Your state Department of Fish and Wildlife may tell you to do one thing and your veterinarian or board members another. To complicate matters, we give wildlife vaccines off-label, meaning they are not legally cleared for use on wild animals.

This is an important conversation to have.  In this blog, we will discuss the pros and cons of vaccinating wildlife in the rehabilitation setting, and look at ways governments in the USA and Europe have approached disease control in nature.

Why Vaccinate the Wildlife in Your Center?

1. Outbreak protection for all animals in your center

2. Provides our patients better chances for survival in the wild

3. Protects domestic animals, humans, and supports public health.

Outbreak Protection

The sad truth is anywhere we place animals or humans in close proximity to one another there is a chance for disease spread. We saw this happen during 2020 and the COVID pandemic.

Similarly, some species such as raccoons and deer may have large populations in your area. Wildlife biologists often use this reasoning to dissuade rehabilitation practice for “common” animals. However, the root problem is often a lack of or extinction of large predators. By killing off predators humans have adversely affected natural balance.

Centers have had highly contagious diseases such as distemper and parvo spread rapidly among young animals. Knowing what diseases are in your local wildlife populations is critical to developing a plan to support health.

Provides Your Patients with Immunity

Wildlife rehabilitation is all about saving an animal’s life so that they may be released back into the wild.

The goal of immunization is to increase the animal’s ability to fight the disease and to slow disease transmission among a population. They keep the animal from suffering and increase their quality of life.

As wildlife rehabilitators, we have a lot invested in these animals. Time, energy, and money – often money from our own pockets. Not to mention sweat and tears. Many people state that Animals Shelters vaccinate. We should be no different.

Read my article Feeding Expenses in Wildlife Rehabilitation

Community and Public Health

There is a lot to be said about the importance of public health. The act of wildlife rehab brings populations of animals and humans together. My veterinarian feels very strongly that vaccinating wildlife keeps domestic animals and humans safer.

Wildlife in today’s world lives in close proximity to humans. Urban wildlife is on the rise. Vaccines have proven to be a way to manage and control many zoonotic diseases. (I will talk about Europe’s progressive policies further in the article)

There is no magic cure for many of these virus’s including rabies. Protection and stopping the spread are important ways of reducing incidents.

Vaccinating wildlife in nature and in wildlife rehabilitation can be controversial. What is our responsibility to the animal and to the human community?

Disadvantages Of Vaccines

Cost

To be fair, some rehabbers do not vaccinate the wildlife in their programs.

Probably the most cited disadvantage is the cost. Vaccines are expensive. In some states, including Kentucky, only a licensed veterinarian can administer the rabies vaccine. These costs can add up quickly.

In addition, juveniles can be hard to catch and handle to administer a vaccine. We do raise them to not want human contact!

Also, it should be noted, not all wildlife receive immunizations. Commonly rabies vector species, deer, and groundhogs, are most likely to receive them. Many people who rehab squirrels, opossums, and/or bunnies do not vaccinate those species because they are not a high risk. However, that would geographically vary.

Off Label

Most vaccines are developed for domestic animals, not wildlife. This means safety and effectiveness data are limited. Use in wildlife is considered off label.

The sad thing about vaccine development is that it is driven by money. Funds are simply not deemed important for wild animal disease research.

What Are Zoonotic Diseases?

Zoonotic diseases are those diseases that can be passed from animals to humans. Diseases passed from humans to animals are called reverse zoonoses or anthroponosis. Humans have transmitted COVID-19, H1N1 human influenza, swine flu, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and tuberculosis (TB) to animals. In 2020 coronavirus was passed from zookeepers to animals in their charge most notable tigers at the Bronx Zoo.

Rabies is probably the most famous zoonotic disease. The Bubonic Plague was given stardom during the Middle Ages and is still with us today. Others include Salmonella, Leptospirosis, and Roundworms. These conditions come in the form of bacteria, parasites, and viruses. 

Are you interested in becoming a Licensed Wildlife Rehabilitator? This video will tell you how.

Europe and Rabies

Zoonotic diseases are a public health concern that affects everyone in the community. European countries have been much more proactive in this area than we have been here in the USA. In part possibly because their communities are much older and established with a high incidence of urban wildlife.

Vaccination of wildlife in rehabilitation centers, as well as vaccination programs aimed towards wildlife in public parks and urban areas, has helped to reduce the occurrence of many zoonotic diseases.

In fact, rabies among foxes has been nearly eliminated in thirteen European countries In Europe, it is not unusual to have foxes living in urban areas.

In fact, fox rabies in 13 European countries has been virtually eliminated. An aggressive program using trap/vaccinate/release and oral rabies vaccination (ORV) over the past twenty years has been very successful. In Europe, it is very common to have foxes living in urban areas where the disease was considered a public health threat.

Rabies used to be considered a public health threat in countries such as Germany and England. An aggressive program using trap/vaccinate/release and oral rabies vaccination (ORV) over the past twenty years has been very successful in lowering cases.

Check out my article The Fantastic Fox

Rabies in US Wildlife

According to the CDC, 92% of rabies cases came from wild animals. Specifically, bats, raccoons, skunks, and foxes, in descending order. The USDA is increasing their distribution of rabies vaccines and confirms that the Oral Rabies Vaccine (ORV) is the central strategy they are using to stop the spread of rabies and move toward elimination.

The USDA works with the US Department of Fish and Wildlife to distribute rabies vaccines among wildlife populations in high-risk areas. In 2025, bait distribution occurred across large regions of the Northeast and Southeast using airplanes, helicopters, and ground placement.

One key issue is bait uptake. Not all animals consume the vaccine. Studies show that habitat type and bait placement affect how often raccoons find and eat vaccine baits. Vaccination is also species specific. Raccoons respond well to finding and eating vaccines. However, skunks are harder to vaccinate effectively due to feeding behavior and bait design challenges. They are less willing to eat unusual foods.

Another focus is animal movement. Research shows that wildlife movement patterns affect how well vaccination zones work. Adjusting bait placement based on movement improves disease control

Some US states or countries use hunting or trapping to purposefully decrease population and therefore reduce transmission. There is no scientific evidence that this strategy is effective. These methods used indiscriminately are often ecologically unsound and can promote public outcry.

There are actually several virus variants so you may hear the terms raccoon rabies or skunk rabies. Within bats there are several bat rabies virus variants. This is because viruses (like the flu) often mutate and change to become stronger.

While Kentucky has not been considered a high-risk area, Oral Rabies Vaccination (OTR) has been dropped along the Virginia border to stop the spread of the raccoon variant more prevalent in the Appalachian Mountain region. Dr. Joanne Maki stated the goal is to “establish herd immunity within a rabies reservoir species. Doing so reduces virus transmission in wild animals, while also reducing the risk of rabies virus exposure in domestic species and humans”.

Check out my PDF books and Free Downloads on my Store Page

Your Local Fish an Wildlife Agency

Many Government wildlife agencies are anti vaccine. This was the official viewpoint of the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife in 2019.

“Vaccines are often unnecessary and expensive. Follow-up vaccinations are often required a year after the initial dose. Wildlife must be released immediately after recovery. It is illegal to keep a rehabilitated animal simply to administer follow-up vaccinations” (Letter to Wildlife rehabilitators, 2019. )

What Can Wildlife Rehabilitators Do to Prevent Disease in Their Centers?

Vaccines are used as one way to prevent diseases and their spread among populations. Young humans and domesticated animals get vaccinations on a regular basis. They are one tool we can use to prevent the spread of many diseases.

Invariably, we bring in animals that carry diseases. Wildlife rehabilitation is about caring for sick, injured, and orphaned animals. Not the healthy one who is doing well.

If we look at the big picture, however, there are many things we can do to keep our animals healthy. Here is a list of non-vaccine things you should be doing to prevent disease.

• Work with your vet to develop an intake and treatment protocol. 

• Keep wildlife separate from domestic animals. 

• Have a quarantine area for incoming animals. 

• Keep areas clean and sanitized. 

• Always wear gloves and other PPE.  

• Keep good records.  

• Try to lower stress to improve health. (Yours and the animals!)

Vaccination Schedules

Controversy also exists on how often and with what variant to vaccinate with.  Raccoons and foxes can be tricky because both the canine and feline variants may be necessary.

What diseases you vaccinate for may also reflect your geographic location and what is present in your environment. For example. distemper in wildlife is a big problem in my area. So we feel distemper and rabies are the most important vaccines to give. To be clear we use the 5 way shot so Canine Distemper, Adenovirus Type 2 (CAV-2 cross protection CAV-1), Parainfluenza, and Parvovirus Vaccine (MLV) are all covered.

Vaccination schedules are somewhat arbitrary and often reflect older laws meant to contain diseases. There is no evidence that animals including our beloved cats and dogs need annual boosters throughout their lives. Studies have suggested that two shots lead to adequate antibodies. We give them boosters to make sure they are protected and to adhere to state regulations. The rabies vaccine is legally required in the state of Kentucky for dogs, cats, and ferrets.

According to Merck’s Veterinary Manual “Individual animal and vaccine variability make it difficult to estimate the duration of protective immunity”

Vaccines are not licensed for wildlife and there are few established administration schedules. Sadly wildlife does not meet the need for funding for these studies. So when we administer inoculations it is with the understanding that it is “off label”. More research is certainly needed in this area, not only for wildlife but as an assurance for quality public health.

Talk with your vet about what vaccine schedule to use. There are several good resources.

When vaccination is commonly used

• Vaccination is most often used in specific, higher risk situations.

• Rehabilitators may vaccinate rabies vector species such as raccoons and skunks to protect staff. This is usually done under veterinary guidance.

• Animals housed in groups, such as litters of raccoons, may be vaccinated against diseases like distemper to prevent outbreaks.

• Animals kept long term for education programs are also more likely to be vaccinated because they will remain in human care.

The Rabies Virus and Humans

Rabies is perhaps the most well known zoonotic disease. It affects the central nervous system and is almost always fatal. Rabies is a virus which is spread by saliva which is transmitted when the animal bites or scratches you.

Rabies deaths are extremely rare now in the United States and the Center for Disease Control (CDC) states that only 3 or 4 deaths occur per year. However, about 40,000 people are treated each year for exposure to rabies. This post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is necessary to keep them from developing the virus and dying. Any person who has been bitten by a wild animal should seek medical attention immediately.

The rabies vaccination was developed by the famous French biologist and chemist, Louis Pasteur, (1822-1895) who is considered the Father of Microbiology. Pasteur is famous for developing the concept of germ theory, which led to pasteurization and developing rabies and anthrax vaccines.

While several protocols have been developed to treat rabies victims they are still considered experimental and are not always successful. Read our opossum blog to see how these fascinating animals have played a role in rabies research.

Vaccines Have Been Critical in Saving Endangered Species

Another advantage to vaccinations is it helps species who are at risk due to low populations. Endangered animals have been saved by populations receiving immunizations. The Black-Footed Ferret is an example of an endangered species that recovered successfully in part due to a vaccination program.  

The Black-Footed Ferret is susceptible to a variety of the plague they got from eating prairie dogs. In addition, distemper had lowered the population which was close to extinction. A controlled breeding program and vaccination schedule allowed the successful reintroduction of thousands of healthy ferrets in native prairie ecosystems.

In addition, due to the risk of mustelids to their population, the Black-Footed ferret has also been given the COVID vaccine.

Take Away

As wildlife rehabilitators, we make life and death assessments every day as we work to rescue and rehabilitate. Take the time to make a plan for disease control to protect the animals in your care.

Author Ame Vanorio is the founder and director of Fox Run Environmental Education Center and was a licensed wildlife rehabilitator in Kentucky for twelve years. She is now living in Wisconsin where she continues to work with wildlife and teach environmental education.

Twice a year, these tiny birds—weighing less than two ounces—embark on an impressive journey. There 4,000-mile migrations to join us in the summer brings joy every spring. They spend winter in the deep south and central America and summers in the eastern us and Canada.

A Bird of Many Names and One Amazing Journey

Before we dive into their captivating world, let's clear up some confusion. The Baltimore Oriole (Icterus galbula) is actually a member of the blackbird family, not a true oriole at all. Real orioles live in the Old World, while our North American "orioles" are more closely related to meadowlarks and red-winged blackbirds.

Migration

What makes Baltimore Orioles truly extraordinary is their incredible migration. Come fall, they leave their breeding grounds across eastern North America and fly thousands of miles to spend winter in Central America, from Mexico down to Colombia. Some individuals travel as far as 4,500 miles each way, navigating by stars, magnetic fields, and geographical landmarks with a precision that would make any GPS jealous.

But here's the kicker: many of these birds return to the exact same neighborhood, sometimes even the same tree, where they nested the previous year. Scientists have documented orioles returning to within a few hundred yards of their previous nesting sites after spending months in tropical forests thousands of miles away.

Types of Orioles

The Baltimore is the most common oriole, but we also have Bullock’s, Hooded, and Orchard oriole. The species of oriole that you will see in your backyard depends on where you live.

The orchard oriole (Icterus spurius) is the smallest oriole species and semi-open lives in field with deciduous trees near lakes and streams. Males are more of a burnt rust or chestnut color that the Baltimore with a black head and back.

Bullock's Orioles (Icterus bullockii) are more yellow with less black on the head.

Oriole Nest Building

Baltimore orioles are basically solitary outside their mating season. The species is generally considered monogamous. They do not mate for life, often finding new mates each breeding season. Males establish their territory and attract the female by singing and chattering while hopping from perch to perch in front of her.

The female chooses a nest site within the territory defended by her mate. Baltimore Orioles often nest in American elms, maples and cottonwoods.

The female spends about a week weaving an intricate hanging pouch from plant fibers, grass, hair, and increasingly, human-made materials like string and yarn. She starts by securing long fibers to the fork of a branch, usually 20 to 30 feet high in a tall deciduous tree.

Each nest is custom-built for its location. Orioles nesting in windier areas tend to build deeper, more flexible nests, while those in more protected spots might create shallower pouches.

The finished nest is typically 4 to 5 inches deep and about 3 inches wide at the opening which helps protect the chicks from predators and weather.

From Egg to Fledgling

After the female completes her architectural masterpiece, she lays 3 to 7 pale blue or grayish eggs marked with dark scribbles and spots. These eggs are roughly the size of a grape and absolutely gorgeous.

For the next 12 to 14 days, the female does almost all the incubating, sitting patiently on her eggs while the male brings her food and stands guard nearby. Male Baltimore Orioles are devoted partners, though they don't help with nest-building or incubation. Instead, they patrol their territory, chase away intruders, and ensure their mate has a steady supply of insects and nectar.

When the chicks finally hatch, they're tiny, helpless, and completely dependent on their parents. Born naked and blind, baby orioles don't look like much at first—just pink, gaping mouths attached to fragile bodies. But they grow with astonishing speed. Both parents work tirelessly to feed the hungry brood, making dozens of trips per day to deliver caterpillars, beetles, spiders, and other protein-rich insects.

Within just 12 to 14 days, these helpless hatchlings develop their flight feathers and are ready to leave the nest. Young orioles don't look like their parents initially—juveniles and females are yellow-orange with grayish wings. Males don't develop their full adult colors until their second year, a common pattern among many songbird species.

What Do Orioles eat?

Want to turn your backyard into an oriole paradise? The good news is that Baltimore Orioles are surprisingly willing to visit well-designed feeding stations, especially during migration periods in spring and fall. Planting a variety of native species will also attract them to your yard.

The key is understanding what these birds need and when they need it. So lets talk about how to encourage them.

While many people think of them as nectar-sippers (and they do love sugar), orioles are actually accomplished insect hunters for much of the year. During breeding season, their diet consists of roughly 80% insects and only 20% fruit and nectar.

These birds are particularly fond of caterpillars, including many species that other birds won't touch. Orioles have a special technique for dealing with fuzzy caterpillars, they beat them against branches to remove the irritating hairs before swallowing them. They're also skilled at finding tent caterpillars, gypsy moth larvae, and other pest insects, making them valuable allies for gardeners and farmers.

Plants that support orioles

If you have the space for trees oaks, birch, and willows support caterpillars and provide nesting sites. Trees and shrubs with dark-colored fruits, like black cherry, red mulberry, serviceberry, raspberries, and blackberries, are particularly attractive.

Nectar-rich flowers such as trumpet vine, bee balm, blazing star, Columbine and cardinal flowers. Orioles have specially adapted tongues with brushy tips that help them lap up nectar more efficiently. Also, consider native vines and flowers that provide nectar and a place to perch.

The Baltimore Oriole transforms your backyard into a beautiful tropical scene. Learn all about orioles and how to attract them to your yard.

Providing Feeders

Timing is everything with orioles. In most areas, they arrive in late April or early May, just as trees are leafing out and flowering. This is when you want to have your oriole buffet ready and waiting.

My favorite feeder is the Kettle Moraine Recycled Oriole Fruit Feeder

The classic oriole feeder is designed for nectar, similar to hummingbird feeders but with larger perches and orange coloring. You can make your own nectar by mixing one part white sugar with four parts water—do not use artificial coloring. You can also buy nectar. Ill have links below. Make sure you clean nectar feeders on a regular basis.

Fresh or dried fruits are oriole magnets—try orange halves stuck on spikes or apple slices. Stay away from grape jelly!

Don't forget about protein, especially during breeding season. Mealworms, either live or dried, can be irresistible to orioles feeding growing chicks. Some people also offer small pieces of suet or even peanut butter, though these should be used sparingly in hot weather.

Location matters as much as menu. Orioles prefer feeding stations that are somewhat elevated and offer nearby perching spots. They're more cautious than many backyard birds and like to survey the area before committing to a landing. Placing feeders near trees or large shrubs gives them the security they crave.

Water features can be just as attractive as food. Orioles love to bathe and drink, and the sound of moving water often draws them in from considerable distances. A simple dripping water feature or shallow fountain can be incredibly effective at attracting not just orioles, but a whole host of other interesting birds.

Many of the feeders and flowers that attract orioles will also attract hummingbirds. So two for one deal!

Oriole conservation

Baltimore Orioles face challenges in our modern world, from habitat loss to climate change affecting their migration timing. But they've also shown remarkable adaptability, learning to use human-provided foods and nesting materials, and even adjusting their migration schedules in response to changing conditions.

By creating oriole-friendly spaces in our yards and communities, we're not just attracting beautiful birds—we're participating in a conservation effort that helps ensure these remarkable creatures will continue to grace our springs for generations to come.

Every backyard that offers suitable food, water, and nesting habitat becomes a small but vital part of the orioles' continental network of stopping points and safe havens.

Author, Ame Vanorio, has scaled down from being a certified organic gardener to creating a suburban backyard wildlife habitat complete with vegetable and herb gardens.

In this article we will explore their similarities and differences. I have complete articles on each species if you want a deep dive!

1. Size

• Deer: The smallest of the three. White-tailed deer and mule deer, which are the most common species in North America, typically weigh between 100 to 300 pounds and stand about 2.5 to 3.5 feet tall at the shoulder.

• Elk: Larger than deer but smaller than moose. Elk are much heavier, with males (bulls) weighing between 600 to 1,100 pounds and standing around 4.5 to 5 feet tall at the shoulder.

• Moose: The largest member of the deer family. Moose can weigh up to 1,500 pounds (with some bulls exceeding 1,800 pounds) and stand 5 to 7 feet tall at the shoulder, making them massive animals compared to elk and deer.

2. Antlers

• Deer: Deer antlers are relatively small and often branched, with a more compact and symmetrical appearance. They are shed and regrown annually by male deer.

• Elk: Elk antlers are larger than those of deer and branch out in a more vertical and sweeping pattern. They can grow up to 4 feet long in mature bulls and are used during the rut for fighting other males.

• Moose: Moose antlers are the most distinct, with a broad, palmate shape (like the shape of an open hand or fan). They can span up to 6 feet across and are much heavier and more solid than elk or deer antlers.

Moose are huge herbivores that live in cold climates. In this video I share 10+ fun facts and trivia about moose and what makes them cool!

3. Habitat

• Deer: Deer are incredibly adaptable and live in a variety of habitats across North America, including forests, grasslands, farmlands, and even suburban areas.

• Elk: Elk prefer more open habitats, such as grasslands, meadows, and mountainous regions. They are often found in forested areas at higher elevations in the summer and lower areas in the winter.

• Moose: Moose are primarily found in northern, colder climates, including the forests and wetlands of Canada, Alaska, northern Europe, and northern states like Maine, Minnesota, and Montana. They thrive in areas with abundant water, such as swamps, lakes, and rivers.

4. Coloration

• Deer: White-tailed deer have a reddish-brown coat in summer, which turns to grayish-brown in winter. Mule deer have a similar coloration but are generally a bit darker with a more grayish tone year-round.

• Elk: Elk have a tan to reddish-brown body with a darker brown mane around their neck and a light-colored rump. Their coat also becomes more subdued and grayish-brown in winter.

• Moose: Moose have dark brown or black coats year-round. They often appear almost black, especially in winter, which helps them blend into their forested, shadowy habitats.

5. Vocalizations

• Deer: Deer tend to be quieter, though they may make soft grunting sounds or snorts, particularly when alarmed.

• Elk: Elk are famous for their bugling during the rut, which is a loud, high-pitched call that can be heard over long distances.

• Moose: Moose are usually quiet but can make loud grunts during the rut, and cows may produce soft moans when calling to their calves.

Learn more about the bull elks quest to find a female, raising calves, and why antlers are so cool.

6. Social Behavior

• Deer: Deer are more solitary or form small family groups, particularly females with fawns. Bucks (males) are more solitary outside the mating season.

• Elk: Elk are social animals that live in herds, often in large groups during the winter. They exhibit strong social behavior, especially during the rut when bulls compete for dominance.

• Moose: Moose are typically solitary creatures, except for cows with calves. They are known to be more aggressive during the rut, and because of their size, they are not easily intimidated by predators.

Everything you want to know about white-tailed deer including how they raise their young, rehabilitation needs, what's the deal with antlers, population, and keeping them out of the garden.

7. Diet

• Deer: Deer are browsers, feeding on a variety of shrubs, leaves, grasses, and sometimes even crops.

• Elk: Elk are both grazers and browsers, feeding on grasses, forbs, shrubs, and tree bark, depending on the season.

• Moose: Moose are selective browsers, feeding heavily on aquatic vegetation, willow, and other woody plants. They are often seen wading in water to eat submerged plants.

8. Geographic Range

• Deer: Deer are widespread across North America, with white-tailed deer covering most of the U.S. and parts of Canada, and mule deer inhabiting western North America.

• Elk: Elk are mostly found in the western U.S. and Canada, with smaller populations in the eastern U.S. due to reintroduction efforts.

• Moose: Moose are found in northern regions, including Canada, Alaska, the northern U.S., Scandinavia, and Russia.

Comparison Chart of Key Differences

Are you interested in becoming a Licensed Wildlife Rehabilitator and want to know how to get started? Are you curious about what skills you need?

Keep reading as I am going to give you first-hand knowledge based on fifteen years of personal experience on what it takes to become a licensed wildlife rehabilitator.

WHAT IS WILDLIFE REHABILITATION?

Wildlife rehabilitation is the rescue and care of injured and orphaned wildlife. Primarily this focuses on neonates and baby wildlife but it may also include juveniles and adults. The goal of rehabilitation is to put the animal back into the wild when it’s ready to live on its own.

Wildlife Rehabilitators play an important role as conservationists and humanitarians. Rescued wildlife often have human inflicted injuries that may be caused by being hit by a car or lawnmower, the parents being trapped or shot, or habitat destruction. They may be displaced or injured due to floods and fires occurring in their habitat.

The rehabilitator provides medical care, feedings, as well as natural experiences so that animals can be returned to their native environment.

The National Wildlife Rehabilitation Association defines wildlife rehabilitation as the “professional care given to sick, injured, and orphaned wild animals with the ultimate goal of having them be returned to their natural habitat.”

Wildlife rehabilitators provide a lifeline for these animals. They arrange for veterinary care, feed them, and provide appropriate housing.

WHY DOES WILDLIFE NEED TO BE REHABILITATED?

Research shows that the majority of injured, ill, and orphaned wild animals handled by rehabilitators are suffering not because of "natural" occurrences, but because of human intervention -- some accidental, some intentional, many preventable. Injuries due to cars, mowers, firearms, traps, kids throwing stones, poisons, oil spills, domestic pets, can be life-threatening. Rehabilitators treat injuries in these animals by either caring for them until they can be released or having them humanely euthanized.

Well-meaning citizens often "kidnap" young animals, separating them from parents who might still be nearby. In some instances people kidnap baby wildlife with the intent to sell them in the illegal pet trade.

Read my article Kidnapping of Wild Animals for Pets to learn more on how both wildlife rehabilitators and people who care about wildlife can stop wildlife kidnapping and make good decisions to help wild babies.

Check out my wildlife rehabilitation book series! Available in paperback and Kindle on Amazon and other book stores! Sign up for my email list to get notifications as I am currently writing more books for this series.

SKILLS YOU NEED

• Compassion

• Administer fluids

• Give injections

• Wound care

• Basic body evaluation with temperature, weight, and skin condition

• Humane restraint and capture strategies

• Knowledge of providing a safe and clean enclosure

• Knowledge of feeding and nutrition for the species under your care

• Ability to perform humane euthanasia

• Dealing with people on the phone

• Carpentry skills to build enclosures

  Keep reading to learn more about attaining these skills!

The video below will show you step by step how to put together a car kit in case you come along an injured or orphaned baby animal.

With a few inexpensive supplies, you can put together an emergency rescue kit in case you come across an animal that needs your help. Check out my video to learn more.

WHAT SKILLS DO WILDLIFE REHABILITATORS NEED?

In many ways, wildlife rehabilitators are like nurses. We provide medical care to distressed animals. Animals in need of rescue come to us with injuries, separation anxiety, and parasites.

For the most part, these animals are not happy or healthy. They are in crisis.

Training in First Aid and Common Treatments

Along with compassion, a good rehabber needs a working knowledge of first aid and triage. Wildlife Rehabbers work with a veterinarian to establish good medical practices. And most important for their safety and the animal's well-being rehabbers need to have an understanding of zoonoses - animal to people diseases. 

The IWRC offers an online course Zoonoses that “provides information on the risks, prevention, and management of zoonoses, including acting as a resource to the public for information on zoonotic diseases.” It’s very comprehensive and $55.00 for members.

The Red Cross offers Cat & Dog First Aid Online Training for $25.00. While this is geared towards domestic pets and is very basic it is a good place for beginners to start.

You will need to have basic medical supplies on hand. This is not a time you can quickly run to the store! I have a FREE DOWNLOAD on my store page that lists a basic medical supplies (below). This is not everything but is a great start!

In addition, like a nurse, you need to be able to think quickly and prioritize what you should do first. This is called triage when you decide what treatments or procedures need to be done first to help the animal.

In many instances the first thing we administer is fluids. To learn more read my article Fluids: Dehydration And Rehydration in Wildlife Rehabilitation.

wildlife rehabilitator requirements

Education

Wildlife rehabilitators do not have to have a college degree. A degree in biology, wildlife conservation, or even nursing may be helpful but it is not required. Training and acquiring skills is necessary to do the job but not a specific degree. Much of wildlife rehabilitation is practical so working with an experienced rehabber is valuable.

Some states require certain training courses (see below) or a number of hours volunteering with an established permitted rehabilitator.

Rehabbers come from all different walks of life. What brings us together is compassion for animals and a desire to help them.

There are a few certificates and degrees being offered:

Lees McRae, located in North Carolina, offers a minor in wildlife rehabilitation to complement their Wildlife Biology program.

The Animal Behavior Institute offers a professional certificate in Wildlife Rehabilitation and requires the completion of five online courses. Located in North Carolina they are an accredited Continuing Education & Training program.

Hear about my experiences and what skills you need.

How Do I GET LICENSED TO BECOME A WILDLIFE REHABILITATOR?

Each state has requirements for a wildlife rehabilitator license. These will be listed either under the state Department for Fish and Wildlife or the state’s Department for Natural Resources. Common procedures are taking a test, course, or getting a number of volunteer hours under a licensed rehabilitator. Typically states license for mammals and reptiles. Birds are a federal permit (more on them below).

In addition, some states have a sub-permittee license. This allows an individual to assist a licensed wildlife rehabilitator by transporting, caring for, or housing injured or orphaned wildlife. Check with your state.

Some states require the rehabber to take the class Foundations of Wildlife Rehabilitation (formerly Basic Wildlife Rehabilitation) from IWRC to become licensed.  This class is offered online and across the United States as well as select countries. The prices varies from $157.00 – $307.00 depending on membership, location, lab equipment, and text requirements.

IWRC Upcoming Classes

04/20/26 – 04/26/26 | Pacific Time Zone | Schedule | Instructors: Rebecca Michelin and Rob Adamski | Deadline: 04/02/26

05/04/26 – 05/10/26 | UTC +3 Time Zone | Schedule | Instructors: Rob Adamski and Hilary DeVries | Deadline: 04/20/26

See their website for more information

The IWRC also administers the Certified Wildlife Rehabilitator evaluation and exam. “Certified Wildlife Rehabilitator (CWR) is a designation which recognizes current and prospective wildlife rehabilitators who achieve a higher standard of wildlife care through academic excellence. Completion of the CWR certificate is not equivalent to licensure as a wildlife rehabilitator.”

National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association (NWRA) has a variety of educational opportunities as well. They hold a annual conference each year which is very informative. NWRA has several online courses that qualify for CEU’s including Principles of Wildlife Rehabilitation: Basic Skills Online Course and Wildlife Medicine.

Can I just rescue animals?

Why bother to get a professional license or permit? I can take care of baby animals without it. Sadly I hear this a lot.

There are many people who rehab wildlife illegally. Depending on their states laws those people can receive fines. However, the real tragedy is that in many areas the FW officers will often kill the animals and not try to place them with a licensed professional.

I saw this happen several times in Kentucky. My local Fish and Wildlife officer would come tell me about the animals they found that were part of the illegal pet trade or being rehabbed. Instead of trying to place these animals they would just euthanize them all.

Wildlife Rehabilitation is a profession. Just like Nursing or Teaching (which we do) we need to maintain certain standards. Having a license not only helps you comply with the law but also shows people you take your job seriously.

WORK WITH A VET

It is very important to have a good working relationship with your veterinarian. Some states even require that your vet sign off on your paperwork in order to show medical commitment.

Finding a vet that will see wildlife can be tricky. Not all vets will see wildlife or exotic animals in their practice. Furthermore, while some vets will give a discount, vet care can easily be your highest expense.

Some medical procedures you can do yourself and your vet may be willing to give you some training to address common but minor conditions. However, such things as X-rays, setting a bone, repairing a severely crushed turtle shell, stitches, or performing an amputation requires a veterinarian.

Good Communication

An important part of your job is compassion for both the animal and the finder. Finders often make mistakes and need education and guidance. Wildlife rehabilitation is not a solitary job (sorry!). Working with the public and providing a calm resource when they are panicking or need some helpful advice due to a nuisance issue such as squirrels living in the attic or foxes killing chickens.

Wildlife rehabilitators seek to educate the public on how to prevent these problems and work with citizens having wildlife/human conflicts.  Some wildlife rehabilitators conduct education programs for the public.

How Much Do wildlife Rehabilitators Earn?

Most rehabbers are volunteers. A few persons may also be wildlife biologists or zoologists. They make work for the government in state parks or the Department of Fish and Wildlife. They may work in zoos or environmental education centers.

Many wildlife rehabilitators have part or full-time jobs to support their passion and/or their families. In addition, many rehabbers pay for their expenses out of their own pockets. You can ask for donations or do fundraisers as long as you are transparent.

You may decide to go through the process to become a non-profit which allows your donors to take a tax credit. It also lets you write grant applications, although there are not many grant opportunities for wildlife rescue compared to the rescue of domestic animals.

Read my blog Developing A Sustainable Business Model For Your Wildlife Rehab: AKA Love Doesn't Pay The Bills

Volunteering for a licensed wildlife rehabilitator is a good way to find out if you want to become a rehabber. Many wildlife rehabilitators accept volunteers. Finding a mentor is a good idea.

CAREER Requirements

Some persons are wildlife rehabilitators as part of their job. Jobs such as wildlife biologists, environmental educators, zookeepers, or park rangers may include an aspect of wildlife rehabilitation. These jobs require a college degree in biology, environmental science, or something similar.

Having a wildlife rehabilitation license or experience may help you get a job and set you apart. Some veterinary techs specialize in exotic animals including wildlife. In fact, many training programs for veterinarians and veterinary technicians are offering courses in Exotic Animals and/or Wildlife Rehabilitation.

A few people find work for larger non-profit wildlife sanctuaries or rehab centers that are able to offer paid positions.

Others may work for government or non-profits that assist during natural disasters such as oil spills, hurricanes, or wildfires.

Federal Licenses

In addition to getting a state license, there is also one federal license given through the USDA and one given through the USFW.

USDA Aphis

If you plan to have educational animals or do any type of outreach programs with animals then you need to obtain a USDA Class C license. This regulates cage size and care for wildlife on display or used in community outreach.

BIRD LICENSE

The Foundations class is for those that want to be licensed in mammals, reptiles, and/or birds. However, to receive a bird license you must go above and beyond the Foundations class in all states.

Migratory birds fall under the licensing of the US Dept of Fish and Wildlife and have further requirements.  This would include raptors and songbirds. For a bird license you need a state license plus “a minimum of100 hours of hands-on experience, gained over the course of at least 1 whole year, rehabilitating each type of migratory bird you intend to rehabilitate (e.g., water birds, songbirds, raptors). Up to 20 hours of the 100-hour time requirement may be fulfilled by participation in migratory bird rehabilitation seminars and courses.”

WORKING WITH WILDLIFE

Wild animal babies need very specific care. I work closely with our vet to provide proper treatment. Our overall goal is to release our animals back into an appropriate natural habitat. Rehabbers do not play with wildlife. They want them to be ready for freedom from humans :)

Wildlife rehabilitators often deal with the public. A big part of rehabilitation is education. I can not tell you how many calls I get every spring from people who pick up baby fawns. I work to educate the public on what to do if they find a baby animal.

One example is having a YouTube Channel. You can also have a blog or a podcast to help educate the public. Below is a video that was made by one of our college interns, Lauren who now has her own center.

THEY ARE NOT PETS

Wildlife rehabilitation is not an attempt to turn wild animals into pets. Animals remain in captivity only until they are able to live independently in the wild and then they are released. In fact, we have minimal contact with our babies. It’s important that they develop appropriate fear of humans, dogs, and cats in order for them to survive.

Wild animals do not make good pets. They have strong instincts and often bite or scratch. In addition, it is against the law to possess a wild animal in many states without a permit. Check your state regulations before rescuing.

Passion

My personal belief is along with skills you must have passion.

I have loved animals my whole life and was lucky enough to grow up on a farm where we had lots of pets, horses, and livestock. I grew up in the 1970s and early ’80s before wildlife rehabilitation laws existed.

People were always bringing me wild and domestic animals that had been hurt or orphaned. My parents had a wonderful vet who was always willing to give me guidance and help me with my “babies”.

I became a science and special education teacher and a passionate environmentalist. It was only a matter of time before that morphed into becoming a licensed wildlife rehabilitator.

Do you have a similar story to tell? Then you have a passion for helping animals.

Burn Out and Compassion Fatigue

Wildlife rehabilitation can be stressful, time-consuming, and emotionally taxing. Compassion fatigue is a term used in health care professions. It comes from being exposed to trauma that comes from others, in this case, injured or orphaned wildlife. It can often be an emotional roller coaster.

Before you even begin wildlife rehabilitation you need to understand the importance of priorities and making sure you take time for self-care.

WHAT HAPPENS FIRST?

Typically what happens is Joe Citizen finds an injured or presumed orphaned wild baby. They want to locate someone to help this baby. Often they will contact the local police or their local animal shelter who should direct them to a local rehabilitator.

In most states, wildlife rehabilitators are licensed under the direction of the Department of Fish and Wildlife or the Department of Natural Resources.

If you are trying to locate a licensed rehabber you can check out the map on the NWRA website for state resources.

You can also use the location APP by Animal Help Now anywhere in the USA. Download it to your phone so it’s available when you need it.

The rehabilitator will ask the finder questions to find out if the baby does need intervention. A quick note here if you are Joe Citizen! These questions are very important. They let the rehabber understand the circumstances and make a professional decision.

You may be asked to send a picture. You may be told to put the animal back. Please comply. Wildlife rehabilitators are giving you advice based on training and experience!

Take Away

We desperately need more wildlife rehabilitators across the United States! As a rehabber, you can take on as few or as many animals as you are able. You do not have to accept any animal you are not comfortable with taking on. Some people specialize in one or two species and some are open to many.

Understandable many people do not have the time and or money it takes to rehab. In that case, there are many other ways you can support your local rehabber. Volunteer, donate money or something from their need list, and share their posts on social media.

Author, Ame Vanorio is the director of Fox Run Environmental Education Center and a licensed wildlife rehabilitator. She does community education programs in wildlife conservation, building wildlife habitats, and rehabilitation for all ages. Ame has written several books on organic gardening and wildlife rehabilitation.

Red-eared slider turtles are identified by a red line running from behind their eyes, along the side of their head. Their shell and bodies are quite dark in color with bright yellow lines on their neck, legs, and some of their scutes (shell plates). They are commonly found throughout the United States.

In this article we will look at the species, some fun facts, and why they are considered invasive.

Native Range?

Red-eared sliders are native to the southeastern and south-central United States, especially the Mississippi River basin. Their native range includes states such as Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Missouri, and parts of Illinois and Kentucky.

What Do they Eat?

These habitats usually have abundant aquatic plants. They are omnivorous and feed on a wide range of plants and animals found in and the water. So, places that are abundant in fish, crayfish, snails, tadpoles, worms, aquatic insects and plants will likely be home to these turtles as well. Sliders have excellent vision and can see color, which helps them locate food.

This flexible diet allows sliders to thrive in many environments, including human-altered habitats. In urban ponds, they often eat discarded food, which can lead to poor nutrition and overcrowding, according to the USGS.

Why do Turtles Bask?

You can often spot them basking on logs or rocks sticking out from the water. Basking allows them to regulate body temperature, digest food, and reduce parasites and algae on their shells (Ernst & Lovich).

How big do red eared sliders get? 

Female red eared sliders are larger than males and can grow up to 12 inches long. Males normally measure 8-10 inches. They reach full size and sexual maturity at about 7 years old and, in captivity, they can live for up to 30 years. 

Not all turtles, grow at the same rate or to the same size. Many factors determine this. Diet, space and environmental conditions all play a role in the growth of these animals. During the first year of life, they can grow up to 3 inches and typically an inch per year after that. Adult females can weigh up to 1.2 pounds and males just over half a pound. 

Males can be identified by long front claws and a longer, thicker tail. Females have shorter claws and a broader shell to allow room for eggs.

Life Cycle and Reproduction

Red-eared sliders have a long life span, often living 20–30 years in the wild and sometimes over 40 years in captivity.

Breeding usually occurs in spring. Males perform a courtship display by fluttering their long claws near the female’s face. If the female is receptive, mating occurs in the water.

Females leave the water to nest on land, often traveling long distances to find suitable soil. They dig nests in sunny, well-drained areas and lay 5–20 eggs per clutch, with some females producing multiple clutches in one season. The eggs incubate for about 60–90 days.

Sex determination in red-eared sliders is temperature-dependent. Warmer nest temperatures produce more females, while cooler temperatures produce more males. Hatchlings usually emerge in late summer or early fall, although some overwinter in the nest and emerge in spring.

Juvenile mortality is high. Eggs and hatchlings are preyed upon by raccoons, skunks, foxes, birds, snakes, and fish. Adults have fewer predators but may be taken by large mammals or birds.

Red-eared sliders can absorb oxygen through their cloaca (butt) while underwater, allowing them to stay submerged for long periods during rest or winter dormancy. They brumate during cold weather, slowing their metabolism and becoming less active, often resting on pond bottoms or under debris.

 Are Red Eared Sliders an invasive species?

Red eared sliders are one of the world's most invasive species and are often considered a threat to biodiversity because they compete with native turtles for food, basking sites, and nesting areas. Studies show they can displace native species such as painted turtles.

Due to their popularity in the pet trade, however, they are found in all corners of the globe except for Antarctica. Typically, red eared sliders are illegally released into ponds and rivers by people who no longer want them as pets. In many states and countries, the sale or release of red-eared sliders is restricted or banned. Despite this, illegal releases continue, especially when pet turtles outgrow small tanks or become difficult to care for.

There are turtle rescues and some humane societies will take them. So don’t abandon a pet turtle!

Invasive species (those which are not native to an area) include all manner of plants and animals. They are often highly adaptable and can outcompete the existing wildlife in a region. The red eared sliders compete for food sources, habitat and can spread disease. They are known to carry and transmit Salmonella, respiratory disease and ranaviruses to other reptiles, amphibians and fish.

As with other turtles, the red eared slider plays an important role in the ecosystem. The adults, the hatchlings and the eggs provide food for a wide range of aquatic and land animals. They accumulate environmental pollutants in their bodies, removing them from the aquatic environment. They improve pH levels in the water, increase detritus decomposition and increase invertebrate numbers. Their populations could prove beneficial in some habitats.

 Wildlife Rehabilitation

Red-eared sliders are commonly admitted to wildlife rehabilitation centers, especially in their native range. Common reasons include vehicle strikes, fishing hook injuries, shell fractures, and cold-stunning during sudden temperature drops.

Rehabilitation focuses on stabilizing injuries, treating infections, and ensuring the turtle can swim, dive, bask, and forage normally before release. Shell injuries often heal slowly but can be successfully treated with proper care.

In states where red-eared sliders are native, healthy rehabilitated individuals are usually released back into suitable habitat near where they were found. In non-native or invasive regions, release may be prohibited by law. In those cases, turtles may be placed with permitted educational facilities or long-term captive care programs, depending on state regulations.

Rehabilitators also play a key role in public education, explaining why pet turtles should never be released and helping people understand native versus invasive species issues.

Can I pick up a wild turtle?

If you find a red eared slider, its best to leave it alone. Find a good spot and observe them in nature.

If you find a turtle in an urban area it is best not to relocate it. Read my article There Is No Place Like Home – Turtle Homing Instincts

Carefully move turtles if they are on the road as long as you can do so safely. Always take turtles in the direction they were going.

Intergradation

A closely related species the yellow-bellied slider (Trachemys scripta scripta) is native to the southeastern United States, from Florida to Virginia. They live in similar habitats and eat many of the same foods.

Intergradation refers to hybridization between closely related subspecies or species where their geographic ranges overlap. In slider turtles, this occurs between the red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans) and the yellow-bellied slider (Trachemys scripta scripta).

These turtles are subspecies of the same species and can readily interbreed where their native ranges meet, particularly in parts of the southeastern United States. Offspring from these pairings often show mixed physical traits, such as reduced or broken red ear markings, yellow or orange patches behind the eye, and intermediate shell patterns that do not match either parent subspecies exactly.

Author, Ame Vanorio, is an environmental educator, and the founder of Fox Run EEC. She writes articles and books about her favorite topics - organic gardening and wildlife conservation.

Seeing a turtle out in the wild or even in your backyard is an exciting event. Turtles are easy to observe due to their slow-moving nature. They also tend to hang out in areas where people are also hanging out.

This article will specifically look at the Homing Instinct and Site fidelity of the Eastern Box Turtle. Removing any of them from their territory can cause confusion and even death. References and studies are listed at the end of the article and in text citations given.

What scientists mean by “home”

In wildlife biology, “home” usually means a home range: the area an animal routinely uses for feeding, resting, nesting, and overwintering. We may also refer to this as its territory.

In a classic long-term study (Stickel) from Maryland, Lucille Stickel tracked eastern box turtles for decades and found that individuals used modest, fairly stable home ranges, often revisiting the same micro-sites year after year (including familiar overwintering spots). Stickel was a fascinating woman and you can read more about her here.

Site Fidelity

Eastern Box turtles demonstrate high site fidelity, and it’s a hallmark of this species.

Site fidelity refers to the likelihood of an animal to return to a previous location or birthplace. This behavior can offer advantages like access to resources, shelter, or familiar breeding grounds. However, strong site fidelity can be a challenge when habitats change due to human activity or other factors.

In 2023 in a joint study (Erb), regional scientists put together the Status Assessment for the Eastern Box Turtle in the Northeastern United States. They found that eastern box turtles show strong fidelity to home ranges, with some year-to-year shifting but frequent reuse of the same areas, including repeated use of the same brumation (winter) sites.

Turtles seldom travel farther than 1.5 miles from their birthplace. It lives out its life, often 50 - 75 years, in the area it was born. (Erb & Cook)

According to the above study, reported straight-line “range lengths” (think: the longest dimension of the space a turtle uses) can vary widely—from as little as ~40 meters up to a couple of kilometers—depending on the landscape and individual. But across those settings, the pattern of returning to known places is consistent.

Habitat Change

You can imagine how a turtles territory may have changed over the years. Sometimes this is confusing to the turtle. They do not understand road construction and sports cars. But they continue to travel around that territory – they do not abandon ship.

Field studies spanning a half-century or more have found specific box turtles are still living in the same place. Studies show that they use the same places to nest, hibernate, find water and food.

Check out our video, staring Smash, on Turtle Homing Insticts

Subscribe to my YouTube channel @foxruneec

Turtle Homing Instinct

When removed from their territory turtles will try to find their way home. Studies (Sickel and Hays) have shown that when the turtle is moved more than a mile from their home territory that they become confused and often cannot find their way home.

Radio-tracking studies give us a real-world picture of homing. When researchers relocate wild eastern box turtles away from their home ranges, the turtles often respond by wandering more and by attempting to return—behaviors that expand their movements and can increase risk.

In a study from North Carolina that compared “resident” turtles to relocated ones, the relocated group had home ranges three to seven times larger (depending on how range size was calculated), moved farther per day, and suffered more mortality or disappearance during the tracking period. The authors explicitly questioned relocation as a management strategy for the species. (Hester)

Turtles are determined creatures and will continually try to find their way back home. Unfortunately, the stress of being in unfamiliar territory will cause them to stop eating. Moving them far from home can backfire. The North Carolina study mentioned earlier found that relocated turtles roamed more widely and had worse outcomes than residents. That extra movement isn’t aimless; it often looks like searching for home, but broader wandering puts turtles in harm’s way, from roads to predators to heat stress. (Hester)

One study done on Eastern Box Turtles found that only 47% of translocated turtles survived and established a new home range.

How do they do it? The turtle toolkit for navigation

No single “magic sense” explains box turtle homing; it’s likely a multi-cue process that changes with context. Here’s what the evidence suggests:

• Sun compass: Under clear skies, many turtles can use the sun’s position, compensated by their internal circadian clock, to maintain a heading. The 1957 (Gould) box turtle work is part of a broader literature showing sun-compass use across freshwater and terrestrial turtles.

• Magnetic compass (magnetoreception): The 1988 (Mathis) eastern box turtle experiments demonstrated that disturbing the magnetic field can disrupt orientation. Similar magnet experiments in sea turtles (hatchlings and juveniles) also disrupt normal bearings, bolstering the general principle that turtles can use Earth’s magnetic field as a compass. While sea turtles migrate vast distances and box turtles do not, the shared sensory mechanism is notable.

• Landmarks & memory: Long-lived animals with high site fidelity are excellent spatial learners. Once box turtles know a landscape, they can likely return using stored “cognitive maps” of landmarks, edges, and resource locations. Long-term telemetry shows they revisit the same overwintering, nesting, and foraging spots—behavior consistent with strong spatial memory. (Stickel, 1988)

• Other cues (context-dependent): In some turtles, researchers have proposed roles for olfactory gradients (smells), slope and topography, and even humidity patterns. For eastern box turtles specifically, direct experimental evidence beyond sun and magnet cues is thinner, but the broader turtle literature supports the idea that multiple senses are integrated. (Mathis)

Territory and Mating

You may wonder why box turtles have such a small range. Well, one reason is obvious. They are slow-moving animals who can not jump, climb or fly. Another important reason is that turtles depend on their vision to find a mate.

Many species use sound (birds) or smell (mammals) to find a pretty girl. The Eastern Box Turtle must be close enough to see his potential mate. In a smaller territory with several other turtles, this is more likely.

Several species of turtles exhibit nest site fidelity. This means they return to the same place every year to lay their eggs.

Picking Up Turtles Put ‘Em In Your Pocket – NOT!

I loved that old children’s song “Pickin up pawpaws put em in your pocket” when I was a child and would sing it to myself as I walked through the fields of our farm putting whatever struck my fancy in my pockets. Usually, it was rocks and field flowers, but my mother said she shook out my clothes with great caution as sometimes it included bugs or a toad.

It is a common occurrence for people to remove turtles from their environment and take them home. Sometimes they feel they are “helping”. Sometimes they may feel the wild turtle will make a good and cheap pet.

Don’t relocate healthy turtles far from where you found them. Help them across the road if they’re in danger, but keep them in the same area. Their homing instinct will likely drive them to search for familiar ground, which increases risk.

As humans, we naturally think we know what is best for the animal. But that is not always true. Seriously, would you want to go from being free to being entertainment and living in a 10 gallon (or smaller) tank? Furthermore, turtles are not “easy” pets. They have very specific temperature, light and humidity needs.

Turtle populations are in decline. They have relatively few young and often have delayed sexual maturity. When turtles are taken out of the wild they are not able to reproduce which adds to the population decline.

One study found that a minimum density of 12 box turtles per acre was necessary to maintain a viable population. Many areas of the country have populations far below that.

Read my article Kentucky Turtles: Slowly Walking Towards Extinction to learn more about turtle populations.

What To Do If You Find A Turtle

Crossing The Road

If you find a box turtle crossing the road pull over when you can do so safely. Use caution and look both ways before going on to the road. Carry the turtle to the other side of the road and place them in the direction they were going. Wish the turtle well, wash your hands and continue on your way.

Snapping turtles should be approached with caution. They have a long neck and can reach around and bite you. NEVER pick up a turtle by the tail. You can damage their spine.

Pick up the turtle by the back of its shell.

This is a great video on safely moving a snapping turtle.

How To Help A Snapping Turtle Cross The Road

Injured Turtles

If you come across a turtle that has been hit by a car. First, make a note of the location. Next contact your nearest rehabber. In many states, it is illegal to take the turtle home.

You can go to Animal Help Now to find a local rehabilitator. 

Place the turtle in a cardboard box and place it in a quiet location until you can transport it to a rehabilitator.

Turtles are actually very resilient animals and can heal with proper medical treatment and rehabilitation.

If a turtle needs rehabilitation, release near the capture site whenever possible. Releasing a recovered turtle back into its original home range gives it the best chance to re-establish normal movements and seasonal routines. (Wildlife rehabilitators and agencies increasingly take this approach because of the strong evidence for site fidelity.) (Erb)

The big picture

From a conservation perspective, the eastern box turtle’s homing instinct is both a marvel and a challenge. It’s marvelous because it reveals a sophisticated blend of senses and memory in an animal many of us meet at ankle height; it’s challenging because it means “well-meant moves” can do more harm than good.

If you’re a gardener or land steward, you can support homing and site fidelity by making your property turtle-friendly: keep some leaf litter, retain brushy edges, protect small wet patches, and mow a little less, a little later. Given a stable neighborhood of microhabitats—and the sun and Earth itself as guides—eastern box turtles will do the rest.

References:

1. Cook, Robert P. 2015 Dispersal, home range establishment, survival, and reproduction of translocated eastern box turtles, Terrapene c. carolina. APPLIED HERPETOLOGY1:197-228 http://nsmn1.uh.edu/dgraur/popbio/Applied%20Herpetology%20article%20Box%20Turtle.pdf

2. Erb, L.A. and H.P. Roberts. 2023. Status assessment for the eastern box turtle in the northeastern United States. Final report to the Northeast Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (NEAFWA) for a Regional Conservation Needs (RCN) award. https://www.northeastturtles.org/uploads/3/0/4/3/30433006/teca_status_assessment_030623.pdf

3. Gould, E. ORIENTATION IN BOX TURTLES, TERRAPENE c. CAROLINA (LINNAEUS) The Biological Bulletin 1957 112:3, 336-348 https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/1539126

4. Hays, Elizabeth D. Ethan J. Royal, Ethan C. Hollender, and John D. Willson "Evaluating translocation strategies for box turtles in urbanising landscapes," Wildlife Research 51(4), (16 April 2024). https://doi.org/10.1071/WR23100

5. Hester, Joy, Price Steven J, and Michael E. Dorcas "Effects of Relocation on Movements and Home Ranges of Eastern Box Turtles," Journal of Wildlife Management 72(3), 772-777, (1 April 2008). https://doi.org/10.2193/2007-049

6. Mathis, Alicia & Moore, Frank. (2010). Geomagnetism and the Homeward Orientation of the Box Turtle, Terrapene Carolina. Ethology. 78. 265 - 274. 10.1111/j.1439-0310.1988.tb00238.x.

7. Stickel, L. F. (1989). Home Range Behavior among Box Turtles (Terrapene c. carolina) of a Bottomland Forest in Maryland. Journal of Herpetology, 23(1), 40–44. https://doi.org/10.2307/1564314



Author, Ame Vanorio, has 15+ years in wildlife rehabilitation, is a former science teacher and an environmental educator as well as author. She is the director of Fox Run Environmental Education Center and a licensed wildlife rehabilitator.

Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, known as the Upper Midwest states and recognized for their diverse habitats, including lakes, forests, and prairies. All three states border the Great Lakes, plus have numerous smaller lakes and rivers. In addition, we have a variety of forest types including northern hardwoods, mixed forests, and coniferous forests.

This makes for fabulous owl habitat!

In our region we have 11 owls although they do not all live in the upper Midwest year round. Owls are listed in alphabetical order for your convenience.

🦉 1. Barn Owl (Tyto alba)

Barn owls are easy to distinguish with their wide dished face and creamy-colored chest and underwings. They have adapted to using many manmade structures - thus the name barn owl.

Barn owls are a smaller owl species and weigh an average of one and a half pounds. They are about 1 foot tall and have a wingspan of around 3 feet.

They live in open habitats across the upper Midwest including farmland, grasslands, deserts, marshes, suburban parks, and cities. Barn owls swallow their prey whole and then regurgitate the indigestible parts (bones, fur, teeth) in the form of pellets. 

The barn owl has an extremely good sense of hearing. It can catch mice in complete darkness in the lab. Their dished face allows the sound waves to concentrate and enter the ears which are directly behind the eyes.

Barn owls are usually monogamous, sticking with one partner for a lifetime. If one of the pair dies they will seek another widow to pair bond with. In the US nesting takes place in early spring between March and June. Depending on the availability of prey barn owls will often have two broods a year.

The female lays an average of 5 eggs and sets on them for a month. Chicks are born with a fluffy white down. They grow very quickly. By two weeks they are half their adult weight!

By nine weeks they are fully fledged and leaving the nest for short flights. Consider putting up a barn owl nesting box. This is an easy DIY project or you can purchase one.

Fun Facts:

• Has one of the most widespread distributions of any bird species.

• Barn owls are valuable in pest control

• Nicknamed ‘The ghost of the night’.

• The female barn owl uses her regurgitated pellets to line the nest

🦉 2. Barred Owl (Strix varia)

Description: A medium to large owl with brown and white striped plumage, dark eyes, and a rounded head without ear tufts. Barred owls are medium-to-large-sized owls, measuring about 16-25 inches tall, with a wingspan of 38-49 inches. Adults typically weigh between 1 to 2.5 pounds, with females being noticeably larger than males.

They make a variety of sounds including screams, hoots, barks, and even laughter-like calls. Barred owls are very territorial and aggressive to intruders on their territory, especially during nesting season. They may chase away intruders by aggressively hooting or attacking, using their talons.

They are opportunistic predators, primarily eating small mammals, but also consuming fish, snakes, crawfish, and frogs. Like the barn owl, as part of the owl's digestive process, the body forms a waste pellet. These pellets contain bones and fur. Look for them under trees.

Fun Facts:

• Famous for its call that sounds like "Who cooks for you? Who cooks for you all?"

• Often active during the day, especially on overcast days.

• Some barred owls have pink belly feathers, possibly due to a diet rich in crayfish. 

• Barred Owls prefer nesting in tree hollows

🦉 3. Boreal Owl (Aegolius funereus)

Description: A small owl with a large, square head, yellow eyes, and brown and white spotted plumage.​ It has a compact, rounded body about 9 to 11 inches long with a wingspan of approximately 21 to 24 inches.

The Boreal Owl is a small, elusive owl found primarily in dense, northern coniferous forests. Its plumage is brown above with numerous white spots, and whitish below with heavy brown streaking. The owl's distinctive square-shaped head, prominent facial disks outlined in black, and large yellow eyes give it a very expressive appearance.

Boreal Owls are considered rare visitors in the upper Midwest, typically found in the northernmost forests during the winter months or during periodic movements ("irruptions") related to prey availability.

Boreal Owls are generally uncommon throughout their range and can be sensitive indicators of environmental health, particularly due to their reliance on mature forests and cavity availability for nesting. Habitat loss, logging practices, and climate change could impact their distribution and population numbers.

Fun Facts:

• Primarily nocturnal and elusive, making sightings rare.

• Prefers dense coniferous forests in northern regions.

• Known for its haunting, whistled call during the breeding season.​

🦉 4. Eastern Screech Owl (Megascops asio)

Description: A small owl with either gray or reddish-brown plumage, featuring ear tufts and yellow eyes.​ Only 6 inches tall with a wingspan about 20 inches.

They like older hollowed-out trees and are often found in urban areas. One good reason not to cut down trees just because they don't look perfect.

From a distance (binoculars help) look for holes in trees that may be giving an owl a well-deserved sleep.

Eastern Screech Owls do not typically migrate; they are territorial birds that remain in the same general area year-round.

Nocturnal hunters, they wait on perches to swoop down on unsuspecting prey. They may also catch insects in flight. These owls are opportunistic carnivores. If they think they can eat it, they will try.

Fun Facts:

• Despite its name, its call is a soft, trilling sound rather than a screech. They “bark” when alarmed.

• Commonly found in urban and suburban areas, nesting in tree cavities.

• They can easily eat more than 1,000 mice in one year

🦉 5. Great Grey Owl (Strix nebulosa)

Description: One of the largest owls by length, with a large, round head, yellow eyes, and a distinctive white "bow tie" under the chin.​ Their size is deceptive since they are mostly fluff. Their fluffy feathers, large head, and long tail hide a relatively small body.

They are well adapted to live in their cold northern climates where they hunt for rodents under the snow. The great grey owl can hear a vole traveling two feet below the top of the snow.

Typically found in the far northern forests of Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin

Fun Facts:

• Their face acts like a satellite receiver and gives them that great hearing.

• Has exceptional hearing, allowing it to detect prey beneath deep snow.

• Nicknamed The Phantom of the North. The ghost owl.

🦉 6. Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus)

A large, powerful owl with prominent ear tufts ("horns"), yellow eyes, and a deep hooting voice.

Its plumage is mottled gray-brown with a white throat patch. Sometimes referred to as the tiger owl because of their striped feather pattern.

The great horned owl gets its name from its large ear tufts that funnel sound waves into the ears. Giving them exceptional hearing. Large cylindrical eyes help them see longer distances. Owls don't have eyeballs per se and can't move their eyes. They must move their head to see in another direction.

Similar to eagles great horned owls prefer more of an open nest such as a platform or area where tree trunks make a cavity. They have adapted to manmade structures as well and can be found nesting in large barns.

Great horned owls start looking for nest sites as early as January so fall is a great time to build a nest funnel or platform. Eggs are laid in February and March. Babies cant fly till 10 weeks and the parents take care of them for several months. Both parents help care for the young.

Fun Facts:

• Large talons can easily grab prey and can exert 28 pounds of pressure.

• Can take down prey larger than itself, including skunks and other raptors.

• Begins nesting as early as January in Wisconsin, enduring harsh winter conditions.

🦉 7. Long-eared Owl (Asio otus)

Description: A medium-sized owl with long ear tufts set close together, mottled brown and buff plumage, and orange facial disks.​

They are known for their large ear tufts, which are not actually ears but are used for camouflage and communication.

Found in dense forests and forest edges they often nest in abandoned crow, raven, or hawk nests. They don't build their own nests.

Watch for them early in breeding season, in late February and March, when the male puts on a show. He will perform an aerial display, flying in zigzags around nesting area with deep wingbeats and glides, occasionally clapping wings together loudly below body. This attracts the female’s attention.

Nest site is usually in tree, 4-30' above ground, usually at about mid-level in tree.

They are more social than most owls and often nest near each other. They can live a long time - over 30 years.

Wanting to spot an owl? Be stealth! When you spot an owl sit down and be very quiet. This makes you look like less of a threat and doesn't cause stress.

Fun Facts:

• Roosts communally in winter, sometimes in groups of a dozen or more.

• Uses old nests of other birds, like crows or hawks, for breeding.

• Highly secretive and well-camouflaged which makes them hard to spot.

• The long-eared owl is thin for an owl. When it perches on a branch it stretches up tall so it resembles a tree branch. This may help protect it from predators.

🦉 8. Northern Hawk Owl (Surnia ulula)

Description: A medium-sized owl with a long tail, yellow eyes, and a facial disk bordered by black. Resembles a hawk in appearance and behavior.

The Northern Hawk Owl behaves like a hawk but looks like an owl. They live in northern boreal forests spreading across Canada and into Alaska. While not a common owl in our northern states, Northern Hawk Owls are occasionally spotted.

In the continental United States, its southern limit occurs in northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, and northern Michigan, and occasionally in the Rocky Mountains.

Like the snowy owl they occasionally fly south in the winter from Canada in search of food.  Unlike many owls, Northern Hawk Owls are active during the day, making them easier to observe. 

According to the National Park Service, Northern hawk owls are one of the least studied birds in North America, making it difficult to fully understand their ecology and conservation needs. 

Fun Facts:

• Diurnal, hunting during the day, unlike most owls.

• Perches atop trees to survey for prey, then swoops down like a hawk.

• Occasionally seen in northern Wisconsin during winter months.​

🦉 9. Northern Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus)

Description: One of the smallest owls native to North America, with a round head, no ear tufts, and bright yellow eyes.​ They are the size of an American robin and have a distinct white, Y-shaped coloration between their eyes.

They live year round in Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin in coniferous or deciduous woods.

Northern saw-whet owls have porphyrin pigments in their flight feathers. When these feathers are under a UV light, they show a fluoresce a neon pink color.

Northern saw-whet owls lay four or six eggs in tree cavities or woodpecker holes. Males seek out a nesting site and then attract a female by singing. He does the hunting while the female watches and sits on the eggs. Females may have more than one clutch of eggs each breeding season with different males. Once the first group fledge and leave the nest, she will leave the male to care for them and go find another male to reproduce with. This type of mating is referred to as sequential polyandry.

Fun Facts:

• Named for its call, a tootling whistle, which resembles the sound of a saw being sharpened.

• Primarily feeds on small mammals like mice and voles.

• Often migrates at night and can be caught in mist nets during banding studies.​

🦉 10. Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus)

Description: A medium-sized owl with short ear tufts (often not visible), yellow eyes, and a streaked brown and buff body.​

Short-eared Owls possess distinctive, buoyant flight patterns resembling that of moths or bats, characterized by slow, deep wingbeats interspersed with brief glides. They prefer open habitats such as grasslands, prairies, marshes, and agricultural fields where they have unobstructed views and ample hunting grounds. This habitat preference allows them to spot prey—primarily small mammals like voles, mice, and occasionally birds.

Short-eared Owls are ground-nesters. Breeding season typically begins in early spring, around late March to May in Wisconsin. Females construct simple nests directly on the ground, usually concealed within tall grasses, sedges, or vegetation, making the nests very difficult to locate. The nest itself is a shallow scrape lined sparingly with grasses and feathers.

The female is solely responsible for incubation, which lasts around 24–29 days. During this period, the male's primary role is hunting and providing food to the female. The female broods and protects the young, feeding them food brought by the male. Initially, chicks cannot thermoregulate effectively, so the mother must frequently brood them to keep them warm.

Young owls typically leave the nest at around 12–18 days old, long before they can fly proficiently. They scatter into surrounding vegetation, hiding and waiting for parents to bring food. True flight skills develop by about 24–27 days. Juveniles continue receiving parental care and supplementary feeding for several more weeks post-fledging, gradually gaining independence as they master hunting and survival skills.

The Short-eared Owl is considered a species of conservation concern in Minnesota and Wisconsin, primarily due to habitat loss, fragmentation of grassland habitats, and changes in agricultural practices. Conserving large, contiguous tracts of grasslands and marshes is critical to their continued survival and breeding success.

Fun Facts:

• Outside the breeding season, Short-eared Owls occasionally roost communally in groups, especially during winter months, on the ground in dense grass or shrubbery for warmth and protection.

• Males engage in spectacular aerial courtship displays, often called "sky dances,"

• Short-eared Owls follow prey availability, and may travel long distances, even migrating hundreds of miles, resulting in fluctuating populations year-to-year.

🦉 11. Snowy Owl (Bubo scandiacus)

Description: A large, white owl with varying amounts of black or brown markings; males tend to be whiter than females.​

These large owls are mostly found in the Arctic tundra. Small numbers fly south in the winter into the Northern US. When these birds fly south out of their normal range it is called an irruption. I was lucky enough to see one two years ago in Madison.

The snowy owl does not migrate on a regular basis. Its believed that irruption happens when a larger amount of chicks hatch and they seek out new territory.

They have excellent eyesight and hearing to locate prey. They eat a wide variety of prey including lemmings, voles, mice, shrews as well as ducks and other water birds. They will also eat rabbits, weasels, and fish.

The snowy owl flies low to the ground and often roosts on fence posts, dunes, or even round hay bales.

Snowy owls like open spaces such as lakes, beaches, grasslands, and agricultural fields, and have often been spotted at northern airports.

Fun Facts:

• Breeds in the Arctic tundra and migrates south in winter; some years see large numbers ("irruptions") in the northern Midwest states.

• Known for their striking appearance and association with the "Harry Potter" series.​

Author, Ame Vanorio, is the founder of Fox Run EEC and the author of books on wildlife rehabilitation, organic gardening and children’s books on wildlife.

This article explores how coyotes manage to survive and thrive in densely populated areas, their diets, interactions with humans, wildlife rehabilitation, and how you and your pets can stay safe around coyotes.

In addition, I will talk about the research being done in Madison Wisconsin and Chicago, Illinois and look at three studies showing what coyotes are eating. Is it cats?

Urban Survival: Masters of Adaptation

Cities offer abundant resources and relative safety compared to wild environments, where coyotes face more natural predators and harsher survival conditions. Urban coyotes have learned to navigate roads, utilize green spaces, and adjust their behavior to minimize human contact.

They typically establish territories within parks, cemeteries, golf courses, vacant lots, and suburban neighborhoods—any area that offers a blend of shelter, food, and limited disturbance.

Coyotes tend to be nocturnal or crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk) in urban settings, effectively reducing their encounters with humans. They typically have a territory of two-miles or less square radius.

Diverse and Opportunistic Diets

Coyotes in cities have a varied and flexible diet. They primarily consume small mammals such as rodents and rabbits, which helps manage urban pest populations.

However, their diet often expands to include birds, insects, fruits, and vegetables. Scavenging is common, with coyotes utilizing food sources like garbage, compost bins, pet food left outdoors, and occasionally roadkill. We will address them eating cats below.

Coyote Studies In Chicago, Illinois

There are an estimated 1,500 to 2,000 coyotes living in the Chicago area (Cook County).

Urban coyotes are increasingly the subject of scientific studies due to their unique adaptation skills and rising interactions with human populations. For instance, research by the Urban Coyote Research Project based in Chicago has provided significant insights:

• Territorial Behavior: Studies using GPS collar tracking reveal that coyotes form stable territories even within densely populated urban areas, often overlapping with human neighborhoods yet remaining mostly unseen.

• Dietary Adaptability: Research examining coyote scat shows significant dietary diversity, highlighting their role in controlling urban pests while also exposing potential sources of human-wildlife conflict such as unsecured garbage or outdoor pet food.

• Behavioral Changes: Urban coyotes demonstrate behavioral plasticity—changing their activity patterns from diurnal (daytime) in rural settings to predominantly nocturnal in cities to avoid human activities.

A fabulous read about urban coyotes is Coyotes Among Us: Secrets of the City’s Top Predator by Dr. Gehrt

Coyotes in Madison, Wisconsin

Madison, Wisconsin, has become a fascinating case study in urban wildlife ecology, particularly concerning how coyotes adapt to and thrive within city environments. The UW Urban Canid Project (UWUCP) was founded in 2014 by Dr. David Drake at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.

Coyotes in Madison have demonstrated remarkable adaptability. Utilizing a combination of natural and human-made corridors—such as green spaces, railroad tracks, and stormwater channels.

GPS tracking has revealed that these animals often establish territories in areas like the UW Arboretum, Pheasant Branch Conservancy, and Owen Conservation Park, favoring locations that offer cover and reduced human activity .

In urban Madison, coyotes maintain a diverse diet. While they continue to hunt traditional prey like rabbits and rodents, they've also been observed scavenging on roadkill and occasionally consuming fruits and other available food sources. This opportunistic feeding behavior not only aids their survival but also positions them as natural pest controllers, helping to manage populations of small mammals that might otherwise become nuisances .

Intervention When Necessary

Generally, urban coyotes are elusive, primarily active during dawn and dusk to avoid human encounters. However, instances of increased daytime activity have been documented, often linked to factors like illness or habituation to human presence.

The City of Madison and their Park Service does monitor and intervene if necessary. For example, last January, a coyote that had been seen around Vilas Park and appeared injured and ill was captured and treated at the Dane County Humane Society's Wildlife Center. The coyote was dehydrated, exhausted, and parasite-ridden, and it was eventually deemed rehabilitated and released. 
More about coyote wildlife rehabilitation below

Do Coyotes Eat cats?

Pet predation causes the biggest human/coyote conflict. Cats do fall prey to coyotes and occasionally small dogs. However, these numbers are smaller than many pet websites lead us to believe. In fact many cats preyed on are feral or homeless cats.

Los Angeles had the largest number of cats preyed upon but they also have an estimated one million homeless cats. In contrast Chicago has an estimated 300,000 feral cats.

Chicago Study

Dr. Gehrt has studied coyotes in the Chicago and Los Angeles areas and finds that they eat similar foods food to rural coyotes.

Research from Gehrt and the Urban Coyote Research Project in Chicago analyzed coyote diets and found that domestic cats appeared in only 1.3% of scat samples. The predominant food sources were small rodents (42%), fruit (23%), white-tailed deer (22%), and rabbits (18%).

Human-associated food items, including garbage and pet food, were found in just 1.9% (out of 1429) samples suggesting that Chicago's urban coyotes rely more on natural prey and less on domestic cats or human food sources.

This also shows that the city of Chicago is doing a good job of educating the public. Gehrt and fellow researcher Paul Morey noted it was interesting that the coyotes did not become habituated to eating trash which is a big problem with bear populations.

Los Angeles

A study done in Los Angeles, California showed a higher proportion of cats killed. The National Park Service compared suburban coyotes to urban coyotes and analyzed over 3,100 coyote scat samples from various neighborhoods in Los Angeles.

The findings indicated that domestic cats were present in 20% of urban coyote scat samples, compared to 4% in suburban areas. This suggests that urban coyotes in Los Angeles consume domestic cats more frequently than their suburban counterparts.

The study also noted that human food resources, including garbage and ornamental fruits, accounted for a significant portion of the urban coyote diet .They also found that city coyotes ate more garbage as well as fruits.

San Francisco

In contrast, research led by Tali Caspi at the University of California, Davis, examined 707 coyote scat samples collected throughout San Francisco between 2019 and 2022.

The study found that domestic cats were present in only 4.5% of the samples. The primary components of the coyote diet in San Francisco were human-provided foods, such as chicken (found in 72% of samples), and natural prey like pocket gophers (57%).

This indicates that, while coyotes in San Francisco do consume domestic cats, it constitutes a relatively small portion of their diet .

Coyotes may prey on free roaming cats, sometimes as a source of food or to reduce competition, according to the Urban Coyote Research Project. There presence can also lead to cats leaving an area, potentially benefiting some other wildlife like songbirds.

Keeping pet cats indoors or building them a catio is the best protection.

Check out my YouTube channel!

Coyote Encounters - What to do

Human-Coyote Interactions: Coexistence or Conflict?

Coyotes rarely attack people. Only a few incidents have been reported across the country, and most of them involve coyotes that are habituated to humans or have rabies.

Interactions between humans and coyotes range from curiosity and fascination to fear and conflict. Typically, coyotes avoid direct interaction with humans. However, habituation—where coyotes lose their natural fear due to regular exposure to humans or easy food sources—can lead to bolder behavior, occasionally resulting in conflicts such as attacks on pets or very rare aggressive encounters with humans.

What is Coyote Hazing?

Coyote hazing is a humane wildlife management technique used to discourage coyotes from becoming comfortable around humans. It involves using safe yet assertive actions to re-establish a healthy fear of humans in coyotes, teaching them to avoid areas where people live or frequent. They are dogs, they are smart, and they do learn.

Hazing doesn't harm coyotes. Instead, it communicates clearly that human areas aren’t welcoming, thus reducing potential conflicts.

Recommended Hazing Methods

Experts recommend simple, effective techniques:

• Noise Deterrents:

  • Shout firmly and loudly.

  • Blow whistles or air horns.

  • Bang pots, pans, or metal objects.

  Visual Deterrents:

  • Wave your arms, hats, jackets, or sticks overhead.

  • Use bright flashlights or lasers at night to disrupt coyotes.

  Water Deterrent

• Spray water from hoses

When NOT to Haze

Hazing should not be used when a coyote:

• Appears sick, injured, or cornered.

• Is with pups or near a den.

• Is at a safe distance, moving naturally away from people and pets.

In these cases, maintain a safe distance and contact wildlife authorities or a licensed rehabilitator if necessary.

Tips To Avoid Coyote and Human Conflict

• Never feed coyotes. Secure trash cans from wildlife.

• Don’t leave pet food outside.

• Keep cats indoors. This also protects songbirds.

• If you feed feral cats, put them on a schedule, feed once per day, and then remove the dishes. Feed in an open area with an escape route.

• Monitor small dogs when they are outside and walk on a leash. Better yet go to a dog park.

• Clean up birdseed around feeders

• Don’t leave orchard fruits on the ground

• Clean grills and outdoor ovens after cooking outside

• Close off spaces under decks and outdoor sheds

• Fence your yard with a secure 6 feet tall fence. Ideally made of brick, wood or diamond mesh wire. Make sure it is secured at the bottom to prevent digging.

• Compost in containers

Coyotes in Wildlife Rehabilitation

Coyotes, often seen as resilient and adaptable animals, occasionally require assistance from wildlife rehabilitators. Despite their resourcefulness, circumstances can lead coyotes—especially those living close to urban environments—into situations where they need human intervention.

Coyotes come into wildlife rehabilitation facilities for various reasons, typically involving human-caused issues or environmental hazards. Common scenarios include:

• Vehicle Collisions: Urban coyotes frequently cross roads, making them vulnerable to accidents.

• Orphaned Pups: Pups lose their parents due to human-wildlife conflicts, hunting, trapping, or accidents, requiring human care to survive.

• Disease and Illness: Coyotes may suffer from mange, parasites, canine distemper, or poisoning from pesticides and rodenticides.

• Human Conflict: Injuries caused by traps, fences, or deliberate harm due to fear and misunderstanding of coyotes.

Wildlife rehabilitators often serve as the critical link between a compromised animal and its eventual safe return to the wild.

Why Is Rehabbing Coyotes Important?

Coyotes play an essential ecological role, even in urban areas, making their rehabilitation vital for healthy ecosystems:

• Pest Management: Coyotes naturally manage populations of rodents and small mammals, reducing reliance on chemical pest control.

• Disease Control: By managing populations of animals like rodents, coyotes indirectly reduce the spread of diseases such as Lyme disease and hantavirus.

• Maintaining Biodiversity: Healthy predators are a sign of balanced ecosystems, keeping prey populations in check and ecosystems diverse.

• Ethical Responsibility: Wildlife rehabilitators adhere to an ethical principle that human-caused harm should be mitigated whenever possible, restoring wild animals to their rightful place in nature.

Rehabilitating coyotes is about more than helping individual animals—it contributes significantly to conservation and healthy ecosystems. Wildlife rehabilitation embodies the human responsibility to care for nature, recognizing coyotes not as pests, but as integral wildlife deserving respect, care, and coexistence.

I have an article and a video you can check out if you are interested in becoming a wildlife rehabilitator.

Diseases/Zoonoses

Coyotes are a rabies vector species. Typically coyotes are not a common rabies vector species - raccoons, skunks, bats, and foxes are the most common.

However, like any mammal coyotes can get rabies.

Read our article Why We Vaccinate Wildlife

Coyotes are a host along with other wild canids and domestic dogs of the zoonotic parasite “fox-tapeworm” (Echinococcus multilocularis). Voles are the intermediate host.

Humans can get these tapeworms if they unintentionally eat the eggs. Eggs may be present on the fur of the animals.

Author, Ame Vanorio, is the founder of Fox Run Environmental Education

We have ten species that are completely terrestrial and twenty-five that are aquatic for at least part of their lifespan. Salamanders are a critical indicator of ecosystem health and an important part of the food web.

This article will discuss the characteristics and habits of salamanders, conservation, diseases, and will introduce you to a number of species found in Kentucky and surrounding states.

What Makes A Salamander?

A salamander is a small lizard-like animal but are amphibians not reptiles. They are ectotherms (cold-blooded) and have a backbone. During hot weather, they may hide in shady areas away from the sun and in the winter they brumate like other reptiles.

Read our article NIGHTY NIGHT, SLEEP TIGHT! HIBERNATION, BRUMATION AND TORPOR EXPLAINED

Most salamanders lay their eggs in the water and have aquatic larvae like frogs. As larvae, they use gills to breathe and later develop lungs to take in oxygen.

Their skin is cool, moist and permeable. Permeable skin allows liquids and gases to pass through the skin. This helps the salamander to breathe. It also means they get dried out easily so they need to stay close to water.

Metamorphosis

Salamanders lead a double life. Just like having a secret identity. In fact, the word amphibian means double life in Greek.

Salamanders, like frogs, have two distinct life stages. They have a larval stage and an adult stage. Salamanders begin life as eggs and experience an amazing transformation as they grow from a larval stage to an adult stage. This transformation is called metamorphosis.

Senses

Salamanders use their senses to hunt for prey and find mates. They are able to see and have excellent night vision. Many have trichromatic color vision, allowing them to tell the difference between blue and green, and green and red. This helps them find prey, discriminating them from the soil or a leaf.

Predators

You may not think of salamanders as predators but they are. Even the larvae. All species hunt for their food. Salamanders mostly eat insects, worms, and small crustaceans.

They are also prey for many animals including snakes and birds. Fish eat their eggs.

Conservation

Salamanders around the world are in danger. More than 1,800 amphibian species around the globe are threatened in danger of becoming extinct. That’s 32% of the total for all amphibian species. At least 43% of all amphibian species are suffering population declines. (Source)

Federally Listed Species: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) has officially listed 11 salamander species as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act.

In the state of Kentucky 14 salamanders are under a conservation watch. This is due to habitat loss and pollution of waterways among other issues.

Kentucky has a very diverse population of salamanders and is considered to be one of the most bio-diverse ecological niches for amphibians. We must all work hard to protect their habitat.

Important Conservation Techniques to advocate for:

• Kentucky Streamside Management Zones

• Partial tree harvest vs. clearcutting which seriously reduces habitat

• Minimize soil disturbance during construction of homes and roads

Helping Salamanders

There are lots of things that you can do to help salamanders. Providing wildlife habitat in your yard and making it salamander friendly is a great way to provide them with places to breed and look for food.

Salamanders need dark, cool places to hide during the day. Old logs, rocks, and patio stones make good habitat for them. I once moved a large plastic dog house and saw two spotted salamanders scurry away.

You can have an amphibian friendly pond - yes that would be a fish pond with no fish. The fish feed on the frog and salamander eggs. If you build a backyard pond you can add plants and rocks along the edges. This makes a great place for amphibians to lay their eggs.

Salamander Chytrid Fungus

The fungus, Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans, (Bsal) has been decimating salamander populations around the world. It is believed to have started in Asia and quickly spread to Europe. In some countries, an estimated 96% mortality rate has been seen in certain species.

This disease is not yet harming salamanders in North America, however, we want to be vigilant to protect our amphibian populations. We are an important country for salamander diversity and home to nearly fifty percent of all species.

Bsal is spread by the introduction of exotic salamanders from the pet trade. People sometimes release pet salamanders into the wild. In addition, contaminated water, and waste from pet salamanders can pollute area habitats.

The Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife makes these recommendations:

1. Don’t release pet salamanders outside in the wild.

2. For pet salamanders, treat the wastewater before disposal. You can do this by adding bleach in a 1:10 part solution.

3. Pet salamanders can be tested for Bsal. You can order a free test kit from Salamander Fungus.

Salamander Species

Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander

(Desmognathus ochrophaeus)Lives in the Appalachian Mountain range from New York southward into Tennessee. Occurs in the Cumberland Mountains in extreme southeastern Kentucky and scattered populations occur elsewhere in eastern Kentucky.

They are declining in Kentucky due to habitat loss and the recent increase in mountaintop removal surface mining in the Cumberlands.

They live in moist banks, stream heads, seeps, wet spots, and cool moist forests.

Fun Fact: Stays active during winter in underground dens and fast-moving streams.

Black Mountain Salamander

A common salamander (Desmognathus welteri) in eastern Kentucky, as well as portions of West Virginia, Virginia, and Tennessee, are most common where there is protected habitat.

Red River Gorge, Cave Lake, and Black Mountain have sustainable populations.

Sadly, numbers are declining in eastern Kentucky due to habitat loss and water pollution. This species can’t tolerate silt in the water. They are often found in streams with small waterfalls or in the entrance of caves.

Interestingly, they like habitats at higher elevations and live around mountain streams and rocky headwater creeks.

Cumberland Plateau Salamander

Lives in a variety of woodland habitats, rocky outcrops, and cave entrances.

The Cumberland Plateau (Plethodon kentucki) salamander is a completely terrestrial species. They lay their eggs underground in moist areas in the springtime.

They are considered a fairly common species and described as one of least concern. However, they have declined in population from several areas in Kentucky including Northeastern counties and the Ashland area.

Eastern Hellbender

Coolest Salamander Ever! (My opinion)

Lives primarily along the Ohio River watershed from southern New York to Northern Alabama. It is widespread in Kentucky Rivers including the Licking, Kentucky, Green, Barren, and Cumberland waterways. They prefer fast-moving streams with riffles.

They are large salamanders and get to be 12 to 29 inches long and weigh five pounds. They live an average of twenty-five years and do not become sexually mature until they are five years old.

The Eastern Hellbender(Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) is seeing population declines. They have a low tolerance for silt and chemicals in the water. They require water with a high level of oxygen.

This video shows the release of Hellbender Salamanders in SE Ohio at Yellow Creek.

FUN FACTS:

• Hellbenders have vestigial lungs which means they dont functon as lungs. Hellbenders breathe through their wrinkley skin.

• The hellbenders' bodies are covered in mucus - that’s where they get the nckname Snott Otter! The mucus tastes bad to enemies and it protects them from parasites.

• The males create a cavity under a rock and then coerice the female to enter the nesting site.

Long-Tailed Salamander

The Long Taled Salamander (Eurycea longicauda) is named so because their slender tail is much longer than the body. Typically they are yellow to bright red-orange, with scattered black spots, especially along their sides.  

They live nearby creeks and may occasionally go into the forest in search of prey. In Kentucky, we often see them near the mouths of caves or abandoned mines. Eggs are laid in underground crevices within or near streams or springs.

They grow up to eight inches long - but that is mostly tail! They live about ten years.

FUN FACT:

Males and females rub their heads together during courting.

Mole Salamander

The mole salamander (genus Ambystoma) is an adorable short pudgy species of only three to four inches in length.

They are found in Western Kentucky and are common along the Mississippi River and the coastal south. Larvae and neotenic adults prefer fishless wetlands and adults are often found in evergreen forested areas.

They are nocturnal and burrow underground or beneath logs during the day.

Fun Fact: They are facultatively paedomorphic. This means they can decide when to metamorphosis. They may have larval characteristics as adults such as gills and continue to live in water. They may also go through metamorphosis and live in the terrestrial environment.

Red-backed Salamander

The red-backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus) has short legs and a tail and has a red or orange-colored strip down their back.  They rarely exceed four inches in total length and are common in woodlands in the Eastern USA. Lives under the leaf litter and old logs n woodland areas. 

They mate in autumn however the females retain the sperm and fertilize the eggs in spring. They lay eggs under logs and rocks. Hatchlings look like adults only smaller.

Their larvae have no aquatic stage like many other salamanders.  You may see them around your garden because they love earthworms.

FUN FACTS:

• The red-backed salamanders have an interesting way of getting away from predators. They can drop all or part of their tail if they are captured. Then they run away. They can grow a new tail but it takes some time.

• Red-backed salamanders live a long time. Up to twenty-five years in captivity.

• They lack lungs. They breathe through their skin.

Spotted Salamander

Very beautiful with a blue-black to the dark gray body and two irregular rows of yellow or orange spots that run the length of the body.  The underside is a slate gray color.  Related to the mole salamander.

The Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma maculatum) is found in hardwood forests and hillsides usually close to ponds, these are another spring-breeding species that migrate during the rainfall. 

March and April are the best time to spot them as they are typically very secretive.

They often lay eggs in vernal pools which reduces fish preying on the eggs but allows the young enough water to complete metamorphic development.

Fun Fact:

When disturbs it secrets a toxic milky liquid that is stored in glands by the neck.

Uses its sticky tongue to catch prey.

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How To Find Salamanders

*** Remember that salamanders are delicate. Never handle a salamander with dry hands as you can damage their skin. Don’t hold them in the sun. Handle them at ground level in case they jump free.

*** Also some salamanders excrete toxic substances which can cause you to have a burning sensation or itching.

• Know Where To Look. In Kentucky, the best places to look are along streams and in the woods. Read my article on finding salamanders.

• Try looking in both day and nighttime. Some species are nocturnal. Use a flashlight on low beam to look for them moving around and hunting. During the day they hide under logs and stones in or out of a creek.

• They like the rain. Spring rains bring them out and about. 

Author, Ame Vanorio is a certified science teacher, environmental educator, and organic farmer. She is the director of Fox Run Environmental Education Center and a licensed wildlife rehabilitator.

Lead poisoning, rodenticides, glue traps, and even windmills kill large numbers of birds every year. The good news is there are ways we can help and save these birds from dying.

1. Lead Bullets

Lead poisoning has become another deadly issue for eagles. Lead ammunition used for hunting is often left in a killed carcass when hunters field dress the animals or remove the inner body organs and leave them on the ground.

Lead poisoning kills around 6 million birds of prey each year. The lead affects their mobility and they slowly starve to death. Wildlife rehabilitators try to save birds by using chelating compounds to bind the lead and allow it to pass.

Nonlead ammunition is available for hunters and studies have shown that non-lead ammunition reduces the number of birds that are exposed and affected by lead toxicity.

Lead ammunition used for hunting can be a direct threat to birds of prey. When hunters shoot game with lead bullets, fragments of the bullets can remain lodged in the carcass.

Bald eagles hunt fish that may have eaten lead tackle. Raptors that consume these prey items inadvertently ingest lead, leading to detrimental health effects.

Lead is a potent neurotoxin that can poison the birds, causing impaired cognitive function, weakened immune systems, and even death.

If you hunt you need to switch to copper ammunition. Copper does not shatter and release harmful fragments. If you don't hunt get the word out and encourage non-lead ammunition because it's a step in the right direction.

Ironically in the US we've banned lead paint, lead gas, and lead pipes but not lead ammunition.

What can you do to help birds of prey - check out my video

2. Rodent Poison

Birds of prey are hunters. And if their prey has consumed a poisonous or toxic substance well so will they. You may be trying to kill those mice but so is that owl who hunts rodents.

Birds of prey, particularly owls and hawks, play a crucial role in controlling rodent populations. To protect crops and buildings, individuals often use rodent poisons, such as anticoagulant rodenticides, to eradicate these pests.

However, when birds consume poisoned rodents, they inadvertently ingest the toxins as well. This can lead to severe internal bleeding, organ damage, and ultimately, the death of these magnificent creatures.

Poison is increasingly easy to buy in stores and has been widely accepted as a solution to controlling rodents. However, studies that monitor barn owl carcasses have shown a sharp increase in deaths due to rat poisons.

One study showed that over 70 percent of Northern spotted owls and 40 percent of barred owls in California are contaminated with rodenticides. New York studies have shown an increasing amount of the pesticides brodifacoum and difethialone in barn owls.

Rat or mouse poisons are Anticoagulants and work by thinning the rat's blood and they die slowly over several days. Their movements slow down and they become easy prey for a predator such as an owl. Rat poison affects many species and even your family cat.

3. Glue Traps

While intended to capture smaller pests, glue traps present a grave danger to birds of prey. When hunting for prey on the ground, raptors can become ensnared in these adhesive traps.

Once trapped, birds may struggle intensely, leading to severe injuries, damage to feathers, and even death. Additionally, other animals attracted to the struggling bird may also become trapped, causing a potential disruption in the local ecosystem.

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4. Windmills

So the last thing I want to talk about is windmills. This is a sore subject for me. As you may know, I lived off-grid using solar energy for over 25 years. And I'm very pro alternative energy.

Windmills are often placed in hilly areas to take advantage of wind gusts. This can be perilous to both golden and bald eagles.

Windmills are often placed in hilly areas to take advantage of wind gusts. This can be perilous to birds of prey because they soar using the same wind gusts that are sought to turn the turbines. In addition, they are placed in grassy areas that are natural homes for rodents and rabbits.

Both bald and golden eagles have a blind spot near the tops of their heads that hinders the birds' ability to see a wind turbine ahead of them if they are looking downward.

Sadly the government allows a “certain number of eagle deaths by windmills”. I'll leave an article on this below if you are interested.

Though wind energy is crucial for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating climate change, wind turbines pose a unique threat to birds of prey. Nesting and migratory routes often intersect with the areas where wind energy farms are established.

In some cases, the birds' natural instincts fail to distinguish the turbines as obstacles, resulting in collisions. These collisions can cause severe injuries or fatalities, impacting the population dynamics and aerial biodiversity of various species of raptors.
In the case of wind energy, it is crucial to consider the location of wind farms and employ strategies to minimize bird collisions. Research and development of innovative technologies, such as avian radar, deterrence systems, and improved siting practices, can greatly contribute to reducing the impact of wind turbines on birds of prey.

The University of Minnesota is working on a study to test the auditory range of eagles and hawks so that warning sounds can be used to alert them.

By raising awareness about these issues and working collectively to find sustainable solutions, we can ensure the continued survival and well-being of these magnificent birds. It is our responsibility to protect and conserve the natural world we share with birds of prey, fostering a harmonious coexistence for generations to come.

Ways to HELP Birds of Prey

1. Nesting Platforms and Boxes

Many birds of prey suffer from deforestation and habitat destruction. Providing a place for them to nest helps them raise families.

Some birds such as bald eagles like a platform to build a nest on. Birding Wire has directions on how to make and install one.

Others like screech owls, saw-whet owls, and kestrels do well with a nesting box like this one.

Barn owls require a large box like this one.

2. Leave old trees standing that provide natural nest cavities.

3. Don’t use rat poison. Attract owls!

Elk are also called wapiti meaning white rump in Cree. The elk plays a spiritual role in many indigenous cultures. They are revered for their endurance, patience, protection, and strength.

Species Variation and Region

There are four living subspecies of elk in North America and four subspecies in Asia. However, scientists often disagree about some of the dividing characteristics.

They have slight variances in antler shape and size, weight, coloration, and social behavior.

North American Elk Subspecies

• Roosevelt's elk (C. c. roosevelti) Largest elk, lives in Pacific Northwest

• Tule elk (C. c. nannodes) Smallest elk is found only in CA

• Manitoban elk (C. c. manitobensis) Found in Dakotas and into Canada

• Rocky Mountain elk (C. c. nelsoni) Most widespread in Rocky Mt. states

What is the Difference between WHITE-TAILED Deer, elk, and Moose?

All three are part of the Cervidae family (the deer family) but the primary differences between deer, elk, and moose lie in their size.

Deer are the smallest of the three. White-tailed deer and mule deer, which are the most common species in North America, typically weigh between 100 to 300 pounds and stand about 2.5 to 3.5 feet tall at the shoulder.

You can read my article Everything You Want To Know About White-Tailed Deer

Elk are larger than deer but smaller than moose. Elk are much heavier, with males (bulls) weighing between 600 to 1,100 pounds and standing around 4.5 to 5 feet tall at the shoulder.

Moose are the largest member of the deer family. Moose can weigh up to 1,500 pounds (with some bulls exceeding 1,800 pounds) and stand 5 to 7 feet tall at the shoulder, making them massive animals compared to elk and deer.

Where Do Elk Live?

1. North America

• Western United States and Canada: Elk thrive in the forests, grasslands, and mountainous regions of the Rocky Mountains, Pacific Northwest, and parts of Canada, such as British Columbia and Alberta.

• Eastern United States: Although they were once nearly extinct in the east, reintroduction efforts have brought elk populations back to places like Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina.

• Yellowstone National Park: This is one of the most famous elk habitats, where large herds can be observed in their natural environment. Rocky Mountain National Park also has a large number.

2. Asia

• Siberia: Elk are found in the forests and mountainous regions of Russia.

• Mongolia: In Mongolia, they live in a mix of steppe and forested areas.

• Northern China: Some populations also exist in the colder regions of northern China.

How Big Are Elk?

Elk (Cervus canadensis) are distinguished by their impressive size and unique antlers. Males, known as bulls, can weigh between 600 to 1,100 pounds, while females, called cows, weigh between 450 to 650 pounds. Bulls grow large, branching antlers that can reach up to four feet in length and are shed and regrown annually.

Elk have a distinct coloration that varies with the seasons. During summer, their coat is reddish-brown, which turns to a more subdued grayish-brown in winter. They also have a characteristic light-colored rump patch, which is especially noticeable when they are fleeing from predators.

Habitats: Where Do they live

• Forests: Elk often prefer forested areas, especially coniferous and mixed forests where they can find ample cover.

• Grasslands: In some areas, elk live in open grasslands, especially where food is abundant.

• Mountainous Regions: Elk are well-adapted to life in high elevations and often migrate to higher altitudes in the summer and lower areas in the winter to find food.

• Woodlands and Meadows: Elk also thrive in woodland edges and meadows, where they can graze and find shelter.

Elk are highly adaptable and can be found in a variety of habitats, including forests, grasslands, and mountainous regions. In North America, they are predominantly found in the western United States and Canada, with smaller populations in the eastern states. Elk also inhabit parts of Asia, including the Siberian regions of Russia and Mongolia.

Hear the Elk's bugle call! Check out my video.

Reproduction

Fall is the Rut season when the majestic bull elk demands to be heard. It's the call of the wild when male elk fight for dominance and the right to mate with females. Bugling can be heard for miles.

During the fall rut, bull elk spray themselves with urine to attract females, a practice called "self-anointing". The urine soaks into their hair, giving them a distinct smell that cows find appealing.

But it's not all about the bulls. The herd is primarily made up of cows and their calves with a dominant male. Cows do not grow antlers.

In the fall, the male will gather a group of females into a harem. Females start to mate in their second year.

What is Bugling?

Bugling is the high-pitched, loud vocalization made by bull elk (male elk) during the mating season, known as the rut. It’s one of the most iconic sounds of the fall wilderness, particularly in areas where elk are common, such as the Rocky Mountains.

Bugling starts with a low, resonant grunt that rises to a high-pitched scream or whistle, followed by a series of grunts. The sound can travel over long distances and can be heard echoing across valleys and mountains, making it a dramatic experience for anyone lucky enough to witness it.

During the rut, bull elk bugle draws the attention of the cows. The bugle acts as an advertisement of their strength, health, and dominance, signaling that they are fit to mate.

Bugling is also a way for bulls to communicate and assert dominance over other males. The loud, piercing sound lets rival bulls know that a territory or a group of cows is already claimed. Sometimes, the bugling is followed by aggressive displays or even antler wrestling when two bulls challenge each other.

Calves

The cows give birth to calves in late May to early July. Babies around weigh 35 lb (16 kg). Similar to white-tailed deer elk babies have spots for camouflage and no scent. This allows them to hide from predators.

The mother stays with the calf in a secluded area where she can hide them. At about two weeks the calf is strong enough to join the herd.

Elks typically have a single calf. About 1% of cows will have twins.

They nurse for 2-5 months. The elk calf stays with its mother until the next spring when the cow has new babies.

How Big Are Elk Antlers?

The bulls grow antlers each year that can weigh 40 lbs and can grow four feet across. That's important because the females think large antlers are sexy. Antlers are regrown every year and are made of bone and extensions of the skull. There is actually some risk to having antlers.

Antler grows incredibly fast. In fact, antlers are the fastest bone growth in the world growing up to one inch per day. Velvet, which covers antlers during the growth phase, carries blood to the growing bone tissue. Mature bulls may produce 30-40 lbs. of velvet.

Once the antlers are hardened and ready for use in the fall rut, the velvet is shed. Bulls remove the drying velvet, by rubbing their antlers against small trees. The velvet is a nutritionally dense food for small animals. In fact, velvet from a variety of deer species, has long been used in human supplementation in Eastern medicine.

Once mating season is over, male deer no longer need their antlers. Shorter days and less light reduce their testosterone levels and signal to drop them. Those fallen antlers provide a big benefit. Squirrels and other small mammals chew on them. This gives them the necessary minerals and helps their teeth.

While it probably feels good to get rid of all that weight on your skull losing your anters means being defenseless. Wildlife biologists studying wolves in Yellowstone National Park have found that in spring wolves tend to target male elk who have lost their antlers. Whereas in the winter they may target a smaller weaker animal.

Another risk for the bull is that it takes quite a bit of energy to grow antlers. He will spend a quarter of the energy he gets from eating 30 pounds of vegetation just toward growing antlers. Cow elks use this energy to prepare for winter. This may be why they live longer than males.

The whole antler thing is more about strength and dominance. In general, the elk don't stab or injure each other. It's more pushy shovey.

Horns Vs. Antlers

Some animals such as the Big Horn sheep have horns which they also use for defense and impressing girls. Horns are different than antlers because they are permanent. Horns are living bones surrounded by keratin.

Check out this video to learn who wins the ultimate showdown - horns vs antlers!

Elk Conservation

Elk populations have faced significant challenges due to habitat loss, hunting, and disease. In the early 20th century, overhunting and habitat destruction led to a dramatic decline in their numbers. However, concerted conservation efforts, including the establishment of protected areas and regulated hunting, have allowed elk populations to recover in many areas.

Elk play a crucial role in their ecosystems. As herbivores, they help maintain the balance of plant communities by grazing on grasses and browsing on shrubs. Their foraging behavior can influence the structure and composition of vegetation, which in turn affects other wildlife species.

Moreover, elk are a key prey species for large predators such as wolves and bears. Their presence supports the health and diversity of predator populations and contributes to the overall stability of the ecosystem.

Chronic Wasting Disease

One of the ongoing challenges for elk conservation is the management of diseases such as chronic wasting disease, a neurological disorder that affects deer, elk, and moose. CWD is always fatal and poses a significant threat to wild populations.

It is caused by abnormal proteins called prions, which affect the brain and nervous system of infected animals, leading to symptoms such as drastic weight loss, stumbling, lack of coordination, and abnormal behavior. Eventually, the disease is always fatal.

Elk can contract CWD through direct contact with other infected animals or indirectly by coming into contact with prions in the environment. Prions are shed through saliva, urine, feces, and even carcasses of infected animals, and they can persist in the soil and plants for long periods, which makes the disease difficult to control or eliminate.

Symptoms of CWD in Elk

While it can take months or even years for symptoms to appear, infected elk may show signs such as:

• Severe weight loss (wasting)

• Lack of coordination and balance

• Drooling or excessive thirst

• Dull, listless behavior

• Disorientation

• Isolation from the herd

Wildlife agencies in areas where CWD is present are actively working to monitor and control the spread of the disease. Strategies include testing elk populations, managing hunting regulations, and educating the public on the risks of transporting infected animals or carcasses.

Is CWD Dangerous to Humans?

There is no confirmed evidence that CWD can be transmitted to humans. However, experts recommend caution. Hunters in areas where CWD is known to exist are advised to have their harvested animals tested for the disease before consuming the meat.

Do Elk MigratE?

Elk are migratory animals, often traveling between different elevations and habitats in search of food. In the summer, they move to higher altitudes to feed on grasses and forbs, while in the winter, they descend to lower elevations where they can find shrubs and woody plants.

In many regions, winter snowfall can become too deep for elk to move through efficiently or graze. By migrating to lower elevations, they avoid the heaviest snows and can conserve energy while continuing to forage for food.

How Far Do Elk Migrate?

Elk herds in Yellowstone National Park and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem are known for their long migrations. These elk migrate between the higher-elevation summer ranges in Yellowstone and the lower-elevation winter ranges outside the park, covering distances of up to 100 miles or more.

In places like Oregon and Washington, elk populations tend to have shorter migrations, often moving from forested areas to open grasslands or valleys depending on the season.

Elk migration routes are sometimes threatened by urban development, roads, and agriculture, which can fragment their habitat and make migration more difficult. Elk are known to cross roads and highways during migration, increasing the risk of vehicle collisions.

Hunting

First Nations have been hunting elk for thousands of years. Fall was a popular time to hunt elk in preparation for the winter. They use the hide to make boots, gloves, and other articles of clothing. Elk teeth are popular in necklaces.

White settlers pushing west often hunted the elk for food as well.

In the early 1900s, overhunting and habitat destruction led to a dramatic decline in their numbers. However, conservation efforts, including establishing protected areas and regulating hunting, have allowed elk populations to recover in many areas.

Elk Farming

In some areas of the United States elk are raised as livestock and used for meat production. Elk meat is considered healthy because it is lean, and lower in fat, and cholesterol. Plus, it is raised using no growth hormones or chemicals.

It is a niche industry compared to other livestock farming. Elk farming primarily focuses on producing elk meat, antlers, and byproducts such as hides and velvet antlers (used in supplements).

Velvet antlers are believed to have anti-inflammatory and immune-boosting properties, though scientific evidence supporting these claims is limited.

Elk meat is sold through specialty markets, restaurants, and direct-to-consumer sales. It’s especially popular in regions where wild game and exotic meats are appreciated.

Although less common, some elk farms are involved in conservation efforts. They may collaborate with wildlife organizations or local governments to help with elk reintroduction programs or to provide education on elk biology and ecology.

Author, Ame Vanorio, is the founder of Fox Run Environmental Education, an author, wildlife rehabilitator, and organic gardener.

Although they might seem similar at first glance, horns and antlers are quite different in terms of their structure, growth, and purpose. Understanding these differences can give us a deeper appreciation for the animals that wear them and the roles they play in their lives.

In this article, we dive deep into the world of horns and antlers. I will break down the anatomy, discuss the species that possess them, and the evolutionary advantages they provide. So let's get into it.

Structure and Composition

Did you know that while both horns and antlers are used for fighting and display, they come from entirely different biological structures?

The most fundamental difference between horns and antlers lies in their composition.

Horns

Horns are permanent structures made of a bony core covered by a sheath of keratin, the same protein that makes up human hair and nails. Horns grow continuously throughout an animal's life and are not shed.

Once they begin growing, they do not stop, although their growth rate can slow down as the animal ages. Because horns are a permanent fixture, they can provide a lot of information about an animal's age and health.

They can be found in both males and females of certain species, such as in the case of cattle, goats, and antelope. Horns typically grow in pairs, and their shape can vary greatly between species—some being straight and pointed, others curling into elaborate spirals.

Baby sheep and goats both domestic and wild are born with horn buds that grow quickly. In domestic animals in some breeds, we have bred them to be polled or without horns. However, in the wild, even animals a month old will have small horns.

While not an exact science we can get some clues to their age from these. For instance, a ram will often develop a four-year ring. This is the most predominant dark and discolored ring. Four years old is when bighorn rams have matured enough to start battling for a mate. As they mature the ring gaps become closer together.

Horns can be broken or misshapen. Each horn has a continuous flow of blood beneath the hard sheath so an injury can end in death. Not to mention being quite painful.

Antlers

Antlers, on the other hand, are made entirely of bone. They are a temporary feature, shed and regrown annually, which is a significant characteristic that distinguishes them from horns.

Antlers are exclusive to members of the Cervidae family. Deer, elk, and moose are well-known examples of animals with antlers.

Antlers are typically found only on male members of the deer family, though there are exceptions, such as caribou, where both males and females can have antlers.

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During the growth phase, antlers are covered in a soft, furry skin known as "velvet," which supplies blood to the growing bone. Once the antlers are fully developed, the velvet dries up and is rubbed off by the animal, leaving behind the hard bone structure we often associate with antlers.

Once the antlers are fully developed, the velvet dries up and is rubbed off by the animal, leaving behind the hard bone structure we often associate with antlers. Antlers attach to the skull at a point called the pedicel, which is located between the eye and ear on the frontal bone.

The antlers grow from the pedicel over a period of about eight to ten months, and when they are fully grown, they separate from the skull at the pedicel.

Typically, antlers begin to grow in the spring and are fully developed by late summer or early fall. After the breeding season, the antlers are shed, and the process begins anew the following year.

This cycle is closely linked to the animal's reproductive cycle and the availability of resources in its environment. The size and shape of an animal’s antlers can change each year, depending on factors like nutrition, health, and age.

CAN YOU TELL THE AGE OF A DEER BY ITS ANTLERS?

Yes and No! The only precise way to tell a deer’s age is by looking at its teeth.

The buck deer grows antlers that have points or tines on them. Often we think that the deer grows a point for every year of its life. This is not true. A well-fed yearling buck can grow a six to eight-point rack. Sometimes age can be interpreted.

Questions answered about white-tails!

Purpose and Function

The functions of horns and antlers also differ, though both can be used for defense and dominance displays.

Did you know that horns and antlers can actually influence social behavior? That’s right! Animals with impressive horns or antlers often have a leg up in the social hierarchy. For instance, in deer, larger antlers can signify higher status within a group, affecting mating opportunities.

This means horns and antlers aren’t just physical traits; they play a massive role in relationships and survival strategies.

Horns are primarily used for defense against predators and for fighting among members of the same species, particularly in disputes over territory or mates. Because they are permanent and grow continuously, they are always available for these purposes.

In some species, the size and shape of the horns can play a role in social status, with larger horns often signaling a more dominant individual.

Some good footage of Bighorn males fighting! Check out my video on wild sheep

Antlers, while also used in combat, particularly during the breeding season when males compete for the attention of females, serve an additional purpose in displays of dominance and attractiveness.

The size and symmetry of antlers are often key factors in these displays, with larger, more impressive antlers being more attractive to potential mates. After the breeding season, when their primary purpose has been fulfilled, antlers are shed, allowing the animal to conserve energy during the winter months.

Species Examples

To better understand these differences, let's look at a few examples. Highlighted names are linked to an article I have on the species.

Animals with Horns

Bighorn sheep

Bison

Mountain goats

Animals with Antlers

Caribou

Elk

Moose

White-Tailed Deer

Conclusion

Understanding these differences not only enhances our appreciation for these magnificent animals but also deepens our respect for the intricate ways in which they have adapted to their environments.

Next time you spot a deer in the forest or a ram on a mountainside, take a moment to observe their headgear—you’ll now know whether you’re looking at horns or antlers, and what those structures signify in the life of that animal.

Author, Ame Vanorio, is the founder of Fox run EEC.

Grizzly 399 is a highly popular celebrity animal with a massive social media following. As scientists and wildlife enthusiasts we can learn from the observations of her and her cubs throughout the years.

• This is a deep dive

• A complete list of references is provided at the end of the article

• This article may contain marked Amazon links and I may receive a small commission if you purchase from Amazon using my links.

Who Is The Grizzly Bear?

It's amazing that when these bears are born they weigh less than two pounds. Adult males average 700 pounds (315 kilograms) and females 600 pounds. However, they can range from 200 - 1000 pounds depending on sex and location.

The farther north you go the bigger the bears get. Grizzlies in northern Alaska need 6 months' worth of fat to allow them to hibernate through the long winter. Same for polar bears.

One way to tell a grizzly from a black bear is this massive hump over the shoulder blades. The hump is made of muscle, not fat, and is attached to the backbone. One reason why they are such fabulous diggers and can tear things apart.

A grizzly bear can also be identified by its rump, which is lower than its shoulders. Grizzlies have a fabulous sense of smell - 20 times stronger than a bloodhound.

Grizzly bears can look pretty scary and rightfully so. They have huge jaws with 42 teeth that include large canines. This makes sense because they need their teeth to catch fish and tear apart their prey such as elk and bison.

They also have large back molars so they can grind up the vegetation they eat. Grizzlies have a bit force of 975 pounds! Second only to the polar bear.

They have front claws between 2 - 4 inches long. Bear claws are not retractable. They are used for digging roots and dens or catching salmon. Basically, they act as a multi-purpose tool.

Grizzlies are wicked fast and have been clocked at Yellowstone going 30 mph or 48 km/h

Brown Bear, Black Bear, Red Bear, Blue Bear! What is the difference?

Obviously the last two are a nod to Dr Suess!

Grizzlies are a type of brown bear and scientists notoriously argue about their genetic classification.

Grizzly’s are distinguished by large size, a shoulder hump, and long claws as described above. They also have a much smaller range than black bears.

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Grizzly Populations

So the grizzly or Ursus arctos horribilis - I love that name by the way - has been on a population decline for many years. Grizzlies originally occupied 18 states west of the Mississippi.

According to the US Department of Fish and Wildlife, there were 50,000 grizzly bears in the mid-1800s at the time when settlers were moving into western territories. They were encouraged to shoot, poison, and trap the bears to get rid them - period.

As of 2021, the population is approximately 1,923 bears in the lower 48. With about 800 in Montana and 600 in Wyoming and a small population in the Northwest Cascades. They are still on the endangered species list after several attempts to delist them. It's illegal to harm, harass, or kill these bears unless you or others are in imminent danger.

This map is from the US fish and Wildlife for Grizzly Bear Recovery Zones and Estimated Distributions in 2022. My red circle is a rough location of 399's territory. This takes into consideration her birthplace at Pilgrim Creek, the Grand Tetons National Forest, and surrounding human communities.

What Do Grizzly Bears Eat?

Despite their penchant for fishing bears are omnivores and eat a variety of foods. They will hunt mammals - often going for the young and old who are easier to catch.

They also eat carrion. Those that live by the coast have been seen eating dead whales that have washed up. Like the black bear, they love berries, nuts, and tree fruits.

Bears are smart and know where and when the salmon will be coming up the river. Salmon aren't the only fish they hunt. Trout and bass are also popular prey.

Grizzlies will walk along the bottom of the river and look underwater for the fish. They will also dig for razor clams.

Grizzly bears can be found in a wide variety of ecosystems including alpine meadows, and prairies. In many habitats, they prefer riparian areas along rivers and streams. These areas also have a lot of berries to forage in summer and fall.

I was surprised to learn that grizzly bears will graze. In some locations, 70% of the diet is made up of plants. Digging of plant materials helps the soil exchange nitrogen and nutrients. Grizzlies will also carry prey around with them. Between decaying prey and their feces, they add nutrients to alpine meadows.

Grizzlies often leave leftovers while they are eating. This provides food for other species. In the case of salmon birds such as gulls and ravens in addition to smaller mammals like fox and mink enjoy there sloppy eating habits.

Who Is 399?

She is probably the most loved bear in the world (including the Coca-Cola polar bear) and has a massive social media following. However, she also has some concerning habits and has had several offspring killed due to behaviors she has taught them.

399 which is her official tracking number has been studied and monitored for years giving us tons of information. She was born in 1996 in Pilgrim Creek and her territory includes Teton National Park, Bridger-Teton National Forest, and communities in the area.

Making her the queen bee at the old age of 28 when this year she emerged from her den with her single cub who has been nicknamed Spirit. Spirit was born in 2023. In 2020 399 gave birth to quadruplets a very rare event although in fact bears do have four teats.

Grizzlies normally live in pretty remote areas. High mountainous and alpine fields. They desire to avoid humans. 399 has always lived closer to human populations much like many bears in the Yellowstone area. And while we love to see her I think one of the big lessons here is about her habituation.

Habituation is basically when a wild animal loses fear of humans. I spent 12 years with my own wildlife rehabilitation center. I can tell you that the worry about having an animal not be releasable due to habituation is very real.

There are not enough placements in zoos and education facilities and the fact that states can and do order them euthanized is a recipe for panic attacks. I cant imagine how that translates with a large animal.

Although to be fair urbanization of wildlife is often a survival tactic on their part and does not always mean conflict with humans.

399’s Family

399's daughter, Grizzly 610, has also proved to not only be very fertile but an exceptional mother as well. In fact, in 2011 she adopted one of her mother's cubs. And they have been seen together several seasons with cubs in tow.

610's daughter, numbered 926 has also proven to be a prolific mother. So parenting skills do matter.

Hibernation

Female grizzlies are called sows and typically have twins but anywhere from 1 -4 is common. Cubs are born during hibernation, weighing less than 2 pounds and they will stay with mom for about two and a half years.

Grizzlies are wonderful and protective mothers and rare attacks on humans have often arisen because of the mother's perceived danger to the cubs.

Grizzlies have a low reproductive rate - one of the reasons their population declines quickly when faced with habitat loss and human predation. In addition, females, don't reach sexual maturity till age 5. Brown bear’s lifespan is about 25 years in the wild. Contrary to popular belief grizzlies can climb trees, even adults, and the young often use this tactic to escape aggressive older male bears. Cougars and wolf packs may also try to snatch a young cub.

The gestation period for grizzly bears is approximately 180–250 days. It varies due to environmental factors. The embryo typically doesn't implant till the mom reaches a healthy weight and is hibernating. The cubs stay with their mom until they are two and a half years old when they typically separate from their mother. In areas with little food, the cubs may stay with their mother longer.

Wildlife Management Concerns

399 has been fitted with radio collars several times and now deftly avoids trailers. The typical way to tag a grizzly is to lure them with meat into a trailer, slam the door, tranquilize them, take scientific readings, and then release them. While helpful in monitoring behavior pretty traumatic for the animal.

Two years ago she avoided trapping but two of the cubs were caught and tagged causing a very distressful and obviously traumatic family situation. This caused a lot of criticism for authorities who wanted to track her proximity to humans.

So to use the adage there are two covers on every book. I took wildlife management in college and it's a subject wrought with controversy! And while I will always side with the animal, I can see where it is necessary to do things that protect humans and thus protect animals.

Sadly we humans are very vengeful creatures.

In this video, we are going to focus on the grizzly bears' ability to survive, conserving populations and dive into the studies around Grizzly 399.

Traffic jams in the Yellowstone area are notorious. I have two interesting points here. First grizzly bears are exceptionally smart and do learn from past events. 399 had a cub killed in the upcountry by a male grizzly who do sometimes prey on cubs. Females who keep closer to human areas can more likely avoid male predation on their cubs.

My second point is that these communities around Yellowstone benefit greatly from tourism. The fact that they benefit from the bears while also using hazing techniques can be a bit contradictory.

I read one article that quoted a biologist as saying it wouldn't make a difference if an animal was a celebrity. I quite disagree. Celebrity status seems to be a major factor along with intelligence on why 399 is alive. Not only is she popular she is well loved.

Grizzly Bear Attacks

Many people fear grizzlies and rightly so but actually attacks average about 12 per year with 2 of those being fatal. These are usually surprise incidents with the majority being females with cubs. The National Park Service has information about protecting yourself in bear country. Obviously, you should follow their guidelines and take precautions while in wilderness areas.

399 has twice attacked humans who have startled her when she had cubs. She was not euthanized because the people survived and because both said it was their fault and asked that she not be harmed.

And while she has avoided euthanasia due to her notoriety three of her cubs have been euthanized due to human conflict and several have been hit by cars including 2016 cub, nicknamed 'Snowy' because of his whitish-blonde face coloration.

Her son from 2020 Grizzly 1057 was coming onto porches looking for food and was euthanized in 2022.

On November 10, 2021, Grizzly 399 walked down the streets of Jackson Wyoming at 10 o'clock at night. The police as well as fish and wildlife officers did follow her. She has had some minor conflicts and has gotten into bee hives, a farmer's grain and some compost.

The concern is she is teaching her cubs this is where to look for food. On the flip side, the USFW has pointed out to Jackson that the city was behind in enforcing and providing appropriate bear deterants.

Goals for humans is to be good neighbors with wildlife including grizzlies. Bearproof trash receptacles, protection for bee hives such as electric fencing, and wildlife crossings over roads are great ways to coexist. Grizzlies are large animals and have extensive territories. Making sure they have those safe corridors is something we need to think about when planning cities.

We have a history of conquering land and spreading out. Which I say with all the conviction of someone with Native American heritage. Let's start planning communities so that we leave wilderness areas and allow for connection corridors.

Another intelligent skill that 399 has developed and taught her cubs is a late denning. She often does not go into hibernation until early January because she knows that in the late fall, there is a hunting season for elk. Thousands of pounds of innards and organ meet is left in the field as well as bodies who ran away and later died from wounds.

And while hunting and conservation management is a whole nother issue it does show 399s intelligence and learned behaviors. And it most likely contributes to her remarkably good health and vitality as an older bear.

I do have another video called All About the Grizzly Bear which is more of general information about the species.

Breakdown of Differences Between Brown and Black Bears

Physical Characteristics

• Brown Bear (Ursus arctos)

  • Size: Larger than black bears. Adult males weigh between 300 to 850 pounds, while females typically weigh between 200 to 450 pounds.

  • Color: Fur color ranges from blonde to dark brown, often with a mix of different shades. They are not uniformly brown.

  • Hump: A distinctive hump of muscle on their shoulders

  • Facial Profile: Concave or dish-shaped face with a more prominent brow ridge.

  • Claws: Long, slightly curved claws, which are good for digging and turning over rocks and logs.

• Black Bear (Ursus americanus)

  • Size: Smaller than brown bears. Adult males typically weigh between 150 to 600 pounds, while females weigh between 90 to 300 pounds.

  • Color: Black bears can be black, brown, cinnamon, or even blonde. Despite the name, they are not always black.

  • Hump: No shoulder hump.

  • Facial Profile: Straighter profile with a less prominent brow ridge.

  • Claws: Shorter, more curved claws, adapted for climbing trees.

2. Habitat and Distribution

• Brown Bear

  • Found in North America (primarily in Alaska, western Canada, and parts of the northwestern United States).

  • Prefer open areas such as tundra, alpine meadows, and coastal regions.

• Black Bear

  • Found throughout North America, including Canada, the United States, and parts of northern Mexico.

  • Prefer forested areas with thick understory, but they are highly adaptable and can also be found in swamps, mountains, and occasionally grasslands.

3. Behavior and Diet

• Brown Bear

  • More likely to be found in open areas and often feed on fish, particularly salmon and trout during spawning seasons.

  • Omnivorous diet including grasses, roots, berries, insects, and mammals.

  • More aggressive, particularly when defending cubs or food sources.

• Black Bear

  • More likely to climb trees to escape danger or to forage.

  • Omnivorous diet similar to brown bears, but they eat more vegetation and are less reliant on meat and fish.

  • Generally more timid and will often avoid human encounters if possible although are becoming more habituated, especially in the parks.

4. Reproduction

• Brown Bear

  • Mating season is from May to July, with cubs born during hibernation in January or February.

  • Cubs stay with their mothers for about 2 to 3 years.

• Black Bear

  • Mating season is from June to July, with cubs born in January or February.

  • Cubs typically stay with their mothers for about 1.5 to 2 years.

5. Conservation Status

• Brown Bear

  • Populations in the USA are listed on the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the United States since 1975.

  • Conservation efforts focus on habitat preservation and reducing human-bear conflicts.

• Black Bear

  • Generally more abundant and not considered threatened, though certain populations face challenges from habitat fragmentation and human interactions.

  • Management practices include controlled hunting and relocation programs to manage populations and reduce conflicts.

References:

Gunther, Kerry. (2015). Habituated Grizzly Bears: A Natural Response to Increasing Visitation in Yellowstone & Grand Teton National Parks. Yellowstone Science. 23. 33 - 39.

Hall, Travis (2022) Feds Propose Relocation of Grizzly Bears to Washington State. Field and Stream.

Mark Heinz (2024) Managing Wildlife Tricky When They’re Worldwide Celebrities, Like Grizzly 399. Cowboy State Daily.

Mattson, David. (2021). Estimating densities, distributions, and total population sizes of extirpated grizzly bears in the contiguous United States. Grizzly Bear Recovery Project Technical Paper GBRP-TP-2021-1

National Park Service Bear Attacks https://www.nps.gov/articles/bearattacks.htm

US Fish and Wildlife (2023) Grizzly Bear

Vital Ground - Our mission is to protect and restore North America's grizzly bear populations for future generations by conserving wildlife habitat and by supporting programs that reduce conflicts between bears and humans. https://www.vitalground.org/

Cicadas are a valuable food source for many wildlife species including the wild turkey. They live in mature forests near fields and meadows and go out and scratch the ground to search for food. Cicadas live in and around deciduous trees.

Wild Turkeys

Wild turkeys are found throughout the U.S. but their populations are denser east of the Mississippi. In the 1970s, they were at risk of disappearing from America due to hunting and habitat loss.

Habitat loss has also affected the turkey’s food sources. One of the wild turkeys’ favorite foods are cicadas.

You can learn more about wild turkeys in my article GOBBLE, GOBBLE! WILD TURKEY'S.

What are cicadas and why are they important?

Cicadas are, quite simply, one of nature’s most incredible and perplexing animals. They are relatively large insects, approximately 1-1 ½ inches long and are found across the globe.

The exceptional cicada species that make headlines, however, are only found in the U.S. These cicadas are called periodical cicadas and only emerge from underground once every 13 or 17 years.

They begin their lives as nymphs that live below ground, sucking fluid from plant roots. They can count seasonal plant cycles from this pulsing fluid and, after 13 or 17 cycles, they synchronously emerge as adults in the hundreds of billions (1).

The sound from the cicadas during their 4-6 weeks as adults is deafening as they call for mates.

During this time, the females lay their eggs which hatch into nymphs after 6-8 weeks (2). Shortly afterward they die. The nymphs, however, rain down onto the ground, rapidly digging into the soil to feed on the roots (2), thus beginning a new 13- or 17-year cycle.

Periodical cicadas belong to one of 15 geographically-defined broods across North America (1). These broods don’t synchronize with each other, so you may have a 13-year emergence in New York one year and a 13-year emergence in Georgia the following year. It appears the mass emergence of these insects within their broods helps survival. It really is ‘safety in numbers and they can number 1.5 million in a single acre (1).

Interestingly, it has also been discovered that birds that prey on the cicadas are at an all-time low in the year of the cicada emergence. Scientists think that cicadas are driving the bird populations; causing them to peak immediately after their emergence and taper off to their lowest numbers exactly 13 or 17 years later (3). This could be true for other cicada predators and could be another explanation for the prolonged underground period of these insects.

Unlike locusts, which can swarm and destroy crops, cicadas can benefit the trees on which they emerge. The females lay eggs in branches some of which will die as a result. This prunes the trees of energy-sapping weaker branches (4). Furthermore, when the adult cicadas die in their billions (4-6 weeks after their emergence), they provide a huge amount of nutrients for the soil and surrounding vegetation.

Cicadas, during an emergence year, provide a staggering amount of food for their predators. These include birds such as starlings, robins, jays, and blackbirds (2); mammals such as shrews, mice, and voles (5); and reptiles such as turtles and snakes (2). This has a significant impact on these species and their success during an emergence year and subsequent years.

The relationship between cicada emergence and wild turkeys in the United States has been an important topic of conversation.

How do cicadas help wild turkey populations and why is this relationship so important?

Wild turkeys prefer a habitat consisting of woodland dotted with openings such as pastures and marshes. Mixed forest-agricultural landscapes are important for female turkeys and their nest sites (9). Similarly, cicadas prefer deciduous trees and plants and therefore flourish in habitats occupied by turkeys.

Turkeys tend to stay in flocks consisting of 10-30 birds and, amazingly, can fly at up to 50 mph for short distances! They have very keen vision and hearing (far better than a human’s) so are able to detect predators very well. 

Some research has shown that as few at 23% of poults (young turkeys) survive the first month of their lives (10). This very low survival rate is of concern to turkey conservationists and there is evidence of a declining wild turkey population in some U.S. states.

Breeding months for the turkeys are typically March/April in the U.S., but is very weather dependent and can even extend to July. Females are about half the size of males and lay 9-12 eggs which take 26-28 days to hatch (11). Over 50% of the chicks will die before they reach maturity. This can be due to predation and poor weather conditions.

During a cicada emergence year, the wild turkeys thrive. Their productivity has been recorded to dramatically increase by 83% during an emergence year (6). The turkeys have an abundance of food and expend less energy foraging.

Furthermore, predators that normally feed on poults and eggs, are full from consuming cicadas. Predators such as racoons, opossums and skunks therefore pose less of a threat due to an ecological term called predator satiation (6). Basically, they fill their tummies with the insects so don’t bother as much with turkey eggs, babies or adults. Also, because the turkeys don’t need to roam as far to forage, they are less prone to predation.

What happens if we kill all the cicadas?

Wild turkeys are most abundant in the eastern states. Periodical cicada populations are also located east of the Mississippi river. Perhaps the geographical distribution of turkeys is partly down to the presence of these key insects.

Some cicada broods have been in decline recently. This appears to be due to a number of reasons including pesticide use and climate change. As well as counting the seasons to determine when to emerge, cicadas use temperature. With warmer winters, some cicadas called ‘stragglers’ emerge at the wrong time. Recently, there have been so many ‘stragglers’ that some believe they could evolve to produce their own, new brood.

Learn all about wild turkeys in this video!

Destruction of their woodland habitat has caused some cicada populations to disappear from some states (2). This loss of habitat can be from forest fires, deforestation, urbanization and natural tree pests and diseases (2).

Due to their long lifecycle underground, cicada nymphs are exposed to changes in the soil. Pesticides and sewerage effluent can be damaging as well as soil erosion and nutrient leaching.

If cicadas were to die out, wild turkey numbers would struggle to survive. Research has shown that the population boom of cicada predators following an emergence is short lived (1-3 years). However, more vulnerable species, such as the wild turkey, may find itself over-predated and over-hunted relatively quickly.

The wild turkey has already come back from the brink of extinction within the U.S. once, so we need to do everything we can to preserve this ecologically and culturally important bird, and thriving cicada numbers are a way of doing that.

Author Ame Vanorio is the founder of Fox run EEC, an environmental educator and author. Check out her paperback books on Amazon and pdf versions in our website store.

Resources

1. McKeever, A. (2021) Millions of cicadas will soon emerge in the U.S. Here’s why. National Geographic https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/millions-cicadas-emerging-now-united-states?loggedout=tru

2. Williams, K. S., & Simon, C. (1995). The ecology, behavior, and evolution of periodical cicadas. Annual review of entomology, 40(1), 269-295.

3. Morell, V., (2012) Cicadas' Cycles Control Their Predators - Insects' mysterious cycle may help create a boom-bust cycle for the birds that eat them. Science.org https://www.science.org/content/article/cicadas-cycles-control-their-predators

4. Cicada Mania, (2008) What is the purpose of cicadas? https://www.cicadamania.com/cicadas/what-is-the-purpose-of-cicadas/

5. Hahus, S. C., & Smith, K. G. (1990). Food habits of Blarina, Peromyscus, and Microtus in relation to an emergence of periodical cicadas (Magicicada). Journal of Mammalogy, 71(2), 249-252.

6. Brooke, J. (2021) Billions of Cicadas Are Coming This Spring; What Does That Mean for Wildlife? Purdue.edu https://www.purdue.edu/fnr/extension/billions-of-cicadas-are-coming-this-spring-what-does-that-mean-for-wildlife/

8. AZ Animals, (2022) Wild Turkey Population By State: How Many are in the U.S.? https://a-z-animals.com/blog/wild-turkey-population-by-state/

9. Pollentier, C. D., Lutz, R. S., & Drake, D. (2017). Female wild turkey habitat selection in mixed forest‐agricultural landscapes. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 81(3), 487-497.

10. Shrivastava, R. (2021) Wild turkey populations are declining. MU researchers have a plan to find out why. Vox Magazine 2021 at https://www.voxmagazine.com/magazine/tracking-turkeys-missouri-conservation-hunting-research-mu-wild-poult-birds/article_4d285abc-3a33-11eb-bd7b-6b86ee68d771.htm Accessed on 1 September 2022

11. Department of Natural Resources, Maryland.gov (2022) Eastern Wild Turkey
(Meleagris gallopavo) https://dnr.maryland.gov/wildlife/Pages/plants_wildlife/WildTurkeyFactSheet.aspx

Both eagles are birds of prey, hunting for their food as well as scavenging. Eagles will fight larger predators in order to get access to carrion.

Let’s take a look at each bird separately and then similarities and differences. In addition, I will give you some tips on how to spot them in the wild.

After you are done reading this blog I have one on the dangers facing birds of prey and how they need your help now!

Bald Eagle

The bald eagle an apex predator that came back from the brink of extinction is an American symbol of freedom. The bald eagle makes quite the impression. As a rehabber, I can tell you that they have a ferocious reputation and even a severely injured one will fight back with all it has.

What Does The Bald Eagle Eat?

The bald eagle is a skilled fisherman and swoops down out of the sky, using its talons to catch fish near the surface of the water. Bald Eagles have bumps on the bottom of their feet called spicules that allow them to grasp fish.

They are an opportunistic feeder and will prey on crabs, turtles, and snakes as well as fish. In addition, they will prey on other birds, especially waterfowl, and hunt small mammals such as rabbits.

Bald Eagles, especially juveniles will scavenge and eat carrion. They are well known for chasing other animals away and stealing their dinner. This is why Ben Franklin referred to them as having "bad manners".

Bald Eagle Predators

Bald Eagles are apex predators and are at the top of their food chain. As adults the only predator they have is humans.

However, the eggs and chicks are preyed on by raccoons, foxes, and wolverines.

Appearance and Senses

The bald eagle gets its name from the white feathers on its head which don't appear till they are sexually mature at about 5 years old.

Immature birds have a flecked appearance with brown and white feathers. Juvenile eagles will often hang around the nesting area the first year as they develop hunting skills.

The wingspan of a female bald eagle averages 7.2 feet and the male averages 6.4 feet. That's slightly less than a golden eagle and less than the California Condor who has the largest wingspan at 9.5 feet. Bald eagles weigh between 10-20 pounds and can be 3 feet tall.

Males and females look just alike however females are about 25% larger.

Eagle Eye

Eagle eye is a term we have for someone with good eyesight. The Bald Eagle has fantastic eyesight - four times better than a human and can spot prey two miles away. They see a wide spectrum of colors and can even see ultraviolet light.

With eyes positioned on the sides of its head, the bald eagle can scan its surroundings with an impressive field of view, allowing it to carefully observe the landscape below as it soars through the sky.

This sharp vision is supplemented by specialized vision cells called cones, which enhance the bird's ability to perceive colors, particularly yellow and red.

Hearing:
The bald eagle possesses acute auditory senses that enable it to detect crucial sounds in its environment. It can pick up on faint rustling sounds or small movements made by potential prey, allowing the bird to pinpoint food sources with remarkable accuracy.

Additionally, the bald eagle's auditory capabilities assist in communication with its partner and offspring. Through a series of high-pitched calls, chirps, and screams, the eagle is able to convey vital messages, establish territories, and maintain familial bonds.
Smell:
The sense of smell is not as developed in the bald eagle as it is in some other birds of prey. While the bald eagle primarily relies on its sight and hearing for hunting, it may occasionally utilize its sense of smell for locating carrion.

Furthermore, the eagle's acute sense of smell comes into play during the breeding season, as it helps individuals recognize potential mates and establish compatible pairs.

Nesting and Reproduction

Bald eagles build enormous nests. The largest of any North American bird. Nests can be 13 feet deep and 8 feet wide! Using sticks they choose nesting spots in tall trees often overlooking lakes or rivers.

Bald eagles have been known to roost or build nests on radio towers and other manmade buildings.

They form long-lasting pair bonds and both parents help to care for the chicks. Typically laying two eggs but may lay up to four. Incubation lasts 35 days.

The babies are called nestlings for the first ten weeks of life. One parent stays with the nestlings while the other parent hunts for food. Leaving them would expose them to cold and predators so the parents are quite vigilant.

A newly hatched chick can’t regulate its body temperature and needs to be warmed by the parents. When the adults have young eaglets, they ball their talons into a fist to avoid accidentally harming their offspring.

Fledglings are known as reluctant flyers and need to practice using their wings before having the confidence to leave the nest. The parent will keep bringing the young food after they leave the nest for another 4-6 weeks.

Bald Eagles and Wildlife Rehabilitation

Eagles like other birds of prey are often in need of rescue and rehabilitation.

The exact number of bald eagles treated in wildlife rehabilitation facilities nationwide is difficult to determine with absolute precision. However, data collected over the years give us a glimpse into the scale of this issue.

Read my article on How to Become A Licensed Wildlife Rehabilitator

According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) National Wildlife Health Center, in recent years, an estimated range of 4000 to 6000 bald eagles are admitted to licensed wildlife rehabilitation centers annually.

The reasons behind the admission of bald eagles into these facilities vary. Some of the common causes of injury include collisions with vehicles, power lines, or wind turbines, lead poisoning from consuming contaminated prey, illegal shooting, or entanglement in fishing lines.

Once admitted to a wildlife rehabilitation facility, bald eagles receive specialized care to address their injuries and ailments. Experienced wildlife rehabilitators, often working in collaboration with veterinarians, provide medical treatment, physical therapy, and nutrition tailored to the individual needs of each bird. The ultimate goal is to restore the health and well-being of the eagle so that it can be released back into the wild.

It's a very happy day when a bald eagle can be released back into the wild.

Eagles that have permanent injuries and can no longer hunt often become licensed educational animals.

It is obviously illegal to shoot a bald eagle

It is illegal to shoot a bald eagle for several significant reasons that underline the importance of protecting this majestic bird, which is a symbol of American heritage and conservation efforts.
The bald eagle was granted protection under the Endangered Species Act in 1967, and later its status was upgraded to endangered in 1978 and removed from the endangered species list in 2007.

Cultural and Symbolic Significance

Revered as a symbol of strength, freedom, and resilience, the bald eagle holds immense cultural value in American society. It is the national emblem of the United States, representing the nation's ideals and aspirations.

Shooting a bald eagle not only infringes upon the respect owed to our national symbol but also undermines the deep-rooted connection between the bird and the American people.

Protecting our national symbol signifies a commitment to conservation and the preservation of our shared cultural values.

Legal Consequences:

Lastly, shooting a bald eagle is illegal under both federal and state laws. Violating these laws can result in severe penalties including fines, imprisonment, and the loss of hunting and fishing privileges.

These legal measures are in place to deter individuals from harming or killing bald eagles, ensuring the continued protection of this iconic species.

Our National Bird

The bald eagle has been the national bird of the United States since 1782. You can check out my article on wild turkeys and hear more about how Benjamin Franklin supported them but he never argued against the bald eagle being our national bird.

In 1782, the Continental Congress adopted the Great Seal of the United States. It depicts a bald eagle grasping 13 arrows and an olive branch with thirteen leaves in its talons representing the 13 colonies.

However, long before they symbolized American freedom bald eagles were Native American symbols and spirit animals. This symbolic messenger was adorned on pottery and jewelry. Native Americans today are allowed to possess and use eagle feathers.

Golden Eagle

Golden Eagles are the most widespread eagle living in the western United States and Canada as well as much of northern Europe and Asia.

Golden eagles have large powerful feet and talons and a wingspan of over 7 feet in females.

What Do Golden Eagles Eat?

These formidable predators can take down animals much larger than themselves, including deer and foxes.

They can take down a variety of prey, from small mammals to other birds often feeding on rabbits and ground squirrels but they are not afraid to go after bigger prey.

They will even stalk prey on the ground. By keeping populations of certain prey species in check, they prevent overgrazing and help preserve the plant life in their habitat. This, in turn, supports a rich and diverse ecosystem.

Golden Eagle Senses

Their exceptional eyesight allows them to spot a target from incredible distances. They can see eight times as far as humans and can spot a rabbit up to two miles away. Then they swoop down out of the sky at up to 150 miles per hour.

The indigenous Kyrgyz people are well-known falconers having hunted with these birds for over 1000 years. They actually train the eagles to hunt larger prey.

A rich golden brown color with a black beak. Like the bald eagle, they are protected by law.

Nesting and Family Life

Golden eagles are dedicated parents. High in the rugged mountains, they construct massive nests where they raise their young. They will nest in tall trees or along cliff faces. Golden eagles are monogamous and both parents help care for the young.

Typically two eggs are laid. Incubation takes 42 days. The female does most of the incubation but the male will give her breaks.

Both parents play crucial roles in nurturing their chicks, and protecting them from the elements and potential threats. It's a story of dedication and teamwork.

The first 20 days the eaglets are helpless and totally dependent on their parents. At about one month they start picking at food brought to them and by two months can tear apart a carcass.

Young eagles fledge at about 10 weeks. They will often eat carrion that first year as they develop hunting skills.

Check out my video on the Golden Eagle.

Decline in Population

Sadly the golden eagle has suffered declines in population. While birds like the peregrine falcon have adapted to living in cities the golden eagle has not.

Golden eagles hunt in large open areas where they can spot their prey and swoop down and prefer rugged mountainous regions. They have been extirpated from much of their hunting range by urbanization.

Comparing Bald Eagles and Golden Eagles

As Americans, we easily can spot our national symbol by its yellow beak and white head.

An immature bald eagle and a golden can be hard to tell apart due to similar coloring. The bald eagle will have a larger beak and no feathers on the legs revealing yellow ankles.

Characteristics

The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is typically recognized for its distinctive white head and tail feathers, which contrast with its dark brown body. It boasts a wingspan of around 6 to 7 feet, and adult males can weigh up to 14 pounds.

In contrast, the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) showcases a more uniform dark brown or golden-brown coloration throughout its body. It possesses a slightly larger wingspan, ranging from 6 to 7.5 feet, and adult males can reach weights of up to 15 pounds.

Habitat

The bald eagle is predominantly found in North America, with a stronghold along coastal areas, large lakes, and major rivers. It tends to nest in tall trees close to water bodies, as it relies heavily on fish as a food source.

Bald eagles can be found in urban areas where there are large bodies of water. For instance, in Madison, Wisconsin there are over a dozen nesting pairs. The birds nest in parks along the lakefront.

On the other hand, the golden eagle has a more widespread global distribution, occurring in North America, Europe, Asia, and parts of Northern Africa. It is typically found in rocky mountainous areas near open terrain, often nesting on cliffs or rock outcrops.

Yet the golden eagle is declining due to habitat loss. They do not adjust to an urban environment. This is in part due to their hunting methods.

Goldens hunt small mammals by flying over large fields taking the prey back to their cliff nests. When the field or valley becomes a sub-division the birds lose their hunting territory.

Bald eagles hunt more fish and waterfowl so have better access to prey in an urban area.

FEET

One interesting way to tell the two eagles apart is by their feet. Golden eagles have feathers all the way down their legs to their feet.

Bald eagles have bare legs and you can easily spot their bright yellow feet.

Spotting Eagles in the Wild

Winter can be a great time to spot bald eagles. Here is one on a frozen lake with trumpeter swans.

Bald eagles can also be spotted roosting in deciduous trees in winter. Remember to look up!

Look for large raptors in flight

Golden eagles are one of the largest raptors in North America, with wingspans reaching up to 7.5 feet. When scanning the skies, keep an eye out for large birds soaring at great heights.

Their size, coupled with their distinctive flight pattern characterized by steady, deliberate wing beats, can help you identify them even from a distance.

Listen for their distinctive calls

Golden eagles possess a unique vocalization that can assist in their identification. Their calls consist of high-pitched whistles or screams, often compared to the sound of a rusty gate swinging in the wind.

The majestic bald eagle emits a high-pitched, piercing call that resonates across the landscape. Its iconic cry is often described as a combination of a sharp whistle and a haunting screech, which can be heard from a great distance.

Utilize binoculars and spotting scopes

To enhance your chances of spotting golden eagles, equip yourself with binoculars or a spotting scope. These optical tools allow you to observe the birds in greater detail, even from a distance.

Scan the landscape and focus on rocky outcrops, cliffs, or tall trees, as golden eagles often utilize elevated perches to survey their surroundings.

We need to see ourselves as a viable business that provides a necessary service. In addition, we need to learn marketing strategies, use social media, and develop an email list.

This blog is from a presentation I did for Hero’s in Wildlife. They are a fabulous organization that organizes a virtual conference each year.

You can also go to my Store & Resources Page and download the slides from the presentation for free.

The Frustration Level

Ironically, I had grown up on a horse farm in Kentucky and had already had a "career" in organic agriculture. So I understood business from a self-employment and agriculture standpoint.

However, wildlife rehabilitation is a very different business model. Instead of taking produce to a farmers market and making a nice display, I was meeting people at my front gate who handed me a very sad baby animal.

Frustration! YUP! This is what happens.

The Why And The How

Having a business plan will help you to sync the why of what you are doing with the how of what was needed. Having a business plan helps alleviate some of the stress and allows you to focus on what is critical for your business to thrive.

So the WHY is pretty apparent. You care about wildlife.

But it’s the HOW that is so tricky.

Part of the reason we have a hard time with the HOW is that we don't see ourselves as business people. We see ourselves as empaths. We see ourselves as teachers and environmental educators.

We may have negative connotations about business and the people who work in business fields.

You provide a valuable service to your community. Period. So part of being a professional in your field you also need to be a smart business person.

Example: Rascal Raccoon Rehab

Ok so just to get our brains going we are going to do a lean business plan just to gather our thoughts. In the future, you would make this much more meaty.

So the first thing I need is a purpose or in the non-profit world - a mission. A simple yet specific statement. Remember your business plan can never be too specific.

Problem and Solution

We will state the problem - raccoon kits are often in need of rescue. Our solution is to provide for them until they can be released.

Articulating the problem and the solution is very important. We want people to have a clear vision of what that looks like. They need to envision that happening.

Community And training

Who in the community will you be working with? Most likely domestic animal shelters, the police, and other wildlife rehabilitators.

These agencies may not understand what you do. In the winter, I would do training with law enforcement and domestic animal rescues.

This served two purposes. First, it allowed me to teach them proper responses to common issues. Things like OMG there’s a newborn fawn in my yard. In addition, some symptoms of common diseases such as distemper.

Training also gave me an opportunity to explain how my center worked. For example, raising our own funds (no one pays us) and transportation. As a one-women band, I didn’t provide any transportation services.

Assessing Costs. This one you need to dig deep because it's tempting to just list the obvious. And the obvious is what our potential donors see. The basics are food and housing. Medical care floats in the middle.

But many of our expenses go unaccounted for. Incubators use electricity, and the website that holds the blog and the donation page has fees...

So as a business, we need to account for that and let people know. Hey, this all goes into raising babies. We don't want to be in the reactive position where we get the vet bill and go OMG I need money!

And we must have a specific plan of what animals we can take as far as expenses. This is Daisy Mae. She was caught in a fence and had to have a partial amputation. Thankfully I had some funds for emergency medical - or maybe more emergency than usual.

TIP: Have it arranged where people can donate money right to your account at your local vet’s office. Some people are more secure with that arrangement.

I had that because the winter before had established a fund with my vet where people could give money to the vet's office to go into my account.

Interested in Becoming a Wildlife REhabilitator - check out this video

Check out my YouTube Channel for videos on wildlife, organic gardening and wildlife rehabilitation.

Communicating Your Financial Needs

So we do have to plan ahead and raise money pre-season. We can't predict what problems come to us. This is not to say that you don't have choices in deciding what animals to accept. But your off-season should include some time spent focusing on community awareness and education.

So now we have a plan going let's talk about how we are going to actually use that to make money. Get your message out there. Now we need to combine our business skills with a story. Please share what I do with your coony lovin friends.

The first thing you must have is an email list. Making a newsletter is a top priority. Trust me on this.

An email list is hands down better than any algorithm because it's a direct link. You decide who gets a newsletter, not the algorithm. Statistically Email newsletters outperform other types of marketing for small businesses.

It’s important to use an email provider because there are a lot of privacy and spam laws and when you use a provider they make sure to adhere to all that.

There are several email platforms with free plans for when you are just starting out. I used Mailchimp for mine when I started out. And I still use it for clients.

It's free to 1000 subscribers and then it goes up to $20 a month. Mailchimp is fine for getting started but then you will want something a bit more robust.

In addition, I found Mailchimp’s customer service to be quite poor.

As my email list grew I switched to Square Space which is where I have my websites. The price was more reasonable and it was already integrated with my website.

ASK for people to join the newsletter list. Put a pop-up on the website and post on social media.

What to put in your newsletter? What's going on, share a blog or video post, what do you need... Short and sweet. One page is good.

So education not only fulfills your mission but can also be good marketing. I actually turned a story about a fawn on the couch watching TV into a series of education posts.

So a good rule of thumb in marketing is the 3-for-1 rule. Say you make 3 social media posts a week. One is general awareness - hey this is what we do. Two is education such as my Fun Fact Friday posts above. And three is an ASK.

Directly ask your audience. Tell people to share posts.

You should focus on one problem at a time. So in rural Kentucky, it's quite common for people to kidnap baby wildlife and either make them pets or sell them. So I made that a focus on my social media.

How To Get It All Done

So you are probably rolling your eyes and thinking I must have a million elves that help me. Use your resources.

There is often a limited pool of people who can come to your home or center and help clean enclosures or feed babies. Expand your volunteer needs to include things that people can do from home.

• Write a blog article

• Write the newsletter

• Make and send thank you cards

• Make social media posts

• Make some educational materials

A teenager may not be able to work with animals because of age restrictions. But I guarantee they know how to use social media.

Author, Ame Vanorio, is the director of Fox Run EEC, a teacher, and an author.

Another plus! Hibernaculums are cheap to build using lots of scrap or discarded materials.

Hibernaculum are built a bit differently for different species. This article will take you through step-by-step instructions for building one geared toward snakes, one for toads, and one for insects.

What Is A Hibernaculum?

A hibernaculum is a shelter that provides protection and a suitable environment for animals to undergo hibernation or brumation. During the long and cold winter months, many animals enter a state of deep sleep called hibernation to conserve energy.

Hibernacula offers insulation from extreme temperatures, humidity control, and protection from predators. These shelters allow animals to slow down their metabolism, reduce their heart rate, and survive until spring when they emerge ready to resume their normal activities.

How Does a Hibernaculum Help the Wildlife in My Backyard?

Hibernacula plays a vital role in the survival and conservation of many species during harsh winter conditions.

Hibernacula are designed to mimic the natural burrows and dens that animals seek out in the wild. By constructing these structures, we can help create additional habitats and increase biodiversity in our local ecosystems.

Hibernacula provides a warm and insulated environment that protects animals from harsh winter conditions, ensuring their survival until spring. They also offer refuge for a wide range of species, including reptiles, amphibians, insects, and small mammals.

By building hibernacula, we can actively contribute to the conservation of wildlife by providing critical overwintering habitat and fostering healthy populations of various species.

Read my article on Feeding Wildlife in Winter.

A bit simplistic but it gives you an idea of ways to layer your snake hibernaculum.

Build a Hibernaculum for Snakes

Materials You'll Need:

• Shovel

• Sand and/or small gravel

• Rocks, cement blocks, and/or bricks

• Logs or wooden boards

• Leaf litter or straw

• Soil or sand

• Varieties of native plants

Step 1: Choosing the Location
Select a suitable location for the hibernaculum. Find an area that receives ample sunlight for warming during the day but is shaded and protected from the wind. Ideally, choose a site with well-draining soil to prevent water accumulation.
Step 2: Excavating the Space
Use a shovel to dig a hole measuring roughly 2 feet deep and 4 feet wide. (.60 - 1.2 meters). If you live in zone 5 or above go three feet deep if you can. The size can vary depending on the desired capacity of the hibernaculum. Ensure the walls of the hole are gently sloping inward to prevent collapse.
Step 3: Prep the Base
Place 3 - 4 inches (7 - 10 cm) of sand and/or loose gravel in the base. This will provide drainage. Then add a couple of inches of insulating material such as leaves or clean straw. Snakes will burrow into this material, providing insulation against harsh winter temperatures.
Step 4: Create Obstacles
To provide hiding places for snakes, position cement blocks, rocks, or bricks throughout the hibernaculum. Make sure you press them in firmly so they don’t shift and possibly injure an animal.

Create small crevices and spaces for snakes to curl up and rest. Leave room so the several snakes can sleep in the same area. Cement blocks are great and you can place them on the flat side or prop them holes up. You can also place a bit of straw in the cement blocks or around rocks.

Fill in around with some medium-sized rocks to provide stability but keep plenty of wiggle room.

Step 5: Construct Cover
Over the top of the cement blocks and rocks, create a wooden cover using logs, branches, or boards. Make sure it is sturdy enough to hold the weight of fallen leaves, soil, and other debris. This cover will help insulate and protect the hibernaculum.

Garter snakes are surprisingly social and often brumate together. Check out my YouTube channel for wildlife and organic gardening videos.

Step 6: Add some plumbing pipe or small culvert sections. This just adds a nice entry and exit area and also natural airflow. Keep the pipe small around two inches so as not to encourage predators. If you are using white PVC pipe take a file and scratch up the interior of the pipe. This allows for places for the snake’s body to cling to and not slide down the pipe.

Step 7: Soil
Lastly, add some soil and compost on top of the pile. This material will help regulate temperature and humidity within the hibernaculum.

In addition, this gives you a wonderful place to plant some native flowers. As another nice touch place some flat rocks alongside your hibernaculum to provide a nice spot for snakes and toads to soak up the sunshine.

Step 8: Plant Native Vegetation
Plant native species around the hibernaculum. These plants will not only provide additional shelter but also attract insects and other invertebrates that serve as food for the snakes.

You can also plant some nice perennial flowers here which will attract pollinators and provide beauty during the warm months.

Step 9: Monitor and Maintain
Regularly check the hibernaculum during the winter months to ensure it remains intact and undisturbed. If any repairs are needed, perform them promptly in order to keep the snakes safe.
Remember, creating a hibernaculum for snakes is a long-term commitment. Once established, it provides critical shelter during the winter months. Ensure the area around the hibernaculum remains undisturbed to encourage long-term use by snakes and enhance conservation efforts.

Build a Hibernaculum for Toads

Toads like hibernaculum that are shallower and provide a higher moisture level. A light sand will allow them to dig down and remain covered. And obviously, they would prefer to not share one with snakes!

Materials Needed:

• Shovel or small garden spade

• Rocks and stones of various sizes

• Broken terra cotta pots or roofing tiles

• Fallen leaves and twigs

• Logs or timber

• Soil or compost

• Mulch (such as straw or wood chips)

• Leaf litter

Step 1: Choose a Suitable Location
Select a suitable location for your hibernaculum. Look for an area that receives adequate sunlight during the day and is easily accessible for toads. Ideally, the spot should have some natural cover nearby, such as shrubs or trees, to provide further protection.
Step 2: Clear the Area
Use a shovel or small garden spade to clear the area of any grass, debris, or unwanted vegetation. This will provide a clean slate for building your hibernaculum and ensure optimal conditions for toads.
Step 3: Dig a Hole
Dig a hole at least 1-2 feet deep or 0.3 - 0.6 meters within the cleared area. The hole should be large enough to accommodate your desired hibernaculum size and the number of toads you hope to support. The width and length of the hole can vary, but a diameter of 2-3 feet is recommended.
Step 4: Create a Rocky Base
Place a layer of rocks and stones at the bottom of the hole. This will act as a thermal mass, absorbing and retaining heat during the day and slowly releasing it at night. The rocks also provide stability to the hibernaculum structure.

Step 5: Add Organic Material
Next, add a layer of fallen leaves, twigs, and logs on top of the rocks. This organic material will provide insulation and retain moisture, creating a suitable microclimate for the toads. Ensure you leave small gaps or crevices between the materials to allow for airflow.

Step 6: Add Soil or Compost
Add a layer of soil or compost over the organic material. This will help regulate temperature and humidity levels inside the hibernaculum. Ensure that the soil or compost is damp but not saturated. Toads prefer a moist environment for brumation.

Read my article on creating a frog-friendly backyard habitat.

Step 7: Cover and Mulch
Cover the hole with logs or timber to create a roof for the hibernaculum. This will protect it from excess rainfall and help retain heat. Layer the roof with additional organic material such as straw or wood chips for extra insulation.

Step 8: Add Leaf Litter
Finally, scatter a layer of leaf litter over the hibernaculum. This will further enhance insulation and mimic the natural leaf litter found in the wild, making it a comfortable and familiar environment for toads.

Step 9: Maintain and Monitor

Keep an eye on the hibernaculum throughout the year, particularly during the hibernation period. Make sure the organic material remains damp and provide occasional misting if needed. Avoid disturbing the structure as much as possible.

Building an Above Ground and Free-Standing Insect Hibernaculum

Hibernacula provide insects with a safe place to hibernate during the winter months, ensuring their survival and maintaining a healthy ecosystem. Let's get started!

Materials Needed:

• Wooden or metal posts (around 6-8 feet tall)

• Recycled wood or lumber

• Hammer

• Nails or screws

• Drill

• Saw

• Pallets or large logs

• Bristly material (like straw or dried leaves)

• Rocks or bricks

• Mulch or wood chips

Step 1: Choose a Location

Select a suitable area for your hibernaculum, preferably near a garden, flower bed, or vegetation. Ensure that the location receives ample sunlight and is protected from strong winds.

Step 2: Prepare the Site

Clear the chosen area of any debris, rocks, or vegetation so you can dig holes for the posts. Set the posts at least 18 inches in the ground so they are stable.

Step 3: Assemble the Frame

Space the posts approximately 1-3 feet apart, in a rectangular or square shape, depending on your desired size. Set the posts securely into the ground, ensuring they are vertical and sturdily positioned.

Step 4: Build Walls

Attach recycled wood or lumber horizontally to the posts to create the walls of your hibernaculum. Use a piece of plywood for the bottom about 2.5 - 3 feet off the ground. This will help discourage predators such as skunks that eat insects.

Attach boards horizontally. You may want to create multiple floors. Think compartments.

Leave gaps between the boards to allow insects to enter and exit.

Step 5: Fill the Base

Fill the base and “shelves” of your hibernaculum with leftover lumber or small logs, creating a maze-like structure. This will provide diverse spaces and hiding spots for insects to hibernate.

Step 6: Add Bristly and Organic Materials

Fill the compartments. Place bristly materials such as straw or dried leaves within the hibernaculum's walls and in the pallets/log maze. These materials act as insulation and provide hiding places for the insects during hibernation.

Step 7: Create Hiding Spots

Position rocks or bricks within the hibernaculum to create additional crevices and hiding spots. This will contribute to the structural diversity and provide additional shelter options for insects.

Step 8: Cover the Top

If desired, cover the top of your hibernaculum with a layer of mulch or wood chips. This will further insulate the hibernaculum and help retain moisture.

Step 9: Monitor and Maintain

Regularly check your hibernaculum throughout the year. Ensure that the materials remain in place and are not disturbed. Make any necessary repairs or adjustments as needed.

Bonus Log Pile

Both log piles and stone piles provide excellent areas for wild animals to hide. Just pile up logs and branches in an out-of-the-way corner of your yard. Every time you are doing some pruning or clearing rocks from the vegetable garden just add to your pile.

Author Ame Vanorio is the director of Fox Run EEC. Check out the MY BOOKS page for more information about her adult and children’s books.

This article will share with you the WHY and HOW of attracting bluebirds to your yard. In addition, we have some guidance for you to purchase or make bluebird housing and where to place it.

The Importance of Bluebirds

• Beauty

• Insect Control

• Gardener’s Friend

Bluebirds are some of the most beautiful and beloved birds in North America. They are known for their bright blue feathers and sweet warbling songs.

Bluebirds also play an important role in our ecosystem by eating insects and other small invertebrates that can damage crops and gardens. Bluebirds are primarily insectivores. They are fabulous to have around gardens and will eat many garden pests.

Read my article on Getting Rid of Squash Bugs Organically

Unfortunately, the Eastern Bluebird population declined dramatically in the mid-20th century due to habitat loss and competition from invasive species. However, in recent years, dedicated conservation efforts have helped to increase their numbers. Creating a bluebird habitat is a great way to continue this progress.

Bluebird Species

Bluebirds are a type of Thrush, a large family of birds that feed predominantly on insects. There are three species of Bluebirds in the Americas. Eastern, Mountain, and Western, and their names tell us where they live!

The eastern bluebird is slightly smaller in size, measuring about 6 to 7 inches in length, while the western bluebird is a bit larger, usually reaching lengths of 6.5 to 7.5 inches. They are found throughout the US and southern Canada and into central America east of the Rocky Mountains.

The western bluebird, Sialia mexicana, has more subdued tones of blue on its wings and tail, with a blue-gray back, chest, and belly that are lighter in color.

The mountain bluebird (Sialia currucoides) is found in open spaces at higher elevations, such as meadows, fields, and alpine areas, the mountain bluebird is a resilient species that can withstand harsh climates.

As typical with many bird species the males have brighter plumage than the females. Pics below are males.

Educational Opportunities for All Ages

Building a bluebird nesting box offers an engaging DIY project for families, schools, and individuals of all ages. Get together with your loved ones and embark on a hands-on educational experience as you assemble the nesting boxes.

Alongside fostering a love and appreciation for nature, you'll also gain valuable knowledge about bluebird behavior and the importance of responsible environmental stewardship.

Conservation of Native Bird Species

By installing bluebird nesting boxes, you promote the conservation of native bird species. These boxes provide a safe and cozy habitat for these beautiful creatures to build their nests, hatch their eggs, and raise their young.

Put bluebird houses up in fall and winter because they will start scouting in February.

If you want to build your own nest boxes the North American Bluebird Society has some great downloadable plans.

You can also purchase bluebird nesting boxes and Amazon has some great ones.

In particular, I have used the Kingsyard Wooden Bluebird House. It’s just the right size and very attractive for yards.

When building keep these size requirements in mind.

• The entry hole should be 1 1/2 inches for eastern and western bluebirds or 1 9/16 inches for mountain bluebirds.

• The floor should be between 4 1/2 to 5 1/2 inches square and 5 to 8 inches below the entry hole.

• No perch

• Overhanging, slanted roof

• Ventilation

• Can be opened for cleaning at end of season
  
  

  When researching this article, I was going on Bluebird sites and found there is some friendly debate about the best models. The Sialis Bluebird site recommends trying a couple of different ones.
  
  

Where to Locate Your Bluebird Nest Box

So bluebirds can be a tad picky! But whose to blame them? They have babies to feed and protect!

Bluebirds like to nest out in the open near wooded areas. So meadows, yards, and pastures are perfect.

I place two on the edge of my garden area - free bug control! However, you need to have plenty of room as bluebirds are territorial. Place nest boxes 250 - 300 feet apart from one another.

While you can use a tall fence post it’s much better to use a metal pole or a zinc-plated electrical conduit pipe. Fence posts are easy for predators such as raccoons to climb up.

Mount the house 5-6 feet above the ground.

Use a baffle to help protect your bluebirds. Bluebirds get preyed upon by predators such as squirrels, snakes, and hawks - not to mention domestic cats.

A baffle helps protect the nest by stopping predators from climbing the pole.

Check out my YouTube channel for videos on wildlife and organic gardening.

Raising a Family

It’s a privilege to be able to watch your bluebird neighbors raise a family.

Bluebirds typically lay 4 pale blue eggs. The female sets on them for two weeks. Both parents work hard to keep the hungry babies fed!

The babies will stay in the nest for about three weeks before they fledge.
Interested in attracting butterflies? Read my article on creating a monarch butterfly garden - comes with downloadable garden plans.

Benefits of Bluebird Habitat

Creating bluebird habitats not only helps to support these lovely birds, but it also offers a variety of other benefits. When properly planned and maintained, bluebird habitat can:

1. Promote biodiversity
2. Enhance the beauty of your yard or community
3. Reduce the need for harmful pesticides and chemicals
4. Provide an opportunity for education and engagement with nature

We can attract them to our yards by providing food, water, and shelter. A birdbath is great for providing water for drinking and bathing.

In cold weather bluebirds enjoy eating berries. Planting native bushes in your yard like serviceberries can encourage bluebirds. Other native plants that provide berries are Sumac and beauty bush.

In winter they will often stop at bird feeders. They prefer a tray feeder as they don't normally like small perches like on tube feeders. They appreciate mealworms, raisins, and dried cherries.

Read my article about Feeding Wild Birds

Bluebirds will also eat suet especially if you are in an area that sees migrating bluebirds. It's great for an energy boost. Purchase or make suet with nuts and berries.

Some areas see bluebirds year-round. A heated water bath is appreciated in winter.

Ame Vanorio is an author and director of Fox Run Environmental Education.

Polar bears are one of the most recognizable symbols of the Arctic. These large mammals are perfectly adapted to the frozen tundra of the Arctic regions and have become an integral part of the local ecosystems.

What Are Polar Bears?

Polar bears are closely related to brown bears. In fact, polar bears were originally a subpopulation of brown bears that adapted to living in the Arctic environment.

Over the course of thousands of years, polar bears evolved different physical and behavioral traits that made them better suited for hunting and surviving in the harsh northern climate.

Some of these adaptations include a white coat for camouflage, wider and more padded paws for walking on ice and a more streamlined body shape for efficient swimming.

Polar bears have a more elongated face and body and a flexible neck, traits needed for swimming.

Female polar bears are called sows and males are called boars. The babies are cubs.

Polar Bear and Brown Bear Hybrids

Despite these differences, polar bears and brown bears are still genetically very similar, and can even interbreed to produce hybrid offspring known as "pizzly" bears or "grolar" bears.

Brown bears such as the grizzly bear live predominantly on land but travel farther north in summer. Polar bears live predominantly on ice caps except during summer when the ice melts and they go towards land. Climate change is also contributing to these ranges changing.

In some areas where brown bears and polar bears may occasionally overlap territory such as on the Alexander Archipelago Islands in southeastern Alaska. A study by James Cahill et all found that between 5 percent and 10 percent of brown bears native to these islands had polar bear genes.

Overall, the relationship between polar bears and brown bears is a fascinating example of how species can change and adapt over time to survive in different environments.

Are Polar Bear Marine Mammals?

Yes, polar bears are considered marine mammals because they spend so much time out at sea floating on ice. They are the only marine mammals equally agile on land or in water.

They prefer the sea near land, often islands, because that is where a diversity of their prey lives. Animals such as seals and walrus that move between land and sea.

Where do Polar Bears Live?

Typically they live between the 66th and 88th degrees north of the equator.
Their native territory includes five countries: Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway (Svalbard), Russia, and the United States (Alaska).

Canada has the highest population of polar bears with roughly 60 - 70 % of the 22-31,000 polar bears worldwide according to the World Wildlife Fund.

These five nations are the signatories of the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, policies that cover cooperation on research and conservation efforts throughout the polar bear's range.

During the warmer months, polar bears are typically found on land or in areas where sea ice is stable. They will hunt for food on the ice floes and in the surrounding waters. As the sea ice begins to melt in the summer months, polar bears may move further inland to find food.
In the winter months, polar bears will typically move out onto the sea ice to hunt for food. They are able to swim long distances and can dive into the water to catch prey such as seals.

Physical Characteristics

Polar bears are specially adapted to the cold and snowy environment of the Arctic.

• They have a thick layer of fur that helps to keep them warm

• They have a layer of blubber beneath their skin that acts as a form of insulation.

• Polar bears are massive creatures with white fur that help them blend in with the snow and ice.

• They have black skin underneath their fur to help them absorb the sun's warmth.

• Their paws are large and flat, which helps them distribute their weight and provides better traction on the ice.

• Polar bears also have sharp claws that they use for hunting and climbing.

• Strongest bite force of any bear at 1,235 PSI, and a swipe force of 1,800 pounds

  We will discuss these below.
  
  
  

Why Do Polar Bears Have White Fur?

Camouflage:
The primary reason for polar bears' white fur is camouflage. The pristine white fur blends perfectly with the snow and ice, making the bear nearly invisible to their prey.

As stealth predators, polar bears need to stalk their prey carefully. They often hunt seals by waiting patiently at a breathing hole and then grabbing when they surface.

Thermal Insulation:
Another reason for the polar bear's fur color is that it acts as insulation, keeping the bear warm in its sub-zero environment. The translucent hair of the bear's fur emits sunlight through the fur down to the black skin's surface.

It absorbs the heat and prevents it from scattering, thereby trapping it inside the fur. This feature helps the bears retain heat, keeping them warm even in the freezing Arctic.

Ultraviolet Protection:
The white fur also protects polar bears from the sun's ultraviolet rays. The harsh UV radiation can be harmful to the bear's skin and eyes. However, the fur's thick layer provides natural sunscreen to neutralize the harmful UV rays, protecting the bear from sunburn.

Black Skin
Polar bears have black skin, which is a common misconception since they are covered in white fur. The primary reason for their black skin is to absorb more heat from the sun.

To survive in such harsh environmental conditions, they need a mechanism to retain body heat. The black skin of polar bears helps to absorb more heat from sunlight when it is available, which helps to keep them warm.

Check out my YouTube Channel for informative videos on wildlife and organic gardening.

What is blubber?

Blubber is a thick layer of fat underneath the skin of polar bears that plays a crucial role in keeping these large mammals warm in the frigid arctic waters. This specialized fat provides an efficient way to store energy and insulates the bears from the harsh and extremely cold conditions they face in their environment.

Polar bears have a thick layer of insulating blubber, which can be up to 4 inches or 11cm thick, depending on the bear's health and age. This layer of fat also helps polar bears float on the surface of the water and provides them with the buoyancy they need when swimming.

The blubber layer serves as a remarkable energy reserve, helping polar bears survive extended periods without food, which can be essential as they hunt for their food in the harsh and remote arctic terrain.

How Big Are Polar Bears?

Polar bears are one of nature's most impressive animals, and their large size reflects that fact. Adult male polar bears can weigh as much as 1500 pounds, while females are generally smaller, weighing in at around 600 to 800 pounds.

In terms of length, polar bears typically measure between 7 and 9 feet long from nose to tail, with males being slightly longer than females.

Polar bears are built for their icy environment, and their size plays an important role in helping them survive. Their thick fur keeps them warm in the harsh Arctic climate, while their large paws and claws help them navigate through the snow and ice.

Are polar bears good swimmers?

Yes, polar bears are excellent swimmers. In fact, they are considered to be one of the best swimmers among all land animals. These mammals are powerful and can swim for long distances without getting tired.

They can swim an average of 6 miles per hour and can cover distances of up to 60 miles or 96 km without stopping. They have been spotted 200 miles from shore.

One of the reasons why polar bears are so good at swimming is that they have several adaptations that help them survive in their aquatic environments.

Their thick layer of blubber provides insulation and buoyancy, making it easier for them to stay afloat in icy waters. Additionally, their front paws are specially designed with large, sharp claws that help them to cut through ice, making swimming easier.

Polar bears rely heavily on swimming to hunt for their food, specifically seals that live on sea ice. They use their excellent swimming skills to approach their prey silently and then attack them with great force. While hunting seals they may dive under the water 15 feet or 4.6 meters.

Polar Bear Feet Adaptations

Polar bears are the largest land predators on Earth, but what makes them so well-suited to survive in their harsh Arctic environment? One important adaptation is their feet!
Polar bear feet have several unique features that help them navigate the challenging terrain and cold temperatures of the Arctic.

Large Paw Size & Surface Area

First, polar bear paws are incredibly large, measuring up to 12 inches in diameter. This large size gives them a greater surface area to distribute their weight, allowing them to walk on top of soft snow and ice without sinking in.

Additionally, the pads on the bottom of their feet are covered in small bumps called papillae that create friction and prevent slipping on slick ice.

Thick Fur & Reduced Heat Loss

Polar bears also have fur on the bottoms of their feet to insulate them from the cold ice and snow they walk on. This helps reduce heat loss through their feet, allowing them to conserve energy and stay warm even when temperatures drop as low as -40°F.

Webbed Toes

Finally, polar bears have webbed toes that allow them to swim efficiently through the cold Arctic waters. Their partially-webbed toes help them paddle through the water and their powerful hind legs propel them forward, allowing them to chase prey like seals.

Have kids who love wildlife? Check out my newest venture - fun and educational kids' activity books!

Can a Polar Bear Overheat?

Yes, ironically polar bears can overheat. Their bodies are designed for ultra-cold temperatures. So running and hunting can cause them to overexert themselves.

A polar bear’s normal body temperature is 98.6º just like ours! But it can rise quickly when the bear runs. One reason they don’t chase prey.

The rise in temperatures due to climate change, especially in the Arctic also causes a problem. It can lead to dehydration, heat exhaustion, heatstroke, and even death. This is because polar bears are not well-equipped to handle higher temperatures.

They do not have sweat glands to help regulate their body temperature. Instead, they pant, and their blood vessels dilate to cool down their body. They will lay on their back and put their feet in the air to dispel heat.

What Do Polar Bears Eat?

Polar bears are carnivorous and mainly feed on ringed and bearded seals, which they catch by hunting them on the sea ice. Unlike other bear species, they do not graze or eat berries except in extreme cases.

Their primary hunting tactic is patience. They wait at breathing holes for a seal to surface and then attack. They also prey on baby seals at nesting sights.

They occasionally hunt beluga and narwhales using the same tactic as hunting them at breathing holes.

They are also opportunistic and will eat whatever they can find, including fish and other marine mammals. Large males may hunt walruses even though an adult walrus outweighs them.

During the summer months, when the sea ice melts, polar bears may go for days or even weeks without eating.

Most land mammals in the Arctic can easily outrun the polar bear which does not pose a threat to them. However, they occasionally catch ungulates such as deer, caribou, or musk ox. These would typically be older or sick animals who can’t move as fast.

How much food can a polar bear eat at once?

Polar bears are known to have huge appetites and can consume a whopping 88 pounds of food in one sitting! These massive predators typically eat a diet that consists of seal meat, blubber, and fish.

Their diet is high in fat, which provides them with the energy they need to survive their harsh Arctic environment.

Polar bears don't eat every day, and instead, they tend to gorge on food when they do eat. When they catch a seal, they can eat up to 40 pounds of fat and meat in one meal, which is the equivalent of a human consuming around 60 hamburgers!

Do Polar Bears Hunt Humans?

No, polar bears do not see humans as a food source. In fact, polar bear attacks are extremely rare with only one to three incidents happening each year worldwide.

These encounters are typically healthy bears who investigate something they are unfamiliar with or grabs their attention. Not sick or starving bears as we would assume.

“Attack circumstances are often related to the way people are camping or to people predisposing themselves to a problem. And with more polar bears driven ashore as the sea ice melts, the chances for encounters increase.” States Dr. Tom Smith of Polar Bears International

That said, polar bears are Apex predators and are often unaccustomed to humans in their territory. They are fearless and unpredictable.

Does the Polar Bear have Predators?

The polar bear is one of the apex predators of the Arctic ecosystem, but that doesn't mean it doesn't have any natural predators. While adult polar bears have few predators, their cubs are vulnerable to other carnivores. Wolves may hunt young cubs.

One of the primary predators of polar bear cubs is adult male polar bears. Male polar bears have been known to kill and eat cubs, especially if they are not the father of the cubs. This behavior is believed to be a way of eliminating potential competition for mating opportunities.

The biggest threat to polar bears comes from human activities such as trophy hunting and habitat destruction.

Reproduction

Courtship

April and May are breeding months. Females typically begin breeding at age 4 and males not until 8 years old. As females only give birth every two or three years their reproductive rate is quite low.

Polar bears are not territorial and often congregate in areas where seals do in the spring. This brings males and females together.

Polar bears are polygenous but males will fight over the right to mate a certain female. Recent studies have shown that cubs in the same liter may have different fathers.

While the egg gets fertilized during mating the female’s body holds that blastocyst in a suspended state.

She then eats as much as she can in order to store fat. She needs to can about 400 pounds to make it through Denning.

Denning

In late fall she digs a maternity den. This is not just a carved-out section of snow but a more elaborate den below a snowbank and even entering the permafrost.

The maternity den consists of up to three chambers and are built several miles from the sea. The female then enters a period of rest where her body metabolism slows.

This is not hibernation as she is not in continual sleep nor does her body temperature drop.

How Big Are Polar Bears at Birth?

About the size of a guinea pig. Born between November and February, they are born hairless, blind, and deaf and have little coordination. Eyes and ears open at about one month and at two months they are growing thick fur and teeth.

Polar bear cubs are born quite small relative to their fully-grown adult size. At birth, they typically weigh less than 2 lbs or .9 kg. They are also incredibly tiny, usually around 12 to 14 inches in length.

The family remains in the den till April or May. By this time the cubs weigh 20-30 pounds. By the time they reach one-year-old, polar bear cubs can weigh up to 100 pounds or more!

Cubs stay with mom for about 2 years before she chases them off and goes and breeds again. Mothers are affectionate and very protective of cubs.

Social Life

Adult polar bears are solitary animals. Males and females stay together for around a week during mating season.

Females spend more time in a group since they have long-term relationships with their cubs. Cubs will often stay with each other after weaning and before they reach sexual maturity.

Polar bears tend to come together when prey congregates in an area. This may correspond with breeding season for seals or a decaying body washed up on shore.

At times when a large whale has washed up on the beach scientists have observed 20 bears feeding together.

As more studies of polar bears get funding, sub-adult males have been observed traveling as a pair and playing and hunting together.

Conservation Status

Polar bears are classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Their populations are declining due to the loss of sea ice caused by climate change, which in turn affects their ability to hunt and reproduce.

Polar bears have become a symbol of the impacts of climate change on wildlife, and many conservation organizations are working to protect and conserve their populations.

Polar bears are one of the most fascinating and iconic animals in the world. They are a symbol of the beauty and fragility of the Arctic ecosystems, and their survival is essential for the health of these ecosystems.

The Biggest Threats to Polar Bears

As climate change accelerates, the polar bear's Arctic home is changing rapidly, and the lives of these formidable creatures are threatened. Here are some of the biggest threats to polar bears:

1. Melting Sea Ice

The primary habitat of polar bears is the Arctic Sea ice. Climate change-driven temperatures alter the quantity and quality of the ice in the Arctic, and as the ice melts and disappears, polar bears lose access to food and have to swim longer distances to find it.

The chances of a polar bear swimming for an extended time in open water due to the melting of sea ice are higher, and as such, the risk of drowning is more significant.

2. Pollution

Pollution in the Arctic is another significant threat to polar bears. Due to the polar food web, the toxins present in the prey are passed on to the polar bears that eat them.

Toxic substances from industrial plants and long-range transport of pollutants from communities in the south accumulate in the fatty tissues of polar bears, leading to reproductive and other health issues.

3. Overhunting and Poaching

Human impact on the polar bear population is another significant threat. Historically, polar bears were hunted for their fur and meat.

Today, hunting is well-regulated, but illegal poaching still occurs. The overhunting of seals, the primary food of polar bears, further threatens their survival.

Polar bears who go into communities whether out of curiosity or looking for food are shot versus relocated (something we often do with the smaller black bear).

4. Competition

Warmer weather has led to brown bears moving further north in summer thus competing with the polar bear for food.

What happens if polar bears go extinct?

Polar bears are one of the most iconic and recognizable creatures on the planet, but their numbers are rapidly declining. Climate change and habitat loss threaten the survival of this magnificent animal, and if polar bears go extinct, the consequences would be severe.

Impact on the Ecosystem

Polar bears are very important to the environment. They are the top predator in the Arctic food chain and play a critical role in the regulation of their ecosystem. Their diet consists mainly of seals, and they help to control their populations, preventing them from overgrazing on fish and other marine life.

Without polar bears, the seal population would explode, leading to a rapid decline in the number of fish and other aquatic life. This, in turn, would have a cascading effect on the entire Arctic ecosystem.

Economic Consequences

In addition, a smaller fish population due to a greater seal population would be devastating to local fisheries and the economy of many small arctic communities.

Polar bears are also a significant economic driver for Arctic communities. Tourism, hunting, and scientific research all depend on the continued existence of this species.

The loss of polar bears would make it harder for these communities to survive and would have severe implications for the global economy.

Cultural Significance

Polar bears are an integral part of the culture and traditions of indigenous communities in the Arctic. They play a symbolic role in many cultural events and are an essential part of the spiritual and social fabric of these societies.

The extinction of polar bears would be a devastating blow to these communities and could lead to the loss of traditional knowledge and practices. Indigenous communities need to have a voice in polar bear conservation.

The Urgent Need to Save Polar Bears

Polar bears are one of the world's most iconic and beloved animals, but their future is in peril. The effects of climate change are warming the Arctic at an alarming rate, causing the sea ice that polar bears depend on to hunt and survive to melt away. With the loss of their habitat and food sources, polar bears are facing a dire situation that requires our immediate attention.

Polar bears are a keystone species in the Arctic ecosystem, and their health and survival are crucial to maintaining the balance of this delicate ecosystem. Without polar bears, the entire food chain of the Arctic, including fish, birds, and other mammals, would be disrupted, leading to a cascading effect throughout the region.

In addition to the ecological importance of polar bears, they have cultural significance for many indigenous communities in the Arctic. For thousands of years, these communities have depended on polar bears for food, clothing, and other vital resources. The loss of polar bears would be a devastating blow to these communities, many of which are already facing social, economic, and political challenges.

It is our responsibility to take action to protect these magnificent animals and their habitat. We can all make small changes in our everyday lives to reduce our carbon footprint and help slow the effects of climate change. We can also support policies and organizations that are working to protect the Arctic and its inhabitants, including polar bears.

Saving polar bears is not just an environmental issue; it's a moral imperative. We owe it to future generations to ensure that these incredible animals continue to thrive in the Arctic. Let's take action now and work together to protect the polar bears and the fragile ecosystem they call home.

Author, Ame Vanorio, is the founder and director of Fox Run EEC. She is an environmental educator and avid gardener. Find her books on the MY BOOKS page.

As persons who care about the health of our planet and are part of an interspecies community, we must take action to protect our environment. One way we can do this is to create a frog-friendly backyard.

There are many things you can do to create a friendly frog and toad yard. In this article, I will give you step-by-step directions to create amphibian-friendly places, explain the “why”, and provide images of frog garden designs.

What Is A Frogscape?

Think landscape. A frogscape is an area of your yard that is designed with the frog’s needs in mind. This area of your backyard will be an alluring habitat for a frog while providing them with the essentials they need to survive. By frogscaping your yard you will attract frogs and toads.

Why Frogscapes?

• Provide viable habitat and make a frog happy

• Enjoy listening to frog sounds

• Watch them eat annoying insects like mosquitos and flies

• Frogs = healthy environment

• Frogs are part of nature’s food cycle

What Does a Frog & Toad Habitat Need?

1. Water

All frogs (including toads) need water to drink and as part of their reproductive cycle. Some species spend more time in the water than others. However, even a small shallow water feature is great for frogs and will serve butterflies and small birds as well.

2. Shelter

Everyone wants a place to feel safe and frogs are no exception! Create cover by providing vegetation. Make a Toad Abode to provide a place to hide during the day.

3. Food

Planting flowers will attract bugs that frogs eat. Garden solar lights will attract insects at night for nocturnal species like the American toad. In addition, having fertile healthy soil will be home to earthworms and other insects.

4. A Place To Raise A Family

If you are able you can put in a frog-friendly pond where frogs can lay their eggs. Check out my examples below!

5. Organic

Frogs are very sensitive to chemicals in the environment. It’s one of the reasons for their population decline. So keep a safe and healthy organic yard for your family and your wildlife friends.

6. Look Don’t Touch

Teach children to quietly watch and not touch the frogs in your backyard. This is for two reasons. First, frog skin is delicate and can be easily damaged. Second, frogs and especially toads can secrete toxins from their skin which can cause painful reactions on your skin. And it goes to be said don’t let pets hunt frogs!

Check out this video where I interview a Master Herpetologist and we talk frogs!

Build A Frog Pond

You can build a backyard water feature or pond that fits your yard. Below are several examples.

For all sizes:

• Pick a location that receives part sun and is near a water source for refills

• Determine the size that will fit in your location

• Outline the shape you will use and dig out the soil

• Frogs like still water or slow-moving water. You don’t need a large filtration or aeration system, waterfall, etc. A cute solar fountain works just fine.

• Keep this pond fish-free (fish eat frog eggs and tadpoles)

• Don’t put the pond in the open. Tuck it into an area with flowers and leafy vegetation

• Slope the sides like a slide - make it easy for the frogs to get in and out

Build a Mini- Pond

You may have a small yard or have young children, in which case you don’t want deeper water. You can place a bird bath with a low lip on the ground or make a mini pond.

A mini pond may not be deep enough to support reproduction but it will be a spot that provides water and also food.

Advantages of a Mini Pond

• Easy and inexpensive to build

• Gives the frogs a wet location to soak and rehydrate

• Will encourage insects (frog food)

Disadvantages of a Mini Pond

• May not be deep enough for reproduction (no tadpoles)

• Will need to be cleaned more often

• Will need to add water lost with evaporation

Steps to Build a Mini Pond

You will need:

• Gravel

• Small rocks

• 2 - 3 larger rocks

• Plants to go around the water feature (see list below)

1. Choose a container. Plastic storage bins make good small ponds. Something like this from Amazon is 16 3/4" L x 11 7/8" W x 7" H. Holds 16 Qt / 15 L of water.

2. Outline the bin on the ground and dig a hole about two inches wider and deeper than your bin.

3. Put one inch of gravel on the bottom of the hole - this is just to add drainage.

4. Place the bin in the hole. Add a 1-inch layer of gravel at the bottom of the bin. This stabilizes the bin and adds nice hidey places for small insects.

5. Next place some small stones in the bottom. Make a little pile so there are natural hiding areas.

6. Place a larger stone at one end to make a shallow area.

7. Keep in mind that you want to make sure your amphibians can get out once they go into the water. So use your rocks to make a secure dock or platform next to the edge.

8. Place some gravel and small stones along the outside edge of the bin to add some drainage and then backfill the dirt around it.

Larger Pond 4X 4 and 18 inches deep

This pond uses a liner to mold to a shape you want. You have two choices when choosing a liner.

A plastic liner is flexible and can be molded into any shape you want. They can also be pushed against the sides to have different heights or levels in your pond. Remember when purchasing your pond liner consider the three-dimensional area and volume. You will need the liner to cover the “inside” of your shape.

A good rule of thumb is to make the pond at least 24 inches deep. This will allow frogs to safely brumate at the bottom during the winter. You can read my article on brumation to learn more!

Add Plants

After the pond is dug, install the pond liner and add some rocks and decorative features for aesthetic appeal. Then, fill the pond with water and add plants

Plants Around Your Pond

Planting native vegetation around the pond is important. They provide shade, hiding, places, and food for the frogs and toads.

The following plants are Native to North America, like moist soil, do well in part shade (morning sun and afternoon shade) and generally do well in Zones 3 - 8:

• American Beautyberry - small bush, provides shelter berries for birds

• Arrowhead - plant for waters edge, provides shelter

• Brown Fox Sedge - low clumping sedge does well on the edge of the water

• Cardinal Flower - attracts butterflies, insects, and hummingbirds

• Eastern Redbud - small tree (think tree frogs) wildlife friendly

• False Indigo - makes great dried flower arrangements, attracts insects

• Ferns - provide shelter and shade

• Garden Phlox - spring blooms, prolific woodland plant

• Joe Pye Weed - attracts butterflies and bees, the seeds feed the birds in winter

• Marsh Marigold - attracts butterflies and other insects.

• Pickeral Weed - blooms late summer

• Wild Geranium - beautiful foliage all season, hardy, spring flowers attract insects.

• White Water Lily - Grows in water, provides a resting place, attracts insects

In your vegetation area, it’s great to add a leaf pile. Toads especially love to hide under leaves.

Many states offer websites that feature native plants. Grow Native! in Missouri has a fabulous website.

Check out my YouTube Channel!

Make a Toad Abode

You can also provide shelter for frogs such as a Toad Abode. A Toad Abode is just a fun way to make a house for a frog. American Toads love these.

There are several ways to make a frog shelter. Just remember it should not have a bottom. The frogs like to dig in the earth under the shelter.

1. Use broken clay pots as shelter.

2. Make a shelter with a scrap piece of plywood. This works great near your pond or in a shady area under some vegetation.

Dig a two-inch deep hole with the same dimensions as your wood. On one side of the hole place two rocks that rise above the hole about two inches.

Next lay the board in the hole. One end should fit down in the hole. The other end rests on the two rocks. Cover the plywood with some mulch, leaves, or grass clippings.

This makes a fabulous shelter for amphibians!

Decline of Frog and Salamander Habitats

In recent years, the decline of frog habitats in the USA has become a major concern. Wetlands, which are essential for the survival of many frog species, have been drained or destroyed for commercial and residential development.

Water pollution from agriculture, industry, and urban runoff has also had a negative impact on frog populations. Climate change is further exacerbating the problem by altering precipitation patterns and causing more frequent and severe weather events.

Without action to protect and restore frog habitat, many species may become extinct, causing a ripple effect throughout the ecological systems that depend on them.

Thank you so much for caring about frogs and toads! Tell me in the comments what you are doing to make your backyard more frog-friendly!

Author, Ame Vanorio, is the founder and director of Fox Run EEC. She loves frogs and can often be found sitting near a pond waiting to spot them! You can check out Ame’s books on her Amazon Author Page.