biotechnology life

How To Make a DNA Model Using Candy

2010-10-20T14:37:00.000-07:00

Making DNA models can be informative, fun, and in this case tasty. Here you will learn how to construct a DNA model using candy. But first, what is DNA? DNA is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic information for the reproduction of life. Its shape is that of a double helix and its appearance is somewhat of a twisted ladder or spiral staircase. DNA is composed of nitrogenous bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine), a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), and a phosphate molecule.

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids allow organisms to transfer genetic information from one generation to the next. There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid, better known as DNA and ribonucleic acid, better known as RNA.

When a cell divides, its DNA is copied and passed from one cell generation to the next generation. DNA contains the "programmatic instructions" for cellular activities. When organisms produce offspring, these instructions, in the form of DNA, are passed down. RNA is involved in the synthesis of proteins. "Information" is typically passed from DNA to RNA to the resulting proteins.

Nucleic acids: Nucleotides

Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotide monomers. Nucleotides have three parts:

A Nitrogenous Base
A Five-Carbon Sugar
A Phosphate Group

Similar to what happens with protein monomers, nucleotides are linked to each other through dehydration synthesis. Interestingly, some nucleotides perform important cellular functions as "individual" molecules, the most common example being ATP.

Polynucleotides

In polynucleotides, nucleotides are joined to one another by covalent bonds between the phosphate of one and the sugar of another. These linkages are called phosphodiester linkages

The Cell-Cell Structure

2010-10-20T14:23:00.000-07:00

Life is both wonderful and majestic. Yet for all of its majesty, all organisms are composed of the fundamental unit of life, the cell. The cell is the simplest unit of matter that is alive. From the unicellular bacteria to multicellular animals, the cell is one of the basic organizational principles of biology. Let's look at some of the components of this basic organizer of living organisms.

Eukaryotic Cells and Prokaryotic Cells

There are two primary types of cells: eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are called so because they have a true nucleus. The nucleus, which houses DNA, is contained within a membrane and separated from other cellular structures. Prokaryotic cells however have no true nucleus. DNA in a prokaryotic cell is not separated from the rest of the cell but coiled up in a region called the nucleoid.

As organized in the Three Domain System, prokaryotes include archaeans and bacteria. Eukaryotes include animals, plants, fungi and protists. Typically, eukaryoitc cells are more complex and much larger than prokaryotic cells. On average, prokaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller in diameter than eukaryotic cells.

Eukaryotes grow and reproduce through a process called mitosis. In organisms that also reproduce sexually, the reproductive cells are produced by a type of cell division called meiosis. Most prokaryotes reproduce through a process called binary fission. During binary fission, the single DNA molecule replicates and the original cell is divided into two identical daughter cells.

Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms get the energy they need to grow and maintain normal cellular function through cellular respiration. Cellular respiration has three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport. In eukaryotes, most cellular respiration reactions take place within the mitochondria. In prokaryotes, they occur in the cytoplasm and/or within the cell membrane.

The Cell-Cell Structure

There are also many distinctions between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell structure. The following table compares the cell structures found in a typical prokaryotic cell to those found in a typical animal eukaryotic cell.

Cell Structure Comparison

Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cell Structure
	Cell Structure	Prokaryotic Cell	Typical Animal Eukaryotic Cell
	Cell Wall	Yes	No
	Centrioles	No	Yes
	Chromosomes	One long DNA strand	Many
	Cilia or Flagella	Yes, simple	Yes, complex
	Endoplasmic Reticulum	No	Yes (some exceptions)
	Golgi Complex	No	Yes
	Lysosomes	No	Common
	Mitochondria	No	Yes
	Nucleus	No	Yes
	Peroxisomes	No	Common
	Cell Membrane	Yes	Yes
	Ribosomes	Yes	Yes

Animal Tissues: Epithelial Tissue

2010-10-20T14:14:00.000-07:00

What are Tissues?

The word tissue is derived from a Latin word meaning to "weave." Cells that make up tissues are sometimes "woven" together with extracellular fibers.

Likewise, a tissue can sometimes be held together by a sticky substance that coats its cells.

There are four main categories of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous. Let's take a look at epithelial tissue.

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities. The cells in this type of tissue are very closely packed together and joined with little space between them.

With a tightly packed structure we would expect epithelial tissue to perhaps serve some type of barrier and protective function and that is certainly the case.

Epithelial tissue helps to protect organisms from microorganisms, injury, and fluid loss.

In an epithelium, the free surface is usually exposed to fluid or the air while the bottom surface is attached to a basement membrane.

Classifying

Epithelia are commonly classified based on the shape of the cells on the free surface, as well as the number of cell layers. Sample types include:

Simple Epithelium: A simple epithelium has a single layer of cells.

Stratified Epithelium: A stratified epithelium has multiple layers of cells.

Likewise, the shape of the cells on the free surface can be:

Cuboidal

Analogous to the shape of dice.

Columnar

Analogous to the shape of bricks on an end.

Squamous

Analogous to the shape of flat tiles on a floor.

By combining the terms for shape and layers, we can derive epithelial types such as stratified squamous epithelium or simple columnar epithelium.

Animal Tissue Types

To learn more about animal tissues, visit:

Connective Tissue
Muscle Tissue
Nervous Tissue
Nervous Tissue - Glial Cells

Share Your Opinions

What do you think? Have questions about animal tissue types or epithelial tissue? Come on over to the Biology Forum and share your thoughts, opinions, and feelings...........

10 Facts About Cells

2010-10-20T14:05:00.000-07:00

Cells are the fundamental units of life. Whether they be unicellular or multicellular life forms, all living organisms are composed of and depend on cells to function normally. Scientists estimate that our bodies contain anywhere from 75 to 100 trillion cells. Cells do everything from providing structure and stability to providing energy and a means of reproduction for an organism. The following 10 facts about cells will provide you with well known and perhaps little known tidbits of information about cells.

1. Cells are too small to be seen without magnification.
Cells range in size from 1 to 100 micrometers. The study of cells, also called, cell biology

would not have been possible without the invention of the microscope. With the advance microscopes of today such as the Scanning Electron Microscope and Transmission Electron Microscope, cell biologists are able to obtain detailed images of the smallest of cell structures.

2. There are two primary types of cells.
Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells are the two main types of cells. Eukaryotic cells are called so because they have a true nucleus. Animals, plants, fungi and protists are examples of organisms that are composed of eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaeans.

3. Prokaryotic single-celled organisms were the earliest and most primitive forms of life on earth.
Prokaryotes can live in environments that would be deadly to most other organisms. They are able to live and thrive in various extreme habitats. Archaeans for example, live in areas such as hydrothermal vents, hot springs, swamps, wetlands, and even animal intestines.

4. There are more bacterial cells in the body than human cells.
Scientists have estimated that about 95% of all the cells in the body are bacteria. The vast majority of these microbes can be found within the digetive tract.

5. Cells contain genetic material.
Cells contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the genetic information necessary for directing cellular activities. DNA is a type of molecule known as a nucleic acid. In prokaryotic cells, the single bacterial DNA molecule is not separated from the rest of the cell but coiled up in a region of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid region. In eukaryotic cells, DNA molecules are located within the cell's nucleus. DNA and proteins are the major components of chromosomes. Human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (for a total of 46). There are 22 pairs of autosomes (non-sex chromosomes) and one pair of sex chromosomes. The X and Y sex chromosomes determine gender.

6. Cells contain structures called organelles which carry out specific functions.
Organelles have a wide range of responsibilities within a cell that include everything from providing energy to producing hormones and enzymes. Eukaryotic cells contain several types of organelles, while prokaryotic cells contain a few organelles (ribosomes) and none that are bound by a membrane. There are also differences between the kinds of organelles found within different eukaryotic cell types. Plant cells for example, contain structures such as a cell wall and chloroplasts that are not found in animal cells. Other examples of organelles include:

Nucleus
Mitochondria
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Complex
Ribosomes

7. Different types of cells reproduce through different methods.
Most prokaryotic cells reproduce by a process called binary fission. This is a type of cloning process in which two identical cells are derived from a single cell. Eukaryotic organisms have a similar type of reproductive method known as mitosis. Some eukaryotes also have the ability to reproduce sexually, which involves the fusion of sex cells or gametes. Gametes are produced by a process called meiosis.

8. Groups of similar cells form tissues.
Tissues are groups of cells with both a shared structure and function. Cells that make up animal tissues are sometimes woven together with extracellular fibers and are occasionally held together by a sticky substance that coats the cells. Different types of tissues can also be arranged together to form organs. Groups of organs can in turn form organ systems.

9. Cells have varying life spans.
Cells within the human body have different life spans based on the type and function of the cell. They can live anywhere from a few days to a year. Certain cells of the digestive tract live for only a few days, while some immune system cells can live for up to six weeks. Pancreatic cells can live for as long as a year.

10. Cells commit suicide.
When a cell becomes damaged or undergoes some type of infection, it will self destruct by a process called apoptosis. Apoptosis works to ensure proper development and to keep the body's natural process of mitosis in check. A cell's inability to undergo apoptosis can result in the development of cancer.

Cloning.............

2010-10-20T09:39:00.000-07:00

What Is Cloning?
Cloning is the process of creating genetically identical copies of biological matter. This may include genes, cells, tissues or entire organisms. ..........

Types of Cloning
When we speak of cloning, we typically think of organism cloning, but there are actually three different types of cloning.

    * Molecular Cloning

      Molecular cloning focuses on making identical copies of DNA molecules. This type of cloning is also called gene cloning.

    * Organism Cloning

      Organism cloning involves making an identical copy of an entire organism. This type of cloning is also called reproductive cloning.

    * Therapeutic Cloning

      Therapeutic cloning involves the cloning of human embryos for the production of stem cells. The embryos are eventually destroyed in this process.

Reproductive Cloning Techniques
Cloning techniques are laboratory processes used to produce offspring that are genetically identical to the donor parent.

Clones of adult animals are created by a process called somatic cell nuclear transfer.
Cloned Animals
Scientists have been successful in cloning a number of different animals.

How do you spell breakthrough? D-O-L-L-Y
Scientists have succeeded in cloning an adult mammal. And Dolly doesn't have a daddy!

First Dolly and Now Millie
Scientists have successfully produced cloned transgenic goats.

Cloning Clones
Researchers have developed a way to create multi-generations of identical mice.

Cloned Animals
View pictures of cloned animals from Guardian Unlimited.
Cloning Problems
What are the risks of cloning? One of the main concerns as it relates to human cloning is that the current processes used in animal cloning are only successful a very small percentage of the time.

Another concern is that the cloned animals that do survive tend to have various health problems and shorter life spans.

Scientist have not yet figured out why these problems occur and there is no reason to think that these same problems wouldn't happen in human cloning.
Cloning and Ethics
Should humans be cloned? A major objection to cloning for research is that cloned embryos are produced and ultimately destroyed. For more information on cloning and ethics ................

Biotech Graveyard...............

2010-10-17T04:20:00.000-07:00

.....................///........Anesiva - 2010 Biotech Graveyard
Company: Anesiva
Based: South San Francisco

What Happened: Anesiva's problems began in 2008 when the company elected to stop making transdermal pain patch Zingo due to continuing manufacturing problems. When job cuts and a going-concern notice followed, Anesiva attempted to stay afloat by inking a merger pact with Arcion Therapeutics. But the deal came with some tough provisions, including a requirement that Anesiva raise $20 million from a stock sale and clean up some debts. The South San Francisco-based company announced in late 2009 it couldn't complete a planned merger, and would instead cease operations and file for bankruptcy.

Read more: Anesiva - 2010 Biotech Graveyard - FierceBiotech http://www.fiercebiotech.com/special-reports/2010-biotech-graveyard/anesiva-2010-biotech-graveyard#ixzz12c72QjP2
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AutoImmune - 2010 Biotech Graveyard

Company: AutoImmune
Based: Pasadena, CA

What Happened: AutoImmune, which had been working on products to treat autoimmune and other cell-mediated inflammatory conditions, started its downward slide after reporting lackluster results from a Phase III failure of multiple sclerosis drug dirucotide, a treatment it had been developing with BioMS. The developer hired Junewicz & Co. to explore its strategic options. After the review proc

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ConjuChem - 2010 Biotech Graveyard

Company: ConjuChem
Based: Montreal, Canada

What Happened: ConjuChem was developing a diabetes drug and a long-acting insulin. After experiencing an extended period of financial turmoil, and announced in in January 2010 that the company was looking for buyers. With no offers materializing, the company filed for bankruptcy in 2010. There's no word yet on what will happen to the company's portfolio of drugs.

Read more: ConjuChem - 2010 Biotech Graveyard - FierceBiotech http://www.fiercebiotech.com/special-reports/2010-biotech-graveyard/conjuchem-2010-biotech-graveyard#ixzz12c7IY76r
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Hawaii Biotech - 2010 Biotech Graveyard

Company: Hawaii Biotech
Based: Aiea, HI

What Happened: Hawaii Biotech was developing vaccines for dengue fever to West Nile virus. Despite successful trials, the company said earlier this year that it was running out of cash and requested that it's Chapter 11 filing be converted to to a Chapter 11 363(b) asset sale provision. An auction of the company's holdings was scheduled for July, and Merck agreed to purchase the bankrupt biotech's dengue fever vaccine unit for an undisclosed sum. There's no word on what happened the Hawaii's West Nile virus vaccine.

Read more: Hawaii Biotech - 2010 Biotech Graveyard - FierceBiotech http://www.fiercebiotech.com/special-reports/2010-biotech-graveyard/hawaii-biotech-2010-biotech-graveyard#ixzz12c7PR0WG
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Middlebrook Pharmaceuticals - 2010 Biotech Graveyard

Company: Middlebrook Pharmaceuticals
Based: Westlake, TX

What Happened: Middlebrook has been in a downward slide for the better part of two years. The developer went through two rounds of layoffs in 2009, and in March announced that it was eliminating its field sales force and significantly reducing its corporate staff to preserve money as it explored its options. As part of the cut-backs, CEO John Thievon resigned. The company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in April and Victory Pharma is purchasing all the company's assets for $17.1 million the following month. Middlebrook's only marketed drug was Moxatag for sore throat, which it was commercializing through DoctorDirectory.com.

Read more: Middlebrook Pharmaceuticals - 2010 Biotech Graveyard - FierceBiotech http://www.fiercebiotech.com/special-reports/2010-biotech-graveyard/middlebrook-pharmaceuticals-2010-biotech-graveyard#ixzz12c7UYoMd
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Neuropharm - 2010 Biotech Graveyard

Company: Neuropharm
Based: United Kingdom

What Happened: Neuropharm's shares took a beating early last year after the biotech reported that its late-stage trial for an experimental autism therapy flunked its primary endpoint. Though its stock was revived upon rumors that it was getting close to a deal for NPL-2008, the deal never materialized. In April the developer opted for a voluntary liquidation, saying it would have sufficient funds to return money to its shareholders after paying creditors. There are no ongoing trials of NPL-2008.

Read more: Neuropharm - 2010 Biotech Graveyard - FierceBiotech http://www.fiercebiotech.com/special-reports/2010-biotech-graveyard/neuropharm-2010-biotech-graveyard#ixzz12c7ZdAwD
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Vion Pharmaceuticals - 2010 Biotech Graveyard

Company: Vion Pharmaceuticals
Based: New Haven, CT

What Happened: Faced with an FDA demand to mount a new clinical trial for its late-stage cancer therapy, Vion Pharmaceuticals Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in December. The developer didn't have enough money to conduct the trial. Vion said its experimental drug assets were for sale and that the company would have to liquidate.

Read more: Vion Pharmaceuticals - 2010 Biotech Graveyard - FierceBiotech http://www.fiercebiotech.com/special-reports/2010-biotech-graveyard/vion-pharmaceuticals-2010-biotech-graveyard#ixzz12c7dvLlc
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The 2010 Biotech Graveyard............

2010-10-17T04:14:00.000-07:00

...................///////////................When the economic crisis reached its peak in 2009, biotech companies were hit hard. We buried 16 developers in our first annual Biotech Graveyard list last year, and while that number has dropped significantly in 2010, there were still eight biotechs that simply couldn't find a buyer or the money necessary to continue their run. Several of these developers struggled for years with solvency problems until finally their luck run out, while others were never able to recover from disappointing clinical trial results.

The good news here is that half as many companies folded as in 2009. Previously biotechs were closing at an alarming pace early last year. But the trend began to slow during the latter months of 2009, and 2010 bankruptcies and liquidations seemed few and far between. It's an encouraging sign that many small developers have weathered the storm.

    * Anesiva - South San Francisco, CA
    * AutoImmune - Pasadena, CA
    * ConjuChem - Montreal, Canada
    * Hawaii Biotech - Aiea, HI
    * Middlebrook Pharmaceuticals - Westlake, TX
    * Neuropharm - United Kingdom
    * Vion Pharmaceuticals - New Haven, CT
    * VitalMedix - Hudson, WI

Read more: The 2010 Biotech Graveyard - FierceBiotech http://www.fiercebiotech.com/special-reports/2010-biotech-graveyard#ixzz12c6QkTlV
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Medicine.........

2010-10-17T04:06:00.001-07:00

In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as

    * drug production
    * pharmacogenomics
    * gene therapy
    * genetic testing: techniques in molecular biology detect genetic diseases. To test the developing fetus for Down syndrome, Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling can be used............

Pharmacogenomics...............

2010-10-17T04:04:00.000-07:00

Main article: Pharmacogenomics.......................

Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs. It is a coined word derived from the words “pharmacology” and “genomics”. It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup.

Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:
   1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.
   2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.
   3. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.
   4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once................

Pharmaceutical products................

2010-10-17T04:01:00.000-07:00

.........................Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively simple molecules that have been found primarily through trial and error to treat the symptoms of a disease or illness.[citation needed] Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules known as proteins and these usually target the underlying mechanisms and pathways of a malady (but not always, as is the case with using insulin to treat type 1 diabetes mellitus, as that treatment merely addresses the symptoms of the disease, not the underlying cause which is autoimmunity); it is a relatively young industry. They can deal with targets in humans that may not be accessible with traditional medicines. A patient typically is dosed with a small molecule via a tablet while a large molecule is typically injected.

Small molecules are manufactured by chemistry but larger molecules are created by living cells such as those found in the human body: for example, bacteria cells, yeast cells, animal or plant cells.

Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like synthetic insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also used to manufacture certain pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals.

Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be used to define the target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical. Herceptin, for example, was the first drug approved for use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the protein HER2.

Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin by joining its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle and/or pigs). The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost. According to a 2003 study undertaken by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) on the access to and availability of insulin in its member countries, synthetic 'human' insulin is considerably more expensive in most countries where both synthetic 'human' and animal insulin are commercially available: e.g. within European countries the average price of synthetic 'human' insulin was twice as high as the price of pork insulin. Yet in its position statement, the IDF writes that "there is no overwhelming evidence to prefer one species of insulin over another" and "[modern, highly purified] animal insulins remain a perfectly acceptable alternative

Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs. Most drugs today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets....,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,///////////////////

Genetic testing.........

2010-10-17T03:58:00.000-07:00

................................Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences.

There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design short pieces of DNA (“probes”) whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual’s genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient’s gene to disease in healthy individuals or their progeny.

Genetic testing is now used for:

    * Carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to manifest;
    * Confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals;
    * Determining sex;
    * Forensic/identity testing;
    * Newborn screening;
    * Prenatal diagnostic screening;
    * Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers;
    * Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders.

Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may present different risks to different people and populations.......$$&^^^^???................

Controversial questions............

2010-10-17T03:55:00.000-07:00

...........The absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in most countries can lead to discrimination in employment or insurance or other use of personal genetic information. This raises questions such as whether genetic privacy is different from medical privacy.

   1. Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decision-making and the possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to future generations. For example, germline therapy changes the genetic make-up of an individual’s descendants. Thus, any error in technology or judgment may have far-reaching consequences (though the same can also happen through natural reproduction). Ethical issues like designed babies and human cloning have also given rise to controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past abuses with eugenics (see reductio ad hitlerum).
   2. Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other health-service providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing with genetic information.
   3. Effects on social institutions. Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their families. Thus, test results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the family.
   4. Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis-à-vis genetic determinism, and the concepts of health and disease........@%%/////////////////,,.....

Gene therapy............

2010-10-17T03:53:00.000-07:00

Main article: Gene therapy....................

Gene therapy using an Adenovirus vector. A new gene is inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified DNA into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional protein.

Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be used to target somatic (i.e., body) or gametes (i.e., egg and sperm) cells. In somatic gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is changed, but this change is not passed along to the next generation. In contrast, in germline gene therapy, the egg and sperm cells of the parents are changed for the purpose of passing on the changes to their offspring.

There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:

   1. Ex vivo, which means “outside the body” – Cells from the patient’s blood or bone marrow are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to a virus carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein.
   2. In vivo, which means “inside the body” – No cells are removed from the patient’s body. Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient’s body.

As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500 patients have been identified worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%. These trials focus on various types of cancer, although other multigenic diseases are being studied as well. Recently, two children born with severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (“SCID”) were reported to have been cured after being given genetically engineered cells.

Gene therapy faces many obstacles before it can become a practical approach for treating disease. At least four of these obstacles are as follows:

   1. Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called vectors. The most common vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the genome of the virus by removing the disease-causing genes and inserting the therapeutic genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems like toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. In addition, in order for gene therapy to provide permanent therapeutic effects, the introduced gene needs to be integrated within the host cell's genome. Some viral vectors effect this in a random fashion, which can introduce other problems such as disruption of an endogenous host gene.

   2. High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage, it is an expensive treatment to undertake. This explains why current studies are focused on illnesses commonly found in developed countries, where more people can afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades before developing countries can take advantage of this technology.

   3. Limited knowledge of the functions of genes. Scientists currently know the functions of only a few genes. Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause a particular disease. Worse, it is not known exactly whether genes have more than one function, which creates uncertainty as to whether replacing such genes is indeed desirable.

   4. Multigene disorders and effect of environment. Most genetic disorders involve more than one gene. Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes and the environment. For example, many people with cancer not only inherit the disease gene for the disorder, but may have also failed to inherit specific tumor suppressor genes. Diet, exercise, smoking and other environmental factors may have also contributed to their disease..........@@@@@@@////////////

Human Genome Project...............

2010-10-17T03:48:00.000-07:00

The Human Genome Project is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy (“DOE”) that aims to generate a high-quality reference sequence for the entire human genome and identify all the human genes.

The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to develop new energy resources and technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential health and environmental risks posed by their production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National Institutes of Health developed a plan for a joint Human Genome Project (“HGP”), which officially began in 1990.

The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances and worldwide participation accelerated the completion date to 2003 (making it a 13 year project). Already it has enabled gene hunters to pinpoint genes associated with more than 30 disorders..........////////////@@@@@@

Cloning.....

2010-10-17T03:45:00.000-07:00

Main article: Cloning

Cloning involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed.

There are two types of cloning:

1. Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is allowed to develop into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus.
2. Therapeutic cloning. The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops into embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several ailments.

In February 1997, cloning became the focus of media attention when Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute announced the successful cloning of a sheep, named Dolly, from the mammary glands of an adult female. The cloning of Dolly made it apparent to many that the techniques used to produce her could someday be used to clone human beings. This stirred a lot of controversy because of its ethical implications......................@@@@@@@///////

Bioremediation and biodegradation

2010-10-14T04:52:00.001-07:00

Bioremediation and biodegradation
Main article: Microbial biodegradation

Biotechnology is being used to engineer and adapt organisms especially microorganisms in an effort to find sustainable ways to clean up contaminated environments. The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes from the environment is an absolute requirement to promote a sustainable development of our society with low environmental impact. Biological processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants and biotechnology is taking advantage of the astonishing catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade/convert such compounds. New methodological breakthroughs in sequencing, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and imaging are producing vast amounts of information. In the field of Environmental Microbiology, genome-based global studies open a new era providing unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the evolution of degradation pathways and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions. Functional genomic and metagenomic approaches are increasing our understanding of the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in particular environments and for particular compounds and they will certainly accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation processes.

Marine environments are especially vulnerable since oil spills of coastal regions and the open sea are poorly containable and mitigation is difficult. In addition to pollution through human activities, millions of tons of petroleum enter the marine environment every year from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities, in particular by a remarkable recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCCB).,///////

Applications.....

2010-10-14T04:49:00.000-07:00

A rose plant that began as cells grown in a tissue culture

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:

    * Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale." Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
    * Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.
    * Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.
    * Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation.
    * White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.[citation needed] The investment and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies is termed as bioeconomy......////////

Biotechnology.....

2010-10-14T04:44:00.000-07:00

Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Modern use similar term includes genetic engineering as well as cell- and tissue culture technologies. The concept encompasses a wide range of procedures (and history) for modifying living organisms according to human purposes - going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization. By comparison to biotechnology, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field with its emphasis more on higher systems approaches (not necessarily altering or using biological materials directly) for interfacing with and utilizing living things. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as:

"Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use."

Biotechnology draws on the pure biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology) and in many instances is also dependent on knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of biology (chemical engineering, bioprocess engineering, information technology, biorobotics). Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts such as molecular ecology) are intimately entwined and dependent on the methods developed through biotechnology and what is commonly thought of as the life sciences industry............@@@@@@@@

History....

2010-10-14T04:41:00.000-07:00

Main article: History of Biotechnology

Biotechnology is not limited to medical/health applications (unlike Biomedical Engineering, which includes much biotechnology). Although not normally thought of as biotechnology, agriculture clearly fits the broad definition of "using a biotechnological system to make products" such that the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. The processes and methods of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and biological sciences since its inception. Through early biotechnology, farmers were able to select the best suited and crops having the highest yield to produce enough food to support a growing population. Other uses of biotechnology were required as crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain. Specific organisms and organism by-products were used to fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the use of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants—one of the first forms of biotechnology. Cultures such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India developed the process of brewing beer. It is still done by the same basic method of using malted grains (containing enzymes) to convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process the carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Ancient Indians also used the juices of the plant Ephedra vulgaris and used to call it Soma.[citation needed] Later other cultures produced the process of Lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Pasteur’s work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.

For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve production of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offsprings with the same characteristics. For example, this technique was used with plants to produce largest and sweetest corn in order to produce the most desirable crops.

In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using Clostridium acetobutylicum, to produce acetone, which the United Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War I.

Biotechnology has led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium. His work led to the purification of the antibiotic by Howard Florey, Ernst Boris Chain and Norman Heatley penicillin. In 1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans.

The field of modern biotechnology is thought to have largely begun on June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically modified microorganism could be patented in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty. Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for General Electric, had developed a bacterium (derived from the Pseudomonas genus) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills.

Revenue in the industry is expected to grow by 12.9% in 2008. Another factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products to cope with an ageing, and ailing, U.S. population.

Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically modified seeds which are resistant to pests and drought. By boosting farm productivity, biotechnology plays a crucial role in ensuring that biofuel production targets are met............

Biotechnology...

2010-10-14T04:23:00.000-07:00

Biotechnology is a technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine.

Of the many different definitions available, the one formulated by the UN Convention on Biological Diversity is one of the broadest:
"Biotechnology means any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use........