Biotechnology

2011-04-07T10:23:00.000-07:00

Biotechnology Colleges of Madhya Pradesh

Following are the Biotechnology colleges and institutes in Madhya Pradesh

List displays all Biotechnology colleges in Madhya Pradesh with the degree offered by them. Eligibility criteria and course duration is also mentioned.

Degree / Course	College / Institute	State	Eligibility	Course Duration
MSc. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology	Dr. Hari Singh Gaur Vishwavidyalaya, Gour Nagar, Sagar - 470003	Madhya Pradesh	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya, 169, Ravindra Nath Tagore Marg, Indore	Madhya Pradesh	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	Awadesh Pratap Singh University, Rewa	Madhya Pradesh	BSc. In Agriculture/Biology/Chemistry/Botany	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur - 492010	Madhya Pradesh	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Krishak Nagar, Raipur - 492012	Madhya Pradesh	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	Guru Ghasidas University, PO Koni, Bilaspur - 495009	Madhya Pradesh	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biochemisty	Jiwaji University, Gwalior	Madhya Pradesh	BSc. in Biology	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	Jiwaji University, Gwalior	Madhya Pradesh	BSc. in Biology	2 years
MSc. Botany	Jiwaji University, Gwalior	Madhya Pradesh	BSc. in Biology	2 years
MSc. Microbiology	Jiwaji University, Gwalior	Madhya Pradesh	BSc. in Biology	2 years
MSc. Zoology	Jiwaji University, Gwalior	Madhya Pradesh	BSc. in Biology	2 years
MSc. Fish/Genetics	Barkatullah Vishwavidyalaya, Hoshangabad Road, Bhopal	Madhya Pradesh	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Microbiology	Rani Durgawati Vishwavidyalaya, Jabalpur	Madhya Pradesh	BSc. in any branch of Biology	2 years

Please note that the list of Biotechnology colleges in Madhya Pradesh above is correct from our best knowledge. If you see any error in Biotechnology degree or the address of the Biotechnology college or institute, please do let us know. This list is provided only for personal use.

2011-04-07T10:22:00.003-07:00

Biotechnology Colleges of Maharashtra

Following are the Biotechnology colleges and institutes in Maharashtra
List displays all Biotechnology colleges in Maharashtra with the degree offered by them. Eligibility criteria and course duration is also mentioned.

Degree / Course	College / Institute	State	Eligibility	Course Duration
MSc. (Non-Med) Anatomy/Biochemistry/Microbiology/Pharmacology/Physiology	Bharati Vidyapeeth, Bharati Vidyapeeth Bhavan, Lal Bahadur Shastri Marg, Pune - 411030	Maharashtra	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Bioinformatics	University of Pune, Ganeshkhind, Pune	Maharashtra	BSc./BTech.	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Powai, Mumbai	Maharashtra	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	Marathwada University, Aurangabad	Maharashtra	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	University of Pune, Ganeshkhind, Pune	Maharashtra	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	University of Mumbai, MG Road, Fort, Mumba	Maharashtra	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	SRT Marathwada University, Nanded - 431606	Maharashtra	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	Amravati University, Tapowan Road, Camp, Amravati - 444602	Maharashtra	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon - 485002	Maharashtra	BSc.	2 years
Research Biotechnology	Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Powai, Mumbai 400032	Maharashtra	MSc./MTech.	2 years

Please note that the list of Biotechnology colleges in Maharashtra above is correct from our best knowledge. If you see any error in Biotechnology degree or the address of the Biotechnology college or institute, please do let us know. This list is provided only for personal use.

2011-04-07T10:22:00.001-07:00

Biotechnology Colleges of Delhi

Following are the Biotechnology colleges and institutes in Delhi

List displays all Biotechnology colleges in Delhi with the degree offered by them. Eligibility criteria and course duration is also mentioned.

Degree / Course	College / Institute	State	Eligibility	Course Duration
BSc. Biochemistry	University of Delhi, Delhi - 11007	Delhi	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Biology	3 years
BSc. Biochemistry	Shivaji College, University of Delhi, Delhi	Delhi	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Biology	3 years
BSc. Biochemistry	Deshbandu College, University of Delhi, Delhi	Delhi	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Biology	3 years
BSc. Biochemistry	Venkateshwara College, University of Delhi, Delhi	Delhi	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Biology	3 years
BSc. Biochemistry	Daulat Ram College, University of Delhi, Delhi	Delhi	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Biology	3 years
BSc. Biochemistry	Amity Institute of Biotechnology, RBEF, E-27, Defence colony, New Delhi - 110024	Delhi	Class XII (50%) or equivalent with Biology as a subject	3 years
BSc. Biochemistry	Gargi College, University of Delhi	Delhi	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Biology	3 years
BSc. Biochemistry	Institute of Home Economics, University of Delhi	Delhi	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Biology	3 years
BSc. Biochemistry	Ram Lal Anand College, University of Delhi	Delhi	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Biology	3 years
BSc. Biochemistry	Swami shradhanand College, University of Delhi	Delhi	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Biology	3 years
BTech. Biotechnology	All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi	Delhi	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Biology	4 years
MSc. Bioinformatics	Amity Institute of Biotechnology, RBEF, E-27, Defence Colony, New Delhi - 110024	Delhi	BSc.	1 year 6 months
MSc. Biochemistry	University of Delhi, Delhi 110007	Delhi	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Microbiology	University of Delhi, Delhi 110007	Delhi	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Genetics	University of Delhi, Delhi 110007	Delhi	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biophysics	University of Delhi, Delhi 110007	Delhi	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Plant Molecular Biology	University of Delhi, Delhi 110007	Delhi	BSc.	2 years
MSc. Biotechnology	Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi	Delhi	BSc. in Physics/Biology/Agriculture/Pharmacy/Veterianary Science/BE	2 years
MSc. Agricultural Biotechnology	Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi	Delhi	BSc. in Physics/Biology/Agriculture/Pharmacy/Veterianary Science/BE	2 years
MVSc. Animal Biotechnology	Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi	Delhi	BSc. in Physics/Biology/Agriculture/Pharmacy/Veterianary Science/BE	2 years
MTech. BioTechnology	Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi	Delhi	BSc. in Physics/Biology/Agriculture/Pharmacy/Veterianary Science/BE	2 years
MSc. Biotech Industrial Training	Jamia Hamdard University, Hamdard Nagar, New Delhi	Delhi	BSc./BTech., MSc./Mtech. in Biotechnology	1 year 6 months
MSc. Biotech Industrial Training	Biotech Consortium India Ltd. G-6, NDSE Part-I,New Delhi	Delhi	BSc./BTech., MSc./Mtech. in Biotechnology	1 year 6 months
Mtech. Biotechnology	All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi	Delhi	BSc./BTech.	2 years.
Mtech. (Integrated) Biotechnology	Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), New Delhi	Delhi	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics	5 years
Mtech. (Integrated) Biotechnology	Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, New Delhi	Delhi	Class XII with Science	5 years 6 months
PG Diploma in Bioinformatics	Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi	Delhi	BSc./BTech.	1 year
Ph.D. Biotechnology	Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi	Delhi	Bachelor's in Beterinary and Fisheries Sciences	2 years
Post-Doctoral Research	Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, New Delhi	Delhi	MSc./MTech./Ph.D.	varied
Research (Ph.D.)	All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi	Delhi	MSc./MTech.	varied

Please note that the list of Biotechnology colleges in Delhi above is correct from our best knowledge. If you see any error in Biotechnology degree or the address of the Biotechnology college or institute, please do let us know. This list is provided only for personal use.

2011-04-07T10:21:00.001-07:00

Biotechnology Colleges of Andhra Pradesh

Following are the Biotechnology colleges and institutes in Andhra Pradesh

List displays all Biotechnology colleges in Andhra Pradesh with the degree offered by them. Eligibility criteria and course duration is also mentioned.

Degree / Course	College / Institute	State	Eligibility	Course Duration
BSc. Biochemistry	Osmania University, Administrative Building, Hyderabad	Andhra Pradesh	Class XII	3 years
BSc. Biochemistry	Kakatiya University, Vidyavanyapuri, Warangal- 506009	Andhra Pradesh	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Biology	3 years
BTech. Biotechnology	Osmania University, Administrative Building, Hyderabad	Andhra Pradesh	Class XII with Physics, Chemistry and Biology	4 years
MSc. Biotechnology	Central University, Hyderabad	Andhra Pradesh	BSc.	2 years
Mtech. Biotechnology	Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Masab Tank, Mahaveer Marg, Hyderabad	Andhra Pradesh	BTech.	2 years.

Please note that the list of Biotechnology colleges in Andhra Pradesh above is correct from our best knowledge. If you see any error in Biotechnology degree or the address of the Biotechnology college or institute, please do let us know. This list is provided only for personal use.

2011-04-07T10:20:00.000-07:00

Biotechnology information

Last Updated: February 2011



Market Size and the Key Opportunity Segments The Indian biotechnology sector is one of the fastest growing knowledge-based sectors in India and is expected to play a key role in shaping India's rapidly developing economy. With numerous comparative advantages in terms of research and development (R&D) facilities, knowledge, skills, and cost effectiveness, the biotechnology industry in India has immense potential to emerge as a global key player. The biotechnology industry in India is likely to see a significant increase in the merger and acquisition (M&A) activity, according to research firm Grant Thornton. The Indian biotech industry has crossed the US$ 3 billion mark in 2010, witnessing a 23 per cent growth over the previous year. Of this, while the share of domestic firms stood at 47 per cent, exports accounted for 53 per cent of the overall revenues. India’s high-skill and low-cost advantage is said to have helped in gaining export contracts and clinical research bioservices. The Indian biotech industry grew threefold in just five years to report revenues of US$ 3 billion in 2009-10, a rise of 17 per cent over the previous year, according to the eighth annual survey conducted by the Association of Biotechnology-Led Enterprises (ABLE) and a monthly journal, BioSpectrum, based on inputs from over 150 biotech companies. The biopharma sector contributed nearly three-fifth to the industry's revenues at US$ 1.9 billion, a rise of 12 per cent, followed by bioservices at US$ 573 million and bioagri at US$ 420.4 million. The remaining revenue came from the bioindustrials US$ 122.5 million and bioinformatics US$ 50.2 million segments. Biopharma and bioservices sectors contributed 63 per cent and 33 per cent, respectively, to the total biotech exports. The bioagriculture, bioindustrials and bioinformatics sectors remained focussed on domestic operations, bringing in nearly 90 per cent of their revenues from India. While the industry, spanning bio-pharma and agri-biotech, accounted for US$ 3 billion, the equipment and ancillary segment contributed around US$ 1 billion. Moreover, as per Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw who is also the chairman and managing director of Biocon, which has topped the list of biotech companies in India in the ABLE survey, India is looking forward to achieve US$ 5 billion in revenue this fiscal (2010-11). India is also gaining importance as a clinical trial destination. According to a joint study by an industry body and Ernst and Young (E&Y) released in August 2009, the industry-sponsored Phase II, Phase III clinical trial sites in India have grown by 116 per cent during June 2008 and August 2009, with the country moving from rank 18 to 12 across the 60 most active countries. India participates in 7 per cent of the global Phase III trials and 3.2 per cent in the Phase II trials with industry-sponsored trials having grown by 39 per cent CAGR during 2004-08. According to a report by the Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) and YES Bank, the Indian biotechnology industry is estimated to witness a 20 per cent annual growth rate, to reach US$ 8 billion in 2015 from US$ 1 billion in 2005. The report forecasts that India will account for 3–5 per cent of the global biopharmaceutical market.

2011-04-07T10:19:00.001-07:00

Bioremediation and biodegradation

Main article: Microbial biodegradation

Biotechnology is being used to engineer and adapt organisms especially microorganisms in an effort to find sustainable ways to clean up contaminated environments. The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes from the environment is an absolute requirement to promote a sustainable development of our society with low environmental impact. Biological processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants and biotechnology is taking advantage of the astonishing catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade/convert such compounds. New methodological breakthroughs insequencing, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and imaging are producing vast amounts of information. In the field of Environmental Microbiology, genome-based global studies open a new era providing unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the evolution of degradation pathways and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions. Functional genomic and metagenomic approaches are increasing our understanding of the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in particular environments and for particular compounds and they will certainly accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation processes.^[34]

Marine environments are especially vulnerable since oil spills of coastal regions and the open sea are poorly containable and mitigation is difficult. In addition to pollution through human activities, millions of tons of petroleum enter the marine environment every year from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities, in particular by a remarkable recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCCB)

2011-04-07T10:18:00.005-07:00

Animal Biotechnology

In animals, biotechnology techniques are being used to improve genetics and for pharmaceutical or industrial applications. Molecular biology techniques can help drive breeding programs by directing selection of superior animals. Animal cloning, through somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), allows for genetic replication of selected animals. Genetic engineering, using recombinant DNA, alters the genetic makeup of the animal for selected purposes, including producing therapeutic proteins in cows and goats. ^[30] There is a genetically altered salmon with an increased growth rate being considered for FDA approval.^[31]

2011-04-07T10:18:00.003-07:00

Human Genome Project

DNA Replication image from the Human Genome Project (HGP)

The Human Genome Project is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy (“DOE”) that aims to generate a high-quality reference sequence for the entire human genome and identify all the human genes.

The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to develop new energy resources and technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential health and environmental risks posed by their production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National Institutes of Health developed a plan for a joint Human Genome Project (“HGP”), which officially began in 1990.

The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances and worldwide participation accelerated the completion date to 2003 (making it a 13 year project). Already it has enabled gene hunters to pinpoint genes associated with more than 30 disorders.^[14]

2011-04-07T10:18:00.001-07:00

Genetic testing

Gel electrophoresis

Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences.

There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design short pieces of DNA (“probes”) whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual’s genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient’s gene to disease in healthy individuals or their progeny.

Genetic testing is now used for:

Carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to manifest;
Confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals;
Determining sex;
Forensic/identity testing;
Newborn screening;
Prenatal diagnostic screening;
Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers;
Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders.

Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may present different risks to different people and populations.^[12]

[edit]
Controversial questions

The bacterium Escherichia coli is routinely genetically engineered.

The absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in most countries can lead to discrimination in employment or insurance or other use of personal genetic information. This raises questions such as whether genetic privacy is different from medical privacy.^[13]

Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decision-making and the possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to future generations. For example, germline therapy changes the genetic make-up of an individual’s descendants. Thus, any error in technology or judgment may have far-reaching consequences (though the same can also happen through natural reproduction). Ethical issues like designed babies and human cloning have also given rise to controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past abuses with eugenics (see reductio ad hitlerum).
Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other health-service providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing with genetic information.
Effects on social institutions. Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their families. Thus, test results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the family.
Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis-à-vis genetic determinism, and the concepts of health and disease.

2011-04-07T10:17:00.001-07:00

Pharmaceutical products

Computer-generated image of insulin hexamers highlighting the threefold symmetry, the zinc ions holding it together, and the histidine residues involved in zinc binding.

Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively simple molecules that have been found primarily through trial and error to treat the symptoms of a disease or illness.^{[citation needed]} Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules known as proteins and these usually target the underlying mechanisms and pathways of a malady (but not always, as is the case with using insulin to treat type 1 diabetes mellitus, as that treatment merely addresses the symptoms of the disease, not the underlying cause which is autoimmunity); it is a relatively young industry. They can deal with targets in humans that may not be accessible with traditional medicines. A patient typically is dosed with a small molecule via a tablet while a large molecule is typically injected.

Small molecules are manufactured by chemistry but larger molecules are created by living cells such as those found in the human body: for example, bacteria cells, yeast cells, animal or plant cells.

Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like synthetic insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also used to manufacture certain pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals.

Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis,haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be used to define the target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical. Herceptin, for example, was the first drug approved for use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the protein HER2.

Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin by joining its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle and/or pigs). The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost.^[9] According to a 2003 study undertaken by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) on the access to and availability of insulin in its member countries, synthetic 'human' insulin is considerably more expensive in most countries where both synthetic 'human' and animal insulin are commercially available: e.g. within European countries the average price of synthetic 'human' insulin was twice as high as the price of pork insulin.^[10] Yet in its position statement, the IDF writes that "there is no overwhelming evidence to prefer one species of insulin over another" and "[modern, highly purified] animal insulins remain a perfectly acceptable alternative.^[11]

Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs.^[12] Most drugs today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets.^[12]

2011-04-07T10:15:00.003-07:00

Dry granulation

Dry granulation processes create granules by light compaction of the powder blend under low pressures. The compacts so-formed are broken up gently to produce granules (agglomerates). This process is often used when the product to be granulated is sensitive to moisture and heat. Dry granulation can be conducted on a tablet press using slugging tooling or on a roll press called a roller compactor. Dry granulation equipment offers a wide range of pressures to attain proper densification and granule formation. Dry granulation is simpler than wet granulation, therefore the cost is reduced. However, dry granulation often produces a higher percentage of fine granules, which can compromise the quality or create yield problems for the tablet. Dry granulation requires drugs or excipients with cohesive properties, and a 'dry binder' may need to be added to the formulation to facilitate the formation of granules.

2011-04-07T10:15:00.001-07:00

Wet granulation

Wet granulation is a process of using a liquid binder to lightly agglomerate the powder mixture. The amount of liquid has to be properly controlled, as over-wetting will cause the granules to be too hard and under-wetting will cause them to be too soft and friable. Aqueous solutions have the advantage of being safer to deal with than solvent-based systems but may not be suitable for drugs which are degraded by hydrolysis.

Procedure
- Step 1: The active ingredient and excipients are weighed and mixed.
- Step 2: The wet granulate is prepared by adding the liquid binder–adhesive to the powder blend and mixing thoroughly. Examples of binders/adhesives include aqueous preparations of cornstarch, natural gums such as acacia, cellulose derivatives such as methyl cellulose, gelatin, and povidone.
- Step 3: Screening the damp mass through a mesh to form pellets or granules.
- Step 4: Drying the granulation. A conventional tray-dryer or fluid-bed dryer are most commonly used.
- Step 5: After the granules are dried, they are passed through a screen of smaller size than the one used for the wet mass to create granules of uniform size.

Low shear wet granulation processes use very simple mixing equipment, and can take a considerable time to achieve a uniformly mixed state. High shear wet granulation processes use equipment that mixes the powder and liquid at a very fast rate, and thus speeds up the manufacturing process. Fluid bed granulation is a multiple-step wet granulation process performed in the same vessel to pre-heat, granulate, and dry the powders. It is used because it allows close control of the granulation process.

2011-04-07T10:14:00.005-07:00

Manufacturing

Manufacture of the tableting blend

In the tablet pressing process, the main guideline is to ensure that the appropriate amount of active ingredient is in each tablet. Hence, all the ingredients should be well-mixed. If a sufficiently homogenous mix of the components cannot be obtained with simple blending processes, the ingredients must be granulated prior to compression to assure an even distribution of the active compound in the final tablet. Two basic techniques are used to granulate powders for compression into a tablet: wet granulation and dry granulation. Powders that can be mixed well do not require granulation and can be compressed into tablets through direct compression.

2011-04-07T10:14:00.003-07:00

Advantages and disadvantages of Tablets

Variations on a common tablet design, which can be distinguished by both color and shape

Tablets are simple and convenient to use. They provide an accurately measured dosage of the active ingredient in a convenient portable package, and can be designed to protect unstable medications or disguise unpalatable ingredients. Colored coatings, embossed markings and printing can be used to aid tablet recognition. Manufacturing processes and techniques can provide tablets special properties, for example, sustained release or fast dissolving formulations.

Some drugs may be unsuitable for administration by the oral route. For example, protein drugs such as insulin may be denatured by stomach acids. Such drugs cannot be made into tablets. Some drugs may be deactivated by the liver when they are carried there from the gastrointestinal tract by the hepatic portal vein (the "first pass effect"), making them unsuitable for oral use. Drugs which can be taken sublingually are absorbed through the oral mucosae, so that they bypass the liver and are less susceptible to the first pass effect. The oral bioavailability of some drugs may be low due to poor absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Such drugs may need to be given in very high doses or by injection. For drugs that need to have rapid onset, or that have severe side effects, the oral route may not be suitable. For example salbutamol, used to treat problems in the pulmonary system, can have effects on the heart and circulation if taken orally; these effects are greatly reduced by inhaling smaller doses direct to the required site of action.

2011-04-07T10:14:00.001-07:00

Tabletting formulations

Capping (top) and lamination (right) tablet failure modes

In the tablet-pressing process, it is important that all ingredients be fairly dry, powdered or granular, somewhat uniform in particle size, and freely flowing. Mixed particle sized powders can segregate during manufacturing operations due to different densities, which can result in tablets with poor drug or active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) content uniformity but granulation should prevent this. Content uniformity ensures that the same API dose is delivered with each tablet.

Some APIs may be tableted as pure substances, but this is rarely the case; most formulations include excipients. Normally, an pharmacologically inactive ingredient (excipient) termed a binder is added to help hold the tablet together and give it strength. A wide variety of binders may be used, some common ones including lactose, dibasic calcium phosphate, sucrose, corn (maize) starch, microcrystalline cellulose, povidone polyvinylpyrrolidone and modified cellulose (for example hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and hydroxyethylcellulose).

Often, an ingredient is also needed to act as a disintegrant to aid tablet dispersion once swallowed, releasing the API for absorption. Some binders, such as starch and cellulose, are also excellent disintegrants.

Small amounts of lubricants are usually added, as well. The most common of these is magnesium stearate and calcium stearate ; however, other commonly used tablet lubricants include stearic acid(stearin), hydrogenated oil, and sodium stearyl fumarate. These help the tablets, once pressed, to be more easily ejected from the die and for fine finishing of tablets.

2011-04-07T10:13:00.001-07:00

Tablet

For other uses, see Tablet (disambiguation).

Common disk-shaped tablets

A tablet is a pharmaceutical dosage form. It comprises a mixture of active substances and excipients, usually in powder form, pressed or compacted from a powder into a solid dose. The excipients can include diluents, binders or granulating agents, glidants (flow aids) and lubricants to ensure efficient tabletting; disintegrants to promote tablet break-up in the digestive tract; sweeteners or flavours to enhance taste; and pigments to make the tablets visually attractive. A polymer coating is often applied to make the tablet smoother and easier to swallow, to control the release rate of the active ingredient, to make it more resistant to the environment (extending its shelf life), or to enhance the tablet's appearance.

The compressed tablet is the most popular dosage form in use today. About two-thirds of all prescriptions are dispensed as solid dosage forms, and half of these are compressed tablets. A tablet can be formulated to deliver an accurate dosage to a specific site; it is usually taken orally, but can be administeredsublingually, buccally, rectally or intravaginally. The tablet is just one of the many forms that an oral drug can take such as syrups, elixirs, suspensions, andemulsions. Medicinal tablets were originally made in the shape of a disk of whatever color their components determined, but are now made in many shapes and colors to help distinguish different medicines. Tablets are often stamped with symbols, letters, and numbers, which enable them to be identified. Sizes of tablets to be swallowed range from a few millimeters to about a centimeter. Some tablets are in the shape of capsules, and are called "caplets". Medicinal tablets and capsules are often called pills. This is technically incorrect, since tablets are made by compression, whereas pills are ancient solid dose forms prepared by rolling a soft mass into a round shape. Other products are manufactured in the form of tablets which are designed to dissolve or disintegrate; e.g. cleaning and deodorizing products.

2011-04-07T10:12:00.001-07:00

Alcoholism

Introduction:

Alcoholism is a chronic, often progressive disease in which a person craves alcohol and drinks despite repeated alcohol related problems (like losing a job or a relationship). Alcoholism involves a physical dependence on alcohol, but other factors include genetic, psychological, and cultural influences.

Becoming addicted to alcohol is a gradual process that happens as alcohol changes the level of chemicals in your brain, especially gamma-aminobutyric acid or GABA (which stops you from being impulsive) and dopamine (which is linked with pleasurable feelings). As the levels of these chemicals change, you crave alcohol to make yourself feel good again.

About 18 million people in the United States abuse alcohol, and estimates suggest that more than 70 million Americans have dealt with alcoholism in their family. Alcohol is involved in almost half or all traffic deaths in the U.S.

Alcoholism is characterized by craving alcohol and losing control over drinking, along with a physical dependence (meaning that the person experiences withdrawal symptoms when not drinking) and a tolerance for alcohol (meaning the person needs to drink greater amounts to feel “good”). Before entering recovery, most alcoholics will deny they have a problem. People who abuse alcohol but are not dependent on it may have similar symptoms, but they don' t feel the same craving to drink and usually don' t experience withdrawal symptoms.

Signs and Symptoms:

Symptoms of alcoholism include:

Drinking by yourself or in secret
Craving alcohol
Not being able to control the amount you drink
Blackouts (not remembering events or conversations)
Becoming irritable when you can' t get a drink at your regular time
Having legal problems or an inability to sustain a relationship or a job
Withdrawal symptoms, such as nausea, sweating, shakiness, and anxiety, when you stop drinking
Needing more alcohol to feel its effects
Liver disease

Risk Factors:

If you have a family history of alcohol abuse, you are more likely to develop the condition than someone without a family history. Other factors that may increase your risk include:

Having 2 or more adverse events during childhood
Beginning to drink early, by age 16 or sooner
Drinking more than 1 - 2 drinks per day
Smoking cigarettes (particularly teenagers)
Being under a lot of stress
Having a pre-existing psychiatric disorder (such as depression or anxiety)
Men have higher rates of alcoholism than women
Broken homes

Diagnosis:

If you are experiencing symptoms associated with alcoholism, you should see your doctor. He or she can help make a diagnosis and guide you in determining which treatment or combination of therapies will work best. You should know that, because most alcoholics deny they have a problem, they are often unlikely to seek treatment by themselves. Friends and family members may have to convince them to seek help.

Your doctor will take a history and do a physical exam. Questions that he or she may ask include:

Have you ever thought that you needed to cut back on the amount of alcohol you drink?
Has a spouse, friend or coworker ever annoyed you by asking you to drink less?
Do you ever feel guilty about the amount that you drink?
Do you ever drink in the morning or early in the day to soothe a hangover, get the day started, or get rid of the shakes?

Blood tests generally aren' t helpful because they only show recent alcohol consumption. But your doctor may order liver function tests to see if there has been damage to your liver from alcohol.

Preventive Care:

If you drink, do so only in moderation -- no more than 2 drinks per day if you are a man and no more than 1 drink per day if you are a woman.

Early intervention is key, especially with teenagers. To prevent teen drinking, consider the following:

Stay involved and interested in your teenager's life.
Talk openly to your children, especially pre-teens and teens, about the widespread presence and dangers of alcohol and drugs.
Have clear, non-negotiable rules about not using alcohol and drugs.
Act as a role model -- don' t drink excessively, use other drugs, or smoke.
Strongly urge your children to not smoke.
Encourage your children to become active in sports, music, the arts, or other activities.
Know where your children and teens are at all times and make sure they always have adult supervision.
Monitor your teenager for aggressive behavior, feelings of anger or depression, and poor school performance. If any of these develop, consider whether alcohol may be a reason.
Never drink and drive or allow your teenager to be driven in the car by someone who has been drinking.

Treatment Approach:

The first and most important step in getting treatment for alcoholism is recognizing that you have a problem. Often, family members and close friends may urge treatment for the person with the addiction.

Treatment and ongoing recovery must address both physical and psychological addiction and may include inpatient treatment and/or Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). In an inpatient or residential program, the person generally stays in a hospital or center for 28 days, undergoing first detoxification (usually 4 - 7 days) and then individual and group therapy emphasizing abstinence. Talk to a doctor about what is best for you or your loved one.

Lifestyle

Attend Alcoholics Anonymous.
Family members should attend Al-Anon to learn how to help the person with the addiction and to get help and support themselves.
Exercise regularly to help reduce cravings.

Medications

Your provider may prescribe the following medications:

For alcohol withdrawal

Benzodiazepines -- tranquilizers used during the first few days of treatment to help you withdraw safely from alcohol. These drugs include:

Diazepam (Valium)
Chlordiazepoxid (Librium)
Lorazepam (Ativan)
Oxazepam (Serax)

Anticonvulsants -- may also help with withdrawal symptoms and don' t have the potential for abuse (as benzodiazepines do). They include:

Carbamazepine (Tegretol)
Valprioc acid (Depakote)
Phenytoin (Dilantin)
Gabapentn (Neurontin)

To prevent relapse

Naltrexone (Revia, Vivitrol) -- used in combination with counseling, may lessen the craving for alcohol and help prevent a return to drinking. Taking Revia or Vivitrol blocks receptors in your brain so that you don' t get “high” from drinking. It is only used after detoxification -- that is, once you are no longer physically addicted to alcohol.

Acamprosate (Campral) -- may help restore the chemical balance in the brain. It is best used in combination with counseling.

Disulfiram (Antabuse) -- an older medication that discourages drinking by causing nausea, vomiting, and other unpleasant physical reactions when alcohol is used.

Nutrition and Dietary Supplements

Because chronic use of alcohol decreases your appetite and keeps your body from absorbing vital nutrients, you may be deficient in a number of vitamins and minerals. Your doctor may tell you to take supplements while you are regaining your health. Beneficial supplements may include vitamin B complex, vitamin C, selenium, magnesium, and zinc. A combination of amino acids -- carnitine, glutamine, and glutathione -- may help reduce cravings, blood sugar fluctuations, and stress related to alcohol use.

Thiamine (vitamin B1) -- Your doctor may prescribe a thiamine supplement during withdrawal. Heavy use of alcohol causes thiamine deficiency, which can lead to a serious brain disorder called Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.

People who abuse alcohol are often deficient in vitamin A, but should take extra supplements (beyond the recommended daily allowance) only under their doctor' s supervision. High doses of vitamin A can damage the liver and may causes alcoholic liver disease to develop more quickly in people who drink heavily.

Herbs

The use of herbs is a time honored approach to strengthening the body and treating disease. Herbs, however, can trigger side effects and can interact with other herbs, supplements, or medications. For these reasons, you should take herbs with care, under the supervision of a health care practitioner. However, herbs alone should not be used to treat alcoholism; counseling and peer groups such as AA are also needed.

Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) -- Milk thistle is often used to treat liver problems, and some studies looking at milk thistle to treat alcoholic liver disease have found significant improvements in liver function. People with the mildest form of alcohol related liver damage seem to improve the most. Milk thistle is less effective for those with severe liver disease such as cirrhosis, which is characterized by scarring and permanent, irreversible damage to the liver. However, there are no studies looking at whether milk thistle is useful for alcohol withdrawal.
Kudzu (Pueraria lobata) -- Animal studies suggest that kudzu, used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat alcohol abuse, might help reduce cravings. However, one study in humans failed to show any benefit.
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) -- Dandelion is used traditionally for liver related problems, although there is evidence that it helps alcohol withdrawal symptoms. It is often combined with milk thistle.

Homeopathy

Few studies have examined the effectiveness of specific homeopathic remedies. Professional homeopaths, however, may recommend a treatment for alcoholism based on their knowledge and clinical experience. Before prescribing a remedy, homeopaths take into account a person's constitutional type. In homeopathic terms, a person's constitution is his or her physical, emotional, and intellectual makeup. An experienced homeopath assesses all of these factors when determining the most appropriate remedy for a particular individual. Homeopathy alone should not be used to treat alcoholism, but can be a supportive therapy along with counseling and groups such as AA. The following are a few examples of remedies that an experienced homeopath might consider for symptoms related to alcohol abuse or withdrawal:

Arsenicum album -- for anxiety and compulsiveness, with nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea

Nux vomica -- for irritability and compulsiveness with constipation, nausea, and vomiting

Lachesis -- for cravings for alcohol, headaches, and difficulty swallowing

Staphysagria -- for angry individuals who tend to suppress their emotions and may have been abused physically, sexually, or psychologically in the past

Mind/Body Medicine

Cognitive behavioral therapy with a psychologist or psychiatrist is a very effective treatment approach for alcohol addiction. This type of therapy, which is geared toward changing your beliefs and thought process about drinking, can help you cope with stress and control your behavior. Talk to your doctor about finding a qualified cognitive behavioral therapist.

Acupuncture

In some cases, acupuncture may be a useful supportive therapy for addiction. Some but not all studies of acupuncture for the treatment of alcohol abuse have shown that it can reduce cravings and symptoms of withdrawal. However, acupuncture alone should not be used to treat alcohol addiction, but in combination with counseling and groups such as AA.

Other Considerations:

Pregnancy

Drinking alcohol while pregnant can seriously damage the baby, causing a condition known as fetal alcohol syndrome. Fetal alcohol syndrome causes irreversible physical and mental disabilities. The only safe way to protect against damage to the baby is not to drink during pregnancy or even if you are trying to become pregnant.

Prognosis and Complications

Possible complications associated with heavy alcohol use include:

Mental confusion or delirium
Severe amnesia
An unsteady gait
Loss of sperm cells
Repeated vomiting, ulcers, gastrointestinal bleeding
Pancreatitis

In addition, long-term use of alcohol decreases life expectancy by about 15 years and puts you at significant risk for:

Liver damage, even liver failure (called cirrhosis)
High blood pressure, heart disease, and heart failure
Brain and nerve damage
Certain types of cancer including mouth, throat, laryngeal (voice box), esophageal, and breast
Osteoporosis
Nutritional deficiencies
Infections, including pneumonia and tuberculosis
Low bone mineral density and osteoporosis

The good news is, however, that even though alcohol abuse is a serious condition with potentially dire consequences, it is treatable. If you or someone you love has a problem, seek the help and advice of a health care professional as early as possible.

Reviewed last on: 11/20/2009
Steven D. Ehrlich, NMD, Solutions Acupuncture, a private practice specializing in complementary and alternative medicine, Phoenix, AZ. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network.

Supporting Research

Ambrose, ML, Bowden SC, Whelan G. Thiamin treatment and working memory function of alcohol-dependent people: preliminary findings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2001;25(1):112-116.

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Text Revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.

Assanangkornchai S, Srisurapanont M. The treatment of alcohol dependence. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2007 May;20(3):222-7. Review.

Bullock ML, Umen MS, Culliton PD, Olander RT. Acupuncture treatment of alcoholic recidivism: a pilot study. Alcohol Clin Exper Res. 1987;11(3):292-295.

Bullock ML, Culliton PD, Olander RT. Controlled trial of acupuncture for severe recidivist alcoholism. Lancet. 1989;1:1435-1439.

Carai MAM, Agabio R, Bombardelli E, et al. Potential use of medicinal plants in the treatment of alcoholism. Fitoterapia. 2000;71:538-542.

Ermalinski R, Hanson PG, Lubin B, Thornby JI, Nahormek PA. Impact of a body-mind treatment component on alcoholic inpatients. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv. 1997;35:39-45.

Cooney JL, Cooney NL, Pilkey DT, Kranzler HR, Oncken CA. Effects of nicotine deprivation on urges to drink and smoke in alcoholic smokers. Addiction. 2003;98(7):913-921.

Correale M, Laonigro I, Altomare E, Di Biase M. Alcohol-induced cardiac disease. G Ital Cardiol (Rome). 2009;10(1):18-27.

Das UN. Essential Fatty acids - a review. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2006 Dec;7(6):467-82. Review.

Ferri: Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2010, 1st ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier, Inc. 2009.

Ferri M, Amato L, Davoli M. Alcoholics Anonymous and other 12-step programmes for alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 Jul 19;3:CD005032. Review.

Gurevich MI, Duckworth D, Imhof JE, Katz JL. Is auricular acupuncture beneficial in the inpatient treatment of substance-abusing patients? A pilot study. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1996;13(2):165-171.

Johnson JL, Leff M. Children of substance abusers: overview of research findings. Pediatrics. 1999;103(5).

Kunz S, Schulz M, Lewitzky M, Driessen M, Rau H. Ear acupuncture for alcohol withdrawal in comparison with aromatherapy: a randomized-controlled trial. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2007 Mar;31(3):436-42.

Malik P, Gasser RW, Kemmler G, Moncayo R, Finkenstedt G, Kurz M, Fleischhacker WW. Low bone mineral density and impaired bone metabolism in young alcoholic patients without liver cirrhosis: a cross-sectional study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2009;33(2):375-81.

Moner SE. Acupuncture and addiction treatment. J Addict Dis. 1996;15(3):79-100.

Oh SH, Soh JR, Cha YS. Germinated brown rice extract shows a nutraceutical effect in the recovery of chronic alcohol-related symptoms. J Med Food. 2003;6(2):115-121.

Otto KC. Acupuncture and substance abuse: a synopsis, with indications for further research. Am J Addict.2003;12(1):43-51.

Overstreet DH, Keung WM, Rezvani AH, Massi M, Lee DY. Herbal remedies for alcoholism: promises and possible pitfalls.Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2003;27(2):177-185.

Pilowsky DJ, Keyes KM, Hasin DS. Adverse childhood events and lifetime alcohol dependence. Am J Public Health.2009;99(2):258-63.

Purohit V, Abdelmalek MF, Barve S, Benevenga NJ, Halsted CH, Kaplowitz N, et al. Role of S-adenosylmethionine, folate, and betaine in the treatment of alcoholic liver disease: summary of a symposium. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Jul;86(1):14-24. Review.

Rakel: Textbook of Family Medicine, 7th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier Inc. 2007.

Rezvani AH, Overstreet DH, Perfumi M, Massi M. Plant derivatives in the treatment of alcohol dependency. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2003;75(3):593-606.

Rogers J. Homeopathy and the treatment of alcohol-related problems. Complement Ther Nurs Midwifery. 1997;3(1):21-28.

Russel RM. Vitamin A and zinc metabolism in alcoholism. Am J Clin Nutr. 1980;33(12):2741-2749.

Sachan DA, Rhew TH. Lipotropic effect of carnitine on alcohol-induced hepatic stenosis. Nutr Rep Int. 1983;27:1221-1226.

Sachan DS, Rhew TH, Ruark RA. Ameliorating effects of carnitine and its precursors on alcohol-induced fatty liver. Am J Clin Nutr. 1984;39:738-744.

Sapir-Weise R, Berglund M, Frank A, Kristenson H. Acupuncture in alcoholism treatment: a randomized out-patient study.Alcohol Alcohol. 1999;34(4):629-635.

Shebek J, Rindone JP. A pilot study exploring the effect of kudzu root on the drinking habits of patients with chronic alcoholism. J Alt Compl Med. 2000;6:45-48.

Shwartz M, Saitz R, Mulvey K, Brannigan P. The value of acupuncture detoxification programs in a substance abuse treatment system. J Subst Abuse Treat. 1999;17(4):305-312.

Singh AK, Jiang Y, Benlhabib E, Gupta S. Herbal mixtures consisting of puerarin and either polyenylphosphatidylcholine or curcumin provide comprehensive protection against alcohol-related disorders in P rats receiving free choice water and 15% ethanol in pure water. J Med Food. 2007 Sep;10(3):526-42.

Sukul NC, Ghosh S, Sinhababu SP, Sukul A. Strychnos nux-vomica extract and its ultra-high dilution reduce voluntary ethanol intake in rats. J Altern Complement Med. 2003;7(2):187-193.

Trumpler F, Oez S, Stahli P, Brenner HD, Juni P. Acupuncture for alcohol withdrawal: a randomized controlled trial. Alcohol Alcohol. 2003;38(4):369-375.

Ventegodt S, Clausen B, Langhorn M, Kromann M, Andersen NJ, Merrick J. Quality of life as medicine III. A qualitative analysis of the effect of a five-day intervention with existential holistic group therapy or a quality of life course as a modern rite of passage. Scientific World J. 2004;4:124-133.

Worner TM, Zeller B, Schwarz H, Zwas F, Lyon D. Acupuncture fails to improve treatment outcome in alcoholics. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1992;30:169-173.

Xu BJ, Zheng YN, Sung CK. Natural medicines for alcoholism treatment: a review. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2005 Nov;24(6):525-36. Review.

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Simple alcohols

Space filling model of the hydroxyl (OH) functional group in an alcohol molecule

The most commonly used alcohol is ethanol, C₂H₅OH, with the ethane backbone. Ethanol has been produced and consumed by humans for millennia, in the form of fermented and distilled alcoholic beverages. It is a clear flammable liquid that boils at 78.4 °C, which is used as an industrial solvent, car fuel, and raw material in the chemical industry. In the US and some other countries, because of legal and tax restrictions on alcohol consumption, ethanol destined for other uses often contains additives that make it unpalatable (such as Bitrex) or poisonous (such as methanol). Ethanol in this form is known generally as denatured alcohol; when methanol is used, it may be referred to as methylated spirits or "surgical spirits".

The simplest alcohol is methanol, CH₃OH, which was formerly obtained by the distillation of wood and, therefore, is called "wood alcohol". It is a clear liquid resembling ethanol in smell and properties, with a slightly lower boiling point (64.7 °C), and is used mainly as a solvent, fuel, and raw material. Unlike ethanol, methanol is extremely toxic: One sip (as little as 10 ml) can cause permanent blindness by destruction of the optic nerve and 30 ml (one fluid ounce) is potentially fatal.^[1]

Two other alcohols whose uses are relatively widespread (though not so much as those of methanol and ethanol) are propanol and butanol. Like ethanol, they can be produced by fermentation processes. (However, the fermenting agent is a bacterium, Clostridium acetobutylicum, that feeds on cellulose, not sugars like theSaccharomyces yeast that produces ethanol.) Saccharomyces yeast are known to produce these higher alcohols at temperatures above 75 F. These alcohols are called fusel alcohols or fusel oils in brewing and tend to have a spicy or peppery flavor. They are considered a fault in most styles of beer.^{[citation needed]}

Simple alcohols, in particular, ethanol and methanol, possess denaturing and inert rendering properties, leading to their use as anti-microbial agents in medicine, pharmacy, and industry.^{[citation needed}

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Alcohol

This article is about the generic chemistry term. For the kind of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, see Ethanol. For beverages containing alcohol, see Alcoholic beverage. For other uses, seeAlcohol (disambiguation).

The hydroxyl (OH) functional group in an alcohol molecule

Ball-and-stick model of the hydroxyl (OH) functional group in an alcohol molecule

In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which a hydroxyl functional group (-O H) is bound to a carbon atom, usually connected to other carbon or hydrogen atoms.

An important class are the simple acyclic alcohols, the general formula for which is C_nH_2n+1OH. Of those, ethanol (C₂H₅OH) is the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, and in common speech the word alcohol refers specifically to ethanol.

Other alcohols are usually described with a clarifying adjective, as in isopropyl alcohol (propan-2-ol) or wood alcohol (methyl alcohol, or methanol). The suffix -olappears in the IUPAC chemical name of all substances where the hydroxyl group is the functional group with the highest priority; in substances where a higher priority group is present the prefix hydroxy- will appear in the IUPAC name. The suffix -ol in non-systematic names (such as paracetamol or cholesterol) also typically indicates that the substance includes a hydroxyl functional group and, so, can be termed an alcohol. But many substances (such as citric acid, lactic acid, andsucrose) contain one or more hydroxyl functional groups without using the suffix.

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Brown sugar
is white sugar combined with molasses, which gives it a soft texture. Light and dark are the two most common styles of brown sugar. In general, the lighter the brown sugar, the more delicate the flavor. Very dark or old-fashioned brown sugar has a more intense molasses flavor. Both granulated and liquid brown sugar are also now available.

plural: brown sugar

Ingredient

Season: available year-round

How to store: Store in a plastic bag. Resoften by including an apple wedge with the brown sugar in a plastic bag and sealing tightly for 1-2 days.

Substitutions: 1 cup packed brown sugar = 1 cup granulated sugar

1 cup brown sugar = 1 3/4 cups powdered sugar mixed with 1 1/2 teaspoons molasses

More Brown Sugar Recipes

Popular Brown Sugar Recipes
Crock Pot Garlic Brown Sugar Chicken
Kittencal's Best Brown Sugar Turkey Brine
Mahi Mahi With Brown-Sugar Soy Glaze

Read more: http://www.food.com/library/brown-sugar-375#ixzz1IxE3SxRz

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Natural brown sugar

Main article: Natural brown sugar

A measuring cup containing muscovado (left); on the right is a measuring cup containing regular (light) brown sugar.

Natural brown sugar, or raw sugar is a brown sugar produced from the first crystallization of the sugar cane. There is more molasses in natural brown sugar, giving it a higher mineral content. Some natural brown sugars have particular names and characteristics, and are sold as Turbinado,Muscovado, or Demerara sugar.

Turbinado and Demerara sugars are made by crystallizing raw sugar cane juice, then spinning it in a centrifuge to remove water and some impurities.^[3]^[4]

Muscovado (also moscovado) is an unrefined, dark brown sugar that is produced without centrifuging and has much smaller crystals than turbinado sugar. The sugar cane extract is heated to thicken it and then pan-evaporated in the sun and pounded to yield an unprocessed, damp sugar that retains all of the natural minerals.^[5]

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Manufacture of brown sugar

Brown sugar is often produced by adding cane molasses to completely refined white sugar crystals in order to more carefully control the ratio of molasses to sugar crystals and to reduce manufacturing costs.^{[citation needed]} This also allows the production of brown sugars to be based predominantly on beet sugar. Brown sugar that is prepared in this manner is often much coarser than its unrefined equivalent and its molasses may be easily separated from the crystals by simply washing to reveal the underlying white sugar crystals; with unrefined brown there is inclusion of molasses within the crystal which will appear off-white if washed.

The molasses usually used is that obtained from sugar cane, because the flavor is generally preferred over beet sugar molasses, although in some areas, especially in the Netherlands, sugar beetmolasses is used. The white sugar used can be from either beet or cane as odor and color differences will be covered by the molasses.

Brown sugar can be made at home by mixing white granulated sugar with molasses, using one tablespoon of molasses for every cup of white sugar (one-sixteenth or 6.25% of the total volume). Thorough blending will yield dark brown sugar; for light brown sugar, between one and two teaspoons of molasses per cup should be used instead. It is, however, simpler to substitute molasses for an equal portion of white sugar while cooking, without mixing them separately.

When a recipe calls for "brown sugar" it is usually referring to light brown sugar; dark brown sugar should be used only when specified.^{[citation needed]} This is relevant primarily when baking recipes sensitive to moisture and density (such as cakes), because of the difference in moisture content between the two types. In other applications, substituting dark brown sugar over light brown will yield a deeper flavor with more caramel, much like adding molasses would do.

[edit]

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Brown sugar

This article is about the sugar product. For other uses, see brown sugar (disambiguation).

Brown sugar crystals.

Brown sugar examples: Muscovado (top), dark brown (left), light brown (right)

Brown sugar is a sucrose sugar product with a distinctive brown color due to the presence of molasses. It is either an unrefined or partially refined soft sugar consisting of sugar crystals with some residual molasses content, or it is produced by the addition of molasses to refined white sugar.

Brown sugar contains from 3.5% molasses (light brown sugar) to 6.5% molasses (dark brown sugar). The product is naturally moist from the hygroscopicnature of the molasses and is often labelled as "soft." The product may undergo processing to give a product that flows better for industrial handling. The addition of dyes and/or other chemicals may be permitted in some areas or for industrial products.

Particle size is variable but generally less than granulated white sugar. Products for industrial use (e.g., the industrial production of cakes) may be based oncaster sugar which has crystals of approximately 0.35 mm.

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Recreational drug use

The cigarette is the common pharmaceutical form of tobacco – one of the world’s best selling drugs.^[9]

Cannabis is another commonly usedrecreational drug.^[10]

Peruvian Ayahuasca

Main article: Recreational drug use

Further information: Prohibition (drugs)

Recreational drugs use is the use of psychoactive substances to have fun, for the experience, or to enhance an already positive experience. National laws prohibit the use of many different recreational drugs and medicinal drugs that have the potential for recreational use are heavily regulated. Many other recreational drugs on the other hand are legal, widely culturally accepted, and at the most have an age restriction on using and/or purchasing them. These include alcohol, tobacco, betel nut, and caffeine products in the west, and in other localised areas of the world drugs such as Khat are common. Because of the legal status of many drugs, recreational drug use is controversial, with many governments not recognising spiritual or other perceived uses for drugs and classing them under illegal recreational use.

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Medication

Nexium pills 40 mg
(esomeprazole magnesium)

Main article: pharmaceutical drug

A medication or medicine is a drug taken to cure and/or ameliorate any symptoms of an illness or medical condition, or may be used as preventive medicinethat has future benefits but does not treat any existing or pre-existing diseases or symptoms.

Dispensing of medication is often regulated by governments into three categories—over-the-counter (OTC) medications, which are available in pharmacies and supermarkets without special restrictions, behind-the-counter (BTC), which are dispensed by a pharmacist without needing a doctor's prescription, andPrescription only medicines (POM), which must be prescribed by a licensed medical professional, usually a physician.^{[citation needed]}

In the United Kingdom, BTC medicines are called pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies, by or under the supervision of a pharmacist. These medications are designated by the letter P on the label.^[8] The range of medicines available without a prescription varies from country to country.

Medications are typically produced by pharmaceutical companies and are often patented to give the developer exclusive rights to produce them, but they can also be derived from naturally occurring substance in plants called herbal medicine.^{[citation needed]} Those that are not patented (or with expired patents) are called generic drugs since they can be produced by other companies without restrictions or licenses from the patent holder.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology Colleges of Madhya Pradesh

Biotechnology Colleges of Maharashtra

Biotechnology Colleges of Delhi

Biotechnology Colleges of Andhra Pradesh

Bioremediation and biodegradation

Animal Biotechnology

Human Genome Project

Genetic testing

[edit]Controversial questions

Controversial questions

Pharmaceutical products

Dry granulation

Wet granulation

Manufacturing

Manufacture of the tableting blend

Manufacture of the tableting blend

Advantages and disadvantages of Tablets

Tabletting formulations

Tablet

Alcoholism

Introduction:

Signs and Symptoms:

Risk Factors:

Diagnosis:

Preventive Care:

Treatment Approach:

Lifestyle

Medications

Nutrition and Dietary Supplements

Herbs

Homeopathy

Mind/Body Medicine

Acupuncture

Other Considerations:

Pregnancy

Prognosis and Complications

Supporting Research

Simple alcohols

Alcohol

Natural brown sugar

Manufacture of brown sugar

[edit]

Brown sugar

Recreational drug use

Medication

[edit]
Controversial questions