Carnatic Musics

Carnatic Collections

2012-01-28T04:54:00.001-08:00

Golden Musics :

- Arvind

Important elements of Carnatic music

2012-01-28T04:44:00.002-08:00

INTRODUCTION: The origin of Carnatic music , or the South Indian classical music can be traced back to the age of vedas . Bharata's Natya Sastra , from around the 5th century A.D. , and Saranga Deva's Sangita Ratnakara , from the early13th century A.D. , are considered the to be the earliest recorded documents available on the theory and performance of Indian classical music . The history of Carnatic music is incomplete without stating about the contributions made by the saints Sri Purandharadasaru ( 15th century A.D.) , Sri Thyagarajar , Sri Shyama Sastri ( all of 18th century A.D.) , and left an enduring legacy of compositions. This tradition has a rich heritage and is perfectly attuned with Indian culture and religion. Carnatic music is based on a 22 scale note (swaras) on contrary to the earlier 12 note scale that is used in the western classical music. But in all its practical aspects and puposes, not more than 16 notes are generally used. A unique combination of these notes , or swara as they are said to evolves separate ragas. The features and the constraints of a raga will be clearly defined in the arrangement of the notes in its arohanam ( ascending notes ) and avarohanam ( descending notes ). Thus , in Carnatic music , the raga connotes a mood or a route in which the music is supposed to travel. . Different combinations of the notes gives rise to different raga . Thus , there are thousands of unique raga as per theory though very few of them are being used for performances in the present day. gamaka and brighaa are the two most important features of the ragaa. The former refers to the modulation of the frequency of a particular swara and the latter refers to the speed with which the musician performs a set of swaras or notes. Both the gamaka and the brigha helps to improve the appeal of the composition that is rendered . Western music is often based ona pattern of flat notes, on the contrary, here , the swaras are performed using various modulations . The brigha could be often 8 , 16 or so on . Another very important aspect of the Carnatic music is the thalam or the rhythm. The thalam is the rhythm of the piece that is being performed . Today, there exists more than hundred thalams , but here also, very few of them are in use . The most popular thalam have three , four , five, seven or eight beats in them. The Melakarta Ragams The Melakarta Ragams refers to the basic 72 Janaka (parent) ragams for all of the infinite number of other ragams in Carnatic Music. All of these ragams have seven notes saptaswaras, that is that they have all seven swaras which are- Sa, Ree, Ga, Ma, Pa, Da, Ni, and Sa. The system is further divided into two sets of 36 ragams each - The first set with the first Ma and the second with a sharper Ma . This is very similar to the Western concept of scales and the circle of flats. Sapta Talas This system of talams is the rythmic basis for Carnatic music. It is based on 7 core talas whcih use only 3 of the 6 possible components of an Indian talam - Anudrutam, Drutam, Laghu, Guru, Plutam, and Kakapadam. The Seven Talams are Dhruva, Matya, Rupaka, Jhampa, Triputa, Ata, and Eka Talams. Using these sapta talas all of the 150 Carnatic talams can be derived. 12 Chakras of music the mind, body and soul Indian classical music, philosophy, yogic teachings - many of these are attributed to have its roots in the four vedas. In the human endeavour of our self-realization and awakening towards the oneness with the nature and the creator, classical music, philosophy and yogic teachings are all considered as the experiential tools. For centuries, we have excelled in exploring various aspects and are constantly redefining with every passing phase of time and years. But at the core of it are these ever so relevant well-defined principles and tenets – principles that provide the unity and the synergy of power. Be it in the form of millions of musical notes that cast a magic spell, or the control of our body and mind to lead us to greater heights. These do lead us to the path of happiness... utter bliss. These have no geographic barriers and transcend across all nations and culture. Larsen and Toubro Limited, India’s largest engineering and construction major recognizes and cherishes these Tenets and Principles that live beyond time. Principles and Values that never change but get to redefine its relevance within modern times, thereby making it stay for ever - as a classic beyond time and ages. BRIEF SUMMARY:

Sruti

Shrutis				12-TET Notes
Name	Ratio	Cents	Frequency (Hz)	Name	Frequency (Hz)
Kṣobhinī	1	0	261.6256	C	261.6256
Tīvrā	256/243	90	275.6220	C♯	277.1826
Kumudvatī	16/15	112	279.0673	C♯	277.1826
Mandā	10/9	182	290.6951	D	293.6648
Chandovatī	9/8	203	294.3288	D	293.6648
Dayāvatī	32/27	294	310.0747	D♯	311.1270
Ranjanī	6/5	316	313.9507	D♯	311.1270
Raktikā	5/4	386	327.0319	E	329.6275
Raudrī	81/64	407	331.1198	E	329.6275
Krodhā	4/3	498	348.8341	F	349.2282
Vajrikā	27/20	519	353.1945	F	349.2282
Prasāriṇī	45/32	590	367.9109	F♯	369.9944
Prīti	729/512	612	372.5098	F♯	369.9944
Mārjanī	3/2	702	392.4383	G	391.9954
Kṣiti	128/81	792	413.4330	G♯	415.3047
Raktā	8/5	814	418.6009	G♯	415.3047
Sandīpanī	5/3	884	436.0426	A	440.0000
Ālāpinī	27/16	906	441.4931	A	440.0000
Madantī	16/9	996	465.1121	A♯	466.1638
Rohiṇī	9/5	1017	470.9260	A♯	466.1638
Ramyā	15/8	1088	490.5479	B	493.8833
Ugrā	243/128	1110	496.6798	B	493.8833
Kṣobhinī	2	1200	523.2511	C	523.2511

Śruti commonly refers to musical pitch. It is the approximate equivalent of a tonic (or less precisely a key) in Western music; it is the note from which all the others are derived. It is also used in the sense of graded pitches in an octave. While there are an infinite number of sounds falling within a scale (or raga) in Carnatic music, the number that can be distinguished by auditory perception is twenty-two (although over the years, several of them have converged). In this sense, while sruti is determined by auditory perception, it is also an expression in the listener's mind.

Swara

The swaras in Carnatic music are slightly different in the twelve-note system. There are three types each of Rishabha, Gandhara, Dhaivatha and Nishadha. There are two types of Madhyama, while Panchama and Shadja are invariant.

Position	Swara	Short name	Notation	Mnemonic
1	Shadja	Sa	S	sa
2	Shuddha Rishabha	Ri	R1	ra
3	Chathusruthi Rishabha	Ri	R2	ri
3	Shuddha Gandhara	Ga	G1	ga
4	Shatsruthi Rishabha	Ri	R3	ru
4	Sadharana Gandhara	Ga	G2	gi
5	Anthara Gandhara	Ga	G3	gu
6	Shuddha Madhyama	Ma	M1	ma
7	Prati Madhyama	Ma	M2	mi
8	Panchama	Pa	P	pa
9	Shuddha Dhaivatha	Dha	D1	dha
10	Chathusruthi Dhaivatha	Dha	D2	dhi
10	Shuddha Nishadha	Ni	N1	na
11	Shatsruthi Dhaivatha	Dha	D3	dhu
11	Kaisiki Nishadha	Ni	N2	ni
12	Kakali Nishadha	Ni	N3	nu

As you can see above, Chathusruthi Rishabha and Shuddha Gandhara share the same pitch (3rd key/ position). Hence if C is chosen as Shadja, D would be both Chathusruthi Rishabha and Shuddha Gandhara. Hence they will not occur in same raga together. Similarly for two swaras each at notes 4, 10 and 11.

Swara refers to a type of musical sound that is a single note, which defines a relative (higher or lower) position of a note, rather than a defined frequency.[22] Swaras also refer to the solfege of Carnatic music, which consist of seven notes, "sa-ri-ga-ma-pa-da-ni" (compare with the Hindustani sargam: sa-re-ga-ma-pa-dha-ni or Western do-re-mi-fa-so-la-ti). These names are abbreviations of the longer names shadja, rishabha, gandhara, madhyama, panchama, dhaivata and nishada. Unlike other music systems, every member of the solfege (called a swara) has three variants. The exceptions are the drone notes, shadja and panchama (also known as the tonic and the dominant), which have only one form; and madhyama (the subdominant), which has two forms. A 7th century stone inscription in Kudumiyan Malai[24] in Tamil Nadu shows vowel changes to solfege symbols with ra, ri, ru etc. to denote the higher quarter-tones. In one scale, or raga, there is usually only one variant of each note present. The exceptions exist in "light" ragas, in which, for artistic effect, there may be two, one ascending (in the arohanam) and another descending (in the avarohanam).

Raga system Raga Shree recital to Krishna and Radha, Ragamala paintings, 19th century

Carnatic Swara	Carnatic Notation	Hindustani Swara	Hindustani Notation	Western E.T.
Sa	S	Sa	S	C
Shuddha Ri	R1	Komal Re	r	D♭
Chatusruti Ri	R2	Shuddha Re	R	D
Shatsruti Ri	R3			D♯
Shuddha Ga	G1			D
Sadharana Ga	G2	Komal G	g	E♭
Antara Ga	G3	Shuddha Ga	G	E
Shuddha Ma	M1	Shuddha Ma	M	F
Prati Ma	M2	Teevra Ma	M+	F♯
Pa	P	Pa	P	G
Shuddha Dha	D1	Komal Dha	d	A♭
Chatusruti Dha	D2	Shuddha Dha	D	A
Shatsruti Dha	D3			A♯
Shuddha Ni	N1			A
Kaisika Ni	N2	Komal Ni	n	B♭
Kakali Ni	N3	Shuddha Ni	N	B

A raga in Carnatic music prescribes a set of rules for building a melody - very similar to the Western concept of mode. It specifies rules for movements up (aarohanam) and down (avarohanam), the scale of which notes should figure more and which notes should be used more sparingly, which notes may be sung with gamaka (ornamentation), which phrases should be used or avoided, and so on. In effect, it is a series of obligatory musical events which must be observed, either absolutely or with a particular frequency.

In Carnatic music, the sampoorna ragas (those with all seven notes in their scales) are classified into a system called the melakarta, which groups them according to the kinds of notes that they have. There are seventy-two melakarta ragas, thirty six of whose madhyama (subdominant) is sadharana (perfect fourth from the tonic), the remaining thirty-six of whose madhyama (subdominant) is prati (an augmented fourth from the tonic). The ragas are grouped into sets of six, called chakras ("wheels", though actually segments in the conventional representation) grouped according to the supertonic and mediant scale degrees. There is a system known as the katapayadi sankhya to determine the names of melakarta ragas.

Ragas may be divided into two classes: janaka ragas (i.e. melakarta or parent ragas) and janya ragas (descendant ragas of a particular janaka raga). Janya ragas are themselves subclassified into various categories.

Tala system

Tala refers to the beat set for a particular composition (a measure of time). Talas have cycles of a defined number of beats and rarely change within a song. They have specific components, which in combinations can give rise to the variety to exist (over 108), allowing different compositions to have different rhythms.

Carnatic music singers usually keep the beat by moving their hands up and down in specified patterns, and using their fingers simultaneously to keep time. Tala is formed with three basic parts (called angas) which are laghu, dhrtam, and anudhrtam, though complex talas may have other parts like plutam, guru, and kaakapaadam. There are seven basic tala groups which can be formed from the laghu, dhrtam, and anudhrtam:

Dhruva tala
Matya tala
Rupaka tala
Jhampa tala
Triputa tala
Ata tala
Eka tala

A laghu has five variants (called jaathis) based on the counting pattern. Five jaathis times seven tala groups gives thirty-five basic talas, although use of other angas results in a total of 108 talas.

Nadai

The number of maatras in an akshara is called the nadai. This number can be 3, 4, 5, 7 or 9, and take the same name as the jatis. The default nadai is Chatusram:

Nadai	Maatras	Phonetic representation of beats
Tisra	3	Tha Ki Ta
Chatusra	4	Tha Ka Dhi Mi
Khanda	5	Tha Ka Tha Ki Ta
Misra	7	Tha Ki Ta Tha Ka Dhi Mi
Sankeerna	9	Tha Ka Dhi Mi Tha Ka Tha Ki Ta

Eduppu Ela or Start point

Compositions do not always begin on the first beat of the tala: it may be offset by a certain number of matras or aksharas or combination of both to suit the words of the composition. The word Talli, used to describe this offset, is from Tamil and literally means "shift". A composition may also start on one of the last few matras of the previous avartanam. This is called Ateeta Eduppu.

Taal in Hindustani Music

Taals have a vocalised and therefore recordable form wherein individual beats are expressed as phonetic representations of various strokes played upon the tabla. The first beat of any taal, called sam (pronounced as the English word 'sum' and meaning even or equal, archaically meaning nil) is denoted with an 'X'. The first beat is always the most important and heavily emphasised. It is also the point of resolution in the rhythm. A soloist has to sound an important note of the raag there, and the percussionist's and soloist's phrases culminate at that point. A North Indian classical dance composition must end on the sam.
The beats of a taal are divided into groups known as vibhaags, the first beat of each vibhaag usually being accented. It is this that gives the taal its unique texture. For example, Rupak taal consists of 7 beats while the related Dhamar taal consists of 14 beats. The spacing of the vibhaag accents makes them distinct, otherwise one avartan of Dhamar would be indistinguishable from two of Rupak or vice versa. The first beat of any vibhaag is accompanied by a clap of the hands when reciting the taal and therefore is known as tali (or hand clap).

Furthermore, taals have a low point, known as khali (empty), which is always the first beat of a particular vibhaag, denoted in written form with '0' (zero). The khaal vibhaag has no beats on the bayan, i.e. no bass beats this can be seen as a way to enforce the balance between the usage of heavy (bass dominated) and fine (treble) beats or more simply it can be thought of another mnemonic to keep track of the rhythmic cycle (in addition to Sam). In recitation the Khaali vibhaag is indicated with a sideways wave of the dominant clapping hand (usually the right) or the placing of the back of the hand upon the base hand's palm in lieu of a clap making an "empty/nil" sound. The khali is played with a stressed syllable that can easily be picked out from the surrounding beats.
Hindustani Taals are typically played on tabla or pakhavaj. The specific strokes and the sound they produce are known as bols. Each bol has its own name that can be vocalized as well as written. Examples of bols may be heard in External Links below. The beats following the first beat of each vibhaag are indicated with digits that are greater than 0, 'X' representing the first beat - Sam, the '0' Khali (empty clap) and each number an individual consecutive beat). Rupak, almost uniquely, begins with the khali on Sam. Some rare taals even contain a "half-beat". For example, Dharami is an 11 1/2 beat cycle where the final "Ka" only occupies half the time of the other beats. Also note, this taal's 6th beat does not have a played syllable - in western terms it is a "rest".

Common Hindustani taals

Some taals, for example Dhamaar, Ek, Jhoomra and Chau talas, lend themselves better to slow and medium tempos. Others flourish at faster speeds, like Jhap or Rupak talas. Trital or Teental is one of the most popular, since it is as aesthetic at slower tempos as it is at faster speeds.
Various Gharanas (literally "Houses" which can be inferred to be "styles" - basically styles of the same art with cultivated traditional variances) also have their own preferences. For example, the Kirana Gharana uses Ektaal more frequently for Vilambit Khayal while the Jaipur Gharana uses Trital. Jaipur Gharana is also known to use Ada Trital, a variation of Trital for transitioning from Vilambit to Drut laey. There are many taals in Hindustani music, some of the more popular ones are:

Name	Beats	Division	Vibhaga
Tintal (or Trital or Teental)	16	4+4+4+4	X 2 0 3
Jhoomra	14	3+4+3+4	X 2 0 3
Tilwada	16	4+4+4+4	X 2 0 3
Dhamar	14	5+2+3+4	X 2 0 3
Ektal and Chautal	12	2+2+2+2+2+2	X 0 2 0 3 4
Jhaptal and Jhampa	10	2+3+2+3	X 2 0 3
Keherwa	8	4+4
Roopak	7	3+2+2	X 2 3
Dadra (or Dhadra)	6	3+3	X 2

Additional Talas

Rarer Hindustani talas

Name	Beats	Division	Vibhaga
Adachoutal	14	2+2+2+2+2+2+2	X 2 0 3 0 4 0
Brahmtal	28	2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2+2	X 0 2 3 0 4 5 6 0 7 8 9 10 0
Dipchandi	14	3+4+3+4	X 2 0 3
Shikar	17	6+6+2+3	X 0 3 4
Sultal	10	2+2+2+2+2	x 0 2 3 0

refers to the beat set for a particular composition (a measure of time). Talas have cycles of a defined number of beats and rarely change within a song. They have specific components, which in combinations can give rise to the variety to exist (over 108), allowing different compositions to have different rhythms.

Dhruva tala
Matya tala
Rupaka tala
Jhampa tala
Triputa tala
Ata tala
Eka tala

Golden Informations

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MUSIC FESTIVAL

Saint Thyagaraja is one of the pioneers of Carnatic Music. Sri Thyagaraja Music festival is celebrated every year on the day the saint attained Samadhi, as a mark of respect for his contributions to the world of Carnatic Music. The main celebration occurs in Thiruvaiyaru on the banks of river Cauveri, located in Tamil Nadu, India, the place where the Saint spent most of his lifetime.
Carnatic music that we know today wouldn't be this rich without the contributions of other composers namely Syama Sastri and Muthuswami Dikshatar. These composers together are called the Trinities. Although, Thyagaraja ArAdhanA started in Thiruvaiyaru to celebrate the Great life of Thyagaraja, it is now celebrated throughout the world as a tribute to the life and music of the Trinities.

Sri Thyagaraja (1767 - 1847)
Saint Thyagaraja was born on 4th May 1767 to Kakarla Ramabrahamam and Seethamma in Thanjavur district of Tamilanadu. He was proficient in both Telugu, his mother tongue and Sanskrit. He started his musical training under Sonti Venkataramanayya, a noted music scholar in the court of Thanjavur king. He composed his first musical composition "Namo Namo Raghavaya" at the age of 13. Saint Thyagaraja was a very spiritual devotee of Lord Rama, he regarded music as a way to experience the love of God. He is remembered both for his devotion and the bhāva (‘emotion’) of his krithi, a song form consisting of pallavi, (the first section of a song) anupallavi (a rhyming section that follows the pallavi) and caranam (a sung stanza; serves as a refrain for several passages of the composition). The Saint is well known for his five compositions collectively called as Pancharathna Kritis (five gems) composed in five different ragas. His compositions always include his signature "Thyagaraja" in them.

Sri Syama Sastri (1762 - 1827)

Syama Sastri was born on April 2nd 1762 to Viswanatha Iyer and Vengalakshmi. He did not have any musical family background. He learnt Telugu and Sanskrit from his father. His first music teacher Sangeeta Swami taught few rare treatises and theoretical knowledge of the music in a short span of four months. He continued his music education under Paccimiriyam Adiyappayya, a court musician under Tanjavur King. Devotion was the basis of his music and he worshiped Goddess Kamakashi. His style is neither simple as that of Thyagaraja nor difficult as that of Muthuswami Dikshitar. He is well known for his use of tala (beat). His most famous compositions include the nine krithis, Navaratnamālikā, in praise of the Goddess Madura Meenakshi and his eighteen krithis in praise of Goddess Kamakshi. His compositions always have his signature of "Shyama Krishna" in them.

Sri Muthuswami Dikshatar (1775-1835)
He was born in 1775 in a musical family to Ramaswami Dikshitar and Subbamma. He received his initial music training from his father and later under Chidambaranatha Yogi. He is a well-versed Veena player and influence of his instrumental capabilities are often seen in his compositions. He composed majority of his kritis in Sanskrit unlike the other two composers who used Telugu predominantly. He is well known for originality of his compositions and structure. He is credited with composing in all the 72 melakarta ragas. His famous compositions include Navagraha Kriti and Ragamalika. He has also set songs to western tunes. His pen name "Guruguha" is engraved in his kritis.

Music Handbook

2012-01-28T04:41:00.001-08:00

ONLINE DICTIONARY

A

*Abhyasa*	Practise
*Abhyasa Gana*	A musical form intended for practise.
*Achala swara*	Also known as Prakruti swara, it means a fixed note without any variables or ornamentations. The two fixed notes in Carnatic music are Shadja (Sa) and Panchama (Pa).
*Adhara shadja*	It is the Shadja (Sa) of the middle octave and is considered the fundamental note (tonic note) upon which melody is built. It remains fixed throughout the concert.
*Adi tala*	One of the most popular talas in Carnatic music, it consists of eight beats (a laghu + 2 dhrutams). It is technically known as Chaturasra jati Triputa tala.
*Ahobala*	The author of the treatise *Sangita Parijata*, who lived in the seventeenth century. He was the first one to calibrate the value of swaras in terms of the lengths of stretched strings.
*Akara-Sadhakam*	Vocal practice, employing only the sound aaa. This is done as part of the voice-culture exercises and results in richness of tone, timbre, clarity and strength.
*Akshara-kala*	Sanskrit term that denotes one time unit.
*Alankara*	Literally, decoration. Embellishing features that adorn a Raga. The word is also used to denote the basic scale-exercises prescribed for the beginning student.
*Alapana*	The development of a raga through improvisation to reveal the form of the raga within the set boundaries.
*Anagata*	Refers to the take-off point (*Eduppu), when the composition starts before the downbeat of a rhythmic cycle. Also see Atita*.
*Anahata Nada*	Sanskrit term for the sound (*Nada) that is not heard except in the heart. It is the opposite of Ahata Nada*, which is the heard sound.
*Andolana*	Sanskrit word for one of the ten *Gamakas* (ornamentations) mentioned in the text, *Sangeeta Makaranda. It consists of a long amplitude vibrato that bends the note in relatively quick succession but not at a speed that would make the sound feel like a vibrato*. It produces a specific stress and emotional quality in the note.
*Anga*	Literally, a limb or a part. In one context, it refers to the two tetrachords – the lower or the Poorvanga and the upper or the *Uttaranga. It could also denote one of the divisions of musical time (Tala). There are six Angas* in *Talas* -*Druta, Anudhruta, Guru, Laghu, Pluta, and Kakapada*
*Antara Gandhara*	The perfect third (in Western music, E – counting from C), or the Mi interval of the solfage. This corresponds to the fifth harmonic note with a frequency ratio of 5/4. Also see *Anunada. In the Hindustani system, this note is called Suddha Gandhara*.
*Anubandha*	The final and concluding section of an *Alapana*.
*Anubhava*	Experience
*Anudhrutam*	One of the *Angas* used in reckoning *Tala*. It is denoted by the symbol “U”. It consists of one beat, of unit measure.
*Anumandra Sthayi*	The second octave range below the *Shadja* (tonic note). The word *Anumandra* also refers to the correspondingly tuned string, in instruments like *Vina* and *Chitravina*.
*Anunada*	The name given to the hushed *Gandhara* that is heard when the *Mandra* string of a tambura is tuned to the bass tonic. This note arises from the fifth harmonic. It is also called *Swayambhu Gandhara*.
*Anupallavi*	The second section of a *Kriti* or a *Padam* in Carnatic music. It can be regarded as the equivalent of the *Antara* in a Hindustani *bandish. Its length is usually either the same as or twice that of the Pallavi*.
*Anusarani*	The second of the two middle strings of the *Tambura, which are both tuned to the tonic note or the Shadja. When the Sarani, the main string (closest to the Panchama* string of the *Tambura), and the Anusarani* are perfectly tuned, the vibration of one string sets the other into sympathetic vibration, and a resonant sound is heard.
*Anuswara*	A subtle melodic nuance employed in Carnatic music.
*Anuvadi*	A note that is neither the *Vadi* nor the *Samvadi* note of a *Raga, but is still not in dissonance with either. Hence, it is not the Vivadi* note either. All ragas have two pivotal *Swaras, which are the Vadi* and *Samvadi* notes, while the other *Swaras* are neither. Among these, the notes that are not dissonant are called the *Anuvadi Swaras*.
*Apaswara*	A note with a pitch that is poorly focused (false note), or out of tune with respect to the ideal and true pitch (off-key note). It has a jarring effect on the ears.
*Apoorva Ragas*	Uncommon, or rare *Ragas*.
*Arangetram*	Literally, ascending the stage - The debut performance of a musician, dancer, or actor, before an invited audience.
*Archika*	Recitation in one fixed note. This is indicated for some passages of the *Rig-Veda*, where the entire hymn is to be recited in one note.
*Aroha* (*Arohana*)	A series of notes in the ascending order of pitch.
*Arohana-Avarohana*	The term commonly used to describe the scale, or the ascending and descending order of notes of a *Raga, the barest skeleton of its structure. See also Avaroha* (*Avarohana*).
*Ashtapadi*	Literally, eight feet. This is the name of the well-known poetic compositions of *Jayadeva, in the Gita Govinda. There are twenty-six Ashtapadis* in total.
*Ata Tala*	One of the seven basic *Talas, consisting of 2 Laghus* and 2 drutams.
*Ati Tara sthayi*	The second octave range above the *Shadja. It is the octave higher than the Tara Sthayi*.
*Atita*	Refers to the take-off point (*Eduppu), when the composition starts after the downbeat of a rhythmic cycle. See also Anagata*.
*Audava*	Literally, five – used with respect to an *Aroha* or an *Avaroha* that uses only five notes.
*Audava-Audava*	A *Raga* that has five notes each in ascent and descent. Examples - *Hamsadhwani, Mohanam*.
*Audava-Sampoorna*	A *Raga* that has only five notes in the ascent but a complete set of seven notes in the descent. See also *Sampoorna*.
*Audava-Sampoorna*	A Raga with five notes in the ascent and six in the descent. Also see *Shadava*.
*Avanaddha Vadya*	Instruments covered with stretched skin, e.g. Mridangam.
*Avaroha* (*Avarohana*)	The descending scale of notes of a *Raga. Also see Aroha* (*Arohana*).
*Avartana*	Literally, one cycle. In Carnatic music, used with respect to one rhythmic cycle of the *Tala*.

*Bahutva*	One of the *Trayodasa Lakshanas* (thirteen characteristics) of a *Raga. It refers to those Prayogas* that can be used many times without diminution of significance. There are two varieties - the *Abhyasa Bahutva, in which a select group of notes can be used repeatedly; and the Alanghana Bahutva*, in which one note is used with premeditation and care and then stressed appropriately.
*Bakura*	A wind instrument mentioned in the *Rig-Veda*.
*Bana*	Literally, arrow. Denotes the number five, because of the five arrows associated with the God of Love. In Carnatic music, refers to the fifth out of the twelve *Chakras* in the 72 *Melakarta* system, comprising the *Melas* numbered 25-30.
*Bani*	The style of singing or playing characterised by certain special qualities of the performer. Its usage is similar to the word *Gharana* in Hindustani music.
*Bari*	The longer variety of *Nagaswaram, a wind instrument, as contrasted with the shorter variety called Timiri. The Bari* has a lower pitch when compared to the *Timiri. Also see Nagaswaram*.
*Bass bar*	A piece of wood, attached under the bridge, on the inside of bowed instruments like the viola, the violin, the cello, and the double bass. It supports the pressure on the bridge of the violin and smoothes out the notes, distributing the vibrations of the strings equally across the bridge.
*Bhagavata Goshti*	A group of singers singing sacred songs in South India.
*Bhajan*	A devotional song in praise of a god or goddess.
Bhakti	Devotion.
*Bharata*	The illustrious author of the Sanskrit text, *Natya Shastra, the most ancient treatise dealing with the science of dramaturgy and music. The name is also believed to be an acronym, derived from the words, 'Bhava', ‘Raga' and ‘Tala*’.
*Bhasha*	One of the *Margi Ragas* of which there are six in ancient music *Sarngadeva* mentions them in his *Sangita Ratnakara*.
*Bhashanga Raga*	A derived scale where one or more foreign notes are used.
*Bhatkhande, Vishnu Narayan* (1860-1936)	One of the greatest musicologists of recent times. He formulated the 10 *Thaat* system of Hindustani music, in analogy with the 72 *Melakarta* scheme of Carnatic music.
*Bhava*	A feeling or emotion of aesthetics, without which the very soul of expression in music would be lost.
*Bow*	A stick strung with horsehair that is used to play bowed instruments like the *Sarangi* and the *Violin*.
*Brahma*	The Creator, one of the celestial Trinity in Hinduism. There are believed to be nine cycles of creation, and hence, the word is used to denote the number nine. In Carnatic music, refers to the ninth out of twelve *Chakras* in the 72 *Melakarta* system, comprising the *Melas* 49-54.
*Bridge*	The piece of wood in a stringed instrument on which the strings are stretched.
*Brihaddesi*	A musical treatise of the fifth century by *Matanga. The Jatis* of the time of *Bharata* had become outdated in Matanga's time, and *Ragas* had taken their place. *Brihaddesi* gives a lucid account of *Raga* classification, such as *Suddha, Chhayalaga, Sankirna* and so on. There is a section on *Nadotpatti* or the origin of *Nada, Sruti, Swara Murchhana, Varna, Alankara, Giti, Jati, Raga, Bhasha Prabandha* etc. It is also said to have had a chapter on musical instruments which is now lost.

*Chakra*	Literally, wheel or cycle. In Carnatic music, the word refers to the 12 sub-cycles of the 72 *Melakarta* system.
*Chapu Tala*	A popular *Tala* used in concerts. A group of syncopated rhythmic cycles not belonging to the systems of 7, 35, or 175 *Talas*. There are two varieties of Chapu tala - Misra, of seven counts and Khanda of five counts.
*ChapuTol*	The inner layer of the right drumhead of the *Mridangam*.
*Charanam*	The concluding (third) part of any composition or *Kriti* in the Carnatic tradition.
*Chatura Kallinatha*	15^th century author of the commentary named *Kalanidhi* on the *Sangeeta Ratnakara*.
*Chaturasra*	One of the five Jatis, with four counts.
*Chaturasra Laghu*	The variety of *Laghu* that consists of a beat followed by three finger counts, thus making for four counts (*Akshara-kalas*).
*Chaturdandi Prakasika*	A famous treatise written by *Venkatamakhi, around the year 1635, with a detailed description of the Melakarta* organization. The treatise is in Sanskrit and also handles subjects like *Veena, Sruti, Swara, Mela, Raga, Alapa, Laya, Prabandha, Gitaprabandha* and so on. The organization of seventy-two *Melakartas* is a remarkable arrangement of musical scales and is quite unique. *Venkatamakhi* does not give the total system any detailed nomenclature. He merely leaves them classified in seventy-two scales. The later *Kanakambari* nomenclature kept the *Mela* and the *Raga* apart. This began to be used not earlier than 1735.
*Chatusruti Rishabha (R2)*	The perfect major second, with a frequency ratio of 9/8. The term is used only in Carnatic music. In Hindustani music, this note is called the *Suddha Rishabha*.
*Chitravina*	A stringed instrument shapted like the *Vina, but with no frets. It requires the player to have a perfect musical ear. Since there are no frets, there is no lateral deflection of the strings as in the Vina. Instead, a solid cylinder (Gottu) is held in the left hand, and used to slide over the strings. The instrument needs to be tuned to a higher tension, and consequently, a higher pitch, than the Vina. There are six main strings, three Tala* strings and twelve sympathetic vibration strings. As in the *Vina, the main playing strings are plucked downwards and the Tala* strings are plucked upwards. See also *Gotu* and *Gotuvadyam*.
*Chittaswara*	A passage of set *Swara* patterns with a highly sonorous appeal, attached to a *Kriti, sung after the Anupallavi* and the *Charanam. These Swara* passages are usually composed by the composer of the *Kriti. There are a few instances when such passages have been appended to some Kritis* by later composers.
*Clarinet*	A woodwind instrument with a two and a half octave range. It has a single reed with keys.
*Cymbals*	A percussion instrument made from bell metal or brass, used for keeping *Tala. It consists of a pair of round discs which, when struck together, is used in nagaswaram* concerts, *Bhajan* singing and congregational music.

*Daivata or Da*	The sixth *swara* (note) in the octave.
*Damaru*	An hour-glass-shaped drum, with parchment leather on its two faces. It is usually depicted in the hands of the dancing *Nataraja, a form of Siva. The knotted ends of two strings tied at the narrow center of the drum strike the two heads, to produce a rhythmic sound. Damaru* is found in all parts of India.
*Dasavatara*	The ten Avataras or incarnations of Vishnu. The Carnatic composers like *Jayadeva, Purandara* *Dasa* and *Tyagaraja* have considered Buddha also as an incarnation of Vishnu. So the ten Avataras are Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narashimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha and Kalki.
*Dasavatara Mangalam*	A *Mangalam* song composed by *Purandara* *Dasa*.
*Dasavatara Ragamalika*	The well-known *Swati Tirunal* composition, 'Kamalajasya', in ten *Ragas*, sung in the sequence - Mohanam, Bilahari, Dhanyasi, Saranga, Madhyamavati, Atana, Natakurunji, Darbar, Anandabhairavi, and Sowrashtra.
*Dasavidha Gamaka*	The ten kinds of *Gamakas* or movements, counted in different ways. One well-known list consists of Arohanam, Avarohanam, Dhalu, Sphurita, Kampita, Ahata, Pratyahata, Tripuchha, Andola and Murchana.
*Dattila*	Author of the fourth century treatise called *Dattilam*.
*Desi*	Belonging to the country (*desa*). This term denoted the folk music that was prevalent till the 12th century.
*Dhatu*	The melodic aspect of a musical composition.
*Dhrutam*	One of the *Angas* used in reckoning *Tala*, executed by a clap and a wave. The symbol used is 0.
*Dhruva Tala*	The first of the seven basic *Talas, consisting of one Laghu, one Dhrutam* and two *Laghus*. Represented by the symbol used is 1011.
*Dhwani*	A word that means sound.
*Dirgha*	Long - a note/syllable lasting at least two units of time, as opposed to a *Hrasva*, which lasts only for one unit beat of time.
*Disi*	Literally direction, of which there are ten (eight plus up and down). Hence the word denoted the number ten, and is the name of the tenth *Chakra* of the *Melakarta* system.
*Divya Prabhandam*	The name given to a group of 4000 verses composed by the twelve south Indian Vaishnava saints. These are in the form of *Slokas*.
*Divyanama Kirtana*	Songs sung in praise of God. It is intended for congregational singing and consists of one *Pallavi* and many *Charanams. In most cases, all the passages are sung to the same tune, whether it is the Pallavi* or *Charanam. This is called the Eka Dhatu Divyanama Kirtana, e.g. ‘Sri Rama Jayarama’ in Yadukulakambodhi, composed by Tyagaraja*.
*Dravidians*	The people indigenous to the southern part of India.
*Durbala Swaras*	Those notes in a *Raga* that are used feebly, without stress or obvious repetition.
*Dvadasha Chakras*	The twelve *Chakras* into which the 72 *Melakartas* are arranged. Each of these *Chakras* is made up of six *Melas, and is named using a mnemonic system. Thus, the twelve Chakras* are, *Indu* (moon – one), *Netra* (eyes – two), *Agni* (fire – the three fires of the maintained by a sacrificer), Veda (the scriptural texts, which are four in number), *Bana* (arrow –the five arrows of Cupid), *Rutu* (seasons – six), *Rishi* (sages – seven), *Vasu* (a class of gods, eight in number), *Brahma* (the creator, one for each of nine cycles of creation), *Disi* (direction – ten), *Rudra* (a class of gods, eleven in number) and *Aditya* (a class of gods, twelve in number).

*Eduppu*	A Tamil word, which means the point at which the music begins on *Tala* cycle. In the *Sama* *Eduppu, the music begins with the Tala. Atita Eduppu* is when the music begins after the *Tala* and the *Anagata Eduppu* is when the *Tala* begins before the music.
*Eka Tala*	The seventh of the basic seven *Talas* consisting of only one *Laghu*. The symbol is 1.
*Equal Temperament*	A system of tuning adopted for keyboard instruments like the Piano. The octave is divided into twelve equal semitones. The Indian scale is based on what is called the just intonation, based on the natural untempered scale.
*Ettayapuram*	An important place for music in South India. Composers like *Muthuswami* *Dikshitar, Baluswami* *Dikshitar* and *Subbarama* *Dikshitar* are associated with this place. The *Sangeeta Sampradaya Pradarshini* was published by the Ettayapuram Samasthanam in 1904. Ettayapuram is also the birthplace of the Tamil poet, Subrahmanya Bharati.
*Ettukada Pallavi*	Another name for the *Charanam* in a *Varnam*.

*F-holes*	The sound holes of the violin and the cello. The holes look like the letter ‘F’ in shape.
*Fiddle*	The colloquial name for the *Violin*.
*Finger holes*	The holes of a wind instrument, which are stopped either with fingers or by keys.
*Fingerboard*	The stem of a stringed instrument, over which the strings pass and which are pressed by the fingers to produce musical notes. The fingerboard may be plain, as in the *Violin* and *Sarod, or fretted, as in the Veena* and *Sitar*.
*Fingering*	The technique of the use of fingers in any musical instrument.
*Flute*	A wind instrument, considered a divine one, on account of its associations with Lord Krishna. It is among the oldest instruments known in India and consists of a hollow bamboo cylinder with finger holes and a blowhole. The Indian flute is a simple cylindrical tube of bamboo, one end closed, about fourteen or fifteen inches long, unlike the European flute, which is made usually from wood or metal. The European flute has keys whereas the Indian flute has no keys.
*Folk music*	The music of the masses of the nation. The Indian folk musical tradition is very close to its classical inheritance. Besides being bewilderingly rich and varied in a country with a single culture, spread across highly varied lifestyles and geographical and ethnic traditions, the folk song and dance tradition form a bottomless mine of rich and creative vitality. There is a folk song associated with practically every event in life. Rites of passage, festivals and seasons - each of these has a distinctive form of music associated with them.
*Fundamental Note*	The basic vibration frequency of a plucked string.

*Gadya*	Prose, as opposed to *Padya, which is verse. In a musical composition, the lyrics may be prose or verse or a mixture of both (Gadya-Padya*).
*Gamaka*	The generic nomenclature for all melodic graces and ornamentations that arise out of musical movement. In the Carnatic tradition the *Gamaka* is an essential part of the melodic structure. It is rare therefore that in this tradition you hear a *Swara* unadorned and plain. In Carnatic music, the use of *Gamaka* is one of the chief identifying features of the *Ragas, and cannot be omitted or reduced at will. In Hindustani music even the tonal characteristic can identify the raga without any Gamaka* whatever. In this sense, Hindustani music is somewhat plainer and less ornamented as compared to Carnatic music. Various commentators have described several numbers and kinds of *Gamakas*.
*Gana Bhaskara*	Telugu work by K.V.Srinivasa Iyengar, published in 1934.
*Gana Krama*	The method and order style of singing various parts of a composition. The *Gita* is sung right through, without repeating any line. In the *Kriti, each Sangati* is sung twice. The *Anupallavi* is sung after the *Pallavi* and the *Charanam* follows the *Anupallavi*.
*Gandhara or Ga*	The third *Swara* in the octave.
*Gandharva Veda*	The branch of the *Veda* that deals with music. It is an *Upa Veda* or a subsidiary *Veda* along with *Ayurveda* (medicine), *Dhanur Veda* (military science) and *Artha Shastra* (political science).
*Gandharvas*	Celestial musicians mentioned in the Indian Puranas (mythological texts).
*Gati*	Tempo of a musical piece - the speed and the gait of a composition.
*Gatra Veena*	Metaphorical term for the human voice. It is the *Veena* of the *Gatra*, thus treating the body as a natural musical instrument.
*Gavantu*	The ledge of ivory that separates the body of the *Veena* from its stem.
*Gayaka*	Singer.
*Gayaki*	Instrumental style that views vocal music as the ideal, and mimics the voice.
*Getti Melam*	A colloquial term, indicating vigorous, loud music played by a group of musicians on a *Nagaswaram* and *Tavil* ensemble. This is played at the moment the Mangalsutra is tied round the neck of a bride when getting married as per the Indian Hindu custom.
*Ghana Raga Pancharatnam*	A set of popular *Tyagaraja* compositions, consisting of ‘Jagadananda Karaka‘ in Nattai, ‘Dudukugala’ in Gowla, ‘Sadhinchane’ in Arabhi, ‘Kanakana Ruchira’ in Varali and Endaro mahanubhavulu’ in Sri. All these compositions are in *Adi* *Tala* and each of the *Kritis* has multiple *Charanams, which are sung as Swara-Sahitya*.
*Ghana Ragamalika Varna*	A *Varna* in which the *Ghana* *Ragas* are strung together in a *Ragamalika* fashion. *Veena Kuppayyar* composed one such piece.
*Ghana Ragas*	*Ragas* whose principal characteristics are easily revealed, e.g. Arabhi, Nattai, Varali, Sri and Gowla.
*Ghana vadya*	Percussion instruments made of metals.
*Gharana*	A school or style of singing in Hindustani music, usually named after the place of origin, e.g. Agra, Jaipur, Gwalior, Patiala etc. Also see *Bani*.
*Ghatam*	A pot of specially seasoned clay, used as a percussion instrument in Carnatic music.
*Gita*	Simple musical composition, first taught to students after basic training in *Swara* exercises and *Alankaras. These are simple melodies in uniform Laya* and usually in praise of one of the Hindu Gods. There are two kinds, the *Sanchari* *Gitas, which convey the basic outline of the Raga, and the Lakshana Gitas, in which the lyrics also explicitly describe the characteristics of the Ragas* in which they are composed.
*Gita govinda*	An immortal poetic-cum-musical Sanskrit classic, composed by Jayadeva in the twelfth century. There are twelve chapters in it. Each song contains eight verses or *Padas, on account of which these songs are also called the Ashtapadi*. There are twenty-four such songs.
*Gitanugam*	Any instrument that is used as an accompaniment to as singer, e.g., *Violin, Sarangi, Harmonium*.
*Gotu*	A cylindrical piece of ebony, bison horn or Teflon, used to slide over the strings of the string instrument *Gotuvadyam* or *Chitravina*.
*Gotuvadyam*	See *Chitravina*.
*Govinda*	Author of the Sanskrit treatise *Sangraha Chudamani, perhaps the last of the Sanskrit texts on Lakshana. The author lived during the latter part of the eighteenth century. He was associated with the Tanjavur court. The Sangraha Chudamani* is available in a modern published version.
*Govinda Marar (1798-1843)*	A highly gifted musician from Travancore. He invented a seven-stringed tambura, which had two *Panchama* strings, two *Sarani* strings, two *Anusaranis* and one *Mandra* string tuned to *Shadja. He was considered an exponent of singing in Shat-kalas* or six speeds.
*Graha Bheda*	The technique of deriving new scales by shifting the tonic note of an existing scale. For example, if you take the raga Hindolam (Sa Ga Ma Dha Ni Sa), and treat the Ga as if it were a Sa, the resulting scale would be Sa Ri Ma Pa Dha Sa, thus giving the scale of Suddha Saveri. This transformation is based on the simple mathematical relationship between the various notes in the octave.
*Guru*	One of the six *Angas* of *Tala* in Carnatic music. It has two *Matras* or eight *Akshara-kalas. The word Guru* also means preceptor, who takes the student from darkness to light.
*Guruguha*	The *Mudra* (signature) used by *Muthuswami* *Dikshitar* in his compositions.
*Gurumurti Sastri, Paidala (c. 18^th cent.)*	One of the greatest composers of *Gitas, after Purandara Dasa*.
*Guru-Shishya Parampara*	The lineage of preceptor and disciple, through which the living tradition is transmitted.

*Haridasa*	A saint who asked *Tyagaraja, when he was about eighteen years of age, to recite ‘Rama Nama’ 6-860 million times. It is said that Tyagaraja* was able to complete this number in twenty-one years. In the Telugu opera *Nowka Charitram*, the composer pays homage to this saint who transformed his life.
*Harmonics*	The higher frequency notes related to the fundamental frequency, produced naturally in all physical vibrations. When a stretched string is plucked, its vibration consists of a combination of its fundamental frequency and a number of integral multiples of the fundamental. This is called the harmonic content of the vibration. The fundamental note would be dominant in the full string vibration If the string is stopped at particular points along its length, e.g. half the length, one-third the length, etc., and then plucked, the sound produced is called an artificial harmonic. These frequencies are called the upper partials or higher harmonics. The corresponding notes are called *Swayambhu Swaras*, i.e. notes born naturally, of their own accord.
*Harmonium*	A portable organ-like instrument with bellows, which are pumped using the hands or feet. Its scale is tempered. It is believed that this instrument was brought into India by Western Christian missionaries in the recent past.
*Harmony*	The overall pleasant awareness of sounds played together in consonant notes. In Western music, the major third and the major fifth are played along with the main note, to get a major chord.
*Hechhu Sarani*	The name of the highest pitched string of the *Tala* strings of the *Veena*.
*Heptatonic Scale*	A *Sampoorna* scale, like any of the 72 *Melakartas*.
*Hexatonic scale*	Any six-tone or *Shadava* scale, e.g. *Sriranjani*.
*Hindustani Sangeet*	The system of music prevalent in the north of India, as contrasted with the Carnatic system, which has its origins in south India. Both systems of music have as their foundation the concepts of *Raga* and *Tala. Another common point is the fact that both systems have defined the vocally produced note as the yardstick for the Swara*, unlike Western music, where the notes have been standardized with respect to the frequency of tuning forks and an equally tempered scale.
*Hrasva*	Literally, short. A *Hrasva* note usually has a length of one unit of time. See also *Dirgha* (antonym).

*Indu*	Literally, moon. In Carnatic music, this is the name of the first *Chakra* in the 72 *Melakarta* system, comprising the first six *Melas*.
*Interval*	The ratio of the frequency of a note to that of a lower note.

*Jaati*	In contemporary Carnatic music, refers to the five kinds of *Laghus* used in Talas. There are five of these –Chaturasra (4 counts), Tisra (3 counts), Misra (7 counts), Khanda (5 counts) and Sankeerna (9 counts). Thus, the application of these five kinds to the 7 basic *Talas* results in 35 *Tala* system. In the *Natya Sastra, the term is used as a melodic attribute, but this had already gone out of vogue during the time of Matanga. See also Brihaddesi*.
*Jalatarangam*	Literally, water waves. Name of a musical instrument, consisting of china cups filled to varying levels with water. The water level is adjusted to tune each cup to a specific note. The rim of the cup is struck with sticks after tuning, to give a pleasant ringing sound. This is often used in small ensembles and for orchestral support. The dexterity to play this instrument is one of the traditionally enumerated 64 arts.
*Janaka Raga*	A parent raga. The three conditions for a parent *Raga* are - it should be *Sampoorna* in both ascent and descent, employing seven notes; it should not have any zig-zag patterns (*Vakratva) in it; and the ascent and descent should use the same set of seven notes. There are 72 Janaka* *Ragas. See also Melakarta*.
*Janaka-Janya*	The classification of *Ragas* into parent and derivative ragas, analogous to the genus-species system of classification. See *Janaka* *Ragas* and *Janya Ragas*.
*Janta Swaras*	A note that is repeated twice, e.g. Sa-Sa, Ri-Ri, Ga-Ga etc. These are part of the scale exercises taught to the beginning student.
*Janya Raga*	A *Raga* that is derived from a parent scale, by either omitting notes from the parent scale, or by introducing a zig-zag pattern, or by adding alien notes that are not present in the original parent scale.
*Jati*	Pronounced with a short a – the syllables used to count rhythmic patterns, e.g. tari kita naka etc.
*Jatiswaram*	A composition that used only the Sa Ri Ga notation for the notes and rhythmic syllables like tari taka, ta-din-gin-na-tom etc. It has no words, but there are the usual *Pallavi, Anupallavi* and *Charanam* divisions. Widely used in dance recitals.
*Javali*	A Kannada word, meaning an earthy and sensuous erotic song. It is distinguished from the *Padams, in which love and erotic sentiment is treated with more gravity. In Javali, love is light, provocative, flippant and sometimes even lewd and bawdy. It is usually set to bright and attractive tunes in well-known Ragas*, and sung in medium or slow tempo.
*Jew’s Harp*	A rhythmic instrument. See *Morsing*.
*Jiva*	Literally, life. Also known as *Jawari. It is the fine thread that is inserted between the bridge and the strings of the Tambura. The sound texture and quality are enriched by this means, giving the Tambura* the enveloping sound that is vital to the performance of music.
*Jiva Swara*	The note that imparts the central character to the *Raga. This could be the same as a Nyasa* *Swara* of the *Raga*, though not necessarily so.
*Jod*	In Hindustani music, a rendition of an *Alapa* with an inbuilt *Laya* and rendered in the medium tempo. This is performed principally on instruments and in the nom tom alap of dhammar and dhrupad. This is similar to the *Tanam* singing in Carnatic music.
*Jugalbandi*	A performance of two instrument players or singers. It spaces out a performance, dividing its progressions in a shared manner. In the Carnatic tradition, this is termed *Jodippattu*.

*Kutcheri*	Concert, or any musical entertainment.
*Kutcheri* *Dharma*	The duties and obligations, rights and privileges of musicians performing in a concert, its organisers and the audience. This entails everything from dress, mode of address and welcome, to the seating arrangements on the platform.
*Kakali* *Nishada*	The major seventh note. Called *Shuddha* *Nishada* in Hindustani music. In practice, in Carnatic music, the note is often intoned slightly higher than the *Suddha* *Nishada* of Hindustani music, and the note is closer to the position of the *Shadja*.
*Kakapadam*	One of the six *Angas* among the musical time measures and has a total of 16 counts.
*Kaku*	A *Swara* technique that emphasizes the significant characteristic of a raga. Parsvadeva’s *Sangeeta Samaya Sara* describes six kinds of *Kakus* – 1. *Raga* *Kaku* is the essential splendour of a raga; 2. *Swara Kaku* is the embellishment of a *Raga* through the quality and shading of its *Mukhya Swara* through *Gamakas* or mere vocal power; 3.Desa Kaku is the introduction of folk and regional inflections into the *Raga, giving it a novel and strange, yet rich form; 4. Anya Raga Kaku* is the contrasting quality achieved by introducing *Graha Bheda* techniques or bhavas of foreign ragas; 5. *Kshetra Kaku* emphasises all the rules of the *Raga* in various combinations; 6. *Vadya Kaku* is the technique of bringing an instrumental quality into the vocal expression of *Ragas*.
*Kala*	Pronounced Kalaa, it means art. Pronounced Kaala, it refers to time.
*Kalahasti*	Temple-town near the border of Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh. The name was used as a *Mudra* by the composer Veena Venkataswami Raju of Kalahasti, in his *Tana Varna* composition Valachiyunna in Pushpalatika.
*Kallinatha*	See *Chatura Kallinatha*.
*Kalpanaswara*	The creative part of Carnatic music, where the performer sings patterns of solfa notes (swaras) extempore, according to his imagination, but within the boundaries of the Raga.
*Kalpita melakarta*	The name given to fifty-three out of the seventy-two *Melas* described by Venkatmakhi. These were purely academic at the time, as they had not been used in compositions until then. The other nineteen were already popular when the classification was carried out.
*Kalpita Sangita*	Composed music, e.g. *Kritis* and *Varnams*.
*Kampita*	See *Gamaka*.
*Kanjira*	A tambourine, used as a percussion instrument in concerts.
*Katapayadi Sankhya*	An ancient Indian system of mnemonics that is used to correlate numbers with words. numbers of words. This was widely used in astrology, musicology, and several other arts and sciences in India. Each letter of the Sanskrit alphabet is associated with a number, as summed up in four key phrases. *Kadi Nava* – the nine letters, Ka, Kha, Ga, Gha, N(g)a, Cha, Chha, Ja and Jha, are given values from 1 through 9. Similarly, *Tadi Nava* – the letters beginning with ‘Ta’ and ending in ‘Dha’ are again given values 1 through 9. *Padi Panca* – the five letters from ‘Pa’ to ‘Ma’ are given values from 1 to 5. *Yadi* *Ashta* – the series of eight letters, Ya, Ra, La, Va, Sha, Shha, Sa and Ha have values from 1 through 8. The letters N(j)a and Na represent zero. The names of the 72 *Melas* are based on this scheme, such that the first two syllables of the name correspond to the *Mela* number in a reverse fashion. This can be illustrated with an example. Take the Mela Ramapriya. Ra and Ma are the first two syllables. The serial number of ‘Ra’ is two and that of ‘Ma’ is five, so that ra-ma encodes the number 25. The digits in this number are to be reversed, to give the number 52. This is the *Melakarta* number of Ramapriya.
*Kathakalakshepam*	A combined word, formed from Katha (story), Kala (time) and Kshepa (spending). It is the art form of passing leisure time through musicalized story-telling. Legends from the Puranas are narrated through songs rendered in a dramatic fashion. The Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and Bhagavatam form the basis of the stories and anecdotes that are sung and recited by performers. Tanjavur Krishna Bhagavatar is described as the father of this art-form, which requires its practitioners to be scholars, musicians and dramatists simultaneously.
*Khayal*	A word of Persian origin, meaning ‘imagination’. It is believed to have developed out of the *Qawwal* style of singing and through the period of Amir Khusro became an important part of the Hindustani music tradition. The arrival of the khayal slowly displaced the old *Dhrupad* style of singing and effected a revolutionary change in the Hindustani music tradition. The structure of the *Khayal* requires a high order of improvisational skill in the musician at several levels and layers of the *Raga*. The range and scope of improvisation also covers the whole range of human experience, from the poetic and mystic to the frontiers of quick arithmetic calculation and intellectual exploration.
*Koot-taan*	A complicated and extensive set of notes in complex figures in a *Taan*.
*Kovur Pancharatna*	A set of five *Kritis*, composed by thy great composer Tyagaraja, in praise of the deity, Sundareswara, in the shrine at Kovur near Madras. These are ‘Sambho Mahadeva’ in raga Pantuvarali, ‘Ee vasudha nivanti’ in Sahana raga, ‘Kori Sevimparare ‘in Karaharapriya, ‘Nammi Vacchina’ in Kalyani and ‘Sundira Varuni’ in Shankarabharanam.
*Krama*	Order, regularity. *Krama* *Sampoorna* means an orderly *Arohana* and *Avarohana* without zig-zag patterns and tortuous variations. *Shadava Krama* indicates a six-note regular scale, and *Audava* *Krama* refers to the regularity of the five-note scale.
*Krishna*	The most well-known God of Hinduism, asociated in music with the *Venu* or *Murali, the divine flute. Hence, he is also called by the name Muralidhara. The pure music ascribed to Lord Krishna is believed to be the essence of Indian music. Composers and musicians have used this figure of Krishna with his flute from the dawn of Indian memory. Krishna appears as the inspiration behind Jayadeva’s Ashtapadis* in the *Gita* *Govinda, the songs of Meera, the Bhajans* in Brij, and in numerous *Thumris* and *Khayals*.
*Krishna Leela Tarangini*	The longest Sanskrit opera, composed by Narayana Tirtha. It contains 112 cantos. Its origin is in the Bhagavata Purana’s tenth chapter, which begins with the birth of Krishna and ends with the marriage to Rukmini.
*Kriti*	Literally, composition/work. One of the most highly evolved forms of musical composition in the Carnatic music system. Every composer in the Carnatic School has attempted to compose *Kritis* and contributed richly to this form of music. Therefore, *Kritis* form the bulk of musical compositions in Carnatic music today. Unlike the *Khayal* in Hindustani music, the *Kriti* is a fully composed piece of music, complete in its architecture and motion. Its value lies not only in its musical content, but also in the lyrical content, the Sahitya. An allied form of composition, the *Kirtana, lays much greater stress on the Sahitya* than the *Kriti. There are three movements – the Pallavi, the Anupallavi* and the *Charanam. In many such compositions, there are multiple Charanams. The Kritis* are ornamented with several technical devices, such as *Chitta* *Swaras, Madhyamakala* *Sahitya, Swarakshara* *Sangatis, Solkattu* *Swaras, Swara* *Sahitya* and so on.
*Kriya*	A mode of counting time. There are two main kinds of *Kriyas, e.g. the Nis-shabda* *Kriya, which is silent or unvoiced, and the Sa-shabda* *Kriya*, which is voiced by means of a beat.
*Kshana*	The smallest division of time that can be conceived in a *Kala*, or between two beats.
*Kudimiyamalai*	An inscription on a rock face in Pudukottai, giving much information about music. It belongs to the seventh century, and was inscribed by Mahendra Varman, a Pallava king. Except for the incomplete inscriptions available from Titumayam and Pudukottai, the inscription at Kudumiyamalai is unique in all of India. This inscription belongs to the period before Hindustani and Carnatic music took slightly different paths and therefore can be said to belong to both the traditions. It gives brief *Sancharas* of seven ragas – the Madhyama Grama, the Shadava, the Sadharita, the Panchama, the Kaisika madhyama and the Kaisiki Nishada. The *Sancharas* are given in four note steps of *Taans, in what is known as the Chatushprahara Swaragama*
*Kural*	Tamil word, meaning voice. The name of the tone that is equivalent to *Shadja*, in ancient Tamil music.
*Kusa and Lava*	Sons of Rama, known as great singers and balladeers. They sang the Ramayana and enthralled the court of their father King Ramachandra of Ayodhya.

*Laghu*	One of the six *Angas* that reckons musical time. It consists of a beat and a variable count of fingers. See also *Jati*.
*Laghu Gotuvadhyam*	A small Gotuvadyam, with a short stem and only five strings.
*Laghu Vina*	A shorter *Vina*, with five strings, with a range of one and half octaves.
*Lakshana*	A science or grammar, and refers to the *Raga* and its characteristics. The *Lakshanas* include *Aroha, Avaroha, Jiva* *Swaras, Nyasa* *Swaras, Raga* *Prayogas, Vishesha* *Sancharas, subtle Srutis, Rasa* and the appropriate time of singing.
*Lakshana Gita*	See *Gita*.
*Lakshanakara*	Sanskrit term for musicologist. He is deemed to know a lot of facts about music and is an authority on it.
*Lakshana Prabhanda*	A composition in which some laws of music are described in its *Sahitya. The Murchhana Karaka Mela Ragamalika* is a case in point.
*Lakshya Grantha*	Treatise on the science of music, with basic notations of compositions.
*Langar*	A Hindustani word that means anchor. It refers to the metallic ring-like device to the right of the bridge, through which the strings are tied in a *Veena* or a *Chitraveena*.
*Laya*	Literally, merging. In Carnatic music, the term refers to the tempo and indicates the speed and gait of a piece of music in the form of a regularly repeated beat a recognizable speed. *Vilambita* *laya* is slow tempo, the *Madhya* *Laya* is medium paced and the *Druta* *Laya* is fast tempo.
*Laya Meettu*	Refers to the technique of plucking the *Tala* strings of the veena. This is a simultaneous upward stoke of the little finger on the three *Tala* strings.
*Linguaphone*	An instrument fitted with tongues that vibrate in different *Swaras* when plucked. The *Morsing* is an example. Often bamboo wood, bone and metal are used as tongues.
*Lithophones*	Musical instruments made of stone. There are several varieties of such instruments, including sets of stone pillars that sound various notes from the scale when struck, and certain *Mukhaveenas, which are miniature Nagaswarams*.
*Lochana Kavi*	Musicologist from Mithila, who lived towards the end of the 14^th century. He is the author of the grantha *Raga Tarangini* and quotes Vidyapati, the well-known poet of Mithila. Lochana kavi recognized the 22 shruthis and enumerated twelve *Thaats. His shuddha scale was Kafi* (or Kharaharapriya of Carnatic music).
*Lohaja*	The sound emanating form metal. e.g. the sound produced by cymbals.
*Lute*	Any stringed instrument, which has a resonator shaped like a pear at one end, and a stem with a fretted fingerboard. The strings are plucked with the fingers. The standard south Indian *Veena* is a lute.

*Madhyama or Ma*	The fourth note of the Indian scale. It is the fa of the solfa of the European scale. (See GRAMA).
*Madhyamadi*	A raga mentioned in the *Sangita Makaranda* of Narada, which can be sung at noon. It is an *Audava* *Raga. This seems to have been the earlier name for Madhyamavati*.
*Madhyama Kala Sahitya*	Sections in Carnatic *Kritis* that are composed at twice the basic tempo. The *Madhyama* *Kala* piece usually appears at the end of the *Anupallavi* or the *Charanam* or sometimes in both sections. Many Muthuswami Dikshitar compositions include such sections.
*Madhya sthayi*	Middle octave
*Madhya laya*	Medium tempo. See *Laya*.
*Madhyama Grama*	One of the three old scales of which there were three. The other two were the *Shadja* *Grama* and the *Gandhara* *Grama. This is only of academic interest today, as the Grama* system is no longer in use.
*Magudi*	A musical instrument used by snake charmers. It is called *Punji* in North India. This instrument is polyphonous. A bottle gourd attached to a double cane pipe is cut in reeds. While one of the pipes gives the basic tonic, which it produces in a constant drone, the other pipe is able to play the tune. This pipe has finger holes that can be stopped just as in a flute. The wind that enters is blown out through the other end of the bottle gourd. Its sound is melancholy and is normally tuned to the scale of the South Indian Punnagavarali, a kind of Mishra Bilaskhani Todi of Hindustani music. This scale is said to attract serpents. The southern *Magudi* is unable to produce the *Shadja* of the higher octave. The North Indian *Punji, being longer, is able to produce the upper Shadja*.
*Meruswami*	Nineteenth century musician, *Samasthana* *Vidwan* of the state of Travancore. His vocal range is said to have been three and a half octave.
*Major scale*	The principal scale in which Western music is composed. It corresponds to the Shankarabharanam scale of Carnatic music, or the Bilawal scale of Hindustani music.
*Makuta* *Swara*	A crowning *Swara* pattern. It generally denotes the string of *Swara* passages at the end of each section of a *Ragamalika, connecting the previous Raga* with the next *Raga*.
*Mandram*	The name of the lower octave. Also the name of the lowest pitch string of the *Tambura* tuned to the lowest tonic of its scale.
*Mandra sthayi*	Lower octave.
*Mandra* *Sadhana*	The vocal training that involves a series of exercises in the *Mandra* region of the scale. This exercise gives body and resonance to the voice.
*Mangalam*	An auspicious song of salutation. It is the concluding piece in Carnatic concerts. It is mostly in the *Kirtana* form and consists of a *Pallavi* and several *Charanams*, which are all sung in the same tune.
*Mangala Raga*	Those ragas that are associated with auspiciousness. Dhanyasi, Asaveri, Vasanta, Saurashtram, Madhyamavati, Sri and Yadukulakambhoji are some of the *Mangala* *Ragas* in the Carnatic tradition
*Mani*	Little beads threaded upon the strings of the tanpura which are used to fine-tune the swara.
*Manipravala Kriti*	A composition in which the lyrics use two or more languages but despite this remain grammatically accurate. Linguists usually compose Manipravala krithis. The Bhairavi composition, ‘Ni sari samaana’ and ‘Tyagara Swami’ in Vacaspati are *Manipravala* compositions.
*Manodharma Sangeeta*	Music that is sung extempore - a product of the moment. *Manodharma* is improvisational music and is produced instantaneously, without much planning or forethought. It has particular significance in Carnatic music, where the improvisational music is overlaid on the firm structure provided by Kritis and other such compositions of the great composers. In Hindustani music, since the compositions are normally short pieces, almost all the performed music is *Manodharma. The Alapa, the Taanas, Pallavi* exposition, *Swara* *Kalpanas* and the *Niraval* are aspects of *Manodharma* in Carnatic music.
*Mantra*	A short phrase or group of letters of the Sanskrit language, meant for constant mental repetition, thereby gaining a curious power and impulse. Mantra is derived from the word ‘manana’ meaning memory or thinking. Magical properties are assigned to a *Mantra* such as those of purifying the mind, entering it and stilling it.
*Marga*	Ancient, or classical, as against *Desiya* which is provincial and local, belonging to the region. A strict sense of rules is the characteristic of *Marga, while Desiya* makes local adaptations of the rules. Thus there are *Marga* and *Desiya* varieties of both *Ragas* and *Talas*.
*Marga* *Kriya*	The classical or *Marga* technique of reckoning musical time.
*Markata Taana*	A kind of *Taana* that mimics the gait of a monkey. The movement of *Taanas* is often likened to the gait of animals like the elephant, peacock or snake. For instance, a *Taana* is often said to be lumbering like a bear or jerky and jumpy like a frog.
*Matanga*	Author of the *Brihaddesi* of the fifth century. Matanga is believed to be the originator of the *Raga* system of Indian music. All the later *Lakshanakaras* quote him widely.
*Matra*	A unit of time measure and is used as the basic unit of the 108 talas of Indian music.
*Mavu*	The paste of rice and water applied to the left side of the *Mridangam, left side to dampen the vibrations and add tone and timbre to the sound. The quantity and spread of the paste is adjusted so that the sound emitted is about an octave or the Panchama* below the note played on the right side of the mridangam.
*Meend*	A smooth uninterrupted glide from one note to another. Its closest western equivalent is the pornamento of bowed instruments.
*Mela* (*Melakartha*)	A parent scale of notes possessing a definite melodic character, with each note bearing a particular relationship to a tonic note and retaining that characteristic in ascent and descent. Full complement of seven notes are used in both the ascending and descending scales. There are seventy-two melakarthas emerging from the twelve notes of a full scale. This then becomes the basis from which a raga is derived. The character of a mela is so clear that the shortest section of its ascending or descending notes reveals the identity of the mela to the listener. Its Hindustani equivalent is the *Thaat*. The melas are seventy-two in number and the thaats are ten in number. The ragas are formed out of these melas as melodic units from which ragas are born.
*Melakarta Ragas*	Scales which can be made into a *Raga*. e.g. Hari Kamboji and Kharaharapriya.
*Membraphone*	An instrument that uses a membrane to produce a musical sound. A drum would be a membraphone. It is also called *Avanaddha* *Vadya*.
*Meru*	The fret nearest the peg area of the *Veena*.
*Minor tone*	A *Sruti* with a frequency interval of about 10/9. The interval between the chatusruthi rishaba and the antara gandhara is a minor tonic.
*Misra Raga*	Compound ragas, which are usually two *Ragas* joined together. There are several styles of mixing *Ragas. The Poorvanga* of one raga with the uttaranga of the other is one way of effecting this. The real test of a mishra raga is in the way the two ragas mesh into each other. This requires skill and intellect in the musician.
*Misra Tala*	A compound of two *Talas*.
*Modal Shift*	Shifting the reference note (Shadja), in order to produce another raga. Also see *Graha Bheda*.
*Mode*	The Greek and ecclesiastical scales. See also *Major Scale*.
*Mohara*	The concluding seal of a performance sometimes done three times. It is usually done in rhythmic display. The finish then feels conclusive and final. (This is so yucky. Can’t this be done better?)
*Moorchana*	The scales that emerge when each successive note of the scale is made the tonic note and a new set of notes defined from that point. The word is deriving drorm the root moorcha, meaning unconsciousness. The change of the *Shadja* in emphasising a note gives the mind an oppurtunity to take another pathway, which changes the feel of the first *Raga* that was being performed. This new pathway ends in a new Raga, with redefined relationships among the notes. When *Ragas* are derived from *Moorchanas, the technique is called Moorchana* *Paddhati*.
*Moorchanakaraka* *Raga*	A raga from which several *Moorchanas* emerge.
*Morsing*	A thin flat iron slip called the tongue attached to the ring shaped circular metal passing across the centre of the ring and sticking out just a little. The instrument is held in the mouth and struch with the forefinger which makes the metal tongue vibrate, making the mouth act as a resonator. This instrument is used to play *Laya* and *Jati* sequences along with the *Mridangam. The Morsing* can be made to appropriate the scale of the singer by using a little wax at the tip of the tongue. See also *Jew’s Harp*.
*Mridangam*	The classical two-faced drum, used as percussion in Carnatic music, and played horizontally with the two hands by laying it on the lap. *Mridangam* literally means ‘made of clay’. It is actually made out of a scooped out single block of wood, usually from the Neem tree or Jack or Coconut. A smooth paste of rice flour and water is used on the left side to dampen the two skin tympani (See *Mavu). A mixture of rice paste and iron filings is permanently loaded on the right drumhead. The Mridangam* can be made to sound like a human voice, with a rich tone and timbre. This makes its use as an accompanying percussion instrument very evocative.
*Mudra*	The signature used by the composer as part of the lyrics of a *Kriti. Usually, the Mudra* identifies the name of the composer, but one other use of the signature is the imaginative incorporation of the *Raga* name into the composition.
*Mukhavina*	A wind instrument, like a small *Nagaswaram*.

*Nabhi swara*	A kind of vocal production that is layered with harmonics and seems to originate at the navel of the singer.
*Nada*	A mystical concept that has several connotations, one of which is the *Nadabramha,* which is an esoteric understanding of the silence of the spheres. On a more physical level, it refers to the basic vibration that enters the audio level and can be heard as sound as it impinges on the consciousness - the matrix of sound. It can be subdivided into *Ahata nada* (the heard sound) and *Anahata nada* (the unheard sound).
*Nada roopa*	Is the embodied form of *nada*.
*Nadaswaram*	See *Nagaswaram*
*Nadopasana*	It is the practice of *nada* as a meditative exercise that cleanses one's musical perceptions.
*Nadopasika*	Refers to one who meditates on the swaras of music and obtains the power of *nada* from the exercise.
*Nadayoga*	It is a Sanskrit term used to describe the meditation on a swara as a kind of yoga where the swara is understood to be the fundamental sound and the raga, secondary.
*Nadayogi*	Is a musician who practices music as part of yoga, a kind of rigorous discipline that involves the gathering of one's faculties and focussing on the Art.
*Nagaswaram*	An ancient Carnatic wind instrument, similar to the Western Clarinet.
*Navaratnamala*	It is a garland of nine kirtanas composed by Swati Tirunal on the theme of bhakti. There are nine kinds of bhakti - sravanam (attentive listening), kirtanam (singing religious songs), smaranam (mentally imagining the deity), padasevanam (worshipping at the feet of the deity), archanam (making an offering), vandanam (paying one's respects), dasyam (offering one's services to the deity), sakhyam (constant companionship) and atmanivedanam (self-enquiry).
*Navaratri kriti*	Refers to a set of nine kritis in praise of Goddess Devi, specially composed by Swati Tirunal to be sung during the Navaratri festival.
*Navavarna kritis*	Refers to a set of nine kritis in praise of Goddess Devi, to be sung during the nine days of the Navaratri festival. There are two such sets, one composed by Oottukadu Venkatasubbayyar and one by Muthuswami Dikshitar.
*Nibaddha*	It refers to a composition that is set to a tala. It is the opposite of Anibaddha, which is the unbounded area of a raga, i.e. alapana.
*Nindastuti*	Refers to that form of worship (Bhakti) in which the faults of the God/Goddess is highlighted as an indirect act of adoration. There are many compositions based on this form of Bhakti.
*Nishada* or Ni	It is the seventh note of the Indian scale.
*Nisabdha kriya*	It is the act of reckoning rhythm without sound.
*Niyama*	Sanskrit word that means rules. There are various niyamas (rules) by which Ragas, Talas and Sahitya are bound.
*Nyasa swara*	It is the final note on which a phrase or an alapana rests.

According to Hindu cosmology it is the sound that pervades the entire universe - the sound of silence. It represents the Absolute as sound and is often called Nadabrahma. The production of this sound by the human voice is the totality of al perceived vibrations, whether by the ear or the subtle senses of the spirit.

*Padam or pada*	Is a poetic composition with verses of lyrics.
*Pallavi*	In Carnatic music it referts to the basic first movement. In the Hindustani system, it is called sthayi.
*Panchama* or Pa	Refers to the fifth note of the scale. It is a constant note and does not have a sharp or flat variations.
*Pluta*	Refers to one of the seven parts of the *tala* and has a total of 12 counts or *aksharas*.
*Poorvanga*	It is the lower tetrachord of the scale, the first four notes, *Sa, Ri Ga* and Ma
*Prayoga*	Refers to the technique of expression in raga, a characteristic progression, a manner of negotiation on the scale.
*Pundarik Vittal*	One of the great musicologists of South India, who lived in the 16^th century. He wrote several treatises like Ragamala, Raga manjari and Nritya nirnaya.

*Raga*	Constitutes the basis of the music of the subcontinent. A raga is basically a melody.
*Ragamala*	Literally means a garland of ragas.
*Rasika*	A lover of music
*Rishabha* or Ri	Is the second note of Indian music.
*Roopaka tala*	A tala that has six counts. It also refers to the third of the Sapta Talas which has a *dhrutam* and a *laghu*. (See Sapta Talas)

*Sabha*	An organisation that gives patronage to music/dance.
*Sabha* *gana*	Denotes singing in a sabha or to a large audience - public concert.
*Sadhana*	Is a word commonly used to indicate practice
*Sahitya*	Lyrics or prosody
*Samasthana* or *Asthana vidwan*	Refers to a musician recognized by the royal court or a respected musical establishment.
*Sampoorna Jati / Raga*	Refes to a raga that has all the seven notes in it.
*Samvadi*	Refers to the relationship between any given swara (which becomes the vadi swara) to its perfect fourth or perfect fifth. Eg. The relationship between Sa and Ma or Sa and Pa, where Sa is the Vadi swara and Ma/Pa become the Samvadi swara.
*Sanchara*	Literally means motion. In music, it indicates a manner of exploration of the terrain of a raga with a particular gait, geometry, progression and rest.
*Sangeeta* or *Sangita*	Is a Sanskrit term that means music. It has two parts, ‘san’, which is derived from 'sam', which means together and 'geet' , which means song.
*Sangeeta Makaranda*	Is a treatise on music, by Narada around the ninth century.
*Sangeeta Parijata*	A treatise on music, written by Pandit Ahobal around 1750 AD.
*Sangeeta Ratnakara*	One of the major treatises on Indian music, written around the thirteenth century, authored by Sarangadeva. It covers a wide area of scholarship and understanding and has influenced all subsequent writings on music.
*Sangeeta Saramrita*	Was written by the Maharaja of Tanjavur, Tulaja between1763-68.
*Sangeet upasana*	The devoted practice of music.
*Sarani*	Refers to the first of the two middle strings of the tambura and is tuned to *Shadja*, the tonic note.
*Sarangadeva*	Was a musicologist who lived between 1175 and 1247 AD and authored the well-known treatise on music *Sangeeta Ratnakara.*
*Shadava*	Refers to a sequence of six notes either in the ascent or descent.
*Shadja* or Sa	The very first note of the Indian scale. It is a fixed note with no variable values.
*Shankha*	Refers to the conch shell and is believed to be the instrument of Lord Vishnu.
*Shehnai*	A wind instrument similar to the clarinet, used in Hindustani music. Its Carnatic counterpart is the *Nagaswaram.*
*Sishya*	A student or disciple.
*Sloka*	A Sanskrit word for poetry, usually of four lines and considered sacred and powerful.
*Sringara*	Is one of the *nava rasas* (nine emotions) and indicates love.
*Sruti*	Refers to the microtonal intervals between notes. Twenty-two such microtonal points have been identified in Carnatic music.
*Solkattu*	Refers to the mnemonics of Indian dance, specifically *Bharatanatyam*.
*Sthayi*	Means octave in Carnatic music.
*Suddha*	Sanskrit word for pure or untainted.
*Swara*	The solfa note in Indian music.
*Swara bedha*	Refers to the technique of modal shift of the tonic note.
*Swara lipi*	It is the notation or the score of a musical composition. *Lipi* means script and thus the writing of the *swara* is a literal translation.
*Swaramela Kalanidhi*	A treatise on Carnatic music authored by Ramamatya in 1550.
*Swara prasthara*	See *Kalpanaswara*

*Tala*	Refers to the physical expression of *Laya* or rhythm usually expressed in the form of beats, wave of the hand or finger-counts.
*Tala vadya*	Means percussion instrument.
*Tambura* (*tanpura*)	Is a four-stringed instrument in Indian instrument used to provide a constant pitch/drone.
*Tara sthayi*	Higher octave.
*Tillana*	A musical composition that mostly uses jatis, but also has some lyrics in the Charanam.
*Tukkada*	Literally means piece. Usually refers to the songs that are sung in the latter half of a Carnatic concert, after the main piece.

Uttaranga

Refers to the upper tetrachord of the scale and includes the notes Pa, Da, Ni and Sa (of the next octave).

*Vadya*	Means instrument in Indian music.
*Vaggeyakara*	Is derived from the words Vak (speech), *geya* (to sing) and kara (one who does). Thus it refers to a composer who composes both the lyrics and the tune.
*Vakra*	Literally means twisted or irregular. In the context of ragas, it indicates a break in the continuity or regularity of the accepted order of notes either in the *arohana-avarohana* (ascent-descent).

Origins and History

2012-01-28T04:40:00.000-08:00

PurandaraDaasa
-Fatherof CarnaticMusic

Ancient treatises describe the connection of the origin of the swaras, or notes, to the sounds of animals and birds and man's effort to simulate these sounds through a keen sense of observation and perception. The Sama Veda, which is believed to have laid the foundation for Indian classical music, consists of hymns from the Rigveda, set to musical tunes which would be sung using three to seven musical notes during Vedic yajnas. The Yajur-Veda, which mainly consists of sacrificial formulae, mentions the veena as an accompaniment to vocal recitations. References to Indian classical music are made in many ancient texts, including epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Yajnavalkya Smriti mentions vīṇāvādana tattvajñaḥ śrutijātiviśāradaḥ tālajñaścāprayāsena mokṣamārgaṃ niyacchati ("The one who is well versed in veena, one who has the knowledge of srutis and one who is adept in tala, attains salvation without doubt"). Carnatic music is based as it is today on musical concepts (including swara, raga, and tala) that were described in detail in several ancient works, particularly the Silappadhikaram, and Bharata's Natya Shastra. This music system was prevalent in Tamil Region of South India in ancient days. It had no specific name mainly because it was the only music form then. Later it spread to all other Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam regions, undergoing changes in musical aspects and became a southern music. It gained a name when Maharashtrian Kings who patronized this music, named it as ' Karnatak' (Anglicized 'Carnatic') relating it to their immediate border region Karnataka where musicians came from. In some north Indian circles it is referred to as 'Madrasi Gana' even today.

Owing to Persian and Islamic influences in North India from the 12th century onwards, Hindustani music and Carnatic music styles diverged. By the 16th and 17th centuries, there was a clear demarcation between Carnatic and Hindustani music.It was at this time that Carnatic music flourished in Thanjavur, while the Vijayanagar Empire reached its greatest extent. Purandara Dasa, who is known as the father (Pitamaha) of Carnatic Music, formulated the system that is commonly used for the teaching of Carnatic music. Venkatamakhin invented and authored the formula for the melakarta system of raga classification in his Sanskrit work, the Chaturdandi Prakasika (1660 AD). Govindacharya is known for expanding the melakarta system into the sampoorna raga scheme - the system that is in common use today.

Carnatic music was mainly patronized by the local kings of the Kingdom of Mysore and Kingdom of Travancore in the 18th through 20th centuries. The royalty of the kingdoms of Mysore and Travancore were noted composers and proficient in playing musical instruments, such as the veena, rudra veena, violin, ghatam, flute, mridangam, nagaswara and swarabhat. Some famous court-musicians and royalty proficient in music were Veene Sheshanna (1852–1926) and Veene Subbanna (1861–1939), among others.

With the dissolution of the erstwhile princely states and the Indian independence movement reaching its conclusion in 1947, Carnatic music went through a radical shift in patronage into an art of the masses with ticketed performances organized by private institutions called sabhās. During the 19th century, Madras emerged as the locus for Carnatic music.