test takers be able to use their knowledge?
What kinds of questions should be included? How many of each kind?
How long should the test be?
How difficult should the test be?

Step 2: Item Development Committees The answers for the questions in Step 1 are usually completed with the help of item development committees, which typically consist of educators and/or other professionals appointed by ETS with the guidance of the sponsoring agency or association. Responsibilities of these item development committees may include:

defining test objectives and specifications
helping ensure test questions are unbiased
Determining test format (e.g., multiple-choice, essay, constructed-response, etc.)
considering supplemental test materials
reviewing test questions, or test items, written by ETS staff
writing test questions

Step 3: Writing and Reviewing Questions Each test question — written by ETS staff or item development committees — undergoes numerous reviews and revisions to ensure it is as clear as possible, that it has only one correct answer among the options provided on the test and that it conforms to the style rules used throughout the test. Scoring guides for open-ended responses, such as short written answers, essays and oral responses, go through similar reviews.

Step 4: The Pretest After the questions have been written and reviewed, many are pretested with a sample group similar to the population to be tested. The results enable test developers to determine:

the difficulty of each question
if questions are ambiguous or misleading
if questions should be revised or eliminated
if incorrect alternative answers should be revised or replaced

Step 5: Detecting and Removing Unfair Questions To meet the stringent ETS Standards for Quality and Fairness (PDF) guidelines, trained reviewers must carefully inspect each individual test question, the test as a whole and any descriptive or preparatory materials to ensure that language, symbols, words, phrases and content generally regarded as sexist, racist or otherwise inappropriate or offensive to any subgroup of the test-taking population are eliminated.

ETS statisticians also can identify questions on which two groups of test takers who have demonstrated similar knowledge or skills perform differently on the test through a process called Differential Item Functioning (DIF). If one group performs consistently better than another on a particular question, that question receives additional scrutiny and may be deemed biased or unsatisfactory. Note: If people in different groups actually differ in their average levels of relevant knowledge or skills, a fair test question will reflect those differences.

Step 6: Assembling the Test After the test is assembled, it is reviewed by other specialists, committee members and sometimes other outside experts. Each reviewer answers all questions independently and submits a list of correct answers to the test developers. The lists are compared with the ETS answer keys to verify that the intended answer is, indeed, the correct answer. Any discrepancies are resolved before the test is published.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8629 Laboratory Organization Management and Safety Methods Assignment 2

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Mon, 9 Sep 2019 12:58:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8629 Laboratory Organization Management and Safety Methods Assignment 2

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q.1 Elaborate the standards of Science Laboratories in Pakistan. Discuss the competencies of Science Teachers in context to Pakistan.
Answer:

UNESCO Science Sector is working closely with Government of Pakistan to implement different initiatives including strategic Strengthening of Flood Warning and Management Capacity of Pakistan which included capacity building of national authorities particularly Pakistan Metrological Department (PMD), SUPARCO, and NDMA in reliable flood forecasting and information dissemination. UNESCO also promotes engineering qualification standardization in Pakistan. The organization also works in introducing the latest water management techniques in the arid areas and DRR awareness raising in Balochistan, supporting the MAB Programme activities in the country and promoting the popularization of science.

Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB):

UNESCO's MAB programme is an Intergovernmental Scientific Programme that aims to establish a scientific basis for the improvement of relationships between people and their environments. MAB combines the natural and social sciences, economics and education to improve human livelihoods and the equitable sharing of benefits, and to safeguard natural and managed ecosystems, thus promoting innovative approaches to economic development that are socially and culturally appropriate, and environmentally sustainable. UNESCO Islamabad Office is supporting the MAB activities in the country. National MAB Committee of Pakistan has been formulated and MAB Secretariat is in place. In result, in 2013 Ziarat Juniper Biosphere Reserve has been included in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves by the MAB ICC. 5th and 6th South and Central Asia MAB Network meetings were held consecutively in 2013 and 2014 in Islamabad.

Popularization of Science:

Science education is very important for the school level children. The lack of proper science laboratories in schools in the far flung and economically deprived areas is found in many areas of Pakistan. UNESCO is supporting the popularization of science in these areas in partnership with Pakistan Science Foundation's Science Caravan Unit.

Culture Sector

Building intercultural understanding: through protection of heritage and support for cultural diversity. UNESCO created the idea of World Heritage to protect sites of outstanding universal value.

Heritage:

UNESCO Islamabad Office in collaboration with Government of Pakistan and other local partners works to safeguard the country's rich heritage with an aim to contribute to promote cultural diversity, peace and sustainable development as well as reducing poverty. Major areas under this sector are conservation of archaeological site and monuments, promotion of cultural industries and heritage education. Through a number of conservation projects, the sector has been complementing Government efforts to safeguard the World Heritage and other sites of national importance and contribute to protect the Outstanding Universal Value of cultural heritage for future generations. The Sector is taking a number of awareness raising and capacity building initiatives at institutional and gross-root level for effective implementation of the cultural conventions, notably 1972 Convention on the protection of World heritage and 2003 Convention on safeguarding the Intangible Cultural Heritage and acknowledging the role of culture in promoting peace, creativity and development.

Communication & Information:

Protecting freedom of expression: an essential condition for democracy, development and human dignity.

Communication, information and knowledge are at the core of human progress and development. Recognizing in the powers of communication, the main focus for UNESCO's work in Pakistan are promoting an enabling environment for freedom of expression, press freedom and journalistic safety including through the commemoration of World Press Freedom Day (3 May), International Day to End Impunity for Crimes against Journalists (IDEI) and by contributing to national efforts to raise awareness through advocacy for the protection of journalists by coordinating the United Nations Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity. Other area of UNESCO Islamabad Office in Pakistan includes is the promotion of media pluralism and development, including the International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC) by providing safety and security training to journalists in rural areas of Pakistan. The organization is also working to promote the development of free, independent and pluralistic media including through World Radio Day Celebrations (13 February) and work with community media. UNESCO is also working for enabling universal access and preservation of information and knowledge platforms and ICTS for sustainable development for marginalized groups including for persons with disabilities.

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Q.2 a) Write new concepts of Science Laboratories, keeping in view the concept of distance education.
b) Are you able to perform science experiments with the help of easily available material?
Answer:

The Concepts of Science course includes weekly laboratory classes, which meet separately from the lecture class session. Students should carefully select a section of SCMH 1010 with a laboratory time that is available in your schedule, sign up for that section, and attend to all laboratory sessions. There is a Concepts of Science Lab Book, which must be purchased NEW by each Concepts of Science student. These lab books, which are edited each year, are required for use by all students during all lab weeks. This is a required purchase for all Concepts students. Purchase only the most recent edition of the lab book from the AU Bookstore or one of the other bookstores in Auburn.

Attendance is required at all Concepts of Science laboratory sessions, and roll will be checked each week in laboratory. Attendance in laboratory may be part of your laboratory grade. Students should be aware that the number one reason for low lab grades in Concepts of Science is poor attendance.

Your laboratory grade counts 25% of the overall course grade. Laboratory teachers report laboratory grades to lecture instructors for each student at mid-term and at the end of the term. Lecture teachers then submit mid-term and full term grades, which are computed according to the rules in their own syllabus. Regarding lab grades, it is the student’s responsibility to attend labs, complete lab work and submit that work as requested by the lab teachers, and to keep in touch with lab teachers about absences and all other grade issues. Lecture instructors generally cannot answer specific questions about laboratory grades or lab attendance records. Those records are maintained by the laboratory teachers only. Laboratory teachers make decisions about whether a student qualifies for any make up work and sets all other laboratory rules not given in the course syllabus.

Students should be aware that it is Concepts of Science program policy that a student must pass the laboratory part of this course with a 60% or better score in order to be able to pass the whole course. In other words, if a student fails in the laboratory, the lecture instructor must give a grade of F for the whole course regardless of the lecture exam grades and other lecture section scores. Students should be aware that passing the laboratory but failing the lecture part of the course does not guarantee a passing grade in Concepts of Science. Students who are especially concerned about their grades should keep in regular contact with their lecture and laboratory teachers about their progress in the course.

Students must be prepared in advance to go to laboratory each week. This is the individual student’s responsibility. This responsibility includes reading assigned materials in advance, working through the on-line components for each laboratory exercise, and bringing required data and other required materials from the advance readings, on-line components, etc. with you to laboratory class. Failure to do these things will likely have a negative effect on your grade and may prevent you from being able to do the week’s laboratory work. Not being able to do the week’s laboratory work may result in a low lab score or a zero score for that week.

Concepts laboratory classes have a strict plagiarism policy. For the details, see your lab book and/or the plagiarism policy link on the Concepts of Science main page. Concepts of Science students may not copy the work of others or from published or on-line sources and represent it as their own.

Unlike the lecture portion of the class, students in laboratory should not expect that their laboratory teacher will lecture to them. Students are expected to come to the laboratory prepared to complete the week’s laboratory work, including all pre-lab reading assignments. This preparation is done mainly on line (using the Concepts laboratory portal) and by assigned readings. Students must participate in lab, including participation in any lab discussion. It is not acceptable to go to lab and not fully participate in what is going on and a student’s grade will reflect lack of participation.

1. Make Objects Seemingly Disappear

Refraction is when light changes direction and speed as it passes from one object to another. Only visible objects reflect light. When two materials with similar reflective properties come into contact, light will pass through both materials at the same speed, rendering the other material invisible. Check out this video from BritLab on how to turn glass invisible using vegetable oil and pyrex glass.

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Q.3 Write difference between sequence and organization. What is the role of organization in laboratory work?
Answer:

Managers today are enamored of processes. It’s easy to see why. Many modern organizations are functional and hierarchical; they suffer from isolated departments, poor coordination, and limited lateral communication. All too often, work is fragmented and compartmentalized, and managers find it difficult to get things done. Scholars have faced similar problems in their research, struggling to describe organizational functioning in other than static, highly aggregated terms. For real progress to be made, the “proverbial ‘black box,’ the firm, has to be opened and studied from within.”

Processes provide a likely solution. In the broadest sense, they can be defined as collections of tasks and activities that together — and only together — transform inputs into outputs. Within organizations, these inputs and outputs can be as varied as materials, information, and people. Common examples of processes include new product development, order fulfillment, and customer service; less obvious but equally legitimate candidates are resource allocation and decision making.

Structure, sequence and organization (SSO) is a term used in the United States to define a basis for comparing one software work to another in order to determine if copying has occurred that infringes on copyright, even when the second work is not a literal copy of the first. The term was introduced in the case of Whelan v. Jaslow in 1986.[1] The method of comparing the SSO of two software products has since evolved in attempts to avoid the extremes of over-protection and under-protection, both of which are considered to discourage innovation.[2] More recently, the concept has been used in Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.

Whelan Assocs., Inc. v. Jaslow Dental Laboratory, Inc. was a landmark case in defining principles that applied to copyright of computer software. Whelan had developed software for Jaslow to manage the operations of a dental laboratory, and later took it to market under the trade name Dentalab. Jaslow became engaged in selling the Dentalab software. He later formed a new company named Dentcom and wrote a program in a different computer language but with similar functionality that he called Dentlab, marketing it as a Dentalab successor. Whelan filed a suit in federal court in Pennsylvania alleging that the Dentlab software violated Whelan's copyrights in the Dentalab software. Whelan won the case and was awarded damages on the basis that Dentlab had substantially similar structure and overall organization.

The district court ruling in Whelan drew on the established doctrine that even when the component parts of a work cannot be copyrightable, the structure and organization of a work may be. The court also drew support from the 1985 SAS Inst. Inc. v. S&H Computer Sys. Inc. in which it had been found that copyright protected organizational and structural details, not just specific lines of source or object code. Sequence, structure and organization (SSO) in this case was defined as "the manner in which the program operates, controls and regulates the computer in receiving, assembling, calculating, retaining, correlating, and producing useful information." SSO refers to non-literal elements of computer programs that include "data input formats, file structures, design, organization and flow of the code, screen outputs or user interfaces, and the flow and sequencing of the screens.".[9] However, the SAS Inst. Inc. V. S&H Computer Sys. Inc. demonstrated that copyright can exist in derived works from publicly funded developed source code in the public domain rather than address the issue of SSO.

Jaslow appealed the decision. The Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit noted that computer programs are literary works under U.S. law. The court reasoned that with literary works a non-literal element is protected to the extent that it is an expression of an idea rather than the idea itself. By analogy, the purpose or function of a software work would be the work's "idea", while everything not necessary to that purpose or function would be part of the expression of the idea. The expression would be protected, although the basic purpose or function would not. On this basis the Court of Appeals upheld the district court's ruling of copyright violation due to similarity of SSO.

Early adoption and criticism

For the next few years most, but not all, circuit courts accepted the Whelan decision on SSO in one form or another. This resulted in a period of tight protection for software, since almost everything other than the broad purpose of a software work would be protected. The only exception was where the functionality could only be achieved in a very small number of ways. In these cases there could be no protection due to the merger doctrine, which applies when the expression and the idea are inextricably merged.

In one case a court found that a defendant had infringed the right to prepare a derivative work when they copied the sequence, structure, and organization of the plaintiff's file formats, screen, reports, and transaction codes, even though different data fields were present.[14] In 1986 the ruling in Broderbund Software, Inc v. Unison World, Inc appeared to prevent software developers from marketing products with the same or similar user interfaces, regardless of whether there was anything in common in the underlying code. In the 1990 case of Lotus v. Paperback the U.S. District Court for Massachusetts decided that Paperback's VP-Planner software violated the copyright of Lotus's 1-2-3 spreadsheet program since it had the same user interface, even though the underlying code was completely different.

A technical criticism of Whelan is that it fails to distinguish between the sequence in which instructions are presented in the text of a program and the sequence in which the instructions are executed - the program's behavior. Both the textual and behavioral aspects have their own SSO, but a programmer would see the textual SSO as relatively unimportant. A related point is that although the text of a computer program may be an "original work of authorship", protected by copyright laws. The algorithms and designs that the program embodies may be better considered to be "processes, procedures, systems, methods of operation", which are explicitly excluded from copyright protection although they may be protectable by patents. The distinction between the code's SSO, which is protected by copyright, and the protocol or algorithm, which is patentable, is however extremely difficult to maintain.

The Whelan ruling has been criticized as being "dangerously broad". By saying that the purpose of the program was to assist a Dental lab operation, and that anything not essential to that purpose was an expression, it left open a wide range of functions that could be deemed "not essential" and therefore subject to protection. In the 1988 Healthcare Affiliated Services, Inc. v. Lippany the court took a position more in line with the idea-expression merger concept, saying that the defendant's choice of scope, variables to be used and other aspects of what its software would do did not constitute the SSO. In 1987 the Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit rejected the extension of copyright protection to the non-literal elements of computer programs in the case of Plains Cotton Cooperative Ass'n v. Goodpasture Computer Serv. The court held that input formats were idea rather than expression and refused to extend protection to these formats. The court said: "We decline to embrace Whelan."

Computer Associates

Main article: Computer Associates Int. Inc. v. Altai Inc.

In Computer Associates Int. Inc. v. Altai Inc. in 1992 the Second Circuit Court of Appeals agreed with the conclusion in Whelanthat the structure, sequence and organization of a program might by protected by copyright where appropriate.[21] However, the court went on to say, "As we have already noted, a computer program's ultimate function or purpose is the composite result of interacting subroutines. Since each Subroutine is itself a program, and thus, may be said to have its own 'idea,' Whelan's general formulation that a program's overall Purpose equates with the program's idea is descriptively inadequate.

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Q.4 What are different assessment techniques to assess laboratory performance?
Answer:

There are hundreds of variations of classroom assessment techniques. Below are some of the more commonly known techniques:

3-2-1 Format

3-2-1 Format is a quick and simple student writing activity.

Focused Listing

Focused Listing is a quick and simple student writing activity.

Muddiest Point

Muddiest Point is a quick and simple technique where students identify a challenging or confusing concept.

One Minute Paper

Minute paper is an introductory technique for a student writing activity.

Think-Pair-Share

Think-Pair-Share is a quick and easy technique that has students working in pairs to answer questions posed by the instructor.

Concept Mapping

Concept Mapping is an intermediate technique that asks students to create ways of representing and organizing ideas and concepts.

Jigsaw

Jigsaw is an advanced technique where teach each other assigned topics.

Memory Matrix

Memory matrix is an intermediate technique that asks students to create a structure for organizing large sets of information.

Quiz Show

Quiz Show is an intermediate technique that uses a game show format for review sessions.

3-2-1 Format

Basic Strategy

The 3-2-1 format is a quick reflective activity similar to think-pair-share. It encourages students to reflect on a course experience and organize their thoughts and identify areas of confusion or concern.

Why would you use it?

Similar to minute papers, muddiest point, and think-pair-share, the 3-2-1 Format can be a helpful tool for getting students to organize their thoughts, and promote reflection and metacognition. This activity provides an easy way to check for understanding and gauge student interest. It is also an effective way to promote discuss or review material.

When can you use it?

This activity would traditionally be introduced toward the end of a lesson or after a lecture. It could also be used in response to an assigned reading.

How does it work?

In reaction to presented content, students are asked to take a few moments and jot down:

3 ideas or issues from what was presented
2 example or uses for how the ideas could be implemented
1 unresolved area / muddiest point

Students are then asked to share their ideas in pairs or small groups. Use the responses to help guide teaching decisions. Consider areas of curriculum that need to be reviewed again or specific concepts or activities that are most interesting for students.

Alternative versions

Use 3-2-1 Format to transition into class discussion.
Student can complete 3-2-1 as individuals, pairs, or small groups.
Make the 3-2-1 questions content specific (differences, similarities, etc.)
Have students focus 3-2-1 on main ideas (most important ideas, supporting details, etc.)

Online options

3-2-1 Format could easily be adapted into an online discussion board activity. Focused Listing

Basic Strategy

Focus Listing activity focuses on one concept, term, or topic. Students are asked to provide several ideas related closely with the one concept, term, or topic.

Why would you use?

The purpose of this activity is to help instructors determine what students are able to recall for the main points of a lesson. The preparation and follow-up for a Focused Listing activity is minimal. The Focused Listing activity can help students in several ways:

Quickly determine what learners recall as the most important points related to a topic
Assess how well learners can describe or define a central point and to discover how well learners are connecting other concepts to the central point of the lesson
Gauge the best starting point, make midpoint corrections, and measure the class's progress in learning one specific element of course content

When can you use?

Before, during or after a lesson; works well in classes of all sizes. Focused listings are great follow ups to short presentations during which participants are asked to absorb information that is new and that is vital to the discussion to follow. The listing works well to introduce a topic, as an exercise joining/synthesizing two sets of information (lecture plus follow up reading, two lectures), and as something to return to as a wrap up so that participants can compare before/after thinking.

How does it work?

Select an important topic or concept that's just been studied or is just about to be studied; write it in a word or brief phrase.
Write the word or phrase at the top of a sheet of paper as the heading for a "Focused List" of related terms important to understanding that topic.
Set a limit for either number of items to list (5 to 10) or limit the amount of time (2 to 3 minutes) to list the points.
Test it yourself (keep to your own limits)--write a list of important words and phrases you recall that are related to or included within the heading you wrote down.
Look over your list quickly; add any items you may have left out. Determine if any modifications need to be made to this activity, e.g. number of items required or length of time.
If your test convinces you that the topic is important and well defined have the students complete the exercise. Be sure to increase the time limits you set for yourself, however, since you are the ‘expert’ and students are the ‘novice’ learners.
Collect their anonymous responses and review the answers by sorting them into piles of appropriate or inappropriate to determine how well students are recalling the main points.
At the beginning of the next class session, review with the students the findings of the activity. List the points or ideas you developed and include some of the ideas students provided that were not on your list, but were still relevant.

Alternate versions

Use your list as the "master list" and have students compare their lists to it. Look for matches, missing items (on any list), clarification needs, additional teaching and learning opportunities.
Assign this as a small group activity

Online Options

Focused Listing could easily be adapted into an online discussion board activity or a shared Google document activity.

Muddiest Point

Basic Strategy

Muddiest Point is probably the simplest classroom assessment technique available. It is a quick monitoring technique in which students are asked to take a few minutes to write down the most difficult or confusing part of a lesson, lecture, or reading. It is simple to create and facilitate. In fact, it only takes 15 minutes to collect and scan approximately 100 muddiest points. While it is easy to use, be careful not to over-use this or any single assessment technique. Over using one technique can fatigue students and devalue the process.

Why would you use?

You can quickly check for understanding. This assessment gives you a picture of misconceptions and confusion that still exists in the students’ minds.
Students can increase their understanding of their own learning. This assessment provides students with a metacognitive opportunity to think about their own learning. This is especially helpful with new information and complicated procedures.

When can you use?

Use this assessment technique any time, after students have had an opportunity for learning to progress them toward the learning target. This technique is especially helpful if students seem to be having difficulty grasping a concept or process.

How does it work?

Determine what feedback you want. Do you want to ask a question that encompasses the entire class session or one self-contained segment? Do you want to ask a questions related to a specific lecture, discussion, or presentation? Figure out what is of most value or where students struggle the most.
Reserve a few minutes at the end of the class session. Leave enough time to ask the question, have students respond, and to collect the responses.
Let students know how much time they will have to answer the question and when you will follow up with the results and provide feedback.
With so many students using laptops and tablets, it is plausible students will not have extra sheets of paper. Plan on distributing slips of paper or index cards for students to write on.
Collect the responses as or before students leave.
Respond to the students' feedback during the next class meeting. Share with students how responses will be used as a guide to plan the next instruction.

Alternate versions

This strategy can be presented in many forms:

Follow up a traditional muddiest point exercise by asking students what could be done to help clear up the “muddy points” for them.

Use a two column response exercises. One side is labeled “crystal clear” and the other column is labeled “muddiest point”. This alternate version helps students reflect on their own learning as they think about what they do and do not understand.
Use muddiest point to review work outside of class (e.g. lab or homework assignment).

Online Options

Have students post to a discussion board.
In a synchronous (live) online class, students can write on a white-board.
Use a shared (open for anonymous responses) google document to collect responses.

One Minute Paper

Basic Strategy

One minute paper is a popular introductory active learning strategy that requires minimal preparation on the part of the instructor. During a one minute paper exercise students are given one minute to write a response to a prompt or question posed by the instructor. Minute papers can segue into a discussion or simply be collected for review by the instructor.

Why would you use it?

Minute papers provide immediate feedback and allow quick response to students.
This exercise can be easily facilitated for any class size.
Allows students who are less vocal to participate.

When can you use it?

This technique is probably best used in lecture or discussion however it can easily be adapted to other settings such as labs, clinicals, or homework assignments. While this technique is flexible it is not universally applicable. Not all learning experiences can be assessed by a technique that asks students to note significant points or open questions. Be cognizant of your goal when choosing a classroom assessment technique.

How does it work?

Decide what you want to focus on, where you want students to reflect on a topic.
Write Minute Paper prompts that fit your class and meet your goal. The prompts are the heart of one minute papers.
Set aside 5-10 minutes to facilitate, as well as time later to discuss the results.
Share the question with students.
After the chosen topic or activity is completed, hand out scraps of paper or index cards for students to record their response.
Let students know how much time they will have, what kinds of responses you are looking for (words, bullets, short sentences), and when they can expect feedback.
Collect the responses as or before students leave.
Tabulate the responses and make note of useful comments.
Respond to the students' feedback during the next class meeting. Share with students how responses will be used as a guide to plan the next instruction.

Sample Minute Paper prompts:

Questions Designed to Assess Student Interests: For you, what interesting questions remain unanswered about today’s topic?

Identifying Perceived Relevance of Course Concepts: During today’s class, what idea(s) struck you as things you could or should put into practice?

Assess Student Attitudes/Opinions: Were there any ideas expressed in today’s class that caused you to reconsider or change your personal? opinions, viewpoints, or values?

Checking Student Comprehension: What did you perceive to be the major purpose or objective of today’s class?

Assessing Conceptual Connections (Cross-Concept Integration): Did you see any relationships between today’s topic and other topics previously covered in this course?

Alternative versions

Allow students to compare and discuss their responses before handing them in.
Allow small groups to suggest Minute Paper questions. Have members of the group analyze and present the results to the class.

Online options

Have students post to a discussion board.
In a synchronous (live) online class, students can write on a white-board.
Use a shared (open for anonymous responses) google document to collect responses.

Think-Pair-Share

Basic Strategy

Think-pair-share can be a great technique for facilitating discussion. It is a quick and simple technique to adopt. Faculty present a question or challenge, students reflect quietly and then partner with someone to discuss. A think-pair-share session could be 5 to 15 minutes.

Why would you use?

This exercise engages the class with content on multiple levels. It can help organize prior knowledge, deepen the level of content analysis, and improves the quality of student contributions. Think-pair-share is a popular technique because sharing ideas with a peer in a group of two is “low risk” compared to sharing an individual idea with an entire class.

When can you use?

Use think-pair-share when you want students to talk over new ideas or critically think about concepts presented in the lesson. This technique can be easily used ‘on the fly’ and works in small or large classes.

How does it work?

Develop an engaging question or problem, ideally one with many viable potential responses
Have a plan for how to present the question (worksheet, PPT slide, etc.) and how you will facilitate students reporting out to the whole group.
Pose a question to students.
Students reflect on and write brief notes for one minute in response to the question.
Students pair up with someone sitting near them and share their answers verbally for two to three minutes. Alternatively, they may also work together to create one best answer.
Randomly choose a few pairs of students to give 30 second summaries of individual or joint answers.

Alternate versions

Ask students to compare and contrast their ideas, reach a consensus, explain why their ideas are different, etc.
Give the students the prompt as homework, coming into class prepared to share.
Have pairs match up with another nearby pair to share ideas before reporting back to whole class.

Online Options

Think-pair-share does not adapt easily to online learning environments. It can be done but requires more work to create groups, private discussion boards, etc.

Concept Mapping

Basic Strategy

Concept maps are drawings or diagrams used to help students organize and represent knowledge of a subject. Concept maps begin with a main idea (or concept) and then branch out to show how that main idea can be broken down into specific topics.

Why would you use?

This activity provides an observable action of the student’s patterns of understanding related to a central idea or concept. Concept mapping serves several purposes:

Helps students brainstorm and generate new ideas
Encourages students to discover new concepts and the propositions that connect them
Allows students to more clearly communicate ideas, thoughts and information
Helps students integrate new concepts with older concepts
Enables students to gain enhanced knowledge of any topic and evaluate the information When can you use?

Concept maps require a lot of cognitive work on the part of the student, and a lot of preparation and analysis on the part of the instructor. Be sure you have tested the concept map activity yourself and given the class the appropriate amount of time to complete the activity. Usually this means twice the amount of time it took you, the expert, to complete. This activity is useful in any course with high theoretical content, courses with large amounts of facts and principles.

How does it work?

1. Select the concept/theme you wish students to use as a starting point.

2. Create a concept map:

Identify related key words or phrases. Write down words and key phrases.
Rank the concepts (key words) from the most abstract/general to the most concrete/specific.
Cluster concepts that function at similar level of abstraction and those that interrelate closely. Start to determine the ways the various concepts are related to each other and write that on the lines connecting the concepts.
Arrange concepts into a diagram.
Continue identifying the ways the various concepts are related to each other and write that on the lines connecting the concepts.

3. Add second and third level associations, if appropriate.

4. Good maps usually result from three to many revisions.

5. After students have completed the concept maps, present your own example to the students and walk through it with them step-by-step, explaining your thinking as you created the concept map.

Important Consideration for Using Concept Maps

Concept mapping can be a very demanding cognitive task for students.
Concept maps requires a large amount of time and energy from faculty to formally assess; concept maps are generally not graded.
Large classes may be managed easier if concept map assignments are assigned to small groups

Best Practices for Using Concept Maps:

Create your own concept map first, before assigning one to your students.
If students are new to concept maps, students will need training and continual practice. Together as a class, create a simple concept map on a concept everyone is familiar wit. For example, use an easy topic like, “What are birds?”

Alternate versions

Use a top down approach, working from general to specific or use a free association approach by brainstorming nodes and then develop links and relationships.
Assign a concept map as a small group activity to alleviate anxiety.
Extend the activity by having students write an explanatory essay based on their maps.
Construct a concept map and then remove all of the concept labels (keep the links!). Ask students to replace the labels in a way that makes structural sense.
Create a concept map and then remove concepts from the nodes (about one-third of them). These deleted concepts are placed in a numbered list on the map and students choose among them.
Provide a list of concept labels (10 to 20) and ask students to construct their maps using only these labels. The focus here is on the linking relationships, and the evolution of structural complexity of students' knowledge frameworks.

Online Options

There are numerous software tools where students can create concept maps digitally.

Jigsaw

Basic Strategy

Jigsaw involves students doing individual research on a subset of a given subject area, and then piecing their research together with other students “to build the whole picture”. Jigsaw exercises challenge students to engage in reciprocal teaching and can be a popular activity for courses that rely on heavy transference of information.

Jigsaw requires a moderate to high amount of faculty preparation and takes a fair amount of class time. Do not overuse this technique, as repeating too often can feel contrived (it is not very flexible). It should be used no more than twice per semester.

Why would you use?

Jigsaw is a variation on a simpler activity in which students come and present directly to their group on a topic of research. By adding the intermediate task of meeting as an “expert group” ensures some quality of ideas and materials. This technique also gives individual students a chance to build confidence in a subject area before presenting to peers.

When can you use?

Jigsaw can be used in a single class session or across multiple sessions.

How does it work?

Identify a concept area (the whole puzzle) which contains roughly 4-6 subtopics (pieces of the puzzle).
Divide the class into teams of 4-6 students (the number of students on a team should be equivalent to the number of subtopics).
Assign each student on the teams a different subtopic. Allow sufficient time for students to “develop expertise”, doing their own reading and research. Jigsaw falls apart if students are not prepared. Assigning questions, reading logs, study guides or reaction papers helps to ensure preparation. Consider asking for a summary of their readings by a certain date.
Students return to class and consult with the same content experts from the other teams. They are asked to discuss the topic as a group and how best to present it to their respective teams, possibly through creating review sheets / summary guide / examples/ list of resources etc.
Students return to their original teams where they are then asked to present/teach the topic to their team.
Conclude with whole class reflection / discussion.

Why would you use?

The technique provides a structure for students to organize and synthesize complicated information. This exercise works well with large amounts of content and can simplify complex, dynamic systems of information. Faculty can identify prior or incorrect knowledge.

When can you use?

Memory matrix is simple to implement and easy to use during instruction however there is some up-front preparation that must be completed. Consider content carefully. Content needs to appropriately align with column and row organization. This exercise is effective after lectures, videos, reading assignments, etc.

How does it work?

Carefully choose your content topic. Make sure the content can be organized in a table with rows and columns.
Create a simple matrix. Make one completed matrix to use as a key. This will make the analysis much easier. Also create a blank matrix for students to fill in.
Explain the purpose of the exercise.
Let students know how much time they will have, what kinds of responses you are looking for (words, bullets, short sentences), and when they can expect feedback.
Handout blank or partially filled matrix. Have students work on in class, individually or in groups. Provide practice matrices or examples if this is the first time you are presenting a memory matrix.
Students complete the matrix and hand-in.
Review and analyze results Analysis: Scan the completed matrices and compare to your key matrix. correct responses vs incorrect responses - focus on patterns in the responses. Results: Record the number of each correct or incorrect response into an Excel spreadsheet (or any data management system) where data can be reported in a variety of methods. Look for common misconceptions or errors. This could indicate recall problems, difficultly categorizing information, or insufficient teaching focus on a particular topic or category.
Provide feedback and clear misconceptions at next class meeting

Alternative versions

Cells can be manipulated in any number of ways. For instance, leave the cells blank or fill the cells in and leave the column heading blank.
Matrix can be completed by individuals, in pairs, small teams, as a class.

Online options

Use Google Spreadsheet to have small groups, or individuals fill cells.

Quiz Show

Basic Strategy

Quiz Show uses quiz game show format (e.g. Jeopardy or Who Wants to Be a Millionaire) to rapidly move through a series of questions with students. This strategy is popular for introducing game mechanics (points, competition) into a classroom activity.

Why would you use?

Quiz Show is popular for review sessions for reinforcing important information or but is usually not considered a good way to introduce content. The game format of a quiz show activity can be to keep students engaged although it should be used in moderation as it lacks authenticity to real world applications of knowledge.

When can you use?

Quiz Show is popular for review sessions before major assessment events. Quiz show could be used in short 5-10 minute segments or could easily fill an hour session.

How does it work?

Present a grid (or list) of questions on a whiteboard or PowerPoint. When crafting questions be mindful of the standard advice on writing multiple choice questions. Depending on class size you would likely divide students into groups. Student can be given a “bell” to ring in, or simply rotate between students. Quiz show is more appropriate for short answer questions not open ended questions.

Alternate versions

Students answer individually
Use in combination with clickers
Students write and submit questions in advance
Pub trivia mode: multiple questions in small groups, answered in writing rather than first to buzz in

Online Options

Quiz Show Review does not adapt easily to online learning environments.

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Q.5 Identify some hazards, while working in science laboratories. Give methods of first aid to deal with hazards in science laboratories.

Answer:

Many labs are more hazardous and risk-filled than the average workplace – the cost of existing on the cutting edge of the sciences. Whether you’re looking for cures, breakthroughs or new technologies, it is vital that you and the whole team understand each and every hazard of the laboratory.

With a full understanding of the hazards and risks attached to working in a laboratory, you and your team will be able to work to your fullest, combining effective research with safe practice. So, here we have listed a selection of the most common hazards and risks of the modern laboratory.

Chemical Hazards

Handling chemicals is a typical part of the day-to-day routine for many lab workers, but the risks and hazards remain the same. Many organic and inorganic chemicals are corrosive to the skin and to the eyes, and can be toxic. Full safety wear should be provided to any members of the team handling chemicals, and provisions to treat any exposure or clean spillages should be present in the laboratory.

It’s not only direct contact which may be hazardous, chemical reactions which generate heat can lead to thermal burns. This further demonstrates the importance of ensuring the surface of the skin is protected from the potential for burns and exposure.

Similarly, incorrect venting within the laboratory could be hazardous. Without full and correct ventilation, a distillation or chemical reaction could lead to an explosion in the lab. Depending upon the size of the explosion and the materials affected, this could be hugely dangerous for the team and for the lab.

Inhalation of certain chemicals can be dangerous, with many of the most common solvents proving to be extremely toxic. These dangers can be immediate or slowly manifest over time – making it important that the research team are protected from the fumes produced by these hazardous chemicals.

Ingesting chemicals is a huge risk in many laboratories, due to contamination on hands, food and drink. This demonstrates the importance of safe and secure storage for all food and drink items, away from chemical exposure. Furthermore, comprehensive hand-washing and sanitation provisions should be accessible for all members of the research team exposed to hazardous chemicals.

Prevention

When it comes to chemical hazards, effective prevention is the best way to manage the risks of working with these dangerous substances. Practising proper chemical segregation is essential in all labs, as some substances can react with each other to create chemical reactions, fires and even explosions. Protective clothing and good housekeeping are also important for protecting your team from chemical hazards.

Watch the video below for more information on how to minimise chemical hazards in your lab and what to do in an emergency. Electrical Hazards Even the most experienced research professional can overlook basic safety principles when working with electricity – so it is vital that protective measures are employed throughout the laboratory. Particularly hazardous are electrical units which are positioned close to liquid, so these should be fitted with ground-fault circuit interrupters to break the circuit should any current flow to ground.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8629 Laboratory Organization Management and Safety Methods Assignment 1

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Mon, 9 Sep 2019 11:37:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8629 Laboratory Organization Management and Safety Methods Assignment 1

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q.1 What do you know about laboratory design? What are requirements for designing a science laboratory?
Answer:

Designing a Successful School Science Lab

With the push for higher state and national science standards, many schools are seeking means to update their antiquated science lab equipment and propel their school science laboratories into the 21st century. While traditional science lab furniture, Bunsen burners, and beakers are not passé, modern school science lab designs feature:

SMART Boards
Digital Whiteboards
LCD projectors
Utility islands with gas, water, electrical, and data outlets
Approved safety equipment
Epoxy-top tables with chemical-resistant surfaces
Mobile teacher demonstration stations
Modular student lab workstations allowing for small group collaboration and learning
Maximized storage space solutions
Laboratories which can be used interchangeably for general science, chemistry, physics, biology, and physiology classes.

Laboratory should have :

1. Flexibility

Effortlessly and efficiently dividing science lessons between practical and theoretical learning helps students apply their knowledge more effectively. A theoretical understanding of scientific principles can aid students’ participation in practical learning and intelligent classroom design can strongly support this.

2. Environmental Factors

It is not merely the content of the lessons or how it is being delivered which helps improve students’ understanding of a subject, but also the environment in which they are taught. The University of Salford are continuing research which so far highlights that environmental factors affect the progress of 73% of students. Measuring students from 34 classrooms over one academic year, the research team discovered that learning progress can be affected by as much as 25% by the environmental factors of a classroom. Our team carefully considers all environmental factors when designing a laboratory including the use of natural light, acoustics, storage and colour.

3. Student Positioning

Since the Victorian era, the standard seating arrangement in the classroom has been row after row of students facing a tutor at the head of a long, narrow classroom. Despite curriculum’s, technologies and even scientific understanding having changed dramatically in the past 150 years, the classroom set-up largely remains the same. Classrooms must adapt to support a range of different learning activities to help encourage interaction and collaboration.

4. Use of Space

Sufficient circulation space in classrooms is important when maintaining a safe working environment. The arrangement of fixed and loose furnishings needs to afford teachers and students the freedom to circulate easily around the classroom. This freedom of movement can help improve the interaction between all parties to ensure a safer and more accessible lab which helps to promote inspiration.

BOX 3.4 Examples of Large-to Small-Scale Design Considerations

1. Building and site issues

Renovation versus new construction
Building site

2. Floor planning

Adjacencies
Traffic flow

3. Laboratory configuration

Individual laboratories
Support spaces

4. Building services and structure

Operation costs, they are critical to the functionality of the facility and the safety of the building users and surrounding community. Users' familiarity with alternative approaches to specific laboratory design issues will most likely lead to a more efficient, cost-effective, flexible, safe, and environmentally appropriate laboratory facility. Although an experienced and knowledgeable design professional can assist in the identification of design issues to consider and can evaluate appropriate alternative approaches to laboratory design, this is not always the case. Even when an experienced and knowledgeable design professional is available, it is advantageous for the user representative and the client team to become informed consumers of the design professional's services.

The design considerations presented here range from those requiring large-scale decisions, such as constructing a new building versus renovating an existing building, through intermediate-scale options such as floor planning, to small-scale issues, such as laboratory configuration. They also include considerations related to structural as well as mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) systems (Box 3.4). Administrative policies should be considered throughout, since many institutions have defined practices or standards that affect many design issues. Many of the design considerations are interdependent. Decisions regarding larger-scale issues, which should be made early in the design process, can limit or preclude many of the smaller-scale design decisions. Knowledge of these dependencies, often provided by the laboratory design professional to the client team, will help streamline the design process and maximize the potential for a cost-effective and optimum design solution is acceptable as an alternative in laboratory design may differ according to scientific discipline. This report focuses primarily on chemical, biochemical, and molecular biology laboratories, but it is also relevant to laboratories in related disciplines such as food science, agricultural science, pharmacy, materials science, some engineering sciences, and physics. However, the requirements of highly specialized laboratories, such as animal facilities, are covered in other guides such as the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (NRC, 1996). Richmond and McKinney (1993) provides design details for laboratories using identifiable infectious agents.

Acceptable design alternatives also differ between organizations on the basis of their goals, geographic location, governing authorities, and other factors, The goals for a new research laboratory building o renovation should be determined in the early stages of planning as they will influence the development of appropriate design alternatives. Geographic location may influence the acceptability of a particular design alternative; for example, the more stringent seismic requirements of building codes in southern California, as compared to New Jersey, will influence the overall height of the laboratory building in California both because of the increased structural costs associated with the applicable building codes and because of building height restrictions. Similarly, the authority of local governing authorities to interpret zoning regulations, building and fire codes, and other local regulations can influence the design of the laboratory facility. Choosing between the different alternatives is a complex process that must strike a balance between benefits and costs. The latter include construction, total project, operation, and lifetime costs of the building; these costs are discussed in the section on "Research Laboratory Cost Considerations" in this chapter. When choosing between the different alternatives, other factors besides costs and benefits also need to be considered flexibility is the one that often pervades all the design considerations discussed in this chapter. Flexibility, which is also referred to as adaptability, is the ability of a building site, building design, or individual laboratory to meet both current and unforeseen future needs. Future laboratory additions, renovations, and modifications can be implemented cost effectively, in a timely manner, and with less disruption to other users if the laboratory facility is designed to be flexible. Flexibility may come at a modest increase in the initial construction cost; however, because numerous changes will be made to a laboratory over its lifetime, the cost incurred to design and Building Site

If the predesign recommendation is to construct an addition or a new building, a building site must be selected. While the selection process for a building site is complicated by many factors and can be difficult, the decision regarding the building site should ultimately be based on a total environmental approach. How does the building fit into the campus and community? What demands are placed on the natural and manmade environment? For example, electric power, telephone and communications lines, and sewer and water connections may have to be upgraded. For corporate and academic campuses with other centralized utilities, such as steam.

Some of the design considerations discussed in this chapter include specific alternative approaches.

What BOX 3.7 Demands Made on the Environment by Laboratory Facilities

Natural Environment

• Air quality

—Building emissions

—Traffic emissions

• Water quality

—Building effluents

—Storm water runoff

Man-made Environment

• Transport of hazardous materials

• Additional vehicular traffic

• Space for parking

• Fire protection

• Access for emergency response

for heating and cooling water, expansion of or upgrades to the central power plant and cooling towers may also be needed.

Floor Planning

The planning of the laboratory floor is influenced by the building's site, building and fire codes, security concerns, laboratory users, the culture of the organization, and other design decisions made during previous phases. The laboratory floor layout and the resulting traffic flow can reflect or change the culture of an organization. For example, the building can promote interaction by centralizing or clustering research offices and by locating conference rooms or other meeting spaces to allow ready access from the laboratories and offices, or it can isolate researchers by placing small, closed laboratories along a lengthy circulation corridor. Interaction diagrams can be used as a method to identify desirable and undesirable interactions within the building as well as critical interactions between occupants of the building and the surrounding campus and community. These interactions should be considered when alternative floor layouts are evaluated to identify appropriate adjacencies.

filters and bio safety cabinets may be required to meet the special ventilation requirements. These and other features (Box 3.10) of laboratories and many of the related issues that must be considered when designing a laboratory are discussed in this section.

BOX 3.10 Laboratory Features and Furnishings

Laboratory desks
Bench tops
Fume hoods
Flooring
Special ventilation
Lighting
Laboratory casework and furniture
Accommodation of special environments
Laboratory utility services

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Q.2 Write importance of the following in science laboratory: Labeling, Compatibility, proper checking of stock and maintenance of the materials.
Answer:

Labeling Chemicals in Laboratories

Unambiguous identification of chemicals in a laboratory is of utmost importance. Nothing is more difficult to handle than an unknown substance posing unidentified hazards. Disposal of unknown chemicals is expensive and requires a screening procedure to identify potential hazards. Laboratories are used by several people, and staff and students change frequently, so everyone who works in a laboratory is responsible for ensuring that chemicals and their associated hazards can be identified throughout their lifetime.

Compatibility :

PROVIDING FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND SUPPLIES

In response to growing enrollments and the deterioration of an older generation of buildings, school districts across the nation are involved in a wave of construction and renovation. A comprehensive survey conducted by the General Accounting Office in 1996 revealed that many existing school buildings were i need of reconstruction or renovation. At that time, one-third of schools across the nation needed either extensive renovation or reconstruction, while another third had at least one major structural flaw, such as a leaky roof, an outdated electrical system, or dysfunctional plumbing (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1996).

On average, public elementary and secondary schools across the nation are devoting an increasing share of their budgets—from 10 percent in 1989-1990 to 14 percent in 2002-2002—to capital investments (National Center for Education Statistics, 2004 b). Trend data from an annual mail and telephone survey of school district chief business officers indicate that planned and completed school construction spending nearly doubled over the past decade, increasing from $10.7 billion in 1994 to $28.6 billion in 2003 (Agron, 2003). About 61 percent of these expenditures was for new construction, and 39 percent was for additions or renovations to existing buildings. Another recent survey found that spending on school construction projects to be completed in 2003 totaled $19.7 billion, with 64 percent of the total dedicated to new construction, 21 percent for additions to existing buildings, and 14 percent for renovations of existing structures (Abramson, 2004). Respondents to the second survey indicated that 41 percent of expenditure for projects to be completed in 2003 were for high schools. They indicated that 100 percent of new high schools and 92 percent of new middle schools would include science laboratories (Abramson, 2004). Laboratory facilities were included as part of additions to existing schools much less frequently (in about 18 percent of high school projects and 8 percent of middle school projects).

Checking the stock :

Check all the stocks in lab. the following information can be obtained a. The annual consumption of al consumable item b. Period of the year consumable items are required c. New apparatus that is required for coming year d. Items of equipment and apparatus that have been damaged or stolen .

. In a corporate research facility that are not readily accessible to the general public. In that case, meeting rooms are needed so that visitors can interact with the building occupants without having to enter the secure area of the building. A reception area with adjoining conference rooms, augmented by the necessary security measures, is a common solution to the need for providing spaces accessible to invited guests while restricting access to other portions of the building. The building can be designed to clearly define the entrance and the areas within the building intended for use by the general public. The design group can help the client develop a systematic approach to identifying intended interactions, security levels, and functions of the building. The planning of the various spaces on each floor should reflect the established interaction criteria. Modular Approach to Laboratory Floor Layout A modular approach to laboratory floor layout is generally recommended by design professionals and often used. The single laboratory module is the starting point for the floor layout. Larger laboratories, which can support group research activities, sharing of support facilities, and the larger area required for teaching laboratories, can comprise multiple laboratory modules. When a floor layout is modular, partitions to separate laboratory units can easily be added to the larger laboratory units to define space for different activities if the need arises. The size of the laboratory module and the grid configuration are often determined at the same time—one typically informs the other. In turn, the number of modules and the grid configuration determine the overall size of the building footprint. The structural grid is defined by the structural column and beam locations. Thus for a building with a structural grid of 24 feet by 30 feet, a single laboratory module would typically occupy one-half of the width of the grid, or in this example an area 12 feet by 30 feet, or 360 square feet. The area of the laboratory module may be reduced, however, by the configuration of the circulation corridor. For example, the area of the laboratory module would be reduced to 12 feet by 24 feet if a 6footwide peripheral circulation corridor were used. Mayer (1995) discusses typical laboratory module sizes and standard work area layouts for them. Planning a floor layout by the modular approach and standardizing the sizes and shapes of the individual laboratories will create a flexible floor plan that is space efficient and less costly to construct than one with fixed assorted-sized laboratories. Developing a generic laboratory design with features that accommodate the majority of the researchers' requirements can also result in a highly efficient research laboratory facility. Customized configurations of the laboratory and its support spaces can be less flexible, less space efficient, and more costly to construct. Some customization, however, is necessary to accommodate the specialized requirements of individual research laboratories. On the one hand, customization in laboratory support spaces can provide necessary unique facilities without compromising the integrity of the generic approach to the research laboratories. On the other hand, inessential personal customization of research laboratories or laboratory support spaces can delay the progress of the design and documentation phases and escalate project costs. Highly customized laboratories limit the ability to move research activities from one laboratory to another, and highly customized features desired by one researcher may represent an encumbrance and safety hazard to other researchers. Minor changes to a generic laboratory are easy to accomplish at a modest cost, whereas changes to a highly customized laboratory can be costly.

Materials Distribution.

Larger quantities of materials and supplies are moved within a laboratory building than in an office building. Orderly movement of the materials is accomplished by a well-designed network of hallways, service corridors, elevators, and a loading dock with adjacent areas for receiving, storage, and staging. In larger buildings, a dedicated network of service corridors and freight elevators can be used to minimize the congestion in the pedestrian circulation corridor and passenger elevators of the building Service corridors with designated freight elevators provide an additional margin of safety for the building users. People using pedestrian circulation corridors are physically isolated from the movement of large, heavy, bulky, and potentially hazardous items through the service corridors. The delivery personnel, using the service corridors, can focus their attention on their task and are less likely to be distracted or startled by a person stepping out of an office into the path of an oncoming, fully loaded delivery cart. Security. The building design, especially the means of access and egress, should take personal security and the need to protect property from theft into consideration.

Laboratory Configuration

A laboratory with fume hoods, benches, and a sink may be the generic image of a laboratory, but the specific needs of different laboratory activities or scientific disciplines require highly specialized facilities (see, e.g., DiBerardinisetal., 1993, pp. 123–342). In general, research laboratories require special ventilation, are utility intensive, and require special furnishings that can withstand instruments, equipment, and potentially caustic and damaging chemicals. In chemistry laboratories, a fume hood usually provides the special ventilation needed. In molecular biology laboratories, high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)

Maintenance of material :Laboratory Equipment Maintenance

Keeping your lab equipment in peak condition is vital if the results of your experiments are going to be accurate and reliable. Precise measurements are the foundation of most science experiments, so failing to maintain your equipment could derail your entire study. Contamination can also completely invalidate your lab results, so thorough housekeeping is just as important as the more glamorous parts of working in a lab. Labs rely on the ability to deliver accurate results in minimal turnaround time, and efficient equipment is essential to make sure that these goals can be met. In addition to this, equipment is often one of the most significant outlays in labs, where limited funding often means that expenditure must be carefully controlled. From aiding your research to keeping your lab costs within budget, there are plenty of reasons why equipment maintenance is essential for your lab. That’s why we’ve put together a comprehensive guide on lab equipment.

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Q.3 Write necessary material and procedures for the conduct of following practicals:
i. To find the diameter of a wire with the help of screw gauge.
Answer:

b) Zero Error This error occurs if we move the screw in one direction and then in opposite directions repeatedly. If on bringing the flat end of the screw in contact with the zero mark on base line of the main scale, the instrument is said to be free from zero error. Otherwise an error is said to be there. This can be both positive and negative zero error.

Apparatus

Micrometer screw gauge, small sphere, fine wire, and half-meter rod.

Procedure

Find the pitch and least count of screw gauge.
Find the zero error, and determine the sign of screw gauge.
Place the wire in gap AB (see the fig.) and turn the screw gauge till the wire is gently pressed. Note the reading of linear as well as the circular scale in table.
Complete the table up to last column. Take the reading from different places of the wire.
Repeat the process for the given small sphere.
Calculate mean diameter of the sphere.
Find the radius and hence area of cross-section of wire. Also the volume of the sphere by applying the formula

ii. Staining of check cells.

Answer:

Observing human cheek cells under a microscope is a simple way to quickly view and learn about human cell structure. Many educational facilities use the procedure as an experiment for students to explore the principles of microscopy and the identification of cells, and viewing cheek cells is one of the most common school experiments used to teach students how to operate light microscopes. The observation uses a wet mount process that is straightforward to achieve by following an effective preparation method. You can replicate the observational experiment at home or in the classroom with any standard light microscope with magnification settings of X-40 and X-100.

How to Prepare a Wet Mount of Cheek Cells

Before starting, it is always important to ensure that the working surface is clean and that you are wearing a pair of clean gloves to avoid contamination.

Cheek cells can be easily obtained by gently scraping the inside of the mouth using a clean, sterile cotton swab.

Once the cells have been obtained, the following procedure is used for cheek cell wet mount preparation:

Physiological saline on a clean microscopic slide (central part of the slide)
Smear the cotton swab on to the center (part containing the saline drop) of the clean slide for about 4 seconds to get the cells on to the center of the slide
Add a drop of methylene blue solution on to the smear and gently place a cover slip on top (to cover the stain and the cells)
Any excess solution can be removed by touching one side of the slide with a paper towel or blotting paper.
Place the slide on the microscope for observation using 4 x or 10 x objective to find the cells
Once the cells have been found, they can then be viewed at higher magnification

Note- Used cotton swabs and cotton towel should be safely discarded in the trash and not left lying on the working table.

Why do we have to Stain the Cells?

The cell has different parts, and those that can absorb stains or dyes are referred to as chromatic. Having absorbed the stain, these parts of the cell become more visible under the microscope and can therefore be easily distinguished from other parts of the same cell.

Without stains, cells would appear to be almost transparent, making it difficult to differentiate its parts.

Methylene blue has a string affinity for both DNA and RNA. When it comes in contact with the two, a darker stain is produced and can be viewed under the microscope.

The nucleus at the central part of the cheek cell contains DNA. When a drop of methylene blue is introduced, the nucleus is stained, which makes it stand out and be clearly seen under the microscope. Although the entire cell appears light blue in color, the nucleus at the central part of the cell is much darker, which allows it to be identified.

Observation

On mounting the wet slide, the following will be observed:

Large irregularly shaped cells with distinct cell walls.
A distinct nucleus at the central part of each individual cell (dark blue in color).
A lightly stained cytoplasm in each cell. Conclusion

This is an easy and fun experiment that will show kids the basic structure of a cell and its major parts. For easy identification of the parts, the parent or teacher can first show the kids some samples of the cells in advance.This will help them identify different parts with ease.

Once this has been achieved, kids can move on to the next stage of learning the functions of these different parts.

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Q.4 What are different aspects for laboratory inspection? Why chemistry laboratory inspection is more crucial than physics laboratory?

Answer:

W hat is a Self-Inspection?

Laboratory self-inspection is a check of one's own physical space, processes, and practices to identify unsafe conditions. An effective self-inspection program focusing on safety and health issues includes assessing facilities, verifying that safeguards and safety equipment are available, and verifying that approved safety practices are being followed.

The occupant of a work space is the most knowledgeable on the conditions and operations that occur on a daily basis. The laboratory professional using a given instrument to perform a specific assay for a particular sample type has the most intimate, proximal knowledge of the safety issues involved in any particular process. Including laboratory staff in the inspection process helps the laboratory remain ever prepared for an audit or inspection.1 From the vantage point of the laboratory bench, the staff member can determine whether appropriate controls, as listed in Table 1, are in place.

Any unsafe work practices observed during a self-inspection can become an opportunity for training. Adult learners are result-oriented and usually like to be viewed as leaders making choices through active participation in the process. Learning by doing will result in longer-term recall and the incorporation of safer practices at the work bench

The foundation for implementing a laboratory self-inspection program covering safety and health in clinical laboratories is already in place in most clinical laboratories. Laboratory safety inspections can identify and prevent problems before they occur; however, the verification format needs to include more than a review of manuals and records.

Quality assessment (QA) programs in existence encourage laboratory management teams to fundamentally shift the organization's mindset and culture to one that embraces quality management systems concepts.
Self-inspection checklists follow the format and requirements for other elements in a laboratory's QA program.
Safety and health is included in laboratory accreditation programs, with questions and supporting information available for members to use as part of their pre-review process.
Checklists are used in laboratories as an effective way to keep track of maintenance and calibration activities.

Why Safety and Health Audits?

Laboratory workers have the legal right to a safe workplace. OSHA, as established by the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, enforces protective safety and health standards in all United States workplaces.According to OSHA,

Employers are responsible for providing a safe and healthful workplace for their employees. OSHA's role is to assure the safety and health of America's workers by setting and enforcing standards; providing training, outreach and education; establishing partnerships; and encouraging continual improvement in workplace safety and health.

Twenty-five US states, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands have developed and currently operate their own OSHA-approved safety and health programs. These programs may have slight variations from those of federal OSHA but the standards of those programs must be at least as effective as those of federal OSHA. Since 1991, California is one of the US states with an approved state OSHA program. Cal OSHA requires all private employers with 20 or more employees to have a written, effective Injury and Illness Prevention Program (IIPP) in place.15 Material available from the Department of Industrial Relations (DIR) provides guidance on elements to include in the written plan.

The benefits of an effective IIPP not only include improved workplace safety and health but also better morale, increased productivity, and overall reduced costs of doing business.OSHA also provides examples of effective IIPPs that have been shown to successfully reduce workplace injuries and illnesses.

Why Use a Checklist?

A checklist format, although not stipulated as a requirement by OSHA, provides a concise outline of key points for auditing safety and health in clinical or research laboratories. Table 2 lists key elements to consider when developing an effective checklist. . The document has the following qualities:

Outlines standards applicable for the major hazards that laboratory workers are most likely to encounter in their daily tasks.
Describes the hierarchy of controls framework used to systematically remove or reduce the potential for exposure to workplace hazards.
Includes a program description for potential hazards and applicable regulations arranged by classes of hazards:
Chemical
Biological, blood-borne pathogens
Working with research animals
Compressed gases, cryogens, and dry ice
Ionizing and non-ionizing radiation
Ergonomic
Trips, slips, and falls
Noise
Equipment (autoclaves, centrifuges, bio safety cabinets, fume hoods, and lockout/tag-out devices)
Electrical safety
Fire safety
Examine existing conditions
Measure practices after safety training has been completed
Record observations and correct deficiencies
Verify continued correction
Include a mechanism to identify trends and recurrent deficiencies
Engage staff participation for awareness of policies and procedures

The end results and goals are to minimize and reduce safety and health risks, to create a safe workplace, and to promote safe work practices.

For clinical laboratories, safety and health considerations are required under the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act (CLIA) revisions adopted in 2003 as part of developing an effective QA program to monitor quality throughout the testing process. Most laboratory accreditation programs include safety as part of QA in evaluating all facets of the laboratory's technical and nontechnical operations.

Chemistry lab inspection

Chemistry Lab

Teachers and teacher-aides should lead by example and wear personal protective equipment; follow and enforce safety rules, procedures, and practices; and demonstrate safety behavior and promote a culture of safety. They should be proactive in every aspect of laboratory safety, making safety a priority. The following is a checklist for teachers highlighting essential information for working in the high school laboratory. This is a general safety checklist and should be periodically re-evaluated for updates.

Upkeep of Laboratory and Equipment

Conduct regular inspections of safety and first aid equipment as often as requested by the administration. Record the inspection date and the inspector’s initials on the attached equipment inspection tag.

Notify the administration in writing if a hazardous or possibly hazardous condition (e.g., malfunctioning safety equipment or chemical hazard) is identified in the laboratory and follow through on the status. Never use defective equipment.

Record keeping

Keep organized records on safety training of staff for as long as required by the school system. Keep records of all laboratory incidents for as long as required by the school system.

Safety and Emergency Procedures

Educate students on the location and use of all safety and emergency equipment prior to laboratory activity.

Identify safety procedures to follow in the event of an emergency/accident. Provide students with verbal and written safety procedures to follow in the event of an emergency/accident.

Know the location of and how to use the cut-off switches and valves for the water, gas, and electricity in the laboratory.

Know the location of and how to use all safety and emergency equipment (i.e., safety shower, eyewash, first-aid kit, fire blanket, fire extinguishers and mercury spill kits).

Keep a list of emergency phone numbers near the phone.

Conduct appropriate safety and evacuation drills on a regular basis.

Explain in detail to students the consequences of violating safety rules and procedures.

Maintenance of Chemicals

Perform regular inventory inspections of chemicals.
Update the chemical inventory at least annually, or as requested by the administration. Provide a copy of the chemical inventory to the local emergency responders (i.e., fire department).
Do not store food and drink with any chemicals.
If possible, keep all chemicals in their original containers.
Make sure all chemicals and reagents are labeled.
Do not store chemicals on the lab bench, on the floor, or in the laboratory chemical hood.
Ensure chemicals not in use are stored in a locked facility with limited access.
Know the storage, handling, and disposal requirements for each chemical used.
Make certain chemicals are disposed of properly. Consult the label and the Material Safety Data Sheet for disposal information and always follow appropriate chemical disposal regulations.

Preparing for Laboratory Activities

Before each activity in the laboratory, weigh the potential risk factors against the educational value.

Have an understanding of all the potential hazards of the materials, the process, and the equipment involved in every laboratory activity.

Inspect all equipment/apparatus in the laboratory before use.
Before entering the laboratory, instruct students on all laboratory procedures that will be conducted.
Discuss all safety concerns and potential hazards related to the laboratory work that students will be performing before starting the work. Document in lesson plan book.

Ensuring Appropriate Laboratory Conduct

Be a model for good safety conduct for students to follow.
Make sure students are wearing the appropriate personal protective equipment (i.e., chemical splash goggles, laboratory aprons or coats, and gloves).
Enforce all safety rules and procedures at all times.
Never leave students unsupervised in the laboratory.
Never allow unauthorized visitors to enter the laboratory.
Never allow students to take chemicals out of the laboratory.
Never permit smoking, food, beverages, or gum in the laboratory.

This information is from the School Chemistry Laboratory Safety Guide created by the U.S. Consumer Safety Product Commission (CPSC), Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).

Inspections of chemistry lab is crucial than physics lab because of the presence of so many chemicals .these chemicals require lots of time to inspect .where as in physics lab limited apparatus is present which can easily inspect .

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Q.5 Write techniques of handling chemicals. Write techniques for pouring and transferring liquids.

Answer:

Laboratory Rules and Safety

Chemistry wet laboratories contain certain inherent dangers and hazards. As a chemistry student working in a laboratory, you must learn how to work safely with these hazards in order to prevent injury to yourself and others around you. You must make a constant effort to think about the potential hazards associated with what you are doing, and to think about how to work safely to prevent or minimize these hazards as much as possible. The following guidelines are here to help you. Please understand and follow these guidelines and act according to the principles behind them to help everybody to be as safe as possible. Ultimately, your own safety is your own responsibility. Please make sure you are familiar with the safety precautions, hazard warnings and procedures of the experiment you are performing on a given day before you start any work. If you are unsure of how to do something safely, please ask the TA before proceeding. Experiments should not be performed without an instructor in attendance and must not be left unattended while in progress. No unauthorized experiments are allowed. No modification of the experiments is allowed. No work outside of regular hours is allowed, except under exceptional circumstances.

Anyone who fails to be governed by the Safety Regulations is subject to disciplinary action and possible removal from the laboratory and course.

Safety Rules

Make sure you are familiar with all the safety information given to you about each experiment before starting the experiment. This includes your manual, these safety guidelines, any posted information or any other information provided to by your TA.

Always wear safety glasses (including during check-in and check-out), except when their removal has been specifically authorized by the TA prior to their removal. Contact lenses are forbidden. You must also wear a face shield when requested to by the TA.

You must wear a lab coat (and do it up) in all Chemistry labs.

Footwear must completely cover the foot and heel (no sandals, baby dolls, ballet flats, mules, open-toed footwear, etc.).

You must wear long pants (no shorts, capris, skirts, or dresses).

If you arrive at your Chemistry lab and do not have the required clothing, you will be directed to rent or purchase missing items (glasses, lab coats, disposable foot coverings and long pants) from Chemistry Stores before you will be allowed to participate in the lab.

Loose hair must be tied back so as to be out of the way. Dangling jewellery must be removed. Do not eat or drink in the lab.

Visitors are not allowed to be in the lab.

Please keep your work area and the common work areas tidy. Also, please make sure the aisles, safety showers, eyewash stations and doorways are unobstructed.
Please leave all glassware, equipment, tools, etc. as clean or cleaner than you found them.
Please clean up spills immediately. If the spill is large or is of a hazardous material, inform the TA immediately. Use spill mix to absorb solvent or caustic liquids.
Please dispose of waste properly and in a timely manner and according to the instructions provided in your lab manual. If you are not sure, please ask your TA for the proper method of disposal.
Wash your hands before you leave the lab.
Do not remove chemicals or equipment from the lab except when required to do so for analysis.
Please notify your TA of any serious medical conditions.
Do not wear earbuds or earphones while in the lab.

The vapours of many organic solvents are flammable or combustible. Do not expose electric sparks, open flames and heating elements to organic solvent vapours. UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED, ASSUME ALL ORGANIC SOLVENTS ARE FLAMMABLE.

Many chemicals (solid, liquid or vapour) are poisonous. Do not taste chemicals. If it is necessary to smell a chemical, do so by fanning the vapours towards your nose. Never inhale directly. Avoid inhaling dust or fine powders. Use fume hoods and personal protective equipment when necessary.

Do not pipet with your mouth. .

Managing Reagent Chemicals

1. Selecting Reagent Chemicals

Each school system should develop a list of reagents acceptable for use in the various science courses. A teacher who wishes to use a substance not on the appropriate list must seek the permission of the science supervisor by submitting a written request. The request should include the following:

A copy of the lesson plan for the proposed demonstration or laboratory exercise.
Information supporting the following assertions:
Use of the substance is pedagogically sound.
The demonstration or laboratory exercise using the substance is an effective way to illustrate an important property, process or concept.
No satisfactory substitute for the substance is readily available.
Adequate safeguards are in place to ensure proper use of the substance.
Students will be instructed in the proper handling of the substance (as indicated in the lesson plan).
Information on the following to enable the supervisor to make an informed decision:
the extent of exposure of students and the teacher to the chemical (including estimate of time to the nearest minute).
the age or maturity level of the students who will be exposed.
In considering a substance for use in the laboratory, teachers are advised to check hazardous materials lists available in print and on the Internet. Resources available include the following:

The National Toxicological Program for lists of carcinogenic and reproductive toxins (teratogens and mutagens)

The National Research Council’s Prudent Practices in the Laboratory (1995), Chapter 3, for lists of carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens, and highly flammable materials

The Oak Ridge Toxicology Information Resources Center’s Catalog of Teratogenic Agents
Appearance of a substance on one of these lists does not preclude its appropriate use in the school laboratory. The dose makes the difference. Even common substances such as water and salt can be toxic in excessive quantities. Many substances that are toxic at some levels can safely be used at lower levels.
Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), which provide information on toxicity levels, may be found on the Internet.
Chemical Inventory: Inventories of reagents are essential in the control of chemical hazards. They enable members of the science department to determine the existence of a specific reagent chemical, its location, and its approximate shelf age. A reagent chemical inventory should be conducted at least once a year. The chemical inventory record should
contain the date the inventory was conducted.
identify chemical reagents by name and formula.
specify the amount of each reagent present.
indicate the storage location of each reagent.
indicate the hazard of each reagent, using information from the Material Data Safety Sheet (MSDS) for each substance and the appropriate National Fire Protection Association hazard code.

Chemical Storage

. General Guidelines

Secure storage areas against unauthorized removal of chemicals by students or others.
Protect the school environment by restricting emissions from stored reagent chemicals. Vents should be ducted to the outside.
Where possible, storage areas should have two separate exits.
Maintain clear access to and from the storage areas.
Do not store chemicals in aisles or stairwells, on desks or laboratory benches, on floors or in hallways, or in fume hoods.
Use NFPA- or OSHA-approved storage cabinets for flammable chemicals.
Use an appropriate “Acid Cabinet” for any acid solutions of 6 M concentration or higher. Nitric acid needs to be isolated.
Use refrigerators of explosion-proof or explosion-safe design only. Do not use standard refrigerators to store flammable chemicals. Place NO FOOD labels on refrigerators used to store chemicals.
Label storage areas with a general hazard symbol to identify hazardous chemicals and indicate correct fire fighting procedures.
See Appendix E, NFPA Hazard Codes.
File a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for every chemical stored in the laboratory.
Store all reagent chemicals in compatible family groups. Do not alphabetize.
See Appendix F, Storage of Chemicals.
Store all chemicals at eye level and below. The preferred shelving material is wood treated with polyurethane or a similar impervious material. All shelving should have a two-inch lip. If you use shelving with metal brackets, inspect the clips and brackets annually for corrosion and replace as needed.
Store chemical reagents prepared in the laboratory in plastic bottles (if possible and appropriate to the chemical) to minimize the risk of breakage.
Date containers upon receipt and again when opened.
Attach chemical labels with all necessary information to all containers.
See Chapter VII.A.5, Labeling of Stored Reagent Chemicals.
When opening newly received reagent chemicals, immediately read the warning labels to be aware of any special storage precautions such as refrigeration or inert atmosphere storage.
Test peroxide-forming substances periodically for peroxide levels; dispose of these substances after three months unless the MSDS for the substance indicates a longer shelf life.
See Appendix G, Hazards of Peroxide-Forming Substances, and Appendix C, Materials Data Safety Sheets (MSDS): Explanation and Samples.
Check chemical containers periodically for rust, corrosion, and leakage.
Store bottles of especially hazardous and moisture-absorbing chemicals in chemical-safe bags.
Maintain a complete inventory in the room where the chemicals are stored, and make a copy available to fire fighters.
Keep storage areas clean and orderly at all times.
Have spill cleanup supplies (absorbents, neutralizers) in any room where chemicals are stored or used.

a. Storage of Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Flash point is defined as the minimum temperature of a liquid at which it gives off sufficient vapor to form an ignitable mixture with air.

Flammable liquid is defined as any liquid that has a flash point below 100 F (37.8°C).

Combustible liquid is defined as any liquid that has a flash point at or above 100 F (37.8 ° C).

. Guidelines

Limit the amount of flammable and combustible materials stored to that required for one year of laboratory work.
When possible, store flammable and combustible liquids in their original containers or safety cans. A safety can is an approved container of not more than 5 gallons (18.9 L) capacity. The container should have a spring-closed spout cover and an integral flame-arrester and be designed to relieve internal pressure safely when exposed to fire.

b. Storage of Compressed Gases

Use small lecture-bottle-type gas cylinders only. Store all gas cylinders in an upright position.
Store gas cylinders in a cool dry place away from corrosive chemicals or fumes.
Store gas cylinders away from highly flammable substances.
When cylinders are no longer in use, shut the valves, relieve the pressure in the gas regulators, removed the regulators, and cap the cylinders.
Label empty gas cylinders EMPTY or MT.
Store empty gas cylinders separately from full gas cylinders.
Store flammable or toxic gases at or above ground level – not in basements.
Use cylinders of toxic, flammable, or reactive gases in fume hoods only.
When moving cylinders, be sure the valve cap is securely in place to protect the valve stem and valve. Do not use the valve cap as a lifting lug.
If large gas cylinders are used, they should be chained. A hand truck should be available for transporting them to and from the storage area.

Labeling of Stored Reagent Chemicals

Proper labeling is fundamental to a safe and effective laboratory operation. Reagents created in the laboratory also require labeling.

Purchased Reagent Chemicals

All purchased reagent chemicals should be labeled with –

chemical name.
date received.
date of initial opening.
shelf-life.
storage classification location.
name and address of manufacturer.

a. Solutions

All reagents created in the laboratory should be labeled with –

chemical name and formula.
concentration.
date prepared.
name of person who prepared the reagent.
storage classification.
hazard warning label (available from a safety supplier).
reference to original source of chemical (e.g., manufacturer, which jar, etc.).

B. Handling Reagent Chemicals

1. Dispensing Reagent Chemicals

The MSDS for an individual substance should always be consulted before a chemical is used for any reason. It is the best source of information about possible hazards, spill procedures, handling procedures and first aid for any substance.

Teachers are responsible for instructing their students about safe methods for working with chemicals.

a. Safety Guidelines for Dispensing Reagent Chemicals

• Use the smallest amount of the chemical possible in any experiment. Microscale experiments should be considered.

Consider distributing the amount of chemical for an experiment into vials for each student. This minimizes waste and can save time during the class period.
Use proper containers for dispensing solids and liquids. Solids should be contained in wide-mouthed bottles and liquids in containers that have drip-proof lips.
Label all containers properly.
Never return dispensed chemicals to stock bottle, as it inevitably results in contamination despite your best precautions.

Dispensing Flammable Liquids

When a liquid flows from one container to another, static electricity can build up in one of the containers. If this charge becomes large enough, a spark will be produced between the containers, and a flammable liquid may be ignited. This is particularly a danger when the liquid is stored in a large container and distributed to smaller containers.

Such containers should be bonded and grounded:

Bonding refers to providing an electrical connection between the two containers. Commonly this is accomplished by attaching a wire, fastening one end each to the two containers.
Grounding refers to connecting one of the containers (usually the stationary one) to a grounding source such as a metallic water pipe.

Common Hazards

Four categories of hazards commonly found in school laboratories are: corrosives, flammables, oxidizers/reactives, and toxins. In this section, mercury is discussed separately as a special hazard.

Corrosives

Corrosives are materials that can injure body tissue or cause corrosion of metal by direct chemical action. Major classes of corrosive substances are:

strong acids (e.g., sulfuric, nitric, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids)
strong bases (e.g., sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide)
dehydrating agents (e.g., sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, phosphorus pentoxide, and calcium oxide)
oxidizing agents (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, chlorine, and bromine)

Flammables

Flammable substances have the potential to catch fire readily and burn in air. A flammable liquid itself does not catch fire; it is the vapors produced by the liquid that burn. Important properties of flammable liquids:

Flash point is the minimum temperature of a liquid at which sufficient vapor is given off to form an ignitable mixture with air.
Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature required to initiate self-sustained combustion independent of a heat source.

Oxidizers/Reactives

Oxidizers/reactives include chemicals that can explode, violently polymerize, form explosive peroxides, or react violently with water or atmospheric oxygen.

Oxidizers: An oxidizing agent is any material that initiates or promotes combustion in other materials, either by causing fire itself or by releasing oxygen or other combustible gases.

Reactives: Reactives include materials that are pyrophoric (“flammable solids”), are water reactive, form explosive peroxides, or may undergo such reactions as violent polymerization.

Toxins

A toxic substance is one that, even in small amounts, can injure living tissue.

Methods of Toxins Entering the Body:

Ingestion – Absorption through the digestive tract. This process can occur through eating with contaminated hands or in contaminated areas.
Absorption – Absorption through the skin often causes dermatitis. Some toxins that are absorbed through the skin or eyes can damage the liver, kidney, or other organs.
Inhalation – Absorption through the respiratory tract (lungs) through breathing. This process is the most important route in terms of severity.
Injection – Percutaneous injection of a toxic substance through the skin. This process can occur in the handling of sharp-edged pieces of broken glass apparatus and through misuse of sharp materials such as hypodermic needles.

Mercury

Mercury and its compounds, both organic and inorganic, are health hazards. Metallic mercury has a measurable vapor pressure, and the production of vapor is accentuated by heating the mercury or subdividing as occurs in a spill. Laboratory sources of mercury include, among others, thermometers, manometers (barometers), and batteries. Not only is the vapor harmful, but the metal itself is absorbable through the intact skin.

Mercury and its compounds should never be found in the elementary or middle school.

i. In high schools, mercury should be used only under special circumstances. Mercury is acceptable in high school only if all four of these criteria are met:

No substitute is available that will provide the degree of accuracy required for the operation.
The teacher has obtained prior approval from the science supervisor.
All persons in the laboratory working with mercury or an instrument containing mercury wear chemical splash safety goggles, full face shields, aprons, and adequate clothing to prevent skin contact.
Access to mercury or any instrument containing the element is restricted by keeping source and instrument under lock and key except when in use.

Spill Cleanup

General Notes on Chemical Spills

Spills should be contained, the area cleared of students, and the spill cleaned up immediately.
Waste from spill cleanup should be disposed of appropriately.
See Chapter VII.C, Chemical Waste Strategies.
After floor spill has been thoroughly cleaned up in the appropriate manner, the area should be mopped dry to minimize the risk of slipping and falling.

Spills that Constitute Fire Hazard

Extinguish all flames immediately.
Shut down all experiments.
Vacate the room until the situation has been corrected.

Mercury Spills

Whenever possible, mercury should not be used in school laboratories. If and when it is used, however, there is a chance of a spill occurring.

Each laboratory should therefore be equipped with a specialized, commercially available, mercury-spill kit. Follow the directions found in your kit for cleaning up a mercury spill.

C. Chemical Waste Strategies

All laboratory work with chemicals eventually produces chemical waste. Everyone associated with the science laboratory shares the legal and moral responsibility to minimize the amount of waste produced and to dispose of chemical waste in a way that has the least impact on the environment. Depending on what is contained in the waste, some waste must be professionally incinerated or deposited in designated landfills, while other waste can be neutralized or discharged in normal streams.

1. Minimizing Waste

a. Alternative Substances

Whenever possible, use less toxic substances in place of the more toxic chemicals to minimize the hazards and disposal costs associated with using certain chemicals. The table below contains a list of suggested substitutions for some toxic chemicals.

Toxic Chemical Substitute

Chloroform Hexanes

Carbon tetrachloride Hexanes

1,4-Dioxane Tetrahydrofuran

Benzene Cyclohexane or Toluene

Xylene Toluene

2-Butanol 1-Butanol

Lead chromate Copper carbonate

p-Dichlorobenzene Naphthalene, Lauric acid, Cetyl alcohol,

1-Octadecanol, Palmitic acid, or Stearic acid

Potassium Calcium

Dichromate/Sulfuric acid Ordinary detergents

Trisodium phosphate Ordinary detergents

Alcoholic potassium hydroxide Ordinary detergents

b. Microscale Laboratories

Microscale experiments reduce the amount of material required, therefore reducing the hazards encountered and disposal costs. Many laboratory manuals on the market describe microscale experiments. These should be considered whenever possible to replace “classic” laboratory experiments.

c. Classroom Demonstrations

Another way to reduce the hazards for students, and reduce the amount of waste generated, is for the teacher to perform classroom demonstrations for the more hazardous experiments rather than have each student carry out the experiment.

d. Coordinate Laboratory Work

When planning laboratory experiments, try to coordinate with co-workers who may be doing the same or similar experiments so that reagents are made up at one time in the building, thus minimizing the amount of “left-over” reagent at the end of the experiment.

2. Waste Storage Prior to Disposal

All waste should be stored in properly labeled containers. The label should contain the date, type of waste, and any other pertinent information required by the disposal company.
Waste should be segregated to avoid unwanted reactions and to allow for cost-effective disposal.
Waste should be stored in closed containers except when additional waste is being added.
Each school science department should maintain a central, secure waste storage area.

3. Disposing of Waste

Teachers should be aware of the appropriate method of disposal for any chemical used in the school laboratory. When in doubt, refer to the MSDS, a disposal manual, or the source of the chemical.

a. Classification of Hazardous Waste

The Environmental Protection Agency classifies wastes as:

Ignitable: has a flash point below 140°C, is an oxidizer, or is an ignitable compressed gas.
Corrosive: has a pH equal to or below 2.0 or a pH equal to or greater than 12.5.
Reactive: is reactive with air or water, is explosive, or is cyanide or sulfide.
Toxic: has certain levels of certain metals, solvents, or pesticides greater than prescribed limits.
Others: any chemical found in the lists in 40 CFR 261 subpart D.

Classroom Management

Make disposal options a part of all laboratory instructions for students. For each chemical waste produced, instruct students as to the appropriate disposal, including disposing of the substance in a disposal container or down the drain.
Place all laboratory waste in a properly labeled container. The label should contain the date and type of waste.
Immediately following the laboratory activity, place the waste containers in a secure location until the containers can be removed to the central storage area.
Some chemical wastes may be recycled. Teachers should seek guidance on recycling from local safety officers or other knowledgeable administrative staff.

Drain Disposal

Before considering drain disposal, be certain that the sewer flows to a wastewater treatment plant and not to a stream or other natural water course. Check with the local waste water treatment plant authority to determine what substances are acceptable for drain disposal.
Any substance from a laboratory should be flushed with at least 100 times its own volume of tap water.
Acids and bases should be at least above pH 3 and below pH 8 before being placed in a sanitary drain.
If both ions of a compound are on the following lists, that compound may be placed in a sanitary drain:

Positive Ions:

aluminium
ammonium
bismuth
calcium
copper
hydrogen
iron
lithium
magnesium
potassium
sodium
strontium
tin
titanium
zinc
zirconium

Negative Ions:

borate
bromide
carbonate
chloride
cyanate
hydrogen sulfide
hydroxide
iodide
nitrate
phosphate
sulfate
sulfite
tetraboratex
thiocynate

The following organic compounds can go into drain:

acetic acid
oxalic acid
acetone
pentanols
butanols
propanols
esters with less than 5 carbon
sodium salts of carboxylic acid
ethylene glycol
formic acid
glyceroal
sugars
methanol

For additional information on drain disposal of substances, see the National Research Council’s Prudent Practices in the Laboratory (1983).
If in doubt about the proper disposal of a chemical, check with the local safety officer or refer to Flinn or a similar reference.

Compounds Not Suitable for Drain Disposal

For compounds not suitable for drain disposal, label and package the compound and ship by a shipper approved by the U.S. Department of Transportation to a landfill designated by EPA to receive chemical and hazardous waste. Even though packed, shipped, and disposed of by licensed and approved firms, generators of hazardous waste are responsible for the wastes.

Partb: Lab Techniques

When you first set foot inside a chemistry lab, it can be a little overwhelming. There are chemicals in bottles, flame sources, and all kinds of fragile glassware. Learning the proper techniques, and how to use all the equipment can take time, but we all have to start with the basics.

Lab techniques are the processes and practices that are recommended for using the various equipment in the laboratory. In this lesson, we will go over some of the most basic lab techniques you will need to know.

Pouring, Measuring, and Filtering

How To Transfer Chemicals

SOLIDS

It is usually easier to transfer solids to a wide mouthed container such as a beaker. Take a labeled beaker to the reagent shelf where the chemicals are kept. When you take the top off the reagent bottle, don’t lay it down (risks contamination).Many solid chemicals can be easily transferred by tipping the bottle and slowly rotating the bottle back and forth. Don’t tip the bottle up high and let the contents pour out. If a spatula is provided at the reagent bottle, you may use it. Never use your own spatula. Be sure to put the right lid on the right bottle and return the bottle to its place on the shelf.

LIQUID TRANSFER

Take an appropriately sized, labeled beaker to the reagent shelf. The stopper of the reagent bottle should be held during transfer or, if it is flat, placed upside down on the counter. Carefully pour the amount of reagent that you will need, not extra, into the beaker and then close the reagent bottle.Graduated cylinders are unstable so transfer liquids into the labeled beaker first and then pour from the beaker into your graduated cylinder. It is a good idea to make this latter transfer over a sink.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8638 General Science in Schools Assignment 2

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sun, 8 Sep 2019 11:41:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8638 General Science in Schools Assignment 2

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q.1 How strategies serve as guidelines for teaching science? Explain some thoughts of scientists on inquiry.
Answer:

Research on effective learning reveals that an awful lot of what goes on in the classroom simply doesn’t matter. There are many pointless activities that take up valuable time in the name of engagement, merely demonstrating progress as opposed to actually making progress. Often, these approaches not only have limited impact on student learning but can have a hugely detrimental impact on teacher workload and well being.

There is significant evidence to suggest that teachers should prune back what they do and focus on a more streamlined approach in the classroom. So it’s less about spending hours cutting things up and putting them in envelopes, and more about creating conditions in which students can gain long-lasting knowledge that can be applied in a range of situations. The following six principles are a distillation of key research on what really matters in the classroom. Revisit previous learning.

A core element of effective learning is that a class is exposed to new information a number of times. For education researcher Graham Nuthall, students should encounter a new concept on at least three separate occasions in order to learn it properly.

The most effective teachers in the studies of classroom instruction understood the importance of practice, and they began their lessons with a five- to eight-minute review of previously covered material. Some teachers reviewed vocabulary, formulae, events, or previously learned concepts. These teachers provided additional practice on facts and skills that were needed for recall to become automatic. Check for understanding.

This is a deft skill that needs both a strong knowledge of your students and an understanding of common misconceptions. Various techniques can achieve this, but probably the most useful tool in the box will be judicious questioning that is both open and closed in nature and, crucially, informs what you will do next. Firstly, it should take no longer than two minutes, and ideally less than one minute, for all students to respond to the questions; the idea is that the hinge-point question is a quick check on understanding, rather than a new piece of work in itself. Second, it must be possible for the teacher to view and interpret the responses from the class in 30 seconds.

Marking student work is another good way of checking understanding – but doesn’t need to be an onerous task. Some marking should simply function as a quick signpost to the teacher of how they could adapt their teaching in response to what students have or have not learned.

Give feedback on students, not work
Once a teacher gets into the habit of regularly checking for understanding, they are in a position to provide meaningful feedback. But marking and feedback are not the same thing. A key aspect of a successful classroom is that feedback is given to improve the student rather than the work, as Wiliam points out:

Too many teachers focus on the purpose of feedback as changing or improving the work, whereas the major purpose of feedback should be to improve the student. If the feedback isn’t helping the student to do a better task and a better job the next time they are doing a similar task, then it is probably going to be ineffective.

Affording students the opportunity to consider their own progress against their peers through the evaluation of exemplar work is another way to conceptualize improvement: it’s very hard to be excellent if you don’t know what excellent looks like. For students, feedback should be more of a mirror than a painted picture.

Create a positive classroom climate
Designing and communicating clear, concrete routines to the class long in advance of any misbehavior will minimize misbehavior, because students will be aware of the classroom cultural norms. Driven home often enough, it can create tramlines for behavior to default to. Instead of leaving behavioral choices to chance, the best strategy is for teachers to draw up exactly what is expected of their students from the beginning of the relationship.

Forging strong relationships where students have respect for not just the sanctity of the classroom but the privilege of learning is possibly the most important thing a teacher can do for better teaching.

Offer plenty of guidance
The limitations of working memory can be particularly problematic for novice learners.
In one study, the more successful teachers of mathematics spent more time presenting new material and guiding practice. The more successful teachers used this extra time to provide additional explanations, give many examples, check for student understanding, and provide sufficient instruction so that the students could learn to work independently without difficulty. In contrast, the least successful teachers gave much shorter presentations and explanations, and then they passed out worksheets and told the students to work on the problems. Under these conditions the students made too many errors and had to be retaught the lesson.

What every teacher should know about ... memory
Getting students to a place where they can work independently is a hugely desired outcome, but perhaps not the best vehicle to get there. Providing worked examples and scaffolding in the short-term is a vital part of enabling students to succeed in the long-term.

Reduce cognitive load
Cognitive load theory has been described by Wiliam as“the single most important thing for teachers to know”.Reducing the level of information to an optimal amount, which avoids overloading or boring students, is crucial to effective learning. Once learners have built up schemas of knowledge that allow them to work on problems without exceeding their cognitive bandwidth, then they can work independently.

Part b: Imagine science classrooms in which:

The teacher pushes a steel needle through a balloon and the balloon does not burst. The teacher asks the students to find out why the balloon didn't burst.
Students are dropping objects into jars containing liquids with different densities and recording the time it takes each object to reach the bottom of the jar. They are trying to find out about viscosity.
Students are using probes connected to a microcomputer to measure the heart rates of students before and after doing five minutes of exercise. They are investigating the effect of exercise on pulse rate.
Students are reading newspaper articles on the topic "toxic waste dumps" in order to form opinions about a proposed dump being established in their community.

In each case students are actively involved in measuring, recording data, and proposing alternative ideas in order to solve problems, find meaning, and acquire information. In these situations students were involved in the process of inquiry. The greatest challenge to those who advocate inquiry teaching is the threat to the traditional and dominant role of the teacher in secondary education. I am going to discuss inquiry teaching first because of its relationship to the essence of science, but also because of the philosophical implications siding with an inquiry approach implies. By taking a stand in favor of inquiry teaching, the teacher is saying, "I believe students are capable of learning how to learn; they have within their repotoire the abilities as well as the motivation to question, to find out about and seek knowledge; they are persons, and therefore learners in their own right, not incomplete adults." The philosophy of inquiry implies that the teacher views the learner as a thinking, acting, responsible person.

Characteristics of Inquiry
Inquiry is a term used in science teaching that refers to a way of questioning, seeking knowledge or information, or finding out about phenomena. Many science educators have advocated that science teaching should emphasize inquiry. Wayne Welch, a science educator at the University of Minnesota argues the techniques needed for effective science teaching are the same as those used for effective scientific investigation. Thus the methods used by scientists should be an integral part of the methods used in science classrooms. We might think of the method of scientific investigation as the inquiry process. Welch identifies five characteristics of the inquiry process as follows:

Observation: Science begins with the observation of matter or phenomena. It is is the starting place for inquiry. However, as Welch points out, asking the right questions that will guide the observer is a crucial aspect of the process of observation.
Measurement: Quantitative description of objects and phenomena is an accepted practice of science, and desirable because of the value in science on precision and accurate description.
Experimentation: Experiments are designed to test questions and ideas, and as such are the cornerstone of science. Experiments involve questions, observations and measurements.
Communication: Communicating results to the scientific community and the public is an obligation of the scientist, and is an essential part of the inquiry process. The values of independent thinking and truthfulness in reporting the results of observations and measurements are essential in this regard. As pointed out earlier in the section on the nature of science, the "republic of science" is dependent on the communication of all its members. Generally is this done by articles published in journals, and discussions at professional meetings and seminars.
Mental Processes: Welch describes several thinking processes that are integral to scientific inquiry: inductive reasoning, formulating hypotheses and theories, deductive reasoning, as well as analogy, extrapolation, synthesis and evaluation. The mental processes of scientific inquiry may also include other processes such as the use of imagination and intuition.

Inquiry teaching is a method of instruction, yet not the only method that secondary science teachers employ. However, because of the philosophical orientation of this book towards an inquiry approach to teaching, I will explore it first, but also highlight three other methods (direct/interactive teaching, cooperative learning, and conceptual change teaching) that contemporary science teachers use in their classrooms.

Inquiry in the Science Classroom.
Secondary science classrooms should involve students in a wide range of inquiry activities. The description of "scientific inquiry" is a general description of the inquiry model of teaching. The inquiry model of teaching presented in this book includes guided and unguided inductive inquiry, deductive inquiry and problem solving. Students engaged in a variety of inquiry activities will be able to apply the general model of inquiry to a wide range of problems. Thus the biology teacher who takes the students outside and asks them to determine where the greatest number of wild flowers grow in a field is engaging the students in guided inquiry. The students would be encouraged to make observations, and measurements of the flowers and the field, perhaps create a map of the field, and then draw conclusions based on these observations. In an earth science class, a teacher has been using inductive inquiry to help students learn about how rocks are formed, and now wants the students to devise their own projects and phenomena to study about rocks. Inductive inquiry is a teacher centered form of instruction.

On the other hand, unguided inductive inquiry is student centered inquiry, in that the student will select the phenomena and the method of investigation, not the teacher. However, this does not mean that the teacher is not involved. The teacher may gather the class together for a brainstorming session to discuss potential phenomena to explore and study, based on the class's work to date. Small teams of students are then organized. The teams discuss the list of topics and phenomena generated in the brainstorming session, and then proceed to devise a project of their own.

In both forms of inductive inquiry, students are engaged in learning about concepts and phenomena by using observations, measurements and data to develop conclusions. We might say the student is moving from specific cases to the general concept. In deductive inquiry the student starts with the big idea, conclusion, or general concept and moves to specific cases

Environments That Foster Inquiry
The classroom environment has psychological, sociological, philosophical and physical dimensions affected by the curriculum, students, teachers, school, community and the nation. Yet in much of the research investigating classroom environments, the teacher's role is often seen as a powerful determinant of the classroom climate. In his book Teaching Science As Inquiry, Steven Rakow points out that behaviors and attitudes of the teacher play an essential role in inquiry teaching, and he identifies the following as characteristic of successful inquiry teachers:

They model scientific attitudes.
They are creative.
They are flexible.
They use effective questioning strategies.
They are concerned both with thinking skills and with science content.

Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards.
The National Science Education Standards place science inquiry at the top of the list of standards. In this view, science inquiry goes beyond the teaching of science process skills (e.g. observing, classifying, inferring, etc.) and requires students to integrate process and science content to develop an understanding of science.
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Q.2 What are different laboratory activities? Discuss internet as a source of science skills and processes.
Answer:

Assessing Laboratory Activities
Laboratory settings can provide students with the opportunity to apply their content understandings in new situations and apply the skills that geo-scientists use when working with Earth materials, images and data sets. Laboratory work usually entails an element of group work, so let's begin with some of the differences between individual and group assessment. Usually laboratory settings are favorable for small group, collaborative work. This work increases communication and application of content knowledge to the task at hand. Before planning an assessment strategy decide if roles in the group are going to be interchangeable, that is, will each student be expected to know every role, or will you ask students to become "experts" in one facet of the group effort. Assessment of the content element can either be performed individually for each group member and the group process grade factored in or alternately, the instructor may assess both content and process for each group as a whole. For more insight into the assessment process for group projects, view "Assessment of Cooperative Learning".

Assessing a Group Activity Using Global Carbon Dioxide Data
The activity Carbon Dioxide Exercise introduces students to the process of plotting and interpreting graphs. The exercise has several learning objectives. These are:

Estimate changes in global carbon dioxide concentrations over a 5-year span
Learn about variation in the carbon cycle driven by photosynthesis
Understand how important sampling interval can be when studying changes over time
Practice basic quantitative skills

Individual Assessment of the Short Report The instructions given to the students need not be complicated or time consuming, but should be detail ed
enough to provide everyone with the ground rules for good writing. Here is an example: The summary report you are preparing this evening should be at least a paragraph in length and include the stimulated changes in global carbon dioxide concentrations over a 5-year span; the reason for the variation we see in the annual carbon cycle driven by photosynthesis; and the how important sampling interval can be when studying changes over time. Each assertion you make must be explained by supporting evidence. Cite the source of all supporting evidence (your group graph, your lecture notes or any additional sources). In this way assessment serves as a model for scientific writing as well at the vehicle through which student attainment of the activities learning objectives is measured. For additional ways of assessing laboratory activities see the resources below.

A Hands-On Approach to Understanding Topographic Maps and Their Construction. Students are taught the basic principles of topographic map construction and are then required to make a map of a section of campus. The author claims that this approach has improved student test performance and resulted in a better understanding of topographic maps.
The Laboratory in Science Education: Foundations for the Twenty-First Century. [Hofstein and Lunetta, 2004] This article from Science Education is an analysis of previous scholarship on contemporary goals for science learning, current models of how students construct knowledge, and information about how teachers and students engage in science laboratory activities.Map and Compass Lab. [Koons, 1997] This article in Science Scope presents an activity that is part of a unit on topography and land masses. It helps students learn about scientific inquiry by comparing model representations with actual topographic features. Students also practice making and interpreting scale drawings and learning about computation, estimation and new instrumentation. =
Development of an Assessment of Student Conception of the Nature of Science. Results from 991 students permitted a statistical analysis of this instrument's validity and reliability. Examples from two courses, one laboratory-based and the other grounded in collaborative learning, are provided to demonstrate the utility of these types of scales in assessing both prior knowledge and course outcomes.(citation and description)
An Earthquake Lab for Physical Geology. [Lumsden, 1990] This article from the Journal of Geological Education describes an activity in which students locate the epicenter of several earthquakes, plot the trends of the two faults involved, and determine the sense of motion along the plane of the two faults. The article provides objectives, background information, procedures, and data necessary for the activity.
Active Learning in Secondary and College Science Classrooms: A Working Model for Helping the Learner to Learn. [Michael and Modell, 2003] This book by Joel Michael and Harold Modell is designed for professionals interested an active learning approach to teaching students. The main topics covered in this book are how to build the foundation for active learning, roles for the teacher in creating an active learning environment and creating active learning environments. =
Design and Assessment of an Interactive Digital Tutorial for Undergraduate-Level Sandstone

Include: the internet, newspapers, journals, transcripts from radio or TV programmes, leaflets, photographs and other artefacts (man-made objects).

Within the category of books there are many different types and genres, for example: fiction and non-fiction, including dictionaries, encyclopaedias, biographies, almanacs, archives, yearbooks and atlases, to name just a few. There are even more categories of websites and other internet resources. All sources of information can be of relevance depending on the subject matter of the research or project you’re working on.

Internet: Being able to research and use materials which back up your study or offer different interpretations of your study area is an essential aspect of studying and learning. Primarily you need to be aware of where to look for information, how to access it and how to use it. You must also be able to scrutinize your sources to check that they are relevant and of a suitable nature to be included within your work. Finding Information

You may assume, automatically, that academic text books are the primary source of information when you are engaged in a formal study programme. This may be true, to a degree, usually there is little need to question the credibility of such texts – they have probably been recommended by a tutor There are, however, many other sources of information which should not be overlooked. Such sources

It is important to understand that all information will have a certain degree of validity or otherwise. A document can be easily forged or altered, especially on the internet where anybody can publish anything. It is therefore necessary to use judgement when deciding which documents to use in the context of your study.

Internet Sources
There is a phenomenal amount of information available online, via web-pages, blogs, forums, social media, catalogs and so on. As there is so much information available and because such information can be published quickly and easily by anybody and at any time, it is important that you are vigilant in choosing reliable sources.

For many subjects the internet can be a very important place to research. In some disciplines the internet may be the most appropriate - or only - way of gathering information. This can be particularly true of subjects related to technology or current affairs. Whenever you use the internet for research, remember that the authorship, credibility and authenticity of internet documents is often difficult to establish. For this reason you need to be vigilant and take care when using the internet for academic research. If you are studying formally, in a school, college or university, you should check what your institution’s guidelines are for using internet sources in your work. Some institutions may penalize you, by marking down your work, if your references are mainly from online sources – especially sources that have not been specifically ‘approved’ by your tutor.

Use good judgement and common sense when researching online. Whether or not a source is appropriate or useful will largely depend on your area of study. Some quick tips for general internet research:

Check the domain name of the site. Generally domain names that include .ac. or .edu. are educational establishments. Domain names ending in .gov are reserved for government purposes. In the UK the .gov.uk and .ac.uk domain names are subject to strict eligibility rules set by UKERNA (United Kingdom Education and Research Networking Association). This means that they can only be used by educational or government institutions. There are usually no such rules for registering .com, .org, .net or many of the other common and regional domain name types. You don’t have to be in the UK or meet any specific criteria to register a .co.uk domain name, for example. This is not to say that .com (or others) are not good, reliable sources of information, just be wary of quality and bias. Of course SkillsYouNeed.com is fine. :)
How did you arrive at the source? If you followed a link from your college or university then the chances are you are being encouraged to read the online article. If you found the resource via a search engine or a link on another website then you may need to scrutinize it more carefully.

Social networking, funny videos and instant messaging may be tempting distractions from schoolwork, but the Internet still offers a variety of benefits in the educational sphere. As classroom technology and online courses become more prevalent and advanced, teachers and students alike have new ways to study, plan class activities, and present information. Online classes, interactive teaching, and streamlined research methods are just a few advantages of the Internet's educational growth.

Going the Distance
Hectic work schedules, family responsibilities, and commuting challenges no longer have to keep people from seeking a college degree. In 2012, a US News and World Report survey showed that roughly 62 percent of colleges offer online degree programs. Participants in a 2012 Ball State University study stated that flexible scheduling, affordability, and the ability to work at their own pace were key to their decision to take online courses. Internet classes don't just benefit college students, though. Many colleges, such as Liberty University, offer online programs to prepare high schoolers for advanced university work.

Energizing Education
Using the Internet in the classroom actually gets students more excited about learning, states the National Math and Science Initiative. Because Internet activities are often hands-on and interactive, students get the chance to directly engage with information rather than passively listen to lectures. The National Math and Science Initiative states that this is especially true for subjects like math and science, as many students find them challenging to learn and relate to. Internet activities can make these subjects easier to understand, and can present them in unique ways that fit students' affinity for technology.

Research and Reasoning
Once upon a time, students used library card catalogs, encyclopedias and magazines to find information for projects. Today, the Internet streamlines academic research through online databases and search engines, allowing students to view the full text of scholarly publications, of research studies, and even of books right from their computers. Doing this online research also lets them sharpen their critical thinking skills by evaluating Internet sources for credibility, bias and usefulness. Knowing how to determine a source's trustworthiness can help students evaluate online sources they come across both in and out of the classroom, making them smarter consumers of information.

Bridging Communication Gaps
Classroom Internet use can also help teachers say goodbye to communication mishaps such as lost assignment sheets and misplaced memos home to parents. Internet communication can make distribution of information easier, as well as increase class community and motivation, states University of Baltimore professor Hossein Arsham. For example, having a class blog or website can open up dialogue between teachers and students outside of school rather than confining their interactions to the classroom. Students can download course materials and readings, chat with other students, and share their work, while parents can receive reminders about upcoming due dates and events.
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Q.3 Write techniques and methods of development of assessment in science education.
Answer:

Assessment Techniques for Assessing Course-Related Knowledge and Skills
Assessing Prior Knowledge, Recall, and Understanding
Background Knowledge Probe - Short, simple questionnaires prepared by instructors for use at the beginning of a course, at the start of a new unit or lesson, or prior to introducing an important new topic. Used to help teachers determine the most effective starting point for a given lesson and the most appropriate level at which to begin new instruction.

Focused Listing - Focuses students' attention on a single important term, name , or concept from a particular lesson or class session and directs them to list several ideas that are closely related to that "focus point." Used to determine what learners recall as the most important points related to a particular topic. Misconception/Preconception Check - Technique used for gathering information on prior knowledge or beliefs that may hinder or block further learning.

Empty Outlines - The instructor provides students with an empty or partially completed outline of an in class presentation or homework assignment and gives them a limited amount of time to fill in the blank spaces. Used to help faculty find out how well students have "caught" the important points of a lecture, reading, or audiovisual presentation.

Memory Matrix - A simple two-dimensional diagram, a rectangle divided into rows and columns used to organize information and illustrate relationships. Assesses students' recall of important course content and their skill at quickly organizing that information into categories provided by the instructor.

Minute Paper - Instructor asks students to respond in two or three minutes to either of the following questions: "What was the most important thing you learned during this class? or "What important questions remains unanswered?" Used to provide a quick and extremely simple way to collect written feedback on student learning.

Muddiest Point - Technique consists of asking students to jot down a quick response to one question: "What was the muddiest point in ?" with the focus on the lecture, a discussion, a homework assignment, a play, or a film. Used to provide information on what students find least clear or most confusing about a particular lesson or topic.

Assessing Skill in Analysis and Critical Thinking
Categorizing Grid - Students sort information into appropriate conceptual categories. This provides faculty with feedback to determine quickly whether, how, and how well students understand "what goes with what." Defining Features Matrix - Students are required to categorize concepts according to the presence (+) or absence (-) of important defining features. This provides data on their analytic reading and thinking skills. Pro and Con Grid - Students list pros and cons of an issue. This provides information on the depth and breadth of a student's ability to analyze and on their capacity for objectivity.

Content, Form, and Function Outlines - Students analyze the "what" (content), "how" (form), and "why" (function) of a particular message. This technique elicits information on the students' skills at separating and analyzing the informational content, the form, and the communicative function of a lesson or message. Analytic Memos - Students write a one- or two-page analysis of a specific problem or issue. Used to assess students' skill at communicating their analyses in a clear and concise manner.

Assessing Skill in Syntheses and Critical Thinking
One-Sentence Summary - Students answer the questions "Who does what to whom, when, where, how , and why?" about a given topic, and then synthesize those answers into a single informative, grammatical, and long summary sentence.

Word Journal - Students first summarize a short text in a single word, and second, the student writes a paragraph or two explaining why he chose that particular word to summarize the text. This technique helps faculty assess and improve the students' ability to read carefully and deeply and the students' skill at explaining and defending, in just a few more words, their choice for a single summary word.

Approximate Analogies - Students complete the second half of an analogy for which the instructor has supplied the first half. This allows teachers to find out whether their students understand the relationship between the two concepts or terms given as the first part of the analogy.

Concept Maps - Drawings or diagrams showing the mental connections that students make between a major concept the instructor focuses on and other concepts they have learned. This provides an observable and assessable record of the students' conceptual schema-the patterns of associations they make in relation to a given focal concept.

Invented Dialogues - Students synthesize their knowledge of issues, personalities, and historical periods into the form of a carefully structured, illustrative conversation. This provides information on students' ability to capture the essence of other people's personalities and styles of expression - as well as on their understanding of theories, controversies, and the opinions of others.
Annotated Portfolios - Contain a very limited number of selected examples of a student's creative work, supplemented by the student's own commentary on the significance of those examples.

Assessing Skill in Problem Solving
and are asked to recognize and identify the particular type of problem each example represents. Faculty are able to assess how well students can recognize various problem types, the first step in matching problem type to solution method.

What's the Principle? - Students are provided with a few problems and are asked to state the principle that best applies to each problem. Instructors assess students' ability to associate specific problems with the general principles used to solve them.

Documented Problem Solutions - Prompts students to keep track of the steps they take in solving a problem. This assesses how students solve problems and how well students understand and can describe their problem-solving methods.

Audio- and Videotaped Protocols - Students are recorded talking and working through the process of solving a problem. Faculty assess in detail how and how well students solve problems.
Assessing Skill in Application and Performance

Directed Paraphrasing - Students paraphrase part of a lesson for a specific audience and purpose, using their own words. Feedback is provided on students' ability to summarize and restate important information or concepts in their own words; it allows faculty to assess how well students have understood and internalized that learning.

Applications Cards - Students write down at least one possible, real-world application for an important principle, generalization, theory, or procedure that they just learned. This lets faculty know how well students understand the possible applications of what students have learned.

Student-Generated Test Questions - Students are asked to develop test questions from material they have been taught. Teachers see what their students consider the most important or memorable content, what they understand as fair and useful test questions, and how well they can answer the questions they have posed.

Techniques for Assessing Learner Attitudes, Values, and Self-Awareness
Assessing Students' Awareness of Their Attitudes and Values

Classroom Opinion Polls - Students are asked to raise their hands to indicate agreement or disagreement with a particular statement. Faculty discover student opinions about course-related issues. Double-Entry Journals - Students begin by noting the ideas, assertions, and arguments in their assigned course readings they find most meaningful and/or controversial. The second entry explains the personal significance of the passage selected and responds to that passage. Detailed feedback is provided on how students read, analyze, and respond to assigned texts.

Profiles of Admirable Individuals - Students are required to write a brief, focused profile of an individual - in a field related to the course - whose values, skills, or actions they greatly admire. This technique helps faculty understand the images and values students associate with the best practice and practitioners in the discipline under study.

Everyday Ethical Dilemmas - Students are presented with an abbreviated case study that poses an ethical problem related to the discipline or profession they are studying and must respond briefly and anonymously to these cases. Students identify, clarify, and connect their values by responding to course related issues and problems that they are likely to encounter.

Assessing Students' Self-Awareness as Learners
Focused Autobiographical Sketches - Students are directed to write a one- or two- page autobiographical sketch focused on a single successful learning experience in their past - an experience relevant to learning in the particular course in which the assessment technique is used. This provides information the the students' self-concept and self- awareness as learners within a specific field.

Interest/Knowledge/Skills Checklist - Students rate their interest in various topics, and assess their levels of skill or knowledge in those topics, by indicating the appropriate responses on a checklist which has been created by the teacher. These checklists inform teachers of their students' level of interest in course topics and their assessment of the skills and knowledge needed for and/or developed through the course.

Goal Ranking and Matching - Students list a few learning goals they hope to achieve through the course and rank the relative importance of those goals.. This assesses the "degree of fit" between the students' personal learning goals and teachers' course-specific instructional goals, and between the teachers' and students' ranking of the relative importance and difficulty of the goals.

Assessing Course-Related Learning and Study Skills, Strategies, and Behaviors

Productive Study-Time Logs - Students keep a record of how much time they spend studying for a particular class, when they study, and how productively they study at various times of the day or night. This allows faculty to assess the amount and quality of out-of-class time all their students are spending preparing for class, and to share that information with students.

Punctuated Lectures - Students and teachers go through five steps: listen, stop, reflect, write, and give feedback. Students listen to lecture. The teacher stops the action and students reflect on what they were doing during the presentation and how their behavior while listening may have helped or hindered their understanding of that information. They then write down any insights they have gained and they give feedback to the teacher in the form of short, anonymous notes. This technique provides immediate, on-the spot feedback on how students are learning from a lecture or demonstration and lets teachers and students know what may be distracting. And students are encouraged to become self-monitoring listeners, and in the process, more aware and more effective learners.

Process Analysis - Students keep records of the actual steps they take in carrying out a representative assignment and comment on the conclusions they draw about their approaches to that assignment. This technique gives students and teachers explicit, detailed information on the ways in which students carry out assignments and shows faculty which elements of the process are most difficult for students and, consequently, where teachers need to offer more instruction and direction.

Diagnostic Learning Logs - Students keep records of each class or assignment and write one list of the main points covered that they understood and a second list of points that were unclear. Faculty are provided with information and insight into their students' awareness of and skill at identifying their own strengths and weaknesses as learners.

Techniques for Assessing Learner Reactions for Instruction
Assessing Learner Reactions to Teachers and Teaching

Chain Notes - Students write immediate, spontaneous reactions to questions given by the teacher while the class is in progress. This feedback gives the teacher a "sounding" of the students' level of engagement and involvement during lecture.

Email Feedback - Students respond anonymously by email to a question posed by the teacher to the class. This provides a simple, immediate channel through which faculty can pose questions about the class and students can respond to them.

Teacher-Designed Feedback Forms - Students answer questions on feedback forms which contain anywhere from three to seven questions in multiple-choice, Likert-scale, or short fill-in answer formats. These forms allow faculty to quickly and easily analyze data and use the results to make informed and timely adjustments in their teaching.

Problem-Solving Skills
One of the things that employers often identify as being an important quality when hiring college graduates is their problem-solving skills. Students need to develop the ability to apply problem-solving skills when faced with issues or problems that are new to them. The development and use of problem-solving skills also improves learning. Rossman (1993) suggests that when students use problem-solving skills, "The role of the student changes from a passive recipient of information to a participant in the creation of understanding.

Having a process for solving problems helps to keep efforts focused and eliminate becoming stalled. Problems solving usually involved the following steps

Identify the problem
Analyze the problem and gather information
Generate potential solutions
Select and test the solution
Analyze/Evaluate the results

Some of the tools used in problem-solving include:

Brainstorming. This technique is used to encourage participation from each member of the team. Brainstorming helps to break people out of the typical mode of approaching things to produce new and creative ideas. It creates a climate of freedom and openness, which encourages an increased quantity of ideas.
Root Cause Analysis (AKA as the "Five Why's."). The objective of Root Cause Analysis is to find the fundamental cause for a problem. One way is to ask "Why?" five times or more to really get at the root of the problem.
Cause and Effect Diagrams. This diagram is drawn to represent the relationship between an effect (the problem) and its potential causes. The diagram helps to sort-out and relate the interactions among the factors affecting a process.
Pareto Charts. A Pareto Chart shows a frequency distribution where each bar on the chart show the relative contribution of contributing problems to the larger problem. It help to identify where to focus energy to obtain the most positive impact.
Flowcharting. A Flowchart is a map that shows all the steps in a process. It helps in understanding the process and making sure all steps in the process are addressed.
Decision Matrix. A Decision Matrix is useful when faced with making a difficult decision. The options or alternatives are listed in the left-hand column and the selection criteria is listed across the top row. Each of the options are rated against the selection criteria to arrive at the best logical decision.

Assessing critical thinking: The purpose of assessment in instruction is improvement. The purpose of assessing instruction for critical thinking is improving the teaching of discipline based thinking (historical, biological, sociological, mathematical thinking Q). It is to improve students’ abilities to think their way.

Through content, using disciplined skill in reasoning. The more particular we can be about what we want students to learn about critical thinking, the better can we devise instruction with that particular end in view. For deeper understanding of the relationship between critical thinking assessment and instruction, read the white paper on consequential validity by Richard Paul and Linda Elder:

Consequential Validity: Using Assessment to Drive Instruction

The Foundation for Critical Thinking offers assessment instruments which share in the same general goal: to enable educators to gather evidence relevant to determining the extent to which instruction is teaching students to think critically (in the process of learning content).

To this end, the fellows of the Foundation recommend:

That academic institutions and units establish an oversight committee for critical thinking
That this oversight committee utilize a combination of assessment instruments (the more the better) to generate incentives for faculty (by providing the faculty with as much evidence as feasible of the actual state of instruction for critical thinking).

The following instruments are available to generate evidence relevant to critical thinking teaching and learning:

Course Evaluation Form: provides evidence of whether, and to what extent, students perceive faculty as fostering critical thinking in instruction (course by course). Machine scoreable.
Critical Thinking Subtest: Analytic Reasoning: provides evidence of whether, and to what extent, students are able to reason analytically. Machine scoreable (currently being developed).
Critical Thinking: Concepts and Understandings: provides evidence of whether, and to what extent, students understand the fundamental concepts embedded in critical thinking (and hence tests student readiness to think critically). Machine scoreable
Fair-mindedness Test: provides evidence of whether, and to what extent, students can reason effectively between conflicting view points (and hence tests student ability to identify strong and weak arguments for conflicting positions in reasoning). Machine scoreable. (currently being developed).
Critical Thinking Reading and Writing Test: Provides evidence of whether, and to what extent, students can read closely and write substantively (and hence tests student ability to read and write critically). Short Answer.
International Critical Thinking Test: provides evidence of whether, and to what extent, students are able to analyze and assess excerpts from textbooks or professional writing. Short Answer.
Commission Study Protocol for Interviewing Faculty Regarding Critical Thinking: provides evidence of whether, and to what extent, critical thinking is being taught at a college or university (Can be adapted for High School). Based on the California Commission Study. Short Answer.
Foundation for Critical Thinking Protocol for Interviewing Faculty Regarding Critical Thinking: provides evidence of whether, and to what extent, critical thinking is being taught at a college or university (Can be adapted for High School). Short Answer
Foundation for Critical Thinking Protocol for Interviewing Students Regarding Critical Thinking: provides evidence of whether, and to what extent, students are learning to think critically at a college or university (Can be adapted for High School). Short Answer.
Criteria for critical thinking assignments. Can be used by faculty in designing classroom assignments or by administrators in assessing the extent to which faculty are fostering critical thinking.
Rubrics for assessing student reasoning abilities. A useful tool in assessing the extent to which students are reasoning well through course content

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Q.4 Design a draft of lesson plan. How lesson plan is helpful for effective teaching?

Answer:

5E Lesson Plan

The 5 E lesson supports inquire-based instruction. It allows children to make discoveries and to process new skills in an engaging way. Teachers can also adequately plan power objectives more effectively by using the 5E process. Children are not just learning with this method, they are more knowledgeable about their own meta cognition because they are coached along and not dictated by teachers merely lecturing. The role of the teacher is to facilitate and support students as they use prior knowledge to build new knowledge.

The 5 Es are:

Engage
Explore
Explain
Elaborate
Evaluate

When planning a lesson each of these areas should be completed. Often times these lessons may take a few days to complete.

1. Engage
To engage means to excite and to draw your child or student's curiosity. It means to wow them in a way that catches their attention. It is not forcing children to learn but inviting them to do so. This is how lessons are introduce. It does not have to be difficult or overly detailed just interesting enough to open students minds for the learning process to begin. Using technology to engage student learning makes planning very easy for teachers in today's classrooms. Using Smart board technology, videos, illustrations, asking questions, KWL charts, reading a great book, acting out a character or even introducing a game are ways to engage students at the beginning of a lesson.

2. Explore
Once students are fully in grossed in the lesson, intrigued by a video or maybe a book, now it is time to allow them to explore the concept. Lets say I do a lesson on Camouflage, first I would engage them with an informative video, explaining camouflage with animation. Now in the explore they will play lets say a game where they will go out side and break up into teams. Each team will be given a minute to find as many various colored strings scattered in the grass. The idea with exploring is to give the learner the opportunity to practice or work with their new knowledge in some way. The most effective explorations allow for mistakes or trial and error. Its is looking at a concept before discussing all the details, with hopes that students will discover answers to possible questions through exploration.

3. Explain
Students now have an opportunity to hear from their educator. The teacher's role so far has been to mainly facilitate learning, now they can use their expertise to answer questions students may have about what they are learning. They also may pose questions to the student to see what they are able to explain what they have learned. Checking for misunderstandings helps the teacher to observe what objectives need to be clarified or taught. So for example, with the Camouflage Lesson, once the students have picked as many strings as possible, they should count each color that they picked. Which color did they pick up the most, which color did they pick the least amount of? Have them make a chart, so they can look at their findings and compare as a group. Students should notice that they picked less green strings because the green was blending in with the grass. They have more of a different color like purple because of its contrast in color. This explaining is done without the teacher having to do much lecturing. The lesson is reinforced by what the students have seen from their exploring.

4. Elaborate
Here the students can participate in an extension or a different activity that either re-teaches an objective or teaches more details about the concept being taught. Here differentiation can be used. A student above level will need an elaboration that extends or enriches the lesson. A student below level will need perhaps a repeat of the same explore activity with more teacher input to guide students through again to correct misunderstandings. Again with the camouflage, elaboration may be discussing what other animals besides say frogs use camouflage? What elements in their habitat allow them to do so? Or the teacher might say let's look at our charts again from the results of our game. Doing so will allow him or her to re-teach or elaborate on what was misunderstood.

5. Evaluate
Finally, after the objectives are taught, it is time to assess. What have students effectively learned? What do they not understand? What should be done to help them? Assessments do not have to be the traditional quiz or essay. It can be a reflection, a project, book report, or a model. Like with the camouflage lesson, the evaluation could an assignment where students come up with 5 facts about camouflage and illustrate each in their own unique way. They might make a model, paint a picture, or make a mini book with drawings and facts to illustrate what they learned. Using a rubric the teacher or parent can now easily grade or make note of what is learned and of what needs to be ret aught 5 E Lesson Plan Science.

Introduction to Lesson Plan
Subject: Science
Standards
Recognize daily changes in weather, including clouds, precipitation, and temperature.
Describe evaporation, condensation, and precipitation in the water cycle.

Activities
Objectives
The students will learn about evaporation and how it works. They will have an activity to participate in that covers several days. They will watch first hand how evaporation works and by the end of the lesson th e students will understand what evaporation is. Engage (Initiate)

I will start this lesson off with a book about weather and the different types of weather. We will th en gradually go straight to evaporation. We will start talking about it and I will see who knows about it and understands the process and who doesn't. Explore (Question)

I will question and pass out a worksheet to see who understands the process of evaporation and who doesn't. This worksheet will not be a grade, it will be for me to see where each student is and which student knows what. There will be a place on the worksheet for the students to ask any questions they have toward the process and later on in the lesson I will be sure to hit on those certain questions that each student has asked.

Explain (Clarify/Develop)
I will explain and cover every question that each child asked on their worksheet I passed out the fir st day of this lesson. We will cover everything that happens in the process of evaporation. If students still do not understand something, this would be the time that I explain it to them before we do our activity.

Extend (Apply)
A fun activity that the students can participate in is watching the process of evaporation for themselves. I will divide the students up into groups and each group will have a clear, plastic cup with water in it . The cups will be placed in the window where the sun can shine on them and make the water evaporate. The students will have a worksheet that they will fill in everyday when they check the level of the water. Once all of the water has evaporated, then the students will write on the another worksheet why the water evaporated and what the process was. They will then turn in both worksheets for a grade.

Evaluate
I will able to evaluate and give each student a grade at the end of this assignment by each student turning in their worksheet. They should have the evaporation worksheet completed.
Alternate Activities
Materials
I will provide black markers and plastic cups. I will get water from the water fountain
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Q.5 How teaching of physics is different from teaching of Chemistry. Give examples to support your answer.
Answer:

Teaching methods in chemistry : Secondary chemistry teachers face a host of challenges as they are given the responsibility of deciding how they will deliver assigned curriculum. Much like a complex equation, teachers must factor in numerous variables that will change every semester or year depending on student loads, student needs, grade levels, maturity, development, resources, as well as environmental factors outside the school. These intricate variables play a crucial role in developing a solution to this complex equation. Once the educator has determined those unknown variables, a decision can be made as to which pedagogical and technological methods to apply. A central theme herein is the “Social Constructivist Learning Theory.” The “Social Constructivist Learning Theory” implies that students learn better through active interactions with their peers rather than listening to lectures [=Social constructivist’s reason that through peer interactions, students are able to process new information in a way that’s understandable to them, therefore leading to higher order thinking [=Science-based pedagogies that support the “Social Constructivist Learning Theory” are problem-based learning (PBL), process-oriented guided inquiry (POGIL), and project-based learning (PjBL) =Educational technology is one of the greatest resources we have to help our students learn. While chemistry is a part of our everyday lives, students have found that chemistry can be difficult to understand [8]. If a student is found to be weak in one area, additional support should be given to help that student strengthen their weak area so that they too can have an opportunity to realize their full potential.

For teachers, finding time to provide additional support to help students overcome weak areas can be very difficult. Using technology as a way for students to build skills in weak subject areas will make difficult times of learning fun and enjoyable, but most importantly it will help students build the confidence they need to succeed. Technology is not only beneficial to struggling students; rather, it is beneficial to all students. By using technology, teachers can bring chemistry to life and students will be able to visualize abstract concepts and test new learned concepts in chemistry. For 21st century learners, incorporating technology into the classroom is critical (Saba). Exposing students to technology while teaching chemistry will increase their knowledge and help them build skills that will make them competitive in the STEM workforce (Strengthen Science Education and the Scientific Workforce - American Chemical Society). Active learning is facilitated through students’ activities and by promoting student engagement. Redish et al. demonstrated in a study with their students, that achieving significant gains is possible, using active learning as opposed to didactic lectures enhances student learning continuously after missing fundamental concepts. Science pedagogies discussed in this paper facilitate active learning and student engagement, through an inquiry based problem approach. Pedagogical strategies reviewed in this article can be implemented independently of each other or in conjunction within an instructional setting. Problem-Based Learning is a science based pedagogy that was first implemented inmedical schools during the seventies to help students retain large amounts of information through open-ended questions.

Incorporating the use of student smart phones in the classroom has proven to be a useful instructional tool, especially for teachers who have limited technology resources. Web browsers, applications (apps), and 2D barcodes to create smart objects, can all serve as learning tools that facilitate independent learning Video tutorials and quizzes can serve as differential methods of instruction for chemistry teachers inside and outside of the classroom. For example, Khan Academy is a popular site for chemistry teachers and teachers of other various content areas as well. Instructional methods for which Khan Academy can be utilized include, blended learning, one-to-one classrooms, and online classes Khan Academy provides data for teachers to see where they need to help their students who are struggling Branded by older generations as the “gamer generation” chemistry teachers are now using online games as a way to actively engage students in learning chemistry concepts of all levels.

A simple google search of chemistry video games will put students in a virtual world of molecules, molar masses, and complex equations. Virtual labs are one of the most effective ways for chemistry teachers to engage their students with active learning Virtual labs allow students to experience what it is like to experience a chemistry job in a stem field. This is an excellent way for students to realize their own potential by getting to think like they are working in a field. Students become actively engaged when they are able to see concepts being studied, applied to real life. Going from teacher-centered learning to student-centered learning can be a little nerve racking initially, for both the teacher and the student. Student-centered learning gives students the ability to actively learn and engage with their peers without depending on the teacher for answers. Of the three pedagogies discussed, problem based learning is one of the easiest teaching methods to implement due to minimal preparation time. It is important for problem based questions to be relevant to real life so that students can identify with the problem, making it become personal. Case studies, vignettes, and open-ended task completion problems are the most common used.

Problem-Based Learning can be incorporated into the POGIL method during the application phase to test the new knowledge learned. The Process-Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) method is the newest and most challenging methodology to implement of the three methods. Teachers face a learning curve with initial implementation of POGIL; however, student success with this method in general chemistry classes is well documented.

When needed, teachers can provide mini lectures in between phases, as tier 2 instruction for students struggling. Project Based Learning (PjBL) is a very popular and effective method to teach chemistry. Its growing popularity in recent years can be credited to the shift from teacher centered learning, to student centered learning. In the past, PjBL, was an independent learning strategy, where students carried home and completed an assigned project, then returned back to school. Many students lack adequate support at home to complete these types of assignments, resulting in an overall negative impact on the students. Chemistry teachers, implementing project based learning inside of the classroom, can design projects to specifically meet the learning needs of students in their classroom An invaluable component that should be incorporated into each of these pedagogies is the use of 21st century technology. For chemistry teachers who use lecture and textbooks as their primary instructional tool, incorporating technology into instruction is imperative to the success of struggling chemistry students. Pressure to strengthen writing skills, has fallen on all content teachers. Chemistry teachers must look for creative ways to build their students writing skills. Incorporating online blogging, discussion boards, or constructing wiki pages allows students to build online literacy skills, which is a critical asset in today’s workforce. Smartphones are one of the simplest ways of implementing technology in the classroom, however, it should be noted that implementing smartphones into lessons, without adequate preparation by the teacher, can result in unwarranted classroom behavior. Smart phones give students access to videos, tutorials, quizzes, smart objects, and apps specific to content needs. Smartphones facilitate self-guided learning, when additional resources are needed, to understand or expand on chemistry concepts.

Taken together, these capabilities are creating a world of mobile computing that may have an impact on society, including chemical education that may be even greater than the changes brought about by the personal computer Careful attention should be given to students presenting difficulty mastering chemistry concepts before assigning supplemental instructions. Differentiation between students, who are weak in one or more subject areas versus students struggling with a concept, should be identified. Chemistry teachers can help students struggling in other subject areas by assigning lessons on Khan Academy to help strengthen weak skills. Students, who struggle with abstract concepts, greatly benefit from online simulations. Laboratory instruction is and should be a central component to every chemistry class. Laboratory instruction allow students to actively learn and engage with their peers. Laboratory prep times, limited supplies, or no access to a laboratory, leaves many chemistry students in secondary schools, shorthanded. Utilizing technology in the classroom, affords the once shorthanded chemistry students, with a virtual chemistry lab. Virtual chemistry, cannot fully replace students skills built during lab but it does give students a realistic idea of how labs work, with the application of newly learned chemistry concepts.Chemistry students, in today’s secondary education schools, need instruction that fosters active learning and student-peer engagement, while building 21st century workforce skills. Chemistry instruction, best effective for student learning and building 21st century skills, incorporates social constructivist inquiry, based pedagogies with technology Chemistry teachers should provide students, who are weak in one or more subject areas, resources to build skills. Material should be presented in a way that is relevant to the student’s life It should be critically noted and addressed that during the process of reviewing literature for this research study, published demographics of underrepresented groups in the field of chemistry is the suggestive reason for employment gaps in chemistry and STEM fields [Secondary education chemistry teachers must realize that the outcomes of their instructional methods directly impacts the chemistry workforce.

Teaching in Physics : Instead of writing and solving equations, the students engage in a more intuitive discussion of the main concepts and their relevance to natural phenomena and the applications and devices that we use regularly. Here are the main points of how I teach by the Socratic method:1 • Start the class with an interesting, relatable, and answerable question.

List all the students’ answers and discuss them broadly for a few minutes. If students have missed a crucial answer, give them hints that lead to it.
From the list of answers, pick those directly related to the particular topic and continue the discussion.
Gradually introduce concepts by asking thought-provoking but not difficult questions. If necessary, give the students additional clues. If the method is done well, students will pose questions, other students will answer them, and the teacher effectively becomes a moderator in a panel discussion.
Do not try to finish a set amount of material during each class. Discuss only as much as the students can understand.

The approach also fosters a deep sense of connectivity between scientific concepts and our own perception of reality. I urge all physics teachers to give the method serious consideration

How Teachers Teach: Specific Methods

Teach scientific ways of thinking.
Actively involve students in their own learning.
Help students to develop a conceptual framework as well as to develop problem solving skills.
Promote student discussion and group activities.
Help students experience science in varied, interesting, and enjoyable ways.
Assess student understanding at frequent intervals throughout the learning process.

LECTURES
Evidence from a number of disciplines suggests that oral presentations to large groups of passive students contribute very little to real learning. In physics, standard lectures do not help most students develop conceptual understanding of fundamental processes in electricity and in mechanics (Arons, 1983; McDermott and Shaffer, 1992; McDermott et al., 1994). Similarly, student grades in a large general chemistry lecture course do not correlate with the lecturing skills and experience of the instructor (Birk and Foster, 1993).

Enhancing Learning in Large Classes
Despite the limitations of traditional lectures, many institutions are forced to offer high-enrollment introductory science courses. Many professors who teach these courses feel that lecturing is their only option, and can only dream of what they could accomplish in smaller classes. However, there is a small but growing group of science faculty members who have developed ways to engage students in the process of thinking, questioning, and problem solving despite the large class size. Strategies in use in introductory courses in biology and geology are described in the sidebars.

Although many of the methods described in these sidebars are consistent with what experts know about how students learn they may not be welcomed by all of the students in a class. There are several ways to help students make the transition from passive listeners to active participants in their own learning (Orzechowksi, 1995):

Start off slowly; students may not have much experience in active learning.
Introduce change at the beginning of a course, rather than midway through.
Avoid giving students the impression that you are "experimenting" with them.

Biochemistry, Genetics, and Molecular Biology at Stanford University
Professor: Sharon Long
Enrollment: 400 students

For these, I walk up the side of the auditorium and designate even and odd rows. Then I say that the even people should turn around and face the odd people and do the exercise together. This generates groups of 2-6 people. They all put their names onto the single sheet they are to turn in.

Then the students work together on a question for 3-4 minutes. I walk around the room, answering their questions.

When time is up, the TA stands at the overhead projector, and I walk through the crowd (I have a lapel mike so they can hear me), collecting their answers for each question. Then we talk about solutions. Usually the time runs out, and the students turn their papers. Of course, they get credit for their participation, and that provides some motivation, but I am sure students understand the concepts better than if they were presented only in my lecture.

This process engages the students. Of course the hub-bub grows as the students move from the assigned topic to other conversations, but they come back fairly quickly. It is a bit unnerving because there is the potential for loss of control in the class, but the students seem to either like it or are indifferent, but certainly aren't quite as passive as they are while being lectured at.

Don't give up lectures completely.
Anticipate students' anxiety, and be prepared to provide support and encouragement as they adapt to your expectations.
Discuss your approach with colleagues, especially if you are teaching a well-established course in a pre professional curriculum.

Hints for More Effective Lecturing
When lecturing is the chosen or necessary teaching method, one way to keep students engaged is to pause periodically to assess student understanding or to initiate short student discussions (see sidebars). Calling on individual students to answer questions or offer comments can also hold student attention; however, some students prefer a feedback method with more anonymity. If they have an opportunity to discuss a question in small groups, the group can offer an answer, which removes any one student from the spotlight. Another option is to have students write their answer on an index card, and pass the card to the end of the row; the student seated there can select one answer to present, without disclosing whose it is.
The literature on teaching and learning contains other examples of techniques to maintain students' attention in a lecture setting (Eble, 1988; Davis, 1993; Lowman, 1995; McKeachie, 1994):

Avoid direct repetition of material in a textbook so that it remains a useful alternative resource.

Who doesn’t have the experience of having the coiled headset cord of a telephone show super coils (twists around itself)? This presents the students with the chance to play at home, where they can convince themselves that the direction (handedness) of the super coils depends on the direction of the original helix, and on whether the cord was under wound or over wound before the headset was replaced (constraining the ends). Students learn both an important principle for understanding nucleic acids and a handy practical tip that lets them predict the easiest way to get the kinks out of the phone cord! They get the chance to test their understanding by making predictions and doing trials-exactly what one hopes for in active scientific learning.

A professor’s questions should build confidence rather than induce fear. One technique is to encourage the student to propose several different answers to the question. The student can then be encouraged to step outside the answers and begin to develop the skills necessary to assess the answers. Some questions seek facts and simply measure student recall; others demand higher reasoning skills such as elaborating on or explaining a concept, comparing and contrasting several possibilities, speculating about an outcome, and speculating about cause and effect. The type of question asked and the response given to students’ initial answers are crucial to the types of reasoning processes the students are encouraged to use. Several aspects of questions to formulate them, what reasoning or knowledge is tested or encouraged, how to deal with answers-similar for dialogue and for testing. Chapters 5 and 6 contain more information on questions as part of assessment, testing, and grading.

Demonstrations
Demonstrations can be very effective for illustrating concepts in class, but can result in passive learning without careful attention to engaging students. They can provoke students to think for themselves and are especially helpful if the demonstration has a surprise, challenges an assumption, or illustrates an otherwise abstract concept or mechanism. Demonstrations that use everyday objects are especially effective and require little preparation on the part of faculty (see sidebar). Students’ interest is peaked if they are asked to make predictions and vote on the most probable outcome. There are numerous resources available to help faculty design and conduct demonstrations. Many science education periodicals contain one or more demonstrations in each issue. The ‘’Tested Demonstrations” column in the Journal of Chemical Education and the “Favorite Demonstration” column in the Journal of College Science Teaching are but two of the many examples. The American Chemical Society and the University of Wisconsin Press have published excellent books on chemical demonstrations (Shakhashiri, 1983, 1985, 1989, 1992; Summerlin and Ealy, 1985; Summerlin et al., 1987). Similar volumes of physics demonstrations have been published by the American Association of Physics Teachers (Freier and Anderson, 1981; Berry, 1987). You should consider a number of issues when planning a demonstration (O’Brien, 1990):

What concepts do you want the demonstration to illustrate?
Which of the many demonstrations on the selected topic will generate the greatest enhancement in student learning?
Where in the class would it be most effective?
What prior knowledge should be reviewed before the demonstration?
What design would be most effective, given the materials at hand and the target audience?
Which steps in the demonstration procedure should be carried out ahead of time?

DISCUSSIONS
Small group discussion sections often are used in large-enrollment courses to complement the lectures. In courses with small enrollments, they can substitute for the lecture, or both lecture and discussion formats can be used in the same class period.

Why Discussion?
Focused discussion is an effective way for many students to develop their conceptual frameworks and to learn problem solving skills as they try out their own ideas on other students and the instructor. The give and take of technical discussion also sharpens critical and quantitative thinking skills.

Planning and Guiding Discussions
Probably the best overall advice is to be bold but flexible and willing to adjust your strategies to fit the character of your class. If you want to experiment with using discussions in your class, here are some things to consider:

Decide on the goals of your class discussion. What is it that you want the students to get from each class session? Concepts? Problem solving skills? Decision-making skills? The ability to make connections to other disciplines or to technology? Broader perspective? Keep in mind that the goals may change as you progress through the material during the quarter or semester.
Explain to the students how discussions will be structured. Will the discussion involve the whole class or will students work in smaller groups? Make clear what you expect them to do before coming to each class session: read the chapter, think about the questions at the end of the chapter, seriously try to do the first five problems, etc. Let students see you take attendance. Students who do not come to class may not be studying.

LABORATORIES
It is hard to imagine learning to do science, or learning about science, without doing laboratory or field work. Experimentation underlies all scientific knowledge and understanding. Laboratories are wonderful settings for teaching and learning science. They provide students with opportunities to think about, discuss, and solve real problems. Developing and teaching an effective laboratory requires as much skill, creativity, and hard work as proposing and executing a first-rate research project.

it is common practice because it is efficient. Laboratories are costly and time consuming, and pred

Developing Effective Laboratories
Improving undergraduate laboratory instruction has become a priority in many institutions, driven, in part, by the exciting program being developed at a wide range of institutions. Some labs encourage critical and quantitative thinking, some emphasize demonstration of principles or development of lab techniques, and some help students deepen their understanding of fundamental concepts (Hake, 1992). Where possible, the lab should be coincident with the lecture or discussion. Before you begin to develop a laboratory program, it is important to think about its goals. Here are a number of possibilities:

Develop intuition and deepen understanding of concepts.
Apply concepts learned in class to new situations.
Experience basic phenomena.
Develop critical, quantitative thinking. .
Exercise curiosity and creativity by designing a procedure to test a hypothesis.
Better appreciate the role of experimentation in science.
Test important laws and rules.

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8638 General Science in Schools Assignment 1

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 7 Sep 2019 13:42:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8638 General Science in Schools Assignment 1

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BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q.1 Enlist 21st century science skills. Why they are important in this era?

Answer:

To overcome the challenges of the twenty first century in science and technology sector, students need to be equipped with the 21st century skills to ensure their competitiveness in the globalization era. They are expected to master the 21st century skills apart of just being excelled in their academic performance. Therefore, it is crucial to incorporate 21st century skills in science education. 21st century skills comprised of four main domains namely digital age literacy, inventive thinking, effective communication and high productivity. Scientific literacy is one of the skills required in digital age literacy. It means knowledge and understanding of the scientific concepts and processes required for personal decision-making, participation in civic and cultural affairs, and economic productivity. Scientific literacy is important in our modern society since they are many issues related to science and technology. Basic science process skills include observing, classifying, measuring and using numbers, making inferences, predicting, communicating and using the relations of space and time. While the integrated science process skills consist of interpreting data, operational definition, control variables, make hypotheses and experimenting. Science students have been cultivated by scientific literacy and science process skills through science classes. With these two skills, it is hoped that the science students have developed some skills needed in 21st century skills. This paper will further explain about the 21st century skills, scientific literacy and science process skills. It also explains about the intersection of science process skills and 21stcentury skills in science education.

21st Century skills are 12 abilities that today’s students need to succeed in their careers during the Information Age.

21st Century skills are:

Critical thinking
Creativity
Collaboration
Communication
Information literacy
Media literacy
Technology literacy
Flexibility
Leadership
Initiative
Productivity
Social skills

These skills are intended to help students keep up with the lightning-pace of today’s modern markets. Each skill is unique in how it helps students, but they all have one quality in common.

They’re essential in the age of the Internet.

Want a quick graphic reference about 21st Century skills?

Keep this infographic on-hand for any student of any age — even as young as middle school! Let’s start with an overview of the skill categories.

The Three 21st Century Skill Categories

Each 21st Century skill is broken into one of three categories:

Learning skills
Literacy skills
Life skills

Each of these categories pertains to a specific part of the digital curriculum experience.

Learning skills (the four C’s) teaches students about the mental processes required to adapt and improve upon a modern work environment.

Literacy skills (IMT) focuses on how students can discern facts, publishing outlets, and the technology behind them. There’s a strong focus on determining trustworthy sources and factual information to separate it from the misinformation that floods the Internet.

Life skills (FLIPS) take a look at intangible elements of a student’s everyday life. These intangibles focus on both personal and professional qualities.

Altogether, these categories cover all 12 21st Century skills that contribute to a student’s future career. Let’s take a closer look at each category.

Category 1. Learning Skills (The Four C’s)

The four C’s are by far the most popular 21st Century skills. These skills are also called learning skills. More educators know about these skills because they’re universal needs for any career. They also vary in terms of importance, depending on an individual’s career aspirations.

Critical thinking: Finding solutions to problems
Creativity: Thinking outside the box
Collaboration: Working with others
Communication: Talking to others

Arguably, critical thinking is the most important quality for someone to have in health sciences. In business settings, critical thinking is essential to improvement. It’s the mechanism that weeds out problems and replaces them with fruitful endeavors.

It’s what helps students figure stuff out for themselves when they don’t have a teacher at their disposal. Creativity is equally important as a means of adaptation. This skill empowers students to see concepts in a different light, which leads to innovation.

In any field, innovation is key to the adaptability and overall success of a company.

Learning creativity as a skill requires someone to understand that “the way things have always been done” may have been best 10 years ago — but someday, that has to change.

Collaboration means getting students to work together, achieve compromises, and get the best possible results from solving a problem.

Collaboration may be the most difficult concept in the four C’s. But once it’s mastered, it can bring companies back from the brink of bankruptcy.

The key element of collaboration is willingness. All participants have to be willing to sacrifice parts of their own ideas and adopt others to get results for the company.

That means understanding the idea of a “greater good,” which in this case tends to be company-wide success.

Finally, communication is the glue that brings all of these educational qualities together.

Communication is a requirement for any company to maintain profitability. It’s crucial for students to learn how to effectively convey ideas among different personality types.

That has the potential to eliminate confusion in a workplace, which makes your students valuable parts of their teams, departments, and companies.

Literacy skills are the next category of 21st Century skills.

They’re sometimes called IMT skills, and they’re each concerned with a different element in digital comprehension.

Information literacy: Understanding facts, figures, statistics, and data
Media literacy: Understanding the methods and outlets in which information is published
Technology literacy: Understanding the machines that make the Information Age possible

Information literacy is the foundational skill. It helps students understand facts, especially data points, that they’ll encounter online.

More importantly, it teaches them how to separate fact from fiction.

Media literacy is the practice of identifying publishing methods, outlets, and sources while distinguishing between the ones that are credible and the ones that aren’t.

Just like the previous skill, media literacy is helpful for finding truth in a world that’s saturated with information.This is how students find trustworthy sources of information in their lives. Without it, anything that looks credible becomes credible.

But with it, they can learn which media outlets or formats to ignore. They also learn which ones to embrace, which is equally important.

Last, technology literacy goes another step further to teach students about the machines involved in the Information Age.

As computers, cloud programming, and mobile devices become more important to the world, the world needs more people to understand those concepts.

Technology literacy gives students the basic information they need to understand what gadgets perform what tasks and why.This understanding removes the intimidating feeling that technology tends to have.

After all, if you don’t understand how technology works, it might as well be magic.

But technology literacy unmasks the high-powered tools that run today’s world.

As a result, students can adapt to the world more effectively. They can play an important role in its evolution.

They might even guide its future.

But to truly round out a student’s 21st Century skills, they need to learn from a third category.

Category 3. Life Skills (FLIPS)

Life skills is the final category. Also called FLIPS, these skills all pertain to someone’s personal life, but they also bleed into professional settings.

Flexibility: Deviating from plans as needed
Leadership: Motivating a team to accomplish a goal
Initiative: Starting projects, strategies, and plans on one’s own
Productivity: Maintaining efficiency in an age of distractions
Social skills: Meeting and networking with others for mutual benefit

Flexibility is the expression of someone’s ability to adapt to changing circumstances.

This is one of the most challenging qualities to learn for students because it’s based on two uncomfortable ideas:

Your way isn’t always the best way
You have to know and admit when you’re wrong

That’s a struggle for a lot of students, especially in an age when you can know any bit of information at the drop of a hat.

Flexibility requires them to show humility and accept that they’ll always have a lot to learn — even when they’re experienced.

Still, flexibility is crucial to a student’s long-term success in a career. Knowing when to change, how to change, and how to react to change is a skill that’ll pay dividends for someone’s entire life.

It also plays a big role in the next skill in this category.

Leadership is someone’s penchant for setting goals, walking a team through the steps required, and achieving those goals collaboratively.

Whether someone’s a seasoned entrepreneur or a fresh hire just starting their careers, leadership applies to career.

Entry-level workers need leadership skills for several reasons. The most important is that it helps them understand the decisions that managers and business leaders make.

Then, those entry-level employees can apply their leadership skills when they’re promoted to middle management (or the equivalent). This is where 21st Century skill learners can apply the previous skills they’ve learned.

It’s also where they get the real-world experience they need to lead entire companies.

As they lead individual departments, they can learn the ins and outs of their specific careers. That gives ambitious students the expertise they need to grow professionally and lead whole corporations.

Leadership alone isn’t enough to get ahead though.

True success also requires initiative, requiring students to be self-starters.

Initiative only comes naturally to a handful of people. As a result, students need to learn it to fully succeed. This is one of the hardest skills to learn and practice. Initiative often means working on projects outside of regular working hours.

The rewards for students with extreme initiative vary from person to person. Sometimes they’re good grades. Other times they’re new business ventures.

Sometimes, it’s spending an extra 30 minutes at their jobs wrapping something up before the weekend. Regardless, initiative is an attribute that earns rewards. It’s especially indicative of someone’s character in terms of work ethic and professional progress.

That goes double when initiative is practiced with qualities like flexibility and leadership.

Along with initiative, 21st Century skills require students to learn about productivity. That’s a student’s ability to complete work in an appropriate amount of time.

In business terms, it’s called “efficiency.”

The common goal of any professional — from entry-level employee to CEO — is to get more done in less time.

By understanding productivity strategies at every level, students discover the ways in which they work best while gaining an appreciation for how others work as well.

That equips them with the practical means to carry out the ideas they determine through flexibility, leadership, and initiative.

Still, there’s one last skill that ties all other 21st Century skills together.

Social skills are crucial to the ongoing success of a professional. Business is frequently done through the connections one person makes with others around them.

This concept of networking is more active in some industries than others, but proper social skills are excellent tools for forging long-lasting relationships.

While these may have been implied in past generations, the rise of social media and instant communications have changed the nature of human interaction.

Someone’s ability to enact and / or adapt to change.

This is because any industry is capable of changing at a moment’s notice. Industries are now regularly disrupted with new ideas and methodologies.

Those industries that haven’t been disrupted aren’t immune though. They just haven’t been disrupted yet. With that in mind, the world has entered an era where nothing is guaranteed.

As a result, students need to learn to guide the change that’ll inundate their lives. At the very least, they need to learn how to react to it. Otherwise, they’ll be left behind.

This is especially true as customer demand accelerates in all industries along with expectations for newer features, higher-level capabilities, and lower prices.

In today’s marketplace, falling behind means becoming obsolete.

That’s a familiar concept to all of today’s students as tomorrow’s advancements make today’s miracles quaint or unimpressive.

Today, the only consistency from year to year is change.

With 21st Century skills, your students will have the adaptive qualities they need to keep up with a business environment that’s constantly evolving.

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Q.2 Describe the structure of science curriculum.
Answer:

The content standards presented in this chapter outline what students should know, understand, and be able to do in natural science. The content standards are a complete set of outcomes for students; they do not prescribe a curriculum. These standards were designed and developed as one component of the comprehensive vision of science education presented in the National Science Education Standards and will be most effective when used in conjunction with all of the standards described in this book. Furthermore, implementation of the content standards cannot be successful if only a subset of the content standards is used (such as implementing only the subject matter standards for physical, life, and earth science). This introduction sets the framework for the content standards by describing the categories of the content standards with a rationale for each category, the form of the standards, the criteria used to select the standards, and some advice for using the science content standards.

Rationale

The eight categories of content standards are

Unifying concepts and processes in science.
Science as inquiry.
Physical science.
Life science.
Earth and space science.
Science and technology.
Science in personal and social perspectives.
History and nature of science.

The standard for unifying concepts and processes is presented for grades K-12, because the understanding and abilities associated with major conceptual and procedural schemes need to be developed over an entire education, and the unifying concepts and processes transcend disciplinary boundaries. The next seven categories are clustered for grades K-4, 5-8, and 9-12. Those clusters were selected based on a combination of factors, including cognitive development theory, the classroom experience of teachers, organization of schools, and the frameworks of other disciplinary-based standards. The sequence of the seven grade-level content standards is not arbitrary: Each standard subsumes the knowledge and skills of other standards. Students' understandings and abilities are grounded in the experience of inquiry, and inquiry is the foundation for the development of understandings and abilities of the other content standards. The personal and social aspects of science are emphasized increasingly in the progression from science as inquiry standards to the history and nature of science standards. Students need solid knowledge and understanding in physical, life, and earth and space science if they are to apply science.

Multidisciplinary perspectives also increase from the subject-matter standards to the standard on the history and nature of science, providing many opportunities for integrated approaches to science teaching.

Unifying Concepts and Processes Standard

Conceptual and procedural schemes unify science disciplines and provide students with powerful ideas to help them understand the natural world. Because of the underlying principles embodied in this standard, the understandings and abilities described here are repeated in the other content standards. Unifying concepts and processes include

Systems, order, and organization.
Evidence, models, and explanation.
Change, constancy, and measurement.
Evolution and equilibrium.
Form and function.

This standard describes some of the integrative schemes that can bring together students' many experiences in science education across grades K-12. The unifying concepts and processes standard can be the focus of instruction at any grade level but should always be closely linked to outcomes aligned with other content standards. In the early grades, instruction should establish the meaning and use of unifying concepts and processes—for example, what it means to measure and how to use measurement tools. At the upper grades, the standard should facilitate and enhance the learning of scientific concepts and principles by providing students with a big picture of scientific ideas—for example, how measurement is important in all scientific endeavors.

Science as Inquiry Standards

. Engaging students in inquiry helps students develop

Understanding of scientific concepts.
An appreciation of "how we know" what we know in science.
Understanding of the nature of science.
Skills necessary to become independent inquirers about the natural world.
The dispositions to use the skills, abilities, and attitudes associated with science.

Science as inquiry is basic to science education and a controlling principle in the ultimate organization and selection of students' activities. The standards on inquiry highlight the ability to conduct inquiry and develop understanding about scientific inquiry. Students at all grade levels and in every domain of science should have the opportunity to use scientific inquiry and develop the ability to think and act in ways associated with inquiry, including asking questions, planning and conducting investigations, using appropriate tools and techniques to gather data, thinking critically and logically about relationships between evidence and explanations, constructing and analyzing alternative explanations, and communicating scientific arguments. The science as inquiry standards are described in terms of activities resulting in student development of certain abilities and in terms of student understanding of inquiry.

Physical Science, Life Science, and Earth and Space Science Standards

The standards for physical science, life science, and earth and space science describe the subject matter of science using three widely accepted divisions of the domain of science. Science subject matter focuses on the science facts, concepts, principles, theories, and models that are important for all students to know, understand, and use.

Science and Technology Standards:

They are not standards for technology education; rather, these standards emphasize abilities associated with the process of design and fundamental understandings about the enterprise of science and its various linkages with technology. As a complement to the abilities developed in the science as inquiry standards, these standards call for students to develop abilities to identify and state a problem, design a solution— including a cost and risk-and-benefit analysis—implement a solution, and evaluate the solution. Science as inquiry is parallel to technology as design. Both standards emphasize student development of abilities and understanding.

Science in Personal and Social Perspectives Standards

An important purpose of science education is to give students a means to understand and act on personal and social issues. The science in personal and social perspectives.

History and Nature of Science Standards

In learning science, students need to understand that science reflects its history and is an ongoing, changing enterprise. The standards for the history and nature of science recommend the use of history in school science programs to clarify different aspects of scientific inquiry, the human aspects of science, and the role that science has played in the development of various cultures. Table 6.7 provides an overview of this standard.

Form of the Content Standards

Below is an example of a content standard. Each content standard states that, as the result of activities provided for all students in the grade level discussed, the content of the standard is to be understood or the abilities are to be developed.

Physical Science (Example)

CONTENT STANDARD B: As a result of the activities in grades K-4, all students should develop an understanding of

1. Properties of objects and materials

2. Position and motion of objects

3. Light, heat, electricity, and magnetism

After each content standard is a section entitled, Developing Student Understanding (or abilities and understanding, when appropriate), which elaborates upon issues associated with opportunities to learn the content. This section describes linkages among student learning, teaching, and classroom situations. This discussion on developing student understanding, including the remarks on the selection of content for grade levels, is based in part on educational research. It also incorporates the experiences of many thoughtful people, including teachers, teacher educators, curriculum developers, and educational researchers. (Some references to research on student understanding and abilities are located at the end of the chapter.)

The next section of each standard is a Guide to the Content Standard, which describes the fundamental idea that underlie the standard. Content is fundamental if it

4. Represents a central event or phenomenon in the natural world.

5. Represents a central scientific idea and organizing principle.

6. Has rich explanatory power.

7. Guides fruitful investigations.

8. Applies to situations and contexts common to everyday experiences.

9. Can be linked to meaningful learning experiences.

10. Is developmentally appropriate for students at the grade level specified.

Criteria for the Content Standards

Three criteria influence the selection of science content. The first is an obligation to the domain of science. The subject matter in the physical, life, and earth and space science standards is central to science education and must be accurate. The presentation in national standards also must accommodate the needs of many individuals who will implement the standards in school science programs. The standards represent science content accurately and appropriately at all grades, with increasing precision and more scientific nomenclature from kindergarten to grade 12. The second criterion is an obligation to develop content standards that appropriately represent the developmental and learning abilities of students. Organizing principles were selected that express meaningful links to direct student observations of the natural world. The content is aligned with students' ages and stages of development. This criterion includes increasing emphasis on abstract and conceptual understandings as students progress from kindergarten to grade 12.

The third criterion is an obligation to present standards in a usable form for those who must implement the standards, e.g., curriculum developers, science supervisors, teachers, and other school personnel. The standards need to provide enough breadth of content to define the domains of science, and they need to provide enough depth of content to direct the design of science curricula. The descriptions also need to be understandable by school personnel and to accommodate the structures of elementary, middle, and high schools, as well as the grade levels used in national standards for other disciplines.

UNIFYING SCIENCE AS INQUIRY PHYSICAL SCIENCE LIFE SCIENCE CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE AND SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND HISTORY AND NATURE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY SOCIAL PERSPECTIVES OF SCIENCE

Private communication of student ideas and Public communication of student ideas and work to classmates conclusions to teacher Content Standard: K—12 EVIDENCE, MODELS, AND EXPLANATION Evidence consists of observations and data on which to base scientific explanations. Using evidence to understand interactions allows individuals to predict changes in natural and designed systems. Models are tentative schemes or structures that correspond to real objects, events, or classes of events, and that have explanatory power. Models help scientists and engineers understand how things work. Models take many forms, including physical objects, plans, mental constructs, mathematical equations, and computer simulations. Scientific explanations incorporate existing scientific knowledge and new evidence As students develop and . . . understand more science concepts and processes, their explanations should become more sophisticated . . . frequently include a rich scientific knowledge base, evidence of logic, higher levels of analysis, greater tolerance of criticism and uncertainty. from observations, experiments, or models into internally consistent, logical statements. Different terms, such as "hypothesis," "model," "law," "principle," ''theory," and "paradigm" are used to describe various types of scientific explanations. As students develop and as they understand more science concepts and processes, their explanations should become more sophisticated. That is, their scientific explanations should more frequently include a rich scientific knowledge base, evidence of logic, higher levels of analysis, greater tolerance of criticism and uncertainty, and a clearer demonstration of the relationship between logic, evidence, and current knowledge. CONSTANCY, CHANGE, AND MEASUREMENT Although most things are in the process of becoming different—changing—some properties of objects and processes are characterized by constancy, including the speed of light, the charge of an electron, and the total mass plus energy in the universe. Changes might occur, for example, in properties of materials, position of objects, motion, and form and function of systems. Interactions within and among systems result in change. Changes vary in rate, scale, and pattern, including trends and cycles. Energy can be transferred and matter can be changed. Nevertheless, when measured, the sum of energy and matter in systems, and by extension in the universe, remains the same. Changes in systems can be quantified. Evidence for interactions and subsequent change and the formulation of scientific explanations are often clarified through quantitative distinctions—measurement. Mathematics is essential for accurately measuring change. Different systems of measurement are used for different purposes. Scientists usually use the metric system. An important part of measurement is knowing when to use which system. For example, a meteorologist might use degrees Fahrenheit when reporting the weather to the public, but in writing scientific reports, the meteorologist would use degrees Celsius. Scale includes understanding that different characteristics, properties, or relationships within a system might change as its dimensions are increased or decreased. Rate involves comparing one measured quantity with another measured quantity, for example, 60 meters per second. Rate is also a measure of change for a part relative to the whole, for example, change in birth rate as part of population growth. EVOLUTION AND EQUILIBRIUM Evolution is a series of changes, some gradual and some sporadic, that accounts for the present form and function of objects, organisms, and natural and designed systems. The general idea of evolution is that the present arises from materials and forms of the past. Although evolution is most commonly associated with the biological theory explaining the process of descent with modification of organisms from common ancestors, evolution also describes changes in the universe.

Equilibrium is a physical state in which forces and changes occur in opposite and off-setting directions: for example, opposite forces are of the same magnitude, or off-setting changes occur at equal rates. Steady state, balance, and homeostasis also describe equilibrium states. Interacting units of matter tend toward equilibrium states in which the energy is distributed as randomly and uniformly as possible. FORM AND FUNCTION Form and function are complementary aspects of objects, organisms, and systems in the natural and designed world. The form or shape of an object or system is frequently related to use, operation, or function. Function frequently relies on form. Understanding of form and function applies to different levels of organization. Students should be able to explain function by referring to form and explain form by referring to function.

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Q.3 Define action research. Discuss how this type of research is crucial for solution of problems of every day classroom.

Answer:

Action research is inquiry or research in the context of focused efforts to improve the quality of an organization and its performance. It typically is designed and conducted by practitioners who analyze the data to improve their own practice. Action research can be done by individuals or by teams of colleagues. The team approach is called collaborative inquiry." What Is Action Research?

There are many ways to conduct research. Each of these ways is used in various professional fields, including psychology, sociology, social work, medicine, nursing, education and so on. However, the field of education often uses action research, an interactive method of collecting information that's used to explore topics of teaching, curriculum development and student behavior in the classroom.

Action research is very popular in the field of education because there is always room for improvement when it comes to teaching and educating others. Sure, there are all types of methods of teaching in the classroom, but action research works very well because the cycle offers opportunity for continued reflection. In all professional fields, the goal of action research is to improve processes. Action research is also beneficial in areas of teaching practice that need to be explored or settings in which continued improvement is the focus.

Let's take a closer look at the cycle of action research. As you can see, the process first starts with identifying a problem. Then, you must devise a plan and implement the plan. This is the part of the process where the action is taking place. After you implement the plan, you will observe how the process is working or not working. After you've had time to observe the situation, the entire process of action research is reflected upon. Perhaps the whole process will start over again! This is action research!

Methods of Action Research

There are many methods to conducting action research. Some of the methods include:

Observing individuals or groups
Using audio and video tape recording
Using structured or semi-structured interviews
Taking field notes
Using analytic memoing
Using or taking photography
Distributing surveys or questionnaire.

The desire of teachers to use approaches that ‘fit’ their particular students is not dissimilar to a doctor’s concern that the specific medicine being prescribed be the correct one for the individual patient. The ability of the action research process to satisfy an educator’s need for ‘fit’ may be its most powerful attribute.” –Richard Sagor

Every learning environment is a gold mine of useful data. Each day a student attends a course, he may be engaged or distracted, interact productively with peers or experience difficulties in social situations, complete assignments proficiently or poorly, and express enthusiasm or disinterest for the material being covered. As educators, we notice these small bites of data, and even record them in our grade books from time to time, but how often do we systematically collect this data in order to assess our own methods?

“Evidence has shown that teachers who elect to integrate the use of data into their work start exhibiting the compulsive behaviour of fitness enthusiasts who regularly weigh themselves, check their heart rate, and graph data on their improving physical development,”says Richard Sagor, author of Guiding School Improvement with Action Research, in a piece for ASCD. “For both teachers and athletes, the continuous presence of compelling data that their hard work is paying off becomes, in itself, a vitally energising force.”

Energising forces are hard to come by these days. Teaching has always been a challenging profession, but now we’re seeing more complex problems related to student behaviour, parental and societal expectations, financial constraints, and professional development.

“Worse still,” Sagor says, “the respect that society had traditionally placed upon teachers is eroding, as teacher bashing and attacks on the very value of a public education are becoming a regular part of the political landscape. Consequently, teacher burnout has become the plague of the modern schoolhouse.”

Many teachers now ask, “Am I making any difference?” “How do I know I’m succeeding without credible evidence?” “Is there a way to track my own progress that doesn’t involve nerve-wracking evaluations and high-stakes tests?”

That’s where action research comes in.

What is it, you ask? Only one of the most promising problem-solving strategies of the century– but also one of the most neglected.

The Living Educational Theory

Kurt Lewin, a professor at MIT, first coined the term “action research” in 1944. His rather dense definition described it as “comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action that uses a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action.” No wonder the concept has had so much trouble catching on in education circles.

More succintly, Sagor says it’s “a disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those taking the action,” the primary reason for which is to improve and refine your own actions. It was first used in the social sciences as an alternative to the traditional research model, which involved a bunch of outside experts sampling variables and reflecting on theoretical situations. Action research offered a more active, moment-to-moment process of theorising, data collecting, and inquiry occurring not in the lab but in the field. Through this method, knowledge and insight were gained “through action and for action.” In other words, experts stopped trying to imagine how to act in various situations and began actually putting themselves in those situations. Social science research became a series of hands-on experiments, emphasising real-time data collection, reflection, and action.

Dr William Barry was one of the first social scientists to envision the potential action research could have on educational practice. He popularised a particular approach called Living Educational Theory (LET), which he described as “a critical and transformational approach to action research.” Using this approach, teachers would be forced to challenge the status quo of their educational practice and to answer the question, “How can I improve that I’m doing?”

According to Barry, “Researchers who use this approach must be willing to recognise and assume responsibility for being a ‘living contradictions’ in their professional practice, thinking one way and acting in another.” The mission of a teacher using LET, then, would be to overcome workplace norms and behaviour which contradicted their values and beliefs. Doing so would allow them to “wake up,” so to speak, and improve the learning of their students. But, most critically, these improvements could only be measured as such if there was clear evidence of workplace reform, improved student learning, and transformational growth of the teacher themself.

Living educational theory as defined and created by Professor Barry is part of the curriculum of multiple courses at Notre Dame de Namur University in Silicon Valley, California in their credentialing program for teacher education. When student teachers use this approach, they undergo a six-step process of action and reflection:

1. Recognise the problem: “My values and beliefs as an educator are oppressed by my passive acceptance of the status quo and the use of oppressive power to change my identity.”

2. Accept responsibility: “I describe my contribution in promoting the status quo and my role in using oppressive power against othersO to illuminate my living contradictions.”

3. Develop a solution: “I develop a solution to transform and improve myself, influence the transformation and improvement of the fellow human beings with whom I interact and the social and work places I share with people.”

4. Work toward that solution: “I enact praxis in the direction of the solution I developed from a critical theory perspective.”

5. Evaluate your progress: “I evaluate the pragmatic outcomes of the solutionO and the implications.”

6. Change and repeat: “I modify my use of power, pedagogy, valid and reliable assessment, and leadership to maximise social justice, ethical processes and results, and improve performance and knowledge as a result of my emerging living educational theory (LET). As an iterative process, I start the cycle again within reasonable time constraints.”

Fortunately, Sagor’s break-down is far less dense, and makes it easier to see how we can apply the theory to our every-day practices. First, let’s look at how he envisions action research benefitting education.

The Three Purposes of Action Research

According to Sagor, action research can be adopted by an individual teacher, a collaborative group of colleagues sharing a common concern, or an institution’s entire faculty. These three different approaches to organising for research serve three compatible, yet distinct, purposes: creating reflective teachers; building professional cultures; and making progress on institutional priorities.

1. Creating Reflective Teachers

“When individual teachers make a personal commitment to systematically collect data on their work, they are embarking on a process that will foster continuous growth and development,” Sagor writes. “When each lesson is looked on as an empirical investigation into factors affecting teaching and learning and when reflections on the findings from each day’s work inform the next day’s instruction, teachers can’t help but develop greater mastery of the art and science of teaching. In this way, the individual teachers conducting action research are making continuous progress in developing their strengths as reflective practitioners.”

2. Building Professional Cultures

“Often an entire faculty will share a commitment to student development, yet the group finds itself unable to adopt a single common focus for action research. This should not be viewed as indicative of a problem. Just as the medical practitioners working at a ‘quality’ medical centre will hold a shared vision of a healthy adult, it is common for all the faculty members at a school to share a similar perspective on what constitutes a well-educated student. However, like the doctors at the medical center, the teachers in a ‘quality’ institution may well differ on which specific aspects of the shared vision they are most motivated to pursue at any point in time. Institutions whose faculties cannot agree on a single research focus can still use action research as a tool to help transform themselves into a learning organisation.

“When the teachers in an [institution] begin conducting action research, their workplace begins to take on more of the flavour of the workplaces of other professionals. The wisdom that informs practice starts coming from those doing the work, not from supervisors who oftentimes are less in touch with and less sensitive to the issues of teaching and learning than the teachers doing the work. Furthermore, when teachers begin engaging their colleagues in discussions of issues, the multiple perspectives that emerge and thus frame the dialogue tend to produce wiser professional decisions.”

3. Making Progress on Institutional Priorities

“Increasingly, institutions are focusing on strengthening themselves and their programs through the development of common focuses and a strong sense of esprit de corps. When a faculty shares a commitment to achieving excellence with a specific focus– for example, the development of higherorder thinking, positive social behaviour, or higher standardised test scores– then collaboratively studying their practice will not only contribute to the achievement of the shared goal but would have a powerful impact on team building and program development. Focusing the combined time, energy, and creativity of a group of committed professionals on a single pedagogical issue will inevitably lead to program improvements, as well as to the institution becoming a ‘center of excellence.’ As a result, when a faculty chooses to focus on one issue and all the teachers elect to enthusiastically participate in action research on that issue, significant progress on [institutional] priorities cannot help but occur.”

Specific Uses for Instruction

More specifically, action research can be used to do things like meet the needs of a diverse student body or achieve success in a standards-based system.

“The days are gone when it was possible to believe that all a teacher had to do was master and deliver the grade-level curriculum. It is now imperative that teachers have strong content background in each of the subjects they teach, be familiar with the range of student differences in their [course], and be capable of diagnosing and prescribing appropriate instructional modifications based upon a knowledge of each child’s uniqueness.”

To make things more difficult, standards-driven accountability systems have become the norm in most jurisdictions. “The stakes in the standards movement are high. Students face consequences regarding promotion and graduation. Teachers and [institutions] face ridicule and loss of funding if they fail to meet community expectations.”

Action research can help. If we encourage experimentation, inquiry, and dialogue in meeting these challenges, and conduct our own research on best teaching practices, then we’ll be well on our way to addressing these problems.

“Crafting solutions to these dynamic and ever changingO issues can be an exciting undertaking, especially when one acknowledges that newer and better answers are evolving all the time,” says Sagor. “Great personal satisfaction comes from playing a role in creating successful solutions to continually changing puzzles.”

Now that we know a few of the ways action research can serve education, how exactly do we use it to improve our teaching? Below are Sagor’s seven steps.

The Seven Steps of Action Research

“Practitioners who engage in action research inevitably find it to be an empowering experience. Action research helps educators be more effective at what they care most about– their teaching and the development of their students. Seeing students grow is probably the greatest joy educators can experience. When teachers have convincing evidence that their work has made a real difference in their students’ lives, the countless hours and endless efforts of teaching seem worthwhile.” — Richard Sagor

Step 1: Select a Focus

The action research process begins with serious reflection directed toward identifying a topic or topics worthy of a busy teacher’s time. Considering the incredible demands on today’s classroom teachers, no activity is worth doing unless it promises to make the central part of a teacher’s work more successful and satisfying. Thus, selecting a focus, the first step in the process, is vitally important. Selecting a focus begins with the teacher researcher or the team of action researchers asking:

What element(s) of our practice or what aspect of student learning do we wish to investigate?

Step 2: Clarify Your Theories

The second step involves identifying the values, beliefs, and theoretical perspectives that you hold about your chosen focus. For example, if you are concerned about increasing responsible student behaviour, it will be helpful for you to begin by clarifying which approach– whether using punishments and rewards, allowing students to experience the natural consequences of their behaviours, or some other strategy– you feel will work best in helping students acquire those desirable habits.

Step 3: Identify Research Questions

Once a focus area has been selected and your perspectives and beliefs about that focus have been clarified, the next step is to generate a set of personally meaningful research questions to guide the inquiry.

Step 4: Collect Data

“For the harried and overworked teacher, ‘data collection’ can appear to be the most intimidating aspect of the entire seven-step action research process,” Sagor says. “The question I am repeatedly asked, ‘Where will I find the time and expertise to develop valid and reliable instruments for data collection?’ gives voice to a realistic fear regarding time management.” But it doesn’t have to be this way.

“Professional educators always want their instructional decisions to be based on the best possible data. Action researchers can accomplish this by making sure that the data used to justify their actions are valid (meaning the information represents what the researchers say it does) and reliable (meaning the researchers are confident about the accuracy of their data). Lastly, before data are used to make teaching decisions, teachers must be confident that the lessons drawn from the data align with any unique characteristics of their [institution].”

Step 5: Analyse Your Data

“Although data analysis often brings to mind the use of complex statistical calculations, this is rarely the case for the action researcher. A number of relatively user-friendly procedures can help a practitioner identify the trends and patterns in action research data. During this portion of the sevenstep process, teacher researchers will methodically sort, sift, rank, and examine their data to answer two generic questions:

What is the story told by these data?

Why did the story play itself out this way?

By answering these two questions, the teacher-researcher can acquire a better understanding of the phenomenon under investigation and as a result can end up producing grounded theory regarding what might be done to improve the situation.”

Step 6: Report Your Results

“The reporting of action research most often occurs in informal settings that are far less intimidating than the venues where scholarly research has traditionally been shared. Faculty meetings, brown bag lunch seminars, and teacher conferences are among the most common venues for sharing action research with peers. However, each year more and more teacher researchers are writing up their work for publication or to help fulfill requirements in graduate programs. Regardless of which venue or technique educators select for reporting on research, the simple knowledge that they are making a contribution to a collective knowledge base regarding teaching and learning frequently proves to be among the most rewarding aspects of this work.”

Step 7: Take Informed Action

“Taking informed action, or ‘action planning,’ the last step in the action research process, is very familiar to most teachers. When teachers write lesson plans or develop academic programs, they are engaged in the action planning process. What makes action planning particularly satisfying for the teacher researcher is that with each piece of data uncovered about teaching or student learning, the educator will feel greater confidence in the wisdom of the next steps. Although all teaching can be classified as trial and error, action researchers find that the research process liberates them from continuously repeating their past mistakes. More important, with each refinement of practice, action researchers gain valid and reliable data on their developing virtuosity.”

“The time is right for action research,” Sagor says. “The teachersO that seize this opportunity and begin investing in the power of inquiry will find that they are re-creating the professional practice of education in their locale as a meaningful and rewarding pursuit.” Those who don’t enter the 21st century willing to invest in the “wisdom of practice,” he warns, will find it increasingly difficult to tackle the challenges that lie ahead.

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Q.4 Elaborate teachers as reflective practitioner. How reflective journal is an effective tool for reflective thinking?
Answer:

Becoming a master teacher takes continuous effort. To avoid the loss of enthusiasm or static practice, teachers need to focus on their own professional development. Notably, the single most significant indicator of student success is an excellent teacher; nevertheless, no one can be professionally developed without his or her consent. To remain vitalized, teachers need to spend time outside the classroom with other dedicated individuals. The educational mandates from state, federal and local legislators are not targeted at improving teaching and learning. Although many are well-intentioned initiatives to assist school success, they are not sufficient for improving teaching excellence throughout an entire professional career.

The Need for Mentors

Over the course of a lifetime, master teachers are continuously improving their craft, listening to their students, re-tailoring lessons and finding the gaps in instructional practices. The myth that some people are born teachers is simply not true. They may begin teaching with the high motive of generosity toward their students, their colleagues and themselves, but maintaining this over many years is a challenge. Without contemplation and retreat, teaching can become simply a series of lucky habits rather than a profession through which one can grow.

Think of great athletes. Many show extreme promise early in their careers; however, they depend upon other great athletes and coaches to improve their performance over time. If they find themselves at a plateau in their performance, they look for mentors to push them beyond it.

But in teaching, a promising young professional can fulfill that expectation without sufficient coaching for years. Of course, there is always teacher evaluation designed for that purpose; still, how often does it truly improve anything to do with the classroom? Even dedicated supervisors have precious little time to devote to the continuing development of teacher excellence. Teachers can be deceived by what is appealing, habitual and popular with students. Effective teaching is an acquired talent.

Professional retreats offer teachers the opportunity to dedicate time to those qualitative steps that result in ongoing development. The six steps to becoming a master teacher include:

1) Understand Your Reasons for Teaching

Identifying those who influenced you to become a teacher is a fundamental exercise in continued excellence. Almost everyone can name two or three teachers who changed the course of his or her life. Some found elementary school teachers who discovered their talent and promise. Others discovered their confidence through recognition of their potential in a specific subject. By discussing and defining the qualities of those exemplary teachers when they were students, professionals begin to define the roots of their own teaching.

2) Cultivate Ethical Behavior in Your Students and Yourself

Although many schools of discipline exist, a teacher can achieve harmony in the classroom, but the real focus of student management lies in instilling ethical behavior. Authentic responses to classroom interactions as well as logical consequences for transgressions can be improved through collegial dialogue. These cannot be found in a manual; but rather, can be cultivated in seminars and observance of other master teachers.

3) Pool Both Patience and Perseverance

Stamina and endurance are needed for the long haul of teaching. This means finding ways to remain healthy and able-minded through the stressful days. By connecting with others who have discovered methods of physical and mental renewal, teachers have a better chance of staying enthused about teaching despite the many inevitable setbacks during the school year.

4) Design Curriculum That Works

All good teaching requires excellent design and redesign, beginning with a strong curriculum that outlines the most essential ideas. Without a forum for the continuous re-tailoring of their curriculum, teachers are often left to work from a textbook or on-the-fly lesson plans. Spending time in retreat with other professionals allows teachers to lay a strong foundation for each course they teach.

5) Perfect Instructional Practices and Assessment Skills

The ongoing development of instructional methods and feedback skills are critical to excellence in teaching. Only through the careful examination of activities and assessment can a teacher guide all students to succeed. Teachers need time with their colleagues outside the classroom; the temporary success of "fun" activities can be a hindrance to the development of a master teacher. By crafting performance tasks and assessing them with their peers and mentors, teachers can refine their teaching.

6) Connect Positively to the Whole-School Culture

Over time, the master teacher has the capacity to improve the whole-school culture through excellence in teaching. Because master teaching has as its foundation the generous impulse to assist students and colleagues, the teacher is able to fundamentally influence others without generating resentment. The master teacher is consistently working to benefit the school, so he or she is not in competition with colleagues or administration.

In the end, only way to stay the course throughout one's teaching career is by discussion with great teachers who motivate, inspire and remain connected to the classroom. In the company of others, teachers can uncover the best work being done in our schools. Dedicated to their own professional development, they are capable of improving teaching and learning despite the many other mandates. This is critical to their continued enthusiasm.

Through the retreats and professional learning communities, colleagues enhance their own teaching and further the practice of others. In this way, they sustain and improve instructional practices, passing the torch of inspired teaching to others.

Part b: As a practicum student at McGill’s Teaching and Learning Services, I have been examining the role of reflective journals in post-secondary classrooms. Throughout the course of my research, it has come to my attention that, while they are used frequently in the instruction of disciplines like English and Theatre, reflective journals can actually be a helpful learning tool for a much wider range of subjects (Fenwick & Parsons, 2000; Stevens & Cooper, 2009). In fact, they are becoming more popular in law schools, and even in science classrooms (Fenwick & Parsons, 2000; Ogilvy, 1996). Skeptics insist that journal writing is nothing more than busy work for students and a lot of unnecessary extra effort for instructors. However, those who view journals as constructive have demonstrated that, when properly implemented, engaging students in the exercise of journal writing can be beneficial to both students and their instructors. Journal writing can allow students to reflect on new knowledge learned in class, solidify their learning experience by recording their evolving thought process as they progress further in the course, learn new material, and form new conclusions (Stevens & Cooper, 2009, p. 3). It can also teach them to formulate new opinions and perspectives, and gives them a risk free venue to explore, think, and practice skills learned in class (Stevens & Cooper, 2009, p. 9; Fenwick & Parsons, 2000, p. 155). Students who write regularly in a journal consistently see improvements in their writing skills, as well as their creative and reflective thinking (Stevens & Cooper, 2009, p. 15-16, 33).

When students write journals for class, it not only helps them, but their instructors as well. Instructors who assign journal writing to their students often see an increase in participation from their students: having to respond to class material in writing encourages students to do the readings, as well as participate more in class discussions (Stevens & Cooper, 2009, p. 11). In addition, from reading journal entries, instructors can see which concepts were understood by their students, and which ones may need revisiting (Mills, 2008). Finally, through the use of assigned journal writing topics, instructors can guide and focus their students’ learning, emphasize important concepts from the lectures, and challenge students to employ their critical thinking skills (Mills, 2008).

While such potential benefits can be appealing, it is not always clear how to go about developing and implementing a reflective journal assignment. Here are a couple of things to keep in mind when introducing journal writing to a class:

• Be clear about the journal’s purpose

Whether it be to voice personal feelings and responses, develop and apply critical thinking skills, or some combination of these, communication of the journal’s purpose to students is essential. This purpose should also be reflected in the journal’s evaluation, as well as the type of writing involved (Fenwick & Parsons, 2000).

• Offer personal examples to help students understand what is expected of them

One of the best ways to communicate to students what is expected of them is to provide an example. Having a concrete idea of what their instructor is looking for gives students more confidence that they are capable of creating an acceptable product, and takes some of the ambiguity away from journal writing (Fenwick & Parsons, 2000).

• Evaluate only journal content, not form, spelling, or grammar

Insisting that students revise, rewrite, or edit their journal entries may effectively defeat the purpose of writing them in the first place. It could cause students to be afraid of making mistakes, thus restricting their creativity, curiosity, and honesty. This could in turn have a negative effect on the development of reflective writing skills. Errors made in a journal setting occur because the journal is doing its job of encouraging students to try new things (Fenwick & Parsons, 2000; Marsh, 1998).

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Q.5 What is difference between rote memorization and meaningful learning? Describe scope of meaningful learning in science education.
Answer:

ROTE LEARNING VS. MEANINGFUL LEARNING

Experts emphasize the importance of deep understanding over the recalling of facts. Students who learn with meaningful learning are able to problem solve better than those who learn by rote.

Meaningful learning teaches students important cognitive skills they will use throughout their life. Cognitive skills are what students use to evaluate, analyze, remember and make comparisons. In the long run, meaningful learning is the most effective way for students to engage in learning

Rote Learning Vs Meaningful Learning

Rote learning can be defined as a memorization technique based on repeating the material again and again until you get through with it and begin to memorize. The idea behind the rote learning is that one will be able to quickly recall the meaning of the material the more one repeats it. Some of the alternatives to rote learning include meaningful learning, associative learning, and active learning. Rote learning is generally based on only repeating the topics and not the clear understanding of the topics. Rote learning methods are generally used when quick memorization is required, such as learning one's lines in a play or memorizing a telephone number, also some students opt for rote learning instead of meaningful learning method with the clear understanding of the subject. Rote learning is widely used in the mastery of foundational knowledge.

Meaningful learning, on the other hand, refers to the concept of learning the subject or topic with the clear understanding of all the related facts. When learned by meaningfully, the learned knowledge is fully understood by the individual and he also knows well how that specific fact relates to other stored facts in his brain. For understanding this concept, it is good to contrast meaningful learning with the much less desirable, rote learning. Rote learning is the method where you memorize something without full understanding and you don't know how the new information relates to your other stored knowledge.

What is Rote Learning?

Rote learning as discussed earlier involves verbatim memorization. Remembering a particular phone number, dates and names are examples of rote learning. Repeating material, again and again, helps a learner recall it exactly as it was presented. Stuff that doesn't relate to anything else is learned by rote learning method. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, is tied and related and integrated to previous learning. Needless to say, meaningful learning is generally more powerful and interesting. Rote learning does not give you any meaningful learning experience and you are not sure of utilizing that information for some practical use. Rote learning is like singing along with a song playing on your I-pod or radio and after a couple of times, you start to pick up interesting lines and slowly you realize that you have learned the whole song. Some other examples of rote learning may include:

School topics where rote learning is frequently used include phonics in reading and especially cramming at the time of the test.
The periodic table in chemistry, you cannot have a reason for every element placement in the table, hence most of the time students end up cramming the position of elements in the periodic table.
Multiplication tables in mathematics, that most of the students learn by rote methodology.
Anatomy in medicine, there is no reason for the general human anatomy and you cannot find any other memorization technique for the anatomy. Hence only technique left is by the rote method.
Cases or statutes in law,

You cannot find a reason for every small formula that you have to use in a subject. For example, a simple formula for momentum is p=mv which has a long two-page derivation. If a student goes on learning all these derivations he would not be in a state to learn anything else for his examination.

Rote learning eschews comprehension, so by itself, it is an ineffective tool in mastering any complex subject at an advanced level. Though, it may be a good tool for just memorizing something or the other, but not if you need to utilize that information for some practical purpose. For instance, one illustration of Rote learning can be observed in preparing quickly for exams, a technique which may be colloquially referred to as "cramming". Cramming may sometimes help you score decent grades sometimes but not every time. Also, it is a fact that cramming won’t help you out in long run. Every topic that is being taught has its bigger significance somewhere in the future, and at that time you end up with no information left in your brain.

Talking about studies, rote learning finds some usefulness by students in math and science. Rote methods are often used, for example, to memorize formulas or tables. There is greater understanding if students commit a formula to memory through exercises that use the formula rather than through rote repetition of the formula. But most of the students find it quite useful to just cram the periodic table position, formula or tables in mathematics as an understanding of these topics may involve a lot of explanation and derivation work, that may become really complex and cumbersome for a student. Standards always recommend that students derive formulas themselves to achieve the best understanding and utilization. Nothing can faster than rote learning if a formula is to be learned quickly for an important test and rote methods can be helpful for committing an understood fact to memory.

However, it is often observed that students who learn with understanding are really clear with all the facts and are conveniently able to transfer their knowledge to tasks requiring problem-solving with greater success than those who learn only by rote.

What is Meaningful Learning?

Meaningful learning is very important to form the student point of view. Meaningful learning in today's competitive world holds the key to success. These days it is not just your grades that matter to be successful; it is something more than that. These days in the interview you are tested on your practical skills and practical knowledge before looking at your result cards. Once you clear your interview level based on knowledge and facts, then only you are asked about your grades and qualifications. Hence proper knowledge is a must for anyone to be successful these days. Developing a capability of 'learning to learn' and higher-level thinking skills is a life-long practice and must be honed on a continual basis.

Meaningful learning helps us a lot, in fact, our brain is designed for meaningful learning only. Our brain works in an associative way and our memory serves us in a chained structure. Existing knowledge acts as a mental block for new learning to occur. Once we learned something by the meaningful method with full clarity, we are able to relate that knowledge with every relevant piece of information about that topic in our brain and possess a confidence of utilizing that information properly in our profession also. People displaying memory deftness often contend that by establishing a visual relationship between seemingly disconnected or unrelated objects or numerals, their retention is enhanced. Hence it would not be wrong to say that we do learn a lot by the process of watching something happen in practical rather than just cramming it theoretically. Some suggestions on how to ensure meaningful learning:

Make sure what you learn is in your proximal zone.
Emphasise more on the application rather than just learning.
Make sure you have a proper reason for everything that you are learning. If there is any doubt, ask your teacher how some new knowledge is related to other course material.
Have a study partner ask you questions that require the recall of related material.
Try to make some effective memorisation points to remember the things that you have learned.
Strictly avoid cramming as far as possible, even for some basic formulas that you may find easy to just cram.
Make a figure that illustrates what you should know about a specific topic and its related material.
Do not mix up the things by picking up multiple topics at the same time. You may be good at multitasking but that won’t work in the case of learning.

Differences Between Rote Learning and Meaningful Learning

Educational theorists suggest a distinction between meaningful learning and rote learning. Rote learning is most commonly emphasized in primary and secondary educational settings, and consists of simple memorization of information or the topics, without concern for relationships among concepts, and the basic idea is just to get decent grades in the exams. However, in contrast, meaningful learning results from linking new information to relevant, pre-existing concepts that were learned either in previous lecture, class or year. The most important factor for learning is what the learners already know, and how effectively he can relate the new information with the pre-existing information about the same topic.

Rote learning involves learning by repetition and meaningful learning involves a review of the facts with clarification. Both repetition and review are important to the teaching and learning process. But it is the duty of the teacher to make sure to use the method that is most appropriate for particular material otherwise they will be fooling themselves and their students. It is a fact that something’s does need in cramming but there should be a proper limit. Do not go on cramming all the topics, otherwise, this may lead to a lot of confusion and students may sometimes end up blank at the time of examination.

WHAT IS MEANINGFUL LEARNING?

Meaningful learning involves understanding how all the pieces of an entire concept fit together. The knowledge gained through meaningful learning applies to new learning situations. This type of learning stays with students for life.

Meaningful learning is active, constructive, and long-lasting, but most importantly, it allows students to be fully engaged in the learning process.

Two important goals of all types of learning include retention and transfer. “Retention” is the ability to remember the material at a later time. “Transfer” is the ability to use prior knowledge to solve new problems. Students achieve meaningful learning when both of these goals are fulfilled.

ADVANTAGES OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING

Meaningful learning helps students achieve success in the classroom by:

Encouraging understanding, not memorization
Encouraging active learning techniques
Focusing on the outcome of the learning process
Relating new information to prior knowledge

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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8615 Management Strategies In Educational Institutions Assignment 2

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 7 Sep 2019 11:31:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8615 Management Strategies In Educational Institutions Assignment 2

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q.1 To promote positive behaviors in an organization, develop communication strategies which are appropriate in your setting. (20)
Answer:

Behavioral systems analysis (BSA), or performance systems analysis, applies behavior analysis and systems analysis to human performance in organizations. BSA is directly related to performance management and organizational behavior management.

Behavioral systems analysis is an approach to organizational design and management. It is based on the premise that organizations are complex systems. As such, changes in one aspect of performance in an organization necessarily affects performance in another parts of an organization. A primary goal of BSA is to create a balanced applications in which areas of poor performance are improved, areas of high performance are maintained, and employee performance outcomes are directed towards organizational goals. This is done through the careful use of behavioral and systems theories, and the application of research based principles of behavior, such as reinforcement, punishment, stimulus control, discrimination and generalization.

Tools

Here is a list of some the tools and the last name of the author next to them:

Behavioral Systems Engineering Model – M. Malott-2003
Total Performance System – Brethower-1982
Super System/Relationship Map – Rummler-1995
Is/Should Process Maps/Task Analysis – Rummler, M. Malott
ABC (PIC/NIC) Analysis – Daniels
Behavior Engineering Model/6boxes/Performance Diagnostic Checklist – Gilbert, Binder, Austin-2000
Human Performance System – Rummler
Performance Planned and Managed System/Interlocking Contingencies at Various Management Levels/Cultural Change Model – Rummler, M. Malott, R. Malott

Behavior Analysis is a scientific discipline that studies the behavior of individuals. Behavior Analysis maintains that behavior is the product of individual's interaction with his or her environment (e.g., physical environment, social environment, genetic environment) and the history of that interaction. All social organizations are comprised of individuals' behaviors and their products. Systems Analysis is a scientific discipline that studies the operations of complex systems such as organizations, and focuses on the interactions between parts of those systems. A system can be understood as interrelated components or parts that interact toward a common purpose. Accordingly, the behavior or functioning of one part or parts affect(s) the behavior or functioning of other parts. In systems analysis, a system is not considered to be reducible to its parts. Therefore, the parts can only be understood in terms of their interaction with other parts of the system.

Behavioral Systems Analysis draws upon basic and applied research on behavior and the research and practice in Organizational Behavior Management, Performance Management and Systems Analysis. Behavioral Systems Analysis views organizational performance as a scientific subject matter. From this perspective, an individual's behavior in organizations is a naturally occurring phenomenon. Moreover, the discovery orderly relations between behavior and the system in which it occurs gives us opportunities for Behavioral Systems Applications to improve individual and system performance.

Behavioral Systems Analysis is an approach to organizational design and management. It is based on the premise that organizations are complex systems. As such, changes in one aspect of performance in an organization necessarily affects performance in another parts of an organization. A primary goal of BSA is to create a balanced applications in which areas of poor performance are improved, areas of high performance are maintained, and employee performance outcomes are directed towards organizational goals. This is done through the careful use of behavioral and systems theories, and the application of research based principles of behavior, such as reinforcement, punishment, stimulus control, discrimination and generalization.

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Q.2 Analyze role of various stakeholders of educational institutions for quality management. (20)
Answer:

Total quality management (TQM) consists of organization-wide efforts to install and make a permanent climate in which an organization continuously improves its ability to deliver high-quality products and services to customers. While there is no widely agreed-upon approach, TQM efforts typically draw heavily on the previously developed tools and techniques of quality control. TQM enjoyed widespread attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s before being overshadowed by ISO 9000, Lean manufacturing, and Six Sigma.

Total Quality Management (TQM) describes a management approach to long-term success through customer satisfaction. In a TQM effort, all members of an organization participate in improving processes, products, services, and the culture in which they work.

Total Quality Management Principles: The 8 Primary Elements of TQM

Total quality management can be summarized as a management system for a customer-focused organization that involves all employees in continual improvement. It uses strategy, data, and effective communications to integrate the quality discipline into the culture and activities of the organization. Many of these concepts are present in modern Quality Management Systems, the successor to TQM. Here are the 8 principles of total quality management:

1. Customer-focused

The customer ultimately determines the level of quality. No matter what an organization does to foster quality improvement—training employees, integrating quality into the design process, upgrading computers or software, or buying new measuring tools—the customer determines whether the efforts were worthwhile.

2. Total employee involvement

All employees participate in working toward common goals. Total employee commitment can only be obtained after fear has been driven from the workplace, when empowerment has occurred, and management has provided the proper environment. High-performance work systems integrate continuous improvement efforts with normal business operations. Self-managed work teams are one form of empowerment.

3. Process-centered

A fundamental part of TQM is a focus on process thinking. A process is a series of steps that take inputs from suppliers (internal or external) and transforms them into outputs that are delivered to customers (again, either internal or external). The steps required to carry out the process are defined, and performance measures are continuously monitored in order to detect unexpected variation.

4. Integrated system

Although an organization may consist of many different functional specialties often organized into vertically structured departments, it is the horizontal processes interconnecting these functions that are the focus of TQM.

Micro-processes add up to larger processes, and all processes aggregate into the business processes required for defining and implementing strategy. Everyone must understand the vision, mission, and guiding principles as well as the quality policies, objectives, and critical processes of the organization. Business performance must be monitored and communicated continuously.
An integrated business system may be modeled after the Baldrige National Quality Program criteria and/or incorporate the ISO 9000 standards. Every organization has a unique work culture, and it is virtually impossible to achieve excellence in its products and services unless a good quality culture has been fostered. Thus, an integrated system connects business improvement elements in an attempt to continually improve and exceed the expectations of customers, employees, and other stakeholders.

5. Strategic and systematic approach

A critical part of the management of quality is the strategic and systematic approach to achieving an organization’s vision, mission, and goals. This process, called strategic planning or strategic management, includes the formulation of a strategic plan that integrates quality as a core component.

6. Continual improvement

A major thrust of TQM is continual process improvement. Continual improvement drives an organization to be both analytical and creative in finding ways to become more competitive and more effective at meeting stakeholder expectations.

7. Fact-based decision making

In order to know how well an organization is performing, data on performance measures are necessary. TQM requires that an organization continually collect and analyze data in order to improve decision making accuracy, achieve consensus, and allow prediction based on past history.

8. Communications

During times of organizational change, as well as part of day-to-day operation, effective communications plays a large part in maintaining morale and in motivating employees at all levels. Communications involve strategies, method, and timeliness.

Leadership’ and ‘Engagement of People’ as principles of quality management in education sector:

According to the idea of transformational leadership , an effective leader is a person who does the following:

Creates an inspiring vision of the future.
Motivates and inspires people to engage with that vision.
Manages delivery of the vision.
Coaches and builds a team, so that it is more effective at achieving the vision.

Leadership brings together the skills needed to do these things. We'll look at each element in more detail.

ISO 9001 is underpinned by the 8 Principles of Quality Management. They’ve been the guiding principles for the most popular quality standard; ISO 9001. But they’re also useful resources for any management professionals who want to implement or improve their existing quality management programme.

PRINCIPLE 1: CUSTOMER FOCUS

Just as you’d expect, customer focus is the first principle: just where it should be. It covers both customer needs and customer service. It stresses that a business should understand their customers, what they need and when, whilst trying to meet, but preferably exceed customers’ expectations.

As a result, customer loyalty increases, revenue rises and waste reduces as the businesses ability to spot new customer opportunities and satisfy them improves. More effective processes result in improved customer satisfaction.

PRINCIPLE 2: LEADERSHIP

Without clear and strong leadership, a business flounders. Principle 2, is concerned with the direction of the organisation. The business should have clear goals & objectives, and its employees actively involved in achieving those targets.

The benefits are better employee engagement and increased motivation to satisfy customer needs. Research shows, if employees are kept ‘in the loop’ and understand the business vision they’ll be more productive. This principle seeks to rectify employees complaints about ‘lack of communication’.

PRINCIPLE 3: PEOPLE INVOLVEMENT

An organisation is nothing without its staff whether part-time, full-time in house or outsourced. It’s their abilities that maximised to achieve business success.

Employee motivation and increased innovation and the benefits here. When people feel valued, they’ll work to their maximum potential and contribute ideas. Principle 3 emphasises the importance of making employees responsible and accountable for their actions.

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Q.3 Discuss in detail ‘individual level of change’ and its relevant approaches. (20)
Answer:

Individual sources of resistance towards a change exist in the basic human tenets or

characteristics and are influenced by the differences in perception, personal background, needs or personality-related differences. It is important to understand those triggering factors or issues which refrain individuals from endorsing change or extending their support and cooperation towards any change initiatives at an organizational level.

Criticizing the individuals or the teams for not being supportive in the stages of transition or compelling them cannot be an effective solution for implementing change smoothly or in a hassle free manner.

The resistance towards change at an individual level can be due to various reasons:

How satisfied they are with the existing state of affairs
Whether they appreciate the overall end product of change and it’s outcome on them
How much practical or realistic the change is
What will be the possible cost change on the individual in terms of potential risks involved, pressure to develop new competencies and disruptions

The following factors explain why individuals may pose resistance towards change:

Habits: We individuals are influenced by our habits in our ways of working and accept or reject a change depending upon the effect which a change may have on the existing habits of the individuals. For example, change in the office location might be subjected to resistance from the individuals as this might compel them to change their existing life routine and create a lot of difficulties in adjustment or coping with the schedule. The individuals might have to drive a longer way for reaching their office, or start early from home for reaching their office in time, etc.

Lack of Acceptability or Tolerance for the Change: Some individuals endorse change and welcome a change initiative happily while few individuals fear the impact of change. Over a period of time change fatigue also builds up. Fear of a Negative Impact Economically or on the Income: During the process of organizational restructuring or introduction of organization-wide change as a

strategic move on the part of the management, several inhibitions, and fear rule the thought process of the individuals. Fear of possible loss of a job as a result of change or a change in their income structure or may be a change in their work hours could be one amongst the possible reasons.

Fear of the Unseen and Unknown Future: Individuals develop inertia towards the change due to the fear of unknown or uncertainties in the future. This can be tackled through effective communication with the participants of change and making people aware of the positives of change and the course of action which individuals are expected to follow to cope with the changing requirements successfully.

Fear of Losing Something Really Valuable: Any form of threat to personal security or financial security or threat to the health of the individuals may lead to fear of losing something precious as a result of the implementation of change.

Selective Processing of Information: It can be considered as a filtering process in which the individuals perceive or make judgments by gathering selective information which is greatly influenced by their personal background, attitude, personal biases or prejudices, etc. If an individual maintains a negative attitude towards any kind of change, then they are having a usual tendency of looking at the negativities associated with the change and involve all the positive aspects of it.

A Rigid Belief that change cannot bring about any facilitating change in the organization and it only involves the pain and threats to the individuals.

Now, we will look into the organizational factors which result in resistance to change.

Resistance Due to the Structural Rigidities or Limitations: Structural resistance is a characteristic feature of bureaucracies, which focus more on stability, control, set methodologies or routine.

Ignoring all the interconnected factors which require change or lack of clarity in understanding the ground realities.

Inertia from the Groups: Groups may resist change because just like individuals, groups equally follow set behavioural patterns, norms or culture and as a result of change the groups might have to change their existing ways of conduct or behaviour.

Possible threats to Power, Resources or Expertise can also result in resistance towards an organization level change. Any kind of devolution of power or transfer of resources from some agency or group to some other agency or a group will definitely lead to a feeling of fear or inertia towards a change initiative.

In the end, it can be concluded that any kind of change will surely involve heavy resistance at the individual as well as organizational level. But through effective communication during all stages and consulting, desirable outcomes can be ensured by breaking all the possible barriers or resistances towards a change. What is more important is identifying the main source of resistance and accordingly developing action plans for dealing with it.

Successful change in an organization will require strong commitment and involvement on the part of the top management, focused and an integrated approach, strong and a stable leadership, effective and open communication from the internal change agent for making people sensitive and more aware of the realities and the ultimate need for change.

For minimizing the resistance towards the change employee participation and involvement in the overall process plays a crucial role in building acceptability and seeking the cooperation of the employees towards the change. Hence proper planning, coordinated approach and complete involvement of all the stakeholders, play a decisive role in implementing strategic decisions and determining the success of change.

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Q.4 Discuss the concept of DDIM with your colleagues in your institution. Then draft the Sub Goals and Objectives for Science subject for 7th class. (20)
Answer:

Learn the correct way to use objectives when creating lesson plans, with this article of advice. New teachers will find this resource particularly valuable as the article explains and demonstrates how your objectives are your “road map” of your lesson. A well-planned lesson with objectives will lead to successful learning in your classroom. The crux of a good lesson plan is its objectives. Using a roadmap analogy, getting to your final destination (Carbondale, Colorado, for example) is your objective. In a lesson plan, the final destination (identifying iambic pentameter or listing important events in the life of Benjamin Franklin, for example) for your students is the objective(s) of the lesson. To take the analogy one step further, objectives are what drive a lesson. They power it forward. Most important, everything you do in a lesson must be tied to one or more objectives.

Every activity, every instructional devise, every teaching resource, and every means of evaluation and assessment must be linked to the lesson’s objective(s). Writing good objectives will be challenging at first. However, everything in the lesson must revolve around the objectives; thus, you must construct them with care and attention to detail. A well-crafted objective has two components:

The audience: The students for whom the objective is intended
The terminal behavior: The anticipated performance Here’s an example of an objective for a third-grade science lesson: students will list the nine planets of our known solar system. Objectives are built around good verbs. I like to think of verbs as the gasoline that keeps a lesson moving forward. Thus, the verbs you use in your lesson objectives should be action verbs or verbs you can use to measure performance. Passive verbs are often immeasurable and make an objective weak. As you’ll note in these examples, it would be relatively easy to assess students’ ability to add (e.g., Students will be able to add a column of two-digit numbers), but quite difficult to assess a students’ ability to realize (e.g., Students will be able to realize Lee’s defeat at Gettysburg). Action verbs in your objectives help you assess students and be sure they know or can do what you taught them. These are just a few sample verbs (among hundreds possible).

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Q.5 Explain different tools and techniques of Web Based Management System. (20)
Answer:

he expanding use of intranets—which are essentially smaller, private versions of the global Internet—has sparked the creation of Web-based tools for monitoring and managing enterprise networks. In fact, a new network management paradigm has emerged that allows administrators to use Web browsers to monitor, configure, and control enterprise networks and their various components. Use of the popular Web browser gives network managers a degree of mobility they did not have before and enables a wider range of users to access network status information. In addition, Web browsers overcome many interoperability issues that are inherent in multiplatform environments.

The convenience and ease of use of Web-based management (WBM) tools is very appealing. A Web-based management tool is easier to use than the command-line interfaces of UNIX systems. Such tools can be used from any PC or workstation with a browser. This also means network planners, designers, and managers do not have to load specialized client software on their laptops. With a Web browser, users can access management information on the corporate intranet at any time—in any building, while traveling, or even at home. There are now WBM tools for virtually any type of network: LANs, frame relay and ATM data networks; traditional voice networks; and even legacy SNA networks.

In being able to access performance data and implement routine management tasks over the Web, companies with global networks do not have to distribute expensive management platforms to every remote site. The availability of Webbased management tools also has the potential to reduce the cost of managing transmission facilities and services by eliminating the need for proprietary, high priced equipment offered by carriers. In fact, carriers such as AT&T MCI WorldCom, and Sprint offer Web-based management tools to their customers, recognizing their need for low-cost alternative management solutions.

Applications

There are three fundamental applications where WBM tools can provide a significant benefit: individual device configuration and management, Web browser access to sophisticated management applications, and corporate access to network status data.

DEVICE CONFIGURATION Web-based configuration and management of individual devices is a capability aimed at administrators of small networks who may not have their own network management system, or branch office locations where technical expertise is not immediately available. Such users need configuration tools that are easy to use and which can be accessed with a Web browser.

This is accomplished by providing an agent with the equipment to be configured. The agent includes a native HTML interface for access over the Web. The manager enters basic configuration parameters for each device by completing a simple online electronic form. Remote monitoring of simple device statistics is also possible via the browser, using graphical displays of basic device information and performance indicators.

NETWORK SUPPORT Access to network management information from any browser-equipped desktop is targeted at enterprise network support staffs who already use such advanced platforms as Hewlett-Packard’s OpenView to monitor the network, understand potential faults and alarms, and provide end-users with continuous network availability. The addition of Web browsers provides a lowcost option for easily accessing important information from any location.

For example, a staff member out on the manufacturing floor troubleshooting the network may need to access a particular management application. Through a Web browser running on any convenient PC or laptop computer, the technician can access the necessary application and continue the troubleshooting process. This reduces the time and effort to do the job.

ACCESS TO NETWORK STATUS DATA Web reporting of network status information via the organization’s intranet is aimed at Information Systems (IS) group managers who usually do not operate the network or get involved in extremely technical detail. Instead, their goal is to quickly obtain information about the state of the network and view trends over time, so they can identify potential trouble spots. The Web provides an easy, economical way to distribute this type of information to all who need it.

Various people within the organization need different types of information.

Members of the finance group, for instance, may need usage information for accounting purposes, while database users may need to determine system status or submit an online trouble ticket and follow it through to resolution. The corporate intranet offers a simple, effective method for distributing this type of information to people who do not normally have ready access to traditional management systems.

Web-Based Management Approaches

There are two basic strategies for implementing WBM: the proxy solution and the embedded approach. While these methodologies can be used in combination, each has advantages.

PROXY SOLUTION The proxy solution adds a Web-based server to an intermediate workstation called a proxy, which interconnects with the end devices it manages (Figure 130). Users access the proxy through a Web browser, using the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), while the proxy accesses end devices using the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). Usually, this approach adds a Web server to an existing management product, which optimizes product functionalities, such as database access and SNMP polling. This approach maintains the advantages of the workstation-based management systems while adding flexible access to intranet data. Since the proxy communicates with all the managed devices, the administrator can view all or portions of the company’s networks, servers, and desktops, as well as such logical entities as virtual LANs. Since the proxy-to-device protocol remains SNMP, this approach also works with SNMP-only devices.

EMBEDDED METHOD The embedded method actually installs Web server functionality in each end device. Since each device has its own Web address, the administrator can use a Web browser to visit the managed devices (Figure 131). This approach allows graphical management of those devices.

Enterprise networks can make use of both proxy-based and embedded Web server capabilities. Large organizations can avail themselves of the enterprise wide monitoring and management capabilities that are only provided with the proxy solution. The proxy solution can also manage SNMP-only devices. In conjunction with proxy-based servers, large corporations could also benefit from embedded Web servers because of their simple set-up requirements and their ability to manage new devices.

Figure 130

The proxy solution for Web-based management.

Figure 131

The embedded approach to Web-based management.

The embedded Web server approach is especially well suited for managing small branch offices. These networks are relatively simple and typically do not require powerful management systems or need enterprise-wide views. Users at these remote locations usually are not familiar with device-control and network procedures. Embedded Web servers allow these users to become operational quickly with minimal instruction. Although the plug-and-play nature of Webbased devices simplifies installation and minimizes troubleshooting, they do not necessarily limit device-level capabilities.

A Web browser can communicate directly with networked devices using HTTP. The most common reasons for connecting directly to individual network devices include configuration and reconfiguration, simple status monitoring, and implementing specific corrective actions. For small networks, this approach alone might be a sufficient management solution; for larger networks, this approach will typically supplement more global tools in a variety of possible circumstances, including the final stages of problem resolution.

Components of WBM

The components of WBM can be written in any language, including HyperText Markup Language (HTML), Common Gateway Interface (CGI), and Java.

HTML provides a standardized way to create pages of Web-based information and embed hyperlinks that lead the user to other pages. While HTML pages are usually static and textual, they can be made interactive by embedding graphics and active elements, such as Java applets and CGI applications, within the page. HTML is good for displaying tables of information, such as network inventory details and IP address listings.

CGI is not a language, but a protocol used to access database information. For example, a WBM application may need to display the current number of incomplete work orders. This data could be stored in the database of a proxy workstation. A CGI application can be used to query the database and to format an HTML page on-the-fly to display the information.

Java is an interpretive programming language and is rapidly emerging as an important development tool, especially for management applications. Java code is not compiled before run time but is interpreted by a Java Virtual Machine (JVM) at run time. JVMs are included with such Web browsers as Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer, enabling these browsers to execute Java code.

Java applets, which can be called from either a proxy or embedded Web

server, can be used to:

Display dynamic graphs that interpret network operations
Illustrate complex situations, such as interactive views of chassis hubs or modules of a stackable hub
Display real-time data that can be updated from polling and traps
Add graphics, including animation

Because Java can produce applications that are portable across UNIX, Windows, and other environments, a JVM can be embedded in an end device and the device agent can then execute Java code. Code can be distributed dynamically, ported from a management proxy to devices, and ported between devices or components within a device.

The use of Java within an embedded agent can increase management capabilities by enforcing policy-based management or security rules. For example, assume an administrator wants to enable remote network access between 6:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. Traditional methods, such as SNMP sets, have been used to enforce such restrictions but at the cost of increasing network traffic and with the difficulty of scaling to handle thousands of devices. While a device-resident agent could perform this function, agent releases are typically infrequent. An embedded agent with a JVM could independently create the scheduling routine and dynamically distribute the policy to restricted devices, eliminating the need for an agent release.

Standards

The first Web-based management tool was introduced in 1994 by Thomas Conrad Inc., a small networking device vendor that has since been acquired by Compaq. A handful of pioneers followed suit in 1995. By 1996, virtually every major interconnect and network management vendor had either introduced or announced plans for Web-based management products that could be accessed with ordinary Web browsers.

The idea behind Web-based management is simple as it was compelling: it gives managers, administrators, and authorized end users access to management information from dissimilar platforms such as MVS, VMS, Windows NT, UNIX, and NetWare. However, the product development efforts of vendors are unfocused and there is still lack of agreement on standards.

Not only are vendors and carriers approaching Web-based management in different ways, but the tools they offer address different pieces of the management puzzle. Capabilities offered by one vendor are often un-addressed by other vendors. Some vendors’ reporting capabilities consist of static displays, while others offer real-time displays that report status changes for as long as the connection is open.

There are several standards efforts underway that attempt to address the functionality, interoperability, security, and performance issues of Web-based management. What makes standards so difficult to achieve is that the current proposals are vendor biased. If the differing views of vendors can be reconciled and a single standard agreed to, the Web browser may emerge as the key building block of tomorrow’s network management console.

Last Word

The advent of intranets that provide enterprise-wide data has spawned two main Web-based management approaches: the proxy Web server method and the embedded Web server approach. While both methods can be used together, generally the proxy method is more useful for larger enterprises that want to complement their workstation-based management systems. The embedded server method is better suited for small groups that do not need the complex functions offered by the first method.

Web-based management standards would provide network managers with what they need most: a cost-effective means for consolidating topology, fault, and performance data from many management platforms, element managers, and devices. Already, many Web-based tools are in the process of being integrated with one or more of the major management platforms, including Hewlett- Packard’s OpenView, SunSoft’s Solstice SunNet Manager, and IBM’s NetView. The reason for optimism here is that these platforms owe their market dominance to their ability to pull data from vast multi-vendor networks, so a high degree of de facto standardization is possible, regardless of the outcome of formal standardization processes.
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AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8615 Management Strategies In Educational Institutions Assignment 1

noreply@blogger.com (Unknown) — Sat, 7 Sep 2019 11:31:00 +0500

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8615 Management Strategies In Educational Institutions Assignment 1

Note: For Other Assignment of BEd 1.5 Year Please click on the Links Below:

BEd 1.5 Year
BEd 1.5 Year Second Semester

Q. 1 Elaborate need and scope of management. Discuss different features of management.
Answer:

The term ‘management’ has been used in different senses. Sometimes it refers to the process of planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating and controlling, at other times it is used to describe it as a function of managing people. It is also referred to as a body of knowledge, a practice and discipline. There are some who describe management as a technique of leadership and decision-making while some others have analyzed management as an economic resource, a factor of production or a system of authority.

Objectives of Management:

The primary objective of management is to run the enterprise smoothly. The profit earning objective of a business is also to be kept in mind while undertaking various functions.

Following are the broad objectives of management:

1. Proper Utilization of Resources:

The main objective of management is to use various resources of the enterprise in a most economic way. The proper use of men, materials, machines and money will help a business to earn sufficient profits to satisfy various interests. The proprietors will want more returns on their investments while employees, customers and public will expect a fair deal from the management. All these interests will be satisfied only when physical resources of the business are properly utilized.

2. Improving Performance:

Management should aim at improving the performance of each and every factor of production. The environment should be so congenial that workers are able to give their maximum to the enterprise. The fixing of objectives of various factors of production will help them in improving their performance.

3. Mobilizing Best Talent:

The management should try to employ persons in various fields so that better results are possible. The

employment of specialists in various fields will be increasing the efficiency of various factors of production. There should be a proper environment which should encourage good persons to join the enterprise. The better pay scales, proper amenities, future growth potentialities will attract more people in joining a concern.

4. Planning for Future:

Another important objective of management is to prepare plans. No management should feel satisfied with today’s work if it has not thought of tomorrow. Future plans should take into consideration what is to be done next. Future performance will depend upon present planning. So, planning for future is essential to help the concern.

Scope or Branches of Management:

Management is an all pervasive function since it is required in all types of organized endeavour. Thus, its scope is very large.

The following activities are covered under the scope of management:

Planning,
Organization
Staffing.
Directing,
Coordinating, and
Controlling.

The operational aspects of business management, called the branches of management, are as follows:

Production Management
Marketing Management
Financial Management.
Personnel Management and
Office Management.

Different features of management:

Now let's briefly discuss each feature of management.

1. Continuous and never ending process

Management is a Process. It includes four main functions, viz., Planning, Organising, Directing and Controlling. The manager has to Plan and Organise all the activities. He had to give proper Directions to his subordinates. He also has to Control all the activities. The manager has to perform these functions continuously. Therefore, management is a continuous and never ending process.

2. Getting things done through people

The managers do not do the work themselves. They get the work done through the workers. The workers should not be treated like slaves. They should not be tricked, threatened or forced to do the work. A favourable work environment should be created and maintained.

3. Result oriented science and art

Management is result oriented because it gives a lot of importance to "Results". Examples of Results like, increase

in market share, increase in profits, etc. Management always wants to get the best results at all times.

4. Multidisciplinary in nature

Management has to get the work done through people. It has to manage people. This is a very difficult job because different people have different emotions, feelings, aspirations, etc. Similarly, the same person may have different emotions at different times. So, management is a very complex job. Therefore, management uses knowledge from many different subjects such as Economics, Information Technology, Psychology, Sociology, etc. Therefore, it is multidisciplinary in nature.

5. A group and not an individual activity

Management is not an individual activity. It is a group activity. It uses group (employees) efforts to achieve group (owners) objectives. It tries to satisfy the needs and wants of a group (consumers). Nowadays, importance is given to the team (group) and not to individuals.

6. Follows established principles or rules

Management follows established principles, such as division of work, discipline, unity of command, etc. These principles help to prevent and solve the problems in the organisation.

7. Aided but not replaced by computers

Now-a-days, all managers use computers. Computers help the managers to take accurate decisions. However, computers can only help management. Computers cannot replace management. This is because management takes the final responsibility. Thus Management is aided (helped) but not replaced by computers.

8. Situational in nature

Management makes plans, policies and decisions according to the situation. It changes its style according to the situation. It uses different plans, policies, decisions and styles for different situations.

The manager first studies the full present situation. Then he draws conclusions about the situation. Then he makes plans, decisions, etc., which are best for the present situation. This is called Situational Management.

9. Need not be an ownership

In small organisations, management and ownership are one and the same. However, in large organisations, management is separate from ownership. The managers are highly qualified professionals who are hired from outside. The owners are the shareholders of the company.

10. Both an art and science

Management is result-oriented. Therefore, it is an Art. Management conducts continuous research. Thus, it is also a Science.

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Q. 2 Explain evolution of different approaches of management.
Answer:

The three approaches to the evolution of management. The approaches are:

The Classical Approach
The Behavioral Approach
The Quantitative Approach.

1. The Classical Approach:

The classical school represented the first major systematic approach to management thought. It was distinguished by its emphasis on finding way to get the work of each employee done faster. It is primarily based upon the economic rationality of all employees.

This evolved that people are motivated by economic incentives and that they will rationally consider opportunities that provide for them the greatest economic gain. The classical school can be broken down into three historical philosophies of management.

B. Administrative Management Approach:

Scientific management focused primarily on the efficiency of production, but administrative management focused on formal organisation structure and the delineation of the basic process of general management. This approach is also known as functional or process approach and is based primarily on the ideas of Henry Fayol (1841-1925). Henry Fayol is recognised as the first person to systematize the administrative approach activities into six groups, all of which are closely dependent on one another.

2. The Behavioral Approach:

The behavioural approach on the human relations approach is based upon the premise of increase in production and managerial efficiency through an understanding of the people. The human relations approach of management involves with the human behaviour and focused attention on the human beings in the organisation. The growth and popularity of this approach is attributable to Elton Mayo (1880- 1949) and his Hawthorne experiments.

The Hawthorne experiments were carried out at the Hawthorne plant of the western electric company. These experiments were carried out by Elton Mayo and the staff of the Harvard Business School, main researchers were Elton Mayo, White Head, Roethlisberger and Dickson. The first of Mayo’s four studies took place at a Philadelphia textile mill.

The problem he investigated was excessive labour turnover in a department where work was particularly monotonous and fatiguing. The workers tended to sink into a dejected, disconsolate mood soon after being assigned there eventually they would lose their tempers for no apparent reason and impulsively quit. At first Mayo thought the reason for the worker’s behaviour must be physical fatigue.

So, he instituted a series of rest periods, during the workday. In course of trying to schedule these periods in the most efficient manner, management experimented with allowing the workers to do the scheduling themselves.

The effect was dramatic. Turnover fell sharly to about the same level as that for the rest of the plant, productivity shot upward and the melancholy moods disappeared.

Similar results were obtained at the Hawthorne plant of the western electric company. Mayo’s another studies made at the Bank hiring room and at an aircraft factory. Hence the Mayo’s study showed that the role played by social needs is more responsive to the social forces operating at work than the economic rewards.

3. The Quantitative Approach:

This approach involves the application of modern quantitative or mathematical techniques for solving managerial problems. This approach is also known as decision theory approach, mathematical approach, quantitative approach, operational approach etc. These quantitative tools and methodologies are designed to add in decision making relating to operations and production.

According to Lindsay, these techniques assist the management for improving their decisions by:

Increasing the number of alternatives that can be considered.

Assisting in faster decision-making based upon objective analysis of available information.

Helping management in evaluating the risks and results of different courses of action.

Helping to bring into optimum balance the many diverse elements of a modern enterprise.

The technique generally involves the following 4 steps:

A mathematical model is constructed with variables reflecting the important factors in the situation to be analysed.
The decision rules are established and some standards are set for the purpose of comparing the relative merits of possible courses of actions.
The empirical data is gathered which would relate parameters in the goal utility.
The mathematical calculations are executed so as to find a course of action that will maximize the objective function or the goal utility.

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Q. 3 Define PERT. Prepare PERT diagram for ‘Result Day’ celebration to explain its process step-wise including all activities in detail
Answer:

Complex projects require a series of activities, some of which must be performed sequentially and others that can be performed in parallel with other activities. This collection of series and parallel tasks can be modeled as a network.

In 1957 the Critical Path Method (CPM) was developed as a network model for project management. CPM is a deterministic method that uses a fixed time estimate for each activity. While CPM is easy to understand and use, it does not consider the time variations that can have a great impact on the completion time of a complex project.

The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a network model that allows for randomness in activity completion times. PERT was developed in the late 1950's for the U.S. Navy's Polaris project having thousands of contractors. It has the potential to reduce both the time and cost required to complete a project.

The Network Diagram

In a project, an activity is a task that must be performed and an event is a milestone marking the completion of one or more activities. Before an activity can begin, all of its predecessor activities must be completed. Project network models represent activities and milestones by arcs and nodes. PERT originally was an activity on arc network, in which the activities are represented on the lines and milestones on the nodes. Over time, some people began to use PERT as an activity on node network. For this discussion, we will use the original form of activity on arc.

The PERT chart may have multiple pages with many sub-tasks.

The milestones generally are numbered so that the ending node of an activity has a higher number than the beginning node. Incrementing the numbers by 10 allows for new ones to be inserted without modifying the numbering of the entire diagram. The activities in the above diagram are labeled with letters along with the expected time required to complete the activity.

Steps in the PERT Planning Process

PERT planning involves the following steps:

Identify the specific activities and milestones.
Determine the proper sequence of the activities.
Construct a network diagram.
Estimate the time required for each activity.
Determine the critical path.
Update the PERT chart as the project progresses.

1. Identify Activities and Milestones

The activities are the tasks required to complete the project. The milestones are the events marking the beginning and end of one or more activities. It is helpful to list the tasks in a table that in later steps can be expanded to include information on sequence and duration.

2. Determine Activity Sequence

This step may be combined with the activity identification step since the activity sequence is evident for some tasks. Other tasks may require more analysis to determine the exact order in which they must be performed.

3. Construct the Network Diagram

Using the activity sequence information, a network diagram can be drawn showing the sequence of the serial and parallel activities. For the original activity-on-arc model, the activities are depicted by arrowed lines and milestones are depicted by circles or "bubbles".

If done manually, several drafts may be required to correctly portray the relationships among activities. Software packages simplify this step by automatically converting tabular activity information into a network diagram.

4. Estimate Activity Times

Weeks are a commonly used unit of time for activity completion, but any consistent unit of time can be used. A distinguishing feature of PERT is its ability to deal with uncertainty in activity completion times. For each activity, the model usually includes three time estimates:

Optimistic time - generally the shortest time in which the activity can be completed. It is common practice to specify optimistic times to be three standard deviations from the mean so that there is approximately a 1% chance that the activity will be completed within the optimistic time.
Most likely time - the completion time having the highest probability. Note that this time is different from the expected time.
Pessimistic time - the longest time that an activity might require. Three standard deviations from the mean is commonly used for the pessimistic time.

PERT assumes a beta probability distribution for the time estimates. For a beta distribution, the expected time for each activity can be approximated using the following weighted average:

Expected time = ( Optimistic + 4 x Most likely + Pessimistic ) / 6

This expected time may be displayed on the network diagram.

To calculate the variance for each activity completion time, if three standard deviation times were selected for the optimistic and pessimistic times, then there are six standard deviations between them, so the variance is given by:

[ ( Pessimistic - Optimistic ) / 6 ]2

5. Determine the Critical Path

The critical path is determined by adding the times for the activities in each sequence and determining the longest path in the project. The critical path determines the total calendar time required for the project. If activities outside the critical path speed up or slow down (within limits), the total project time does not change.

The amount of time that a non-critical path activity can be delayed without delaying the project is referred to as slack time.

If the critical path is not immediately obvious, it may be helpful to determine the following four quantities for each

activity:

ES - Earliest Start time
EF - Earliest Finish time
LS - Latest Start time
LF - Latest Finish time

These times are calculated using the expected time for the relevant activities. The earliest start and finish times of each activity are determined by working forward through the network and determining the earliest time at which an activity can start and finish considering its predecessor activities. The latest start and finish times are the latest times that an activity can start and finish without delaying the project. LS and LF are found by working backward through the network. The difference in the latest and earliest finish of each activity is that activity's slack. The critical path then is the path through the network in which none of the activities have slack.

The variance in the project completion time can be calculated by summing the variances in the completion times of the activities in the critical path. Given this variance, one can calculate the probability that the project will be completed by a certain date assuming a normal probability distribution for the critical path. The normal distribution assumption holds if the number of activities in the path is large enough for the central limit theorem to be applied.

Since the critical path determines the completion date of the project, the project can be accelerated by adding the resources required to decrease the time for the activities in the critical path. Such a shortening of the project sometimes is referred to as project crashing.

6. Update as Project Progresses

Make adjustments in the PERT chart as the project progresses. As the project unfolds, the estimated times can be replaced with actual times. In cases where there are delays, additional resources may be needed to stay on schedule and the PERT chart may be modified to reflect the new situation.

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Q. 4 Justify the role of Environment Scanning n Strategic management process.
Answer:

Strategic decisions are the decisions that are concerned with whole environment in which the firm operates, the entire resources and the people who form the company and the interface between the two.

Benefits of Strategic Decisions

Strategic decisions have major resource propositions for an organization. These decisions may be concerned with possessing new resources, organizing others or reallocating others.

Strategic decisions deal with harmonizing organizational resource capabilities with the threats and opportunities.
Strategic decisions deal with the range of organizational activities. It is all about what they want the organization to be like and to be about.

Strategic decisions involve a change of major kind since an organization operates in ever-changing environment.

Strategic decisions are complex in nature.

Strategic decisions are at the top most level, are uncertain as they deal with the future, and involve a lot of risk.

Strategic decisions are different from administrative and operational decisions. Administrative decisions are routine decisions which help or rather facilitate strategic decisions or operational decisions. Operational decisions are technical decisions which help execution of strategic decisions. To reduce cost is a strategic decision which is achieved through operational decision of reducing the number of employees and how we carry out these reductions will be administrative decision.

Concept of SWOT analysis in strategic management:

SWOT can be done by one person or a group of members that are directly responsible for the situation assessment in the company. Basic Swot analysis is done fairly easily and comprises of only few steps:

Step 1. Listing the firm’s key strengths and weaknesses

Step 2. Identifying opportunities and threats

Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths and weaknesses are the factors of the firm’s internal environment. When looking for strengths, ask what do you do better or have more valuable than your competitors have? In case of the weaknesses, ask what could you improve and at least catch up with your competitors?

Where to look for them?

Some strengths or weaknesses can be recognized instantly without deeper studying of the organization. But usually the process is harder and managers have to look into the firm’s:
Resources: land, equipment, knowledge, brand equity, intellectual property, etc.

Core competencies

Capabilities

Functional areas: management, operations, marketing, finances, human resources and R&D

Organizational culture

Value chain activities

Strength or a weakness?

Often, company’s internal factors are seen as both, strengths and weaknesses, at the same time. It is also hard to tell if a characteristic is a strength (weakness) or not. For example, firm’s organizational structure can be a strength, a weakness or neither! In such cases, you should rely on:

Clear definition. Very often factors which are described too broadly may fit both strengths and weaknesses. For example, “brand image” might be a weakness if the company has poor brand image. However, it can also be a strength if the company has the most valuable brand in the market, valued at $100 billion. Therefore, it is easier to identify if a factor is a strength or a weakness when it’s defined precisely.

Benchmarking. The key emphasize in doing swot is to identify the factors that are the strengths or weaknesses in comparison to the competitors. For example, 17% profit margin would be an excellent margin for many firms in most industries and it would be considered as a strength. But what if the average profit margin of your competitors is 20%? Then company’s 17% profit margin would be considered as a weakness.

VRIO framework. A resource can be seen as a strength if it exhibits VRIO (valuable, rare and cannot be imitated) framework characteristics. Otherwise, it doesn’t provide any strategic advantage for the company.

Opportunities and threats
Opportunities and threats are the external uncontrollable factors that usually appear or arise due to the changes in the macro environment, industry or competitors’ actions. Opportunities represent the external situations that bring a competitive advantage if seized upon. Threats may damage your company so you would better avoid or defend against them.

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Q. 5 Describe the concept of Key Performance indicators (KPIs). Enlist some KPIs for teachers working in Primary Schools
Answer:

Performance Appraisal is the systematic evaluation of the performance of employees and to understand the abilities of a person for further growth and development. Performance appraisal is generally done in systematic ways which are as follows:

The supervisors measure the pay of employees and compare it with targets and plans.
The supervisor analyses the factors behind work performances of employees.
The employers are in position to guide the employees for a better performance.

Objectives of Performance Appraisal

Performance Appraisal can be done with following objectives in mind:

To maintain records in order to determine compensation packages, wage structure, salaries raises, etc.
To identify the strengths and weaknesses of employees to place right men on right job.
To maintain and assess the potential present in a person for further growth and development.
To provide a feedback to employees regarding their performance and related status.
To provide a feedback to employees regarding their performance and related status.
It serves as a basis for influencing working habits of the employees.
To review and retain the promotional and other training programmes.

Advantages of Performance Appraisal

It is said that performance appraisal is an investment for the company which can be justified by following advantages:

1. Promotion: Performance Appraisal helps the supervisors to chalk out the promotion programmes for efficient employees. In this regards, inefficient workers can be dismissed or demoted in case.

2. Compensation: Performance Appraisal helps in chalking out compensation packages for employees. Merit rating is possible through performance appraisal. Performance Appraisal tries to give worth to a performance. Compensation packages which includes bonus, high salary rates, extra benefits, allowances and pre-requisites are dependent on performance appraisal. The criteria should be merit rather than seniority.

3. Employees Development: The systematic procedure of performance appraisal helps the supervisors to frame training policies and programmes. It helps to analyse strengths and weaknesses of employees so that new jobs can be designed for efficient employees. It also helps in framing future development programmes.

4. Selection Validation: Performance Appraisal helps the supervisors to understand the validity and importance of the selection procedure. The supervisors come to know the validity and thereby the strengths and weaknesses of selection procedure. Future changes in selection methods can be made in this regard.

5. Communication: For an organization, effective communication between employees and employers is very important. Through performance appraisal, communication can be sought for in the following ways:

Through performance appraisal, the employers can understand and accept skills of subordinates.
The subordinates can also understand and create a trust and confidence in superiors.
It also helps in maintaining cordial and congenial labour management relationship.
It develops the spirit of work and boosts the morale of employees.

All the above factors ensure effective communication.

6. Motivation: Performance appraisal serves as a motivation tool. Through evaluating performance of employees, a person’s efficiency can be determined if the targets are achieved. This very well motivates a person for better job and helps him to improve his performance in the future.

Past Oriented Methods

1. Rating Scales: Rating scales consists of several numerical scales representing job related performance criterions such as dependability, initiative, output, attendance, attitude etc. Each scales ranges from excellent to poor. The total numerical scores are computed and final conclusions are derived. Advantages – Adaptability, easy to use, low cost, every type of job can be evaluated, large number of employees covered, no formal training required. Disadvantages – Rater’s biases

2. Checklist: Under this method, checklist of statements of traits of employee in the form of Yes or No based questions is prepared. Here the rater only does the reporting or checking and HR department does the actual evaluation. Advantages – economy, ease of administration, limited training required, standardization. Disadvantages – Raters biases, use of improper weighs by HR, does not allow rater to give relative ratings

3. Forced Choice Method: The series of statements arranged in the blocks of two or more are given and the rater indicates which statement is true or false. The rater is forced to make a choice. HR department does actual assessment. Advantages – Absence of personal biases because of forced choice. Disadvantages – Statements may be wrongly framed.

4. Forced Distribution Method: here employees are clustered around a high point on a rating scale. Rater is compelled to distribute the employees on all points on the scale. It is assumed that the performance is conformed to normal distribution. Advantages – Eliminates Disadvantages – Assumption of normal distribution, unrealistic, errors of central tendency.

5. Critical Incidents Method: The approach is focused on certain critical behaviors of employee that makes all the difference in the performance. Supervisors as and when they occur record such incidents. Advantages – Evaluations are based on actual job behaviors, ratings are supported by descriptions, feedback is easy, reduces recency biases, chances of subordinate improvement are high. Disadvantages – Negative incidents can be prioritized, forgetting incidents, overly close supervision; feedback may be too much and may appear to be punishment.

6. Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales: statements of effective and ineffective behaviors determine the points. They are said to be behaviorally anchored. The rater is supposed to say, which behavior describes the employee performance. Advantages – helps overcome rating errors. Disadvantages – Suffers from distortions inherent in most rating techniques.

7. Field Review Method: This is an appraisal done by someone outside employees’ own department usually from corporate or HR department. Advantages – Useful for managerial level promotions, when comparable information is needed, Disadvantages – Outsider is generally not familiar with employees work environment, Observation of actual behaviors not possible.

8. Performance Tests & Observations: This is based on the test of knowledge or skills. The tests may be written or an actual presentation of skills. Tests must be reliable and validated to be useful. Advantage – Tests may be apt to measure potential more than actual performance. Disadvantages – Tests may suffer if costs of test development or administration are high.

9. Confidential Records: Mostly used by government departments, however its application in industry is not ruled out. Here the report is given in the form of Annual Confidentiality Report (ACR) and may record ratings with respect to following items; attendance, self expression, team work, leadership, initiative, technical ability, reasoning ability, originality and resourcefulness etc. The system is highly secretive and confidential. Feedback to the assessee is given only in case of an adverse entry. Disadvantage is that it is highly subjective and ratings can be manipulated because the evaluations are linked to HR actions like promotions etc.

10. Essay Method: In this method the rater writes down the employee description in detail within a number of broad categories like, overall impression of performance, promoteability of employee, existing capabilities and qualifications of performing jobs, strengths and weaknesses and training needs of the employee. Advantage – It is extremely useful in filing information gaps about the employees that often occur in a better-structured checklist. Disadvantages – It its highly dependent upon the writing skills of rater and most of them are not good writers. They may get confused success depends on the memory power of raters.

11. Cost Accounting Method: Here performance is evaluated from the monetary returns yields to his or her organization. Cost to keep employee, and benefit the organization derives is ascertained. Hence it is more dependent upon cost and benefit analysis.

12. Comparative Evaluation Method (Ranking & Paired Comparisons): These are collection of different methods that compare performance with that of other co-workers. The usual techniques used may be ranking methods and paired comparison method.

Ranking Methods: Superior ranks his worker based on merit, from best to worst. However how best and why best are not elaborated in this method. It is easy to administer and explanation.
Paired Comparison Methods: In this method each employee is rated with another employee in the form of pairs. The number of comparisons may be calculated with the help of a formula as under.

N x (N-1) / 2

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BEd MEd Assignment

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8619 Educational Technology Assignment 2

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8619 Educational Technology Assignment 2

ASSIGNMENTNo.2

Q.1 Critically examine the role of educational broadcasting in the teaching learning process?Answer:

Q.2 Critically examine the channels of communication. Also discuss the basic principles of good communication?

Q.3 Discuss the production process of instructional materils. What measures you will adopt for an efficient production process?

Q.4 Describe the care which a teacher should take while selecting A.V aids for effective teaching?

Q.5 How you will teach students through emerging technologies?

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8622 Non Broadcast Media Assignment 2

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8622 Non Broadcast Media Assignment 2

Course: Broadcast Media in Distance Education Code: 8622 Level: B.Ed SPRING 2018 Assignment No: 2

Q.1 Discuss the reprographic equipment normally used in the teaching learning process.

Q.2 Discuss the importance of programmed learning and give example in support of your answer.

Q.3 What sort of material is required for the preparation of teaching aids? Do you think that the locally available material can equally be useful in preparation of A.V Aids?

Q.4 Critically examine the three aspects of any non-broadcast programme which must be consider while establishing a budget.

Q.5 Critically examine the role of teacher in using the equipment resource centre for teaching learning process?

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8623 Elementary Education Assignment 1

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8623 Elementary Education Assignment 1

Q 1. Elucidate the role of public and private sector in elementary education. Discuss the initiatives of government of Pakistan in this context.

Q 2. Describe in the light of Piaget’s theory the cognitive and intellectual development of a child at different levels.

Q 3. Personality development occurs early in life but later years provide an opportunity for the modification of previously developed trends’. Discuss.

Q 4. Explain the inter-relationship of language skills. How does the classroom environment affect them?

Q 5. Differentiate between role-play and simulation. Discuss the use of each for making teaching learning process effective at elementary level.

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8622 Non Broadcast Media Assignment 1

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8622 Non Broadcast Media Assignment 1

Course: Non-Broadcast Media in Distance Education (8622) ASSIGNMENT No. 1 Q.1 Explain the steps for choice of media and also identify the factors affecting the media.

Q.2 Discuss the utility of chalkboard/blackboard, bulletin board and flannel board in the teaching learning process.

Q.3 Discuss the importance of slides and films strips projects in education?

Q.4 Discuss the characteristics of optional and essential media and also specify the process of media utilization.

Q.5 Discuss nature and role of non-broadcast media in distance education?

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8623 Elementary Education Assignment 2

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8623 Elementary Education Assignment 2

Course: Elementary Education (8623) Level: B. Ed (1.5 year) Semester: Spring, 2019Assignment No: 2

Q 1. Define instructional technology and compare different kinds of projected and non-projected aids.

Q 2. Discuss different types of behavior problems usually seen in children at elementary level. How can be the teachers prepared to tackle these problems?

Q 3. What should be the characteristics of a well- managed classroom. Also identify principles related to sound management?

Q 4. Discuss teacher made achievement tests? Construct six items of each, short answers, completion, true false, matching, multiple choice and essay type from the English of class VII (Public Sector)?

Q 5. Describe the role of teacher training in deterioration of the education system. Suggest measures for improvement?

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8624 Secondary Education Assignment 2

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8624 Secondary Education Assignment 2

Course: Secondary Education (8624) Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years) Semester: Spring, 2019 ASSIGNMENT No. 2

Q.1 Define evaluation. Differentiate between internal and external examination. Critically analyze the process of evaluation in Pakistan.

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Q.2 What is the need of comparative education. Compare secondary education system of UK, USA and Pakistan. Give suggestion to improve secondary education system in Pakistan in light of this comparison.

Q.3 Compare Sixth, Seventh and eight five years plans regarding targets and achievements in secondary education?

Q.4 What is the status of teacher education in Pakistan? What do yo understand by BS Education Model, B.Ed 14+1 Model and B.Ed12=3 Model?.

Q.5 Discuss the need and scope of in-service teacher education. Is there need to give in-service training of computer education to teachers to improve their methods of teaching?

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8624 Secondary Education Assignment 1

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8624 Secondary Education Assignment 1

AIOU Solved Assignments 1Code 8624 Spring 2019 Course: Secondary Education (8624)Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years)ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 a) Define secondary education. Draw organizational structure of secondary education?

Q.1 b) Enlist types of schools in Pakistan at secondary level. Is there any need of training of secondary school teachers? Discuss?

Q.2 a) Define role of Ministry of Education during pre-eighteen amendment and post eighteen amendment?

Q.2 b) Write in detail on role of Federal Government Institutions?

Q.3 BISE stands for ? What are the functions of BISE? Discuss administration of examination under BISE and are they fulfilling their responsibility as required?

Q.4 Write a detail history, status and functions of Federal directorate of Education. Discuss Beaconhouse School system and the City School considering their differences?

Q.5 a) Define curriculum according to different educationists. Differentiate among curriculum, syllabus, course contents and scheme of studies?

Q.5 b) What are the criteria for the selection of text books?

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8625 Higher Education Assignment 2

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8625 Higher Education Assignment 2

Course Higher Education (8625) Level Bed (1.5Year)Assignments NO 02

Q.1 Describe the system of higher education in Germany ,compare this system with higher education system of Pakistan.

Q.2 Explain the concept and nature of financing in education. how stage in higher education can be minimized.

Q.3 Discuss the scope and significance of assessment in higher education. Identify different kinds of assessment techniques use d by the university teacher .

Q.4 Highlight the future trends in higher education and role of technology in distance mode of learning.

Q.5 Write the comprehensive note on the following

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8625 Higher Education Assignment 1

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8625 Higher Education Assignment 1

Course Higher Education (8625) Level BEd (1.5Year)Assignments NO 01

Q.1 Elaborate the role of higher education in socio economic development .also discuss the major function a university play in society.

Q.2 explains the status of higher education in Pakistan and critically discusses planning of higher education in Pakistan.

Q.3 critically discusses the role of different organization for development of higher education in Pakistan.

Q.4 Describe the provision of higher education in national policy 2009.

Q.5 Elaborate the need and scope of research in higher education what steps can be taken to promote research culture in Pakistan.

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8620 Computers in Education Assignment 1

AIOU Assignment BEd 1.5 Year 8620 Computers in Education Assignment 1

Course: Computers in Education (8620)

Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years)

ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 Critically examine the role of educational broadcasting in the teaching learning process?
Answer:

Course: Broadcast Media in Distance Education
Code: 8622 Level: B.Ed SPRING 2018
Assignment No: 2

Course: Non-Broadcast Media in Distance Education (8622)
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Explain the steps for choice of media and also identify the factors affecting the media.

Course: Elementary Education (8623)
Level: B. Ed (1.5 year) Semester: Spring, 2019
Assignment No: 2

Course: Secondary Education (8624)
Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years)
Semester: Spring, 2019
ASSIGNMENT No. 2

AIOU Solved Assignments 1
Code 8624 Spring 2019 Course: Secondary Education (8624)
Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years)
ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Course Higher Education (8625)
Level Bed (1.5Year)
Assignments NO 02

Course Higher Education (8625)
Level BEd (1.5Year)
Assignments NO 01

Q.1 How computer is a powerful tool. Describe the categories of computer and their uses?
Answer:

Q.2 Survey five such instructions of your locality which have computer. Compare the printing devices they on the criteria of type, speed, print quality and cost.
Answer:

Q.3 Define application software. How system software interacts with application software?
Answer:

Q.4 DeGlilo (1987) has suggested four different arrangment of layout of a computer centre. Explain with examples.
Answer:

Q.5 Discuss functions of graphic software and its different types of packages.
Answer:

Q.1 Explain the nature and essential characteristics of broadcast media with reference to distance and non-formal education.
Answer:

Q.2 Elaborate the planning process of broadcast media.
Answer:

Q.3 Discuss the role of educational TV with reference to Pakistan?
Answer:

Q.4 Write a detailed note on the British broadcasting co-operation (BBC).
Answer:

Q.5 Discuss the school broadcast media of Japan.
Answer:

Q.1 If you have to teach at primary level, how you will incorporate the basis of educational technology into your teaching? Discuss.
Answer:

Q.2 Discuss Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Answer:

Q.3 Discuss theories of learning? How can learning theories play an important role in learning?
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Q.4 Discuss the hierarchy of objectives? Also differentiate between general and specific objectives? Give examples in support of your answer.
Answer:

Q.5 Define motivation. Also discuss the methods of motivation which make the teaching learning process more effective and efficient.
Answer:

Q.1 How computer is a powerful tool. Describe the categories of computer and their uses?
Answer:

Q.2 Survey five such instructions of your locality which have computer. Compare the printing devices they on the criteria of type, speed, print quality and cost.
Answer:

Q.3 Define application software. How system software interacts with application software?
Answer:

Q.4 DeGlilo (1987) has suggested four different arrangment of layout of a computer centre. Explain with examples.
Answer:

Q.5 Discuss functions of graphic software and its different types of packages.
Answer:

Q.5 Write brief notes on the following:
a) Salient features of philosophy of Idealism (10)