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2010-12-01T15:01:00.000-08:00

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Carbon and it's Compounds

2009-12-24T21:27:00.000-08:00

Introduction

Carbon is an element which is of immense significance to us in both its elemental form and in the combined form.

Bonding in Carbon - The Covalent Bond

Although there are more than hundred elements around us we do not find these elements in their native form in nature. This is because most of these elements are highly reactive.

Properties of Covalent Compounds

A covalent bond can be formed in different ways. When a bond is formed by mutual sharing of one pair of electrons it is known as a 'single covalent bond', or simply 'a single bond'.

Types of Covalent Bonds

Types of covalent bonds are Single Bond, Double Bond , Triple Bond.

Tetravalency in Carbon

A carbon atom has a total of six electrons occupying the first two shells, i.e., the K-shell has two electrons and the L-shell has four electrons.

Allotropes of Carbon

The existence of one element in different forms, having different physical properties, but similar chemical properties is known as allotropy.

Amorphous Forms of Carbon

Coal is formed in nature by the 'carbonisation' of wood. Conversion of wood to coal under the influence of high temperature, high pressure, and in the absence of air is termed carbonisation.

Versatile Nature of Carbon

Although organic compounds are basically made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and a few more elements, their number is far greater than the inorganic compounds which don't form bonds.

Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds

Hydrocarbons as they are known are the most important of organic compounds. Some of the hydrocarbons occurring in nature are very simple, while some are very complex.

Homologous Series

All organic compounds are made up of a progressively building chain of carbon atoms with a number of compounds having the same functional groups.

Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

Nomenclature is the system of assigning a proper name to a particular carbon compound on the basis of certain rules.

Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds

Most of the carbon-containing compounds associated with hydrogen i.e., hydrocarbons are fuels that produce heat on burning.

Some Important Carbon Compounds - Ethanol

Many carbon compounds find applications in almost all aspects of our daily life as we have seen earlier.

Some Important Carbon Compounds - Ethanoic Acid

Acetic acid is one of the commonest organic acids and has been known for quite a long time in the form of vinegar.

Soaps and Detergents

Soaps or detergents are cleansing agents that are capable of reacting with water to dislodge these foreign particles from a solid surface.

Summary

Study of the compounds of carbon is organic chemistry. They form the basis of living organisms and the things around us.

cbse english question papers with answers

2009-12-24T19:34:00.000-08:00

Class 10th cbse english question papers with answers

Class 9th cbse english question papers with answers

Class 12th cbse english question papers with answers

Political Science Class X CBSE Notes- POLITICAL PARTIES

2009-12-24T11:03:00.000-08:00

POLITICAL SCIENCE CLASS X CBSE
DEMOCRACY AND DIVERSITY

STORY OF MEXICO OLYMPICS

In 1968, Olympics held at Mexico City, in the medal ceremony of 200m race, where gold and bronze medals were won by the AFRICAN –AMERICANS & the silver was bagged by the white.
In the ceremony Tommie Smith & John Carlos (African- Americans) stood on the dice with clenched fists upraised & heads bowed while the American anthem was played. They received their medals wearing black socks & no shoes to represent ‘BLACK POVERTY.’ The silver medalist, white Australian athlete, Peter Norman, wore human rights badge on his shirt to show his support to the two Americans.
Q. Why did Tommie & Smith wear black socks & no shoes?
--To represent Black poverty.
Q. What did their clenched fists &black gloves represent?
--They meant to symbolize the Black Power.
Q. What did the two players intend to do with this kind of gesture?
They wanted to draw the international attention to racial discrimination in the United States.
Q. What was the result of their action?
a) The International Olympics Association held Carlos & Smith guilty of violating the Olympic spirit by making a political statement.
b) Their medals were taken back.
c) Back home they were subjected to lot of criticism.
d) Norman too suffered for his action & was not included in the Australian team in the next Olympics.
e) But their action did succeed in getting international attention for the Civil Rights Movement in the US.

Political Science Notes : ORIGINS OF SOCIAL DIFFERENCES
Social diversity can take different forms in different societies. Social differences can be both accidental or by choice.
1. Some of the social differences are based on accident of birth.
We do not choose to belong to our community; we belong to it simply because we are born to it.
We all experience social difference based on accident of birth in our everyday lives, it can be in the form of male-female, being tall-short, different complexions, or have different physical abilities.
2. Some of the differences are based on our choices. For example, some people are atheists—they do not believe in God or any religion, some choose to follow religion other than in which they were born; some choose what to study and what occupation to take up and which game to play or which cultural activities to take part in. All these lead to formation of groups of our choices.
Every social difference does not lead to social division.
-- Social differences divide similar people from one another but, they also unite people very different people.
--People belonging to different social groups share differences and similarities cutting across the boundaries of their groups. E.g. Carlos & Smith joined hands because as they both were similar but Peter supported them as they were athletes.
--It is common for people belonging to the same religion feel that they do not belong to the same community because their caste or sect is different. It is also possible for the people from different religions to have same caste and feel close to each other.
--Rich & poor persons from the same family often do not have close relations with each other for they feel they are very different.
--Thus we all have more than one identity and can belong to more than one group.

Political Science Notes : OVERLAPPING & CROSS-CUTTING DIFFERENCES.

OVERLAPPING DIFFERENCES
1. When some social difference overlaps with other difference.
2. Situations of this kind produce social divisions, when one kind of social difference becomes more important than the other and people start feeling that they belong to different communities.
3. Example—a) difference between Black & White in the US becomes a social division because they tend to be poor & landless, and often face injustice & discrimination.
b) In our country Dalits tend to be poor & landless and often face injustice & discrimination.
4. Overlapping differences create possibilities of deep social divisions and tensions.

Political Science Notes : CROSS-CUTTING DIFFERENCES
1.If social differences cross-cut one another, it is difficult to pit group of people against the other.
2. It means those groups that share a common interest on the issue are likely to be on different sides on a different issue.
3. Example -Northern Ireland & Netherlands both are predominantly Christians but divided between Catholics & Protestants. In Northern Ireland class & religion overlap each other, if catholic one tend to be poor & have suffered discrimination where as in Netherlands, class & religion tend to cross-cut each other and both are equally likely to be rich or poor. It means they have conflict in Northern Ireland and it is not so in Netherlands.
4. Cross-cut social differences are easier to accommodate.

Q. Most countries of the world are multi-cultural? Why? Give examples.
Countries that were once highly homogeneous are now becoming Heterogeneous and are undergoing a rapid change
a) with the influx of people from other parts of the world.
b) Migrants bring with them their own culture and to form a different social community.

Political Science Notes : POLITICS OF SOCIAL DIVISIONS

Q. How do social divisions affect politics?
The combination of politics & social divisions is very explosive and dangerous.
a) Democracy involves competition among various political parties. Their competitions tend to divide society.
b) If they start competing in terms of some existing social divisions, they can make social divisions into political divisions and lead to conflict, violence or even disintegration of a country.
c) Social divisions affect voting in most countries, people from one community tend to prefer one party more than others.
d) In many countries there are parties which focus only on one community.
--yet all this does not always lead to disintegration.

This has happened in many countries ---Examples (negative results)
1. As in the case of Northern Ireland, this region of UK has been for many years a sight of violence& bitter ethno- political conflict.
--Its population is divided into two major sects of Christianity: 53%--Protestants & 44%--Catholics.
--Catholics are represented by the Nationalist parties, who wanted Northern Ireland to be united with the Republic of Ireland, predominantly catholic.
--Protestants are represented by the Unionist who wanted to remain with UK.
--hundreds of civilians and militants were killed in the fight of political parties till 1998, the UK govt. & the Nationalists reached a peace treaty after which the latter suspended the armed struggle.
2. In Yugoslavia the political competition along religious and ethnic lines led to the disintegration of Yugoslavia into six independent countries.
--such examples lead some people to think that politics & social divisions should not be allowed to mix; if social divisions exists in a country they must never be expressed in politics.

GRADE 10 Political Science Notes : POSITIVE EXAMPLES:
Every expression of social division in politics does not lead to disasters. Social divisions of some or the other kind do exist in every society of the world and are reflected in politics.
--in a democracy it is only natural that political parties talk of these divisions, make different promises to different communities, look after their representation and policies to redress the grievances of disadvantaged communities.

THREE DETERMINANTS:
There are three factors which are crucial in deciding the outcome of politics of social divisions.
1. Outcome depends upon how people perceive their identities. If they see their identities in singular and exclusive terms it becomes very difficult to accommodate. As in India we think of ourselves as Indians as well as belonging to a state or a language group or a social or religious community.
2. It depends on how political leaders raise the demands of a ny community. It is easier to accommodate demands that are within the constitutional framework and are not at the cost of another community.
Example –the demand for only Sinhala was at the cost of the interest and identity of Tamil community in Srilanka; in Yugoslavia also the ethnic communities presented their demands in such a way that these could not be accommodated with in a single country.
3. It depends on how the govt. reacts to the demands of different groups. Example—In Belgium and Srilanka if the rulers are willing to share power & accommodate the reasonable demands of minority community, social divisions become less threatening for the country. But if they suppress such a demand in the name of national unity, the end result can be quite opposite & such a forced integration can sow the seeds of disintegration.

Q. ARE SOCIAL DIVISIONS ARE DANGEROUS OR NORMAL & HEALTHY?
In a democracy political expression of the social divisions is very normal and can be healthy as….
--It allows various disadvantaged and marginal social groups to express their grievances and get govt. to attend to these.
--The expression of various kinds of social divisions in politics often result in canceling one another out and thus reducing their intensity. This leads to strengthening of a democracy.
--People who feel marginalized deprived and discriminated have to fight against the injustices and such fights often takes the democratic path, voicing their demands in a peaceful & constitutional manner and seeking a fair position through the elections.
--sometimes these social differences can take a form of the unacceptable level of social inequality and injustice. The struggle against such inequalities sometimes takes the path of violence and defiance of state power.
more Political Science Notes

POLITICAL SCIENCE CLASS X CBSE - POLITICAL PARTIES

2009-12-24T11:00:00.000-08:00

POLITICAL SCIENCE CLASS X CBSE
POLITICAL PARTIES

CHALLENGES TO POLITICAL PARTIES
We know that how crucial political parties are for the democracy. They are the most visible face of the democracy and people blame them for whatever is wrong in the working of democracy.
This is a case of our country too. Popular dissatisfaction and criticism has focused on four problem areas in the working of political parties.
1. LACK OF INTERNAL DEMOCRACY (with in the party):
all over the world there is a tendency in the political parties towards the concentration of power in one or few leaders at the top.
--parties do not keep membership registers, do not hold organizational meetings and conduct internal elections regularly.
--ordinary members do not get sufficient information on what happens inside the party.
--leaders assume greater power to make decisions in the name of party.
--more than loyalty to the party principles and policies, personal loyalty to the leader becomes more important.
2. DYNASTIC SUCCESSION:
since most of the parties do not practice open and transparent procedures, there are very few ways for the ordinary worker to rise to the top in the party. As those in the position favour people who are close to them.
--in many parties top positions are always controlled by members of one family. This is unfair to the others and bad for democracy, since people with not much experience or popular support come to occupy positions of power.
3. GROWING ROLE OF MONEY AND MUSCLES.(in parties during elections)
--since parties are focused only on winning elections, they tend to use short-cuts to win elections.
--they tend to nominate candidates, who have or can raise money. Rich people and companies who give funds to the parties tend to have influence on the policy decisions of the parties.
--in some cases parties support criminals who can win elections.
4. PARTIES DONOT OFFER MEANINGFUL CHOICE:
In order to offer meaningful choice parties should be different, but in the recent years there is decline in the ideological differences among parties in most parts of the world.
--as in our country differences among all major political parties on economic policies have reduced. And also in Britain, the difference between the Labour Party and the Conservative Party is very little.
--sometimes people can not even elect very different leaders either, because the same set of leaders keeps shifting from one party to another.

Q. HOW CAN PARTIES BE REFORMED?
Some of the recent efforts and suggestions in our country to reform political parties and its leaders.
1. The constitution was amended to prevent elected MLA's and MP's from changing parties. This was done because many of them were indulging in Defections, in order to become ministers for cash rewards.
--now the laws say that if any MLA or MP changes parties, he or she will lose seat in the legislature. The new law has brought defection down and has made dissent even more difficult. Now MLA's MP's have to accept whatever party leaders say.
DEFECTION--changing party allegience from the party on which a person got elected to a different party.
2. The Supreme Court passed an order to reduce the influence of money and criminals.
--now it is made mandatory for every candidate who conducts elections to file an affidavit giving details of his property and criminal cases pending against him. The new system has made a lot of information available to the public.
AFFIDAVIT: a signed document submitted to the officer, where a person makes a sworn statement regarding her personal information.
3. The election commission passed an order making it necessary for the political parties to hold their elections and file their income tax returns.
--though parties have started doing so but it is a mere formality.

Many suggestions have been made to reform political parties as,
1. A law should be made regulate the internal affairs of political parties.
–it should be made compulsory for political parties to maintain a register of its members, to follow its own constitution, to have an independent authority ,to act as a judge in case of disputes, to hold open elections in case of disputes.
2. It should be made mandatory for the political parties to give a minimum number of tickets, one-third, to women candidates. Similarly there should be a quota for women in the decision making bodies.
3. There should be state funding of elections. The govt. should give parties money to support their elections expenses such as petrol, paper, telephone etc. or it could be given in cash on the basis of votes secured by a party in the last elections.
4. People can put pressure on political parties and this can be done through petitions, publicity and agitations. Ordinary citizens, pressure groups and movements & media can play an important role in this. If political parties feel that will loose public support by not taking up reforms they will become more serious about reforms.
5. Political parties can improve if those who want this join politics. As the quality of democracy depends upon the degree of participation. It is difficult to reform politics if ordinary citizens do not take part in politics & simply criticize it from outside.
These suggestions have not yet been accepted by all political parties but if accepted can lead to improvement.
But over regulation of political parties can be counter productive and this would force all the parties to find ways to cheat the laws, besides political parties would not like to pass the law they do not like.

POLITICAL PARTIES
Political party: - it is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the govt.
--they agree on some programmes & policies for the society with a view to promote collective good.
--these parties try to persuade people why their policies are better than others.
--they seek to implement these policies by winning popular support through election.
--they reflect fundamental political divisions in the society. They are about a part of society and involve PARTISANSHIP.
Political party has three components: the leader, the active members and the followers.

Q. Why do we need parties? Or
what are the functions performed by the political parties?

Parties perform series of functions.
1. Parties contest elections—in most of democracies, elections are fought mainly among the candidates put up by the political parties. In India, top party leaders choose candidates for contesting elections.
2. Parties put forward different policies and programmes: each one of us may have different opinions and views. In democracy large number of similar opinions has to be grouped together to provide a direction in which policies can be formulated by the govt. and parties do this.
–A party reduces a vast multitude of opinions into a few basic positions which it supports.
–The govt. is expected to base its policies on the line taken by the Ruling party.
3. Parties make laws for the country: Though laws are passed by the legislature but most of the members belong to a party, they by the direction of party leadership, irrespective of their personal opinions.
4. Parties form and run govt.: Big policy decisions are taken by political executive that comes from the political parties.
--Political parties recruit leaders, train them and make them ministers to run the govt. in the way they want.
5. Those party who loose the elections, play role of the opposition. They voice different views and criticize govt. for its failures or wrong policies.
--opposition parties also mobilize opposition to the govt.
6.Parties shape public opinion: they raise and highlight issues.
--they do this through-pressure groups, which are the extensions of political parties and also launch movements for resolutions of problems faced by the people.
--Opinions in the society crystallise on the lines parties take.
7.Parties provide people access to govt. machinery and welfare schemes implemented by govt.
--for an ordinary citizens it is easy to approach a local party leader than a govt. official, they feel close to party even if they do not trust them.
--even parties have to be responsive to the people’s needs and demands otherwise people can reject parties in the next elections.

Q. How can we say parties are a necessity for democracy?
OR
Q. Why modern democracies cannot exist without political parties?

1. If every candidate in the elections will be independent, no will be able to make any promises to the people about any major policy changes.
2. The govt. may be formed, but its utility will remain ever uncertain.
3. Elected representative will be accountable to their constituency for what they do in the locality. But, no one will be responsible for how country will run.
Also if we look at the non-party based elections to the Panchayats in many states, although, the parties do not contest formally, it is generally noticed the village gets split into more than one faction, each of which puts up a ‘panel’ of its candidates.
This is why we find political parties in almost all countries of the world.

RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES
The emergence of political parties is linked to the emergence of Representative Democracies—large scale societies need representative democracy.
--as society become large and complex they also need some agencies to gather different views and various issues and to present these to the govt.
--they needed some way to bring various representatives together so that a responsible govt, could be formed.
--they need mechanism to support or restrain the govt., make policies, justify or oppose them.
--political parties fulfill these needs that every representative govt. has.
HOW MANY PARTIES SHOULD WE HAVE—PARTY SYSTEMS
In different countries we have different political systems being followed.
There are three types of political party systems:--
1.ONE PARTY SYSTEM—In some countries only one party is allowed to control and run the govt., these are called one party systems.
--we have this type in China.- Communist Party.
Any democratic system must allow at least two parties in to compete in the elections so that each party gets a fair chance to come to power. in this respect it is not a democratic option.
2. TWO-PARTY SYSTEM—In some countries power usually changes between two major parties.
Several other parties exist, contest elections and win few seats in the legislature. But only two main parties have a serious chance of winning and forming govt.
--examples are UK AND US.
3. MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM—If several parties compete for power, more than two parties have a reasonable chance of winning and coming to power either on their on their own or through an alliance with others.
--in India we have this system.

ALLIANCE/FRONT—when several parties join hand for the purpose of contesting elections or winning power, it is called front or alliance.
NDA—National Democratic Alliance, UPA-United Progressive Alliance are the examples.
COALITION—the govt. formed by various parties coming together in a coalition.
Present govt.—UPA govt. is an example of this.

Q. Which party system should a country choose?
Party system is not something that a country can choose.
It evolves over the period of time, depending upon the nature of society, its social and regional divisions, its history of politics and nature of elections.
--each country develops a party system that is conditioned by its special circumstances. For example in India we have evolved a multi-party system; it is because the social and geographical diversity is so large that it can not be accommodated by two-three parties.
--no system id ideal for all countries and all situations.

NATIONAL PARTIES/REGIONAL PARTIES
At present there are more than 750 political parties registered with the election commission in India.
Democracies that follow a federal system all over the world have two kinds of political parties.,
Parties that are present in only one of the federal units and the ones that are present in several units of the federations. This happens in India as well.

NATIONAL PARTIES;-those parties which are country-wide parties are called National parties.
--these parties have their units in various states.
--by and large they follow uniform policies, programmes & strategy that is decided at the national level.
--Election Commission declares those parties as national parties which have got 6% of the total votes and have at least won 4 seats in the LokSabha.
--Election Commission offers some special facilities to large and established parties. These parties are given a unique symbol and only the official candidates of that party can use that election symbol.
--parties that get this privilege and some other special facilities are called Recognised Political Parties.
--according to this classification in India we have six national parties.
REGIONAL PARTIES:-
Aparty that secures at least 6% of the total votes in the in an election to the Legislative Assembly of a state and wins atleast 2 seats is recognized as a regional party/state party.
--some of these are all India parties that happen to have succeeded only in some states.
--parties like this are Samajwadi Party, Samta Party and Rastriya JantaDal have national level political organization with units in several states.
--some of the partie like Biju Janta Dal,Sikkim Democratic Front & Mizo National Front are conscious about their state identity.

NATIONAL PARTIES

1.INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS (INC)
popularly known as the Congress Party, is one of the oldest parties of the world.
--founded in 1885.
--Played an important role in Indian politics at the national and state level after the independence.
--Under Nehru sought to build a modern secular democratic in India.
--Ruling party at the centre till 1977 and then from 1980-1989, after which its support declined.
--A centrist party in its ideological orientation, it espouses secularism and welfare of weaker sections and minorities.
--Supports new economic reforms with a human face.--Emerged as an single largest party with 145 seats in 2004 elections and is currently a ruling as United Progressive Alliance coaltion govt. at the centre
BHARATIYA JANATA PARTY (BJP)
--founded in 1980 by reviving the Bharatiya Janata Sangh.
--wants to build a strong and modern India by drawing inspiration from India,s culture and values.
--cultural nationalism or Hindutva is an important element in its conception of Indian nationhood and politics.
--wants full territorial & political integration of Jammu &Kashmir with India, a uniform civil code for all people living in India irrespective of the religion, and ban on religious conversions.
--its support base has increased in the 1990's, it was earlier limited to north and north west and to urban areas, the party expanded its support in south, east, the north-east and to rural areas.
--came in power in 1998 as the leader of the National Democratic Alliance including state and regional parties.
--lost elections in 2004 and is the principle opposition party in the Loksabha.

BAHUJAN SAMAJ PARTY (BSP)
--formed in 1984, under the leadership of KanshiRam.
--seeks to represent & secure the power for bahujan samaj which includes dalits, adivasis, OBC's and religious minorities.
--draw inspiration from the ideas and teachings of ShauMaharaj, Mahatama Phule, Periyar Ramaswami Naicker and BabaSaheb Ambedkar.
--stands for the cause of securing interest & welfare od dalits and opperesed people.
--main base in the state of UP & substaintial presence in the states like MP, Chhattisghar, Delhi
Uttrakhand and Punjab.
--formed govt. in UP several times with support of different parties.
--in Loksabha elections in 2004 it polled about 5% votes and secured 19 seates in loksabha.

COMMUNIST PARTY OF INDIA-MARXIST (CPI-M)
--founded in 1964.
--believes in Marxism & Leninism.
--supports socialism, secularism and democracy and opposes imperialism and communalism.
--accepts democratic elections as useful means and helpful means to securing the objective of socio-economic justice in India.
--enjoys strong support in Kerela. westBengal & Tripura, especially among the poor, factory workers, farmers, agricultural laboures and intelligentsia.
--critical of new economic policies that allow free flow of foreign capital and goods into the country.
--has been in power for 30 years in West Bengal.
--in 2004 elections it won about 6% votes and 43 seats in Loksabha.
--Currently supports the UPA govt.from outside without joining the govt.

COMMUNIST PARTY OF INDIA (CPI)
--formed in 1925.
--believes in Marxism & Leninism secularism and democracy.
--opposed to the forces of secessionism and communalism.
--accepts parliamentary democracy as the means of promoting the interest of working class, farmers and the poor.
--became weak after the split in the party in 1964 that led to the formation of the CPI(M)
--popular in Kerela, West Bengal, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
--its support base has declined over the years, secured about 1.4%votes and 10 seats in 2004 Loksabha elections.
--advocates coming together of all left parties to build a strong left front.
--currently supports UPA govt. from outside.

NATIONAL CONGRESS PARTY (NCP)
formed in 1999 following a split in congress party.
--supports democracy, gandhian secularism, equity, social justice & federalism.
--wants high offices in the govt.to be confined to the natural born citizens.
--major party in Maharashtra and has a significant in Meghalaya, Manipur and Assam. A coalition partner in the state of Maharashtra in alliance with the congress.
--since 2004 a member of the UPA.

STATE PARTIES
Other than six national parties, most of the parties in India are classified as state parties or regional parties.
--some of these parties are all India parties that happen to have succeeded in only some states.
--parties like Samajwadi Party, Samta Party, Rashtriya Janata Dal have national political organization with
units in several states.
--some of these parties like Biju JanataDal, Sikkim Democratic Front & Mizo National Front are conscious
about their state identity.
--over last three decades the number and strength of these parties has expanded, this has made parliament of India more diverse.
--no national party is able to secure on its own a majority in Loksabha,as a result national parties are compelled to form alliances with state parties.
--since 1996, nearly every one of state parties has got an opportunity to be a part of one or other national level coalition govt.

POLITICAL SCIENCE CLASS X CBSE POPULAR STRUGGLES AND MOVEMENTS

2009-12-24T10:58:00.000-08:00

POLITICAL SCIENCE CLASS X CBSE
POPULAR STRUGGLES AND MOVEMENTS

POPULAR STRUGGLES IN NEPAL AND BOLIVIA

MOVEMENT FOR DEMOCRACY IN NEPAL - -SECOND MOVEMENT FOR DEMOCRACY.

Nepal witnessed an extraordinary popular movement in April 2006.The movement aimed at restoring democracy; it was aimed at regaining popular control over govt. from the king.

History:

Nepal a third wave country, had won democracy in 1990.
--King was formally the head of the state but the real power was excerised by the elected representatives.
--The king Birendra, was the one who accepted this transition from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy, he and his family was massacred in 2001.
--King Gyanendra the new king of Nepal was not prepared to accept democratic rule, on February 2005 he dismissed the Prime minister and dissolved the popularly elected Parliament.

Events during the popular revolt:

1.All the political parties in the parliament formed an alliance--Seven party alliances--SPA and called for four day strike in Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal.
2. The protests turned into indefinite strike in which Maoist and various organisations joined hands.
3. People defied curfews and took to streets.
4. More than lakhs of people gathered almost everyday to demand restoration of democracy, on 21 April they served an ultimatum to the king and the leaders rejected the halfhearted concessions given by the king and struck to their
Demands.
5. Their main demands were--a) restoration of parliament,
b) Power to an all party govt.
c) New constituent assembly.

RESULTS:

On 24th April, the king was forced to concede to all the demands
--Girija Prasad Koirala was chosen as the new PM of the interim govt.
--The SPA & Maoist came to an understanding as to how new Constituent Assembly was to be elected.
--Parliament passed laws taking most of the powers of the king.
It was known as second movement of democracy in Nepal.

BOLIVIA'S WATER WAR-A STRUGGLE AGAINST PRIVATIZATION OF WATER

--Bolivia is a small and poor country in Latin America. The World Bank pressuried the govt. to give up its control over the municipal water supply.
--The govt. sold off these rights to an MNC. The company immediately increased the prices four times.
--In January 2006 a new alliance of labour, human rights and community leaders organised a successful strike for four days in the city and the govt. agreed to negotiate but nothing happened. Police resorted to brutal repression when the agitation was started again in February.
--Another strike was there in April and govt. imposed martial law.
--But the power people forced the officials of MNC to flee the city and made govt. to concede to all demands of the protesters.
--The contract with MNC was cancelled and water supply was resorted to municipality at old rates.
This was known as Bolivia’s water war.

DEMOCRACY AND POPULAR STRUGGLES OF NEPAL & BOLIVIA

The two incidents have following similarities
in both cases political conflict led to the popular struggles.
Both the cases involved mass mobilization.
Both instances involved critical role of political organizations.

DIFFERENCES
1.Nepal was struggling to establish democracy while in Bolivia the struggle involved claims on the elected govt.
2.In Bolivia struggle was about one specific policy, while struggle in Nepal was about the foundations of the country’s politics.

MAJOR ELEMENTS FOUND IN DEMOCRACY
1.It evolves through popular struggles. If significant decisions are through consensus than it is an exceptional situation. Democracy usually involves conflicts between those groups who have exercised power and those who aspire for share in the power. This happens when the country is going through transition to democracy, expansion of democracy or deepening of democracy.
2. Democratic conflicts are resolved through mass mobilization. Some times it is possible that the conflicts are resolved by the existing institutions like parliament or judiciary but when there is a deep dispute, very often these institutions get involved in the dispute and the resolution has to come from outside , from people.
3. The conflicts and mobilizations are based on new political organizations, these include—political parties, pressure groups and movement groups.

MOBILISATION AND ORGANISATIONS.

Q. Which were the major organizations involved in mobilization of the masses in Nepal & Bolivia?
In Nepal:
a) SPA-Seven party alliance of big parties.
b) Nepalese Communist Party—Maoist.
c) All major labour unions and their federations
d) Organizations like organization of indigenous people, teachers, lawyers & human right groups extended their support.
In Bolivia
There was no political party but it was led by,
a) An organization-FEDECOR-it comprised of local professions, engineers &environmentalists.
b) Federation of farmers.
c) Confederation of factory workers union
d) Middle class students and city’ growing population of homeless children.

Q. What role is played by the organizations in any big struggle?
The organizations play their role in two ways—Direct & Indirect
Direct: One way of influencing the decision in democracy is direct participation in competitive politics. This is done by creating parties, contesting elections and forming govts. Citizens participate through voting.
INDIRECT:
There are many indirect ways in which people can get govt. to listen to their demands or their point of view. This can be done by forming an organization and undertaking activities to promote their interest or their viewpoints. These are called Interest or Pressure groups.
Troll of municipal water supply.

PRESSURE GROUPS:

--Pressure groups are organizations that attempt to influence govt. policies
--They do not directly control or share political power.
--these organizations are formed with people with common occupation, interest, aspirations and opinions come together in order to achieve common objective.
These pressure groups are of two types.

SECTIONAL GROUP & PROMOTIONAL/PUBLIC INTEREST GROUPS.

Sectional:—seek to promote the interest of a particular section/group of society.
--Trade unions, business associations& professional lawyers doctors, teachers etc.
----they are sectional because they represent a particular section of a society.—workers, employees, businessmen followers of religion caste etc.
--the principal concern is the betterment & well being of its members & not of the society in general.

Public interest group:- they represent some common or general interest that needs to be defended.
--they are also called promotional group as they promote collective and not selective good.
--the members of the organization may not benefit from the cause that the organization represents. They aim to help groups other than their own members.
--in some cases the members of a public interest group may undertake activity they benefits them as well as others too.
--E.g.-:in Nepal Human rights was such organization, & in Bolivia FEDECOR, In India also we have BAMCEF
BMCEF-(Backward and Minorities Community Employees Federation)is such an organization that campaigns against caste discrimination, it addresses the problem of its members who suffer discrimination and its principle concern is with social justice and social equality for the entire society.

MOVEMENT GROUPS:
People’s movement word is used to describe many forms of collective action.
--it attempts to influence politics rather than directly take part in the electoral competition.
--these movements have loose organization.
--their decision making is more informal and flexible.
--they depend more on spontaneous mass participation than an interest group.
--Eg.-Narmada Bachao Andolan, Movement of Right to Information,Anti-LiquorMovement, Environmental movement.
There are two types of movement groups:

SPECIFIC & GENERAL/GENERIC MOVEMENTS
Specific movements:-they are issue specific movements to achieve single objective
They work in limited frame of time and thus have usually short active life.--
Examples-The Nepalese movement for democracy arose with specific objective of reversing the king’s order that led to suspension of democracy.
In India, Narmada Bachao Andolan is also an example of this.
(This movement started with a specific issue of people displaced by the creation of sardar dam on the river Narmada.Its objective was to stop the dam from being constructed. Gradually it became a wider movement that questioned all such big dams.)
General/Generic movement:-these to achieve a broad goal in the long run.
--these are long term & involve more than one issue.
--there is no single organization that controls or guides such movements.
--Example—The Environmental movement and Women’s movements are such examples.
LOOSE UMBRELLA:-Some times these broad organizations have a loose umbrella. Various movement groups struggling on specific issues are constituent of this loose organization which coordinates the activities of a large number of people’s in our country.
Example-NAPM-National Alliance for People’s Movement is an organization of organizations.

Q. How do organizations and pressure groups influence politics?
They exert influence in variety of ways.
1. They try to public support and sympathy for their goals and activity by carrying out information campaign through organizing meetings, file petitions etc., they also make use of media.
2. They often organize protest activity like strike or disrupting govt. programmes.Workers organizations, employee’s associations etc. resort to these methods to force govt. to take notice of their demand.
3. Business groups often employ professional lobbyist or sponsor expensive advertisements. Some persons from pressure groups may participate in official bodies or committees that offer advice to the govt. These groups exert influence on the political parties without being a party. They have political ideology & political position
on major issues.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLITICAL PARTIES AND PRESSURE GROUPS

It can take different forms, direct and indirect:
DIRECT
--In some instances the pressure groups are either formed or led by the leaders of the political parties or act as the extended arms of political parties. for eg.—trade unions and students organizations in India are either established by or affiliated to one or the other major political parties.--most of the leaders of such pressure groups are usually the activist or leaders of party.
--Sometimes political parties grow out of movements. As had happened
in Assam movement led by students against the foreigners came to an end and it led the formation of ASSOM GANA PARISHAD and the roots of DMK AND AIDMK in Tamil Nadu can also be traced to the social reform movements during the 1930 and 1940’s
INDIRECT:
--They often take positions that are opposed to each other, yet they are in negotiation with each other.
--they do raise issues which are taken up by the political parties.
--most of the new leadership of political come from interest or movement groups.

IS THE INFLUENCE OF THE ORGANISATIONS HEALTHY?

It may appear that it is not healthy for the groups that promote interest of one section to have influence in democracy.
--A democracy must look after the interest of all, not just one section. Also, it may seem that these groups wield power with responsibility.
--political parties have to face the people in elections, but these groups are not accountable to the people.
--pressure groups and movements may not get their funds and from people. Some times with small public support but lots of money they can highjack public opinion in their favour.
--POSITIVE INFLUENCE
--they have deepened democracy; put pressure on unhealthy activities in democracy.
--govt. can often come under the pressure of rich & powerful group but these public interest groups and movements perform a useful role of countering this undue influence and reminding govt. of needs and concerns of ordinary citizens.
--even social interest groups play a valuable role.
--All groups function actively, no single group can achieve dominance over society.
--if one group brings pressure on the govt. the other will counter pressure.
--the govt. hears about what people want.
--this brings a rough balance of power and accommodation of conflicting interest.

The Tribute - Multiple Choice Questions

2009-12-24T10:54:00.000-08:00

Question (1):

What does the word 'petite' mean?

1.	strong
2.	small
3.	neat
4.	clean

Ans: 2

Question (2):

What was almost a routine affair for Babuli during his student days?

1.	working in the city
2.	writing to his elder brother
3.	going home in the rickety bus
4.	reading big books

Ans: 3

Question (3):

What was written in the elder brother's letter?

1.	That they were missing him in the village
2.	That there was to be a partition
3.	That there was a festival
4.	That he would get money

Ans: 2

Question (4):

How many days were left for the partition?

1.	A week
2.	A month
3.	A day
4.	Three days

Ans: 1

Question (5):

How much money was expected for Babuli's land?

1.	Seven thousand
2.	Twenty thousand
3.	Ten thousand
4.	Forty thousand

Ans: 2

Question (6):

What makes Babuli think of the butcher?

1.	Hunger
2.	Wife's heartlessness
3.	The innocent lamb
4.	The partition

Ans: 2

Question (7):

What was the first thing the elder brother did when Babuli reached the village?

1.	He took Babuli's heavy briefcase
2.	He scolded Babuli
3.	He carried Babuli on his shoulders
4.	He walked in front of Babuli

Ans: 1

Question (8):

When Babuli reached home he was received by

1.	his mother
2.	an abominable Lull
3.	his sister-in-law
4.	his niece and nephew

Ans: 2

Question (9):

Why did elder brother shed tears when he placed the wrist watch on the pile?

1.	It was an expensive watch
2.	He was attached to the watch
3.	He was snapping his attachment to the past
4.	He had mortgaged it

Ans: 3

Question (10):

Which of these words best describes the elder brother?

1.	Calm and composed
2.	Uncaring
3.	Greedy
4.	Slow

Ans: 1

Question (11):

Babuli had not bothered to even replace the elder brother's tattered blanket after he found a job. What does this show?

1.	Babuli's laziness
2.	Babuli's ingratitude
3.	Babuli's busy schedule
4.	Babuli's poverty

Ans: 2

Question (12):

What did Babuli finally do with the land?

1.	Sold it to a brother
2.	Gave it to his wife
3.	Gifted it to elder brother
4.	Harvested crops

Ans: 3

English Sample Question And Answers - The Tribute

2009-12-24T10:51:00.000-08:00

Question (1):	Describe Babuli's feelings when he hears his wife discussing the things they would buy with the money they would get after selling their share of the land.
Answer: Babuli thinks of the butcher. He feels his wife is insensitive and heartless. But finally, he also goes with her to the shops to estimate the costs of various commodities.

Question (2):	What were the changes Babuli noticed in the village home when he reached there?
Answer: When Babuli reached his village home no one came to receive him. There was the silence of a graveyard. His sister-in law and nephews did not rush out to greet him. His second brother and his wife were nowhere to be seen.

Question (3):	How much did the second brother offer Babuli to buy his share of land?
Answer: Babuli was offered Rs. 18,000/- to buy his share of land.

Question (4):	Quote two instances from the story highlighting his elder brother's sacrificing nature.
Answer: Even on a cold morning, he placed his blanket on Babuli and walked to the farm without a cover. He mortgaged his watch to send Babuli to the interview at Delhi.

Question (5):	What does the act of leaving his share to his elder brother reveal about Babuli's character?
Answer: Babuli was a sensitive person who had behaved in a selfish and immature manner. In good time, he realises his mistake and shows his love for his elder brother.

Question (6):	How does Babuli manage to come out of the cobwebs that had settled around him?
Answer: Babuli was caught in the strands of city life. He was preoccupied with his work and wife in the city. He had pushed back all thoughts of his brother and mother. But the letter from his brother woke up the dormant feelings. He was filled with shame on his way to the village. He felt as if everybody was accusing him of his behaviour. Past memories flooded his mind and he was reminded of his brother's unconditional sacrifices. Finally, he makes the decision to leave his share of property to his eldest brother as a tribute to his love.

Question (7):	Imagine you are Babuli's mother. Write a diary entry on the day of the partition after it is over.
Answer: 8.8.2000 It has been such a sad day. Today, the property was divided amongst the three children. I am glad my husband is not here to see this day. My heart was breaking when all the movables were brought outside to be divided. I feel most sorry for my eldest son. My eldest son has been a father to his brothers. Kind and sacrificing, he has only wanted their good in his heart. How could Babuli forget all his kind acts of love? My second son is, of course, selfish and totally in his wife's clutches. He has no feelings. But Babuli! How could he behave in such a way? He has become a 'City Babu' and forgotten all our love. Still, I hoped that he would be different. Will these walls of stone and brick actually separate the love the three brothers shared? Can the younger two forget their childhood and the happy moments they all spent together? God! give courage to my eldest son to bear this partition. He must feel totally devastated! God Bless him!

Question (8):	You are Babuli's wife. Write a letter to your sister about what happened in the village and your reaction to it.
Answer: Meeta, 7, Bhubaneshwar Orissa, 9.9.2000 Dear Seeta, I hope this letter finds you in good health. Remember I had mentioned the partition of the village property to you? I had dreams of buying so many things. Now, there has been a twist in the events. When Babuli set off to the village, I had many dreams in my heart. When he returned, I bombarded him with questions. He did not answer for a while. Then he broke the news that he had left his entire share to his elder brother! I was too stunned to speak. Slowly he talked to me, telling me things he had never done before - how his elder brother had been like a parent to him, how he had mortgaged his watch to send Babuli for an interview to Delhi! And how on cold winter nights he would put his own blanket on Babuli to make him comfortable, how he carried his bag for him when Babuli returned from his tuitions. His elder brother's love is unconditional, and he has never wanted anything in return. Never a request. Never a complaint. Just a pillar of strength! Babuli, overcome with feelings of shame and repentance, left his share of property to his elder brother as a tribute to his love. When Babuli stopped talking, tears flowed from my eyes. He held me and there was no need for words. I have forgotten the fridge, the scooter and the twenty thousand rupees. All I feel is the circle of love to which I been drawn after Babuli shared his feelings. Hope you appreciate my feelings. Write soon. Your sister Meeta < td>

Question (9):	You are Babuli's elder brother. You have received Babuli's note and are replying to it. Write the letter.
Answer: Kabuli Sonepet Orissa 9.9.2000 Dear Babuli I was surprised to see your note. I know how much you love me and I never doubted it. It is your love, which has prompted you to do what you have done. But I cannot actually take your share. However, I will always look after your land and send you the returns regularly. Partition cannot affect our relationship. We are all one and will continue to remain so. You have always occupied a special spot in my heart and I cherish our relationship. Do come to the village often. Bring your wife too. My children miss you and talk about you often. My blessings remain with you. Hope you prosper in everything you do. I hope you understand my feelings and respect them. Write back. With love Kabuli < td>

Question (10):	You are Babuli's elder brothers son. Make a diary entry on the day of the partition.
Answer: 8.8.2000 Today was a horrible day. The house has got partitioned. I felt so sad when I saw all the movables brought out. Even our toys were not spared. The last few weeks have been horrible with nobody talking to each other. I was so close to my cousins and Babuli uncle. Yet, today, we didn't even talk to each other. He used to laugh and joke with us. He was our favourite uncle. All that has changed. Everybody looked serious and behaved as if they were strangers to each other. The house has been deathly silent for so many days and I feel horrible! I cannot show or share my feelings. Mother will scold me if I do. Father has completely withdrawn into a shell. He barely talks. I know he is also suffering inside, but doesn't show it. Oh God! Can the family not get back together? Please perform a miracle so that we are reunited. Oh, please God, please! < td>

Question (11):	Why was Babuli disturbed by the contents of his elder brother's letter?
Answer: Babuli was disturbed by the contents of his elder brothers letter because their father's lands in the village were to be partitioned between the three brothers.

Question (12):	Why was there an abominable silence in the village home when Babuli arrived?
Answer: The brothers and their families were all unhappy about the impending partition. Therefore, there was an abominable silence in the village home when Babuli arrived.

Question (13):	What does the reference to butcher symbolise?
Answer: Butcher symbolises cruelty, heartlessness and death.

Question (14):	What did Babuli do with his share?
Answer: Babuli gifted it to his elder brother as a sign of his gratitude for the many sacrifices made by him.

Question (15):	Why could Babuli not sleep the night before the partition?
Answer: Babuli did not sleep the night before the partition because he realised how ungrateful he had been and was remorseful.

Question (16):	Why did Babuli feel guilty when he saw the letter?
Answer: Babuli felt guilty when he saw the letter because he had neglected the family in the village and had not visited or written letters to them.

Question (17):	Cite examples to illustrate the elder brother's affection towards Babuli during his child hood.
Answer: The following incidents illustrate the elder brother's affection towards Babuli during his child hood: He escorted him back from tuitions. He got a special dish of fish made for him. He covered him with his own blanket.

Question (18):	In what way was Babuli ungrateful?
Answer: Babuli was ungrateful towards his elder brother. He got his education and job because of the sacrifices of his elder brother, but he had not paid his elder brother a visit for the past two years after his marriage. he had not taken back gifts to his brother or his family even after he began to earn. he had not written to his mother for the past two years after his marriage.

Question (19):	How did he feel when he saw his wife's reaction to the news of the partition?
Answer: Babuli felt unhappy and threatened. His wife was butchering his feelings.

Question (20):	What kind of a person was the second brother?
Answer: Babuli's second brother was money-minded and selfish. He paid heed thoughtlessly to his wife. He was ungrateful.

Question (21):	How did Babuli feel as he got into the bus?
Answer: Babuli realised the long duration of his absence from the village. He felt they were all reprimanding him for not having visited the village. In his confusion, he dropped the 'prasad'.

Question (22):	Perhaps a tear trickled down his cheek. Why did the elder brother behave in this manner?
Answer: The elder brother felt that with the placing of the wristwatch, he was snapping all ties with the past.

Question (23):	Compare and contrast Babuli's character with that of his second brother.
Answer: Though both the brothers are selfish, Babuli is more sensitive and a better human being. Babuli's love for his family lies dormant in his heart, but when he receives the letter about the partition, the floodgates of love open. He is ridden with guilt. He does not yield to his wife's pressure. The second brother, on the other hand, though living in the village, has become very hard-hearted and money-minded. He is also weak-natured and gives in to his wife's pressure. He is insensitive to the pain that his mother and elder brother are undergoing.

Question (24):	Describe Babuli's feelings when, after the partition, Babuli's brother shows him his share of the fields and how this influences the conclusion of the story.
Answer: Babuli's repentance is complete. He sees the fruits of his elder brother's labour in every crop and compares the dewdrops to the sweat of his elder brother. He realises that his only true wealth is his brother from whom he has harvested everything in life.

Question (25):	Imagine you are the elder brother's wife making a diary entry on the day Babuli has left his share to his elder brother and returned to Bhubaneswar.
Answer: 8.8.2000 Today, I feel ashamed of myself. After reading Babuli's letter, I feel so bad. My sister-in-law and I fought over a trivial matter that finally ended in this partition. I am older and I should have behaved in a more mature manner. I realise the depth of love that lies between the brothers. The same love lies dormant in the second brother and needs to be wakened. I must undo the wrong I have done. I will apologise to my sister-in-law, and talk about getting back together. I will beg for forgiveness from Ma. How sad she must be feeling! I know my husband is very hurt and sad, but he doesn't express anything. Babuli's letter has really opened my eyes. If he feels so much for his brother, who am I to come between them. We will look after Babuli's share of property and send him the returns. God, forgive me for my behaviour! My repentance will be complete when I get the family back together. How glad the children will feel! They love their cousins, but for my sake, they have stopped talking to them. God, give me the strength to rebuild the family, which means so much to my husband and my children! < td>

Question (26):	Imagine you are Babuli's second brother and make a diary entry on the day after the partition.
Answer: I was surprised to know of Babuli's decision. I thought he had become a 'City Babu' and thought only about his share. Yet, his offering his share to elder brother has surprised me. I offered him money, but he refused to sell his share. It's strange how money holds no value for him. His love and respect for brother is so much that he could give up his entire share! And that too, despite sister-in-law's pressure! This has set me thinking. Was I right in what I did? I have followed what my wife advised. I was fed up of the petty quarrels between my wife and my sister-in-law. The partition of property seemed the only solution to be happy. Yet, can we really be happy without elder brother's love and encouragement? He has actually done so much for us. He has been like a parent. I know he is upset with the partition. He never expresses his feelings. Babuli has left me thinking. It is too late to patch up. Maybe I will ask for forgiveness from mother and brother. If we all try, we can reunite. I will have to talk to my wife. I hope I can convince her. God give me strength!

Question (27):	You are the second brother's wife and write a diary entry on the day of the partition.
Answer: 8.8.2000 I had been waiting for this day. At last, I have managed to have my way. My husband was so much under the influence of his elder brother, that it took me some time to bring him to my way of thinking. Anyway, I always felt that elder brother was partial towards Babuli. My heart filled with triumph and joy as the partition details were discussed. We got whatever we wanted. Only Babuli refused to sell his share. He is a stubborn man. How I hate my mother-in-law and sister-in-law! Now, the children are on my side and hate them too. With the land we have got, we can lead a happier and more comfortable life. I can start my life now without bothering about others. Thank you, God.

Chapter wise Class Notes

2009-12-24T04:08:00.000-08:00

Study Material / Class Notes

Chapter Wise Class 12th Notes

Chapter Wise Class 10th Notes

CBSE NCERT Solutions

2009-12-24T00:02:00.000-08:00

                                                     NCERT SOLUTIONS

       Class 12th              Class 11th              Class 12th

       Class 9th                Class 8th                Class 7th

cbse sample papers 2010 class ix

2009-12-23T17:56:00.000-08:00

ENGLISH Sample Paper class IX 2009-2010 (1)

English Sample paper for class ix 2010 (2)

English Sample paper for class ix 2010 (3)

English Sample paper for class ix 2010 (4)

English Sample paper for class ix 2010 (5)

English Sample paper for class ix 2010 (6)

English Sample paper for class ix 2010 (7)

English Sample paper for class ix 2010 (8)

English COMMUNICATIVE Sample Paper 2010 (9)

English COMMUNICATIVE Sample Paper 2010 (10)

CBSE Sample Papers 2009

2009-12-23T05:24:00.000-08:00

CBSE Sample Papers 2009
Class 10th Class 12th

Sample Question Papers and Marking Scheme for Board Exam. 2009 Class 10th

2009-12-23T05:23:00.000-08:00

Science
(Theory)

Mathematics
Social Science  Paper-1
  |  Paper-2-1
  |  Paper-2-2
  |  in
Hindi

Sanskrit Communicative

English
Language & Literature

English Communicative

Hindi Course - A

Hindi Course - B

Urdu Course A & B

Sample Question Papers and Marking Scheme for Board Exam. 2009 Class 12th

2009-12-23T05:13:00.000-08:00

Hindi Core

Hindi Elective

Sanskrit Elective
Sanskrit Core - Pages
1-22 - Pages
23-47

English
Core

Functional
English

English
Elective

Geography
(Theory)

Creative
Writing and Translation Studies (Class XI)

Mathematics

Physics

Biology

Chemistry
Creative Writing and Translation Studies -


Paper-I

Paper-II
Business Studies -

Paper-I

Paper-II
Economics -

Paper-I

Paper-II

History

Political Science

Accountancy

Sociology

Psychology

Physical Education
Computer Science -


Paper-I

Paper-II
Information Practices -


Paper-I

Paper-II

Paper-III
Multimedia and Web Technologies -


Paper-I

Paper-II

Paper-III

Financial Marketing Management

Sample Question Papers and Marking Scheme for Board Exam. 2010 Class 12th

2009-12-23T04:55:00.000-08:00

English Core

Functional English
Mathematics -

Part-1  |

Part-2

Biology

Chemistry

Physics
Business Studies -


Paper-I

Paper-II

Economics
Accountancy -


Part-1  |

Part-2  |

Part-3  |

Part-4

History

Psychology

Geography
(Theory)

Political Science

Sociology

Home Science

Fashion Studies

Agriculture

Heritage Crafts

Physical
Education

Engineering and Drawing

Information Practices
Multimedia and Web Technologies -


Part-1

Part-2

Part-3

Part-4

Part-5

Part-6

Computer Science

Graphic Design

Science Subjects

Commerce Subjects

Sample Question Papers and Marking Scheme for Board Exam. 2010 Class 10th

2009-12-23T04:51:00.000-08:00

Sample
Question Papers and Marking Scheme for Board Exam. 2010

Class X

Science
(Theory)  Paper-1

  |  Paper-2
  |  Paper-3

Sanskrit Communicative

Hindi Course - A

Hindi Course - B

Mathematics

Social Science

Social Science (Hindi)

German
Language Paper-1
| Paper-2

CBSE Sample Papers

2009-12-23T04:39:00.000-08:00

CBSE Sample Papers 2010

CBSE Sample Paper 2009

CBSE Sample Paper 2008

CBSE Sample Paper 2007

Frequently asked questions by students preparing for CBSE Board exams

2009-12-22T19:32:00.000-08:00

Q.1. I am studying from NCERT books and I have completed latest CBSE Sample Papers. Will I be able to score good marks ( say 80% or more ) ?

Ans. Marks scored by any student depend upon their preparation and performance during examination. The students are adviced to remain focussed and do their best.

Q.2. How many sets are there for a particular question paper ? Can questions in one sets may be easier than the other set ?

Ans. There are three sets of question papers. The questions in all the three sets are designed in such a manner that the level of difficulty is same in all question papers.

Q.3. Will the pattern of examination be different this year for Class X and XII ?

Ans. CBSE issues Sample Question Papers each year. These sample papers are designed to give a general overview of that years paper design and weightages.CBSE also issues marking schemes for the question paper. It is recommended to solve the sample papers issued by CBSE and have the marking scheme.

Q.4.Is there step marking in Mathematics paper ?

Ans. Yes, there is step marking in Mathematics papers. If you have missed steps, marks will be deducted. The marking scheme will help students to know about the weightage and steps.Go through the marking scheme and practice solving mathematics problems in a stepwise manner.

Q.5. Which pen should be used for writing answers in Board exams? Can I use a black pen ?

Ans. Blue or royal blue pen should be used for writing answers. While writing answers, students should write in a neat and legible manner.To much cutting and bad handwriting will have bad impression on the teacher and this will effect the marks also.

Q.6. How can I get good marks in Mathematics ?

Ans. Mathematics is a subject which requires written practice. Reading maths book as if it is history book, will not help. Practice, practice and practice. Solve as many problems as you can. Revise the entire syllabus. Go through the NCERT books, try to solve each problem given in the book, even the solved examples.Practice Sample question papers.

Q.7. What are the points which a teacher looks for when marking the answers? What is the best way to write an answer?

Ans. In CBSE, there is stepwise marking for each answer. Answer is divided into steps and marks are given according to the weightage assigned for each step.It is recommended to go through the marking scheme issued by CBSE.

Q.8.Is it necessary to write answers in a serial order?

Ans. It is not necessary to write answers in a serial order and no marks are cut for that.But, it is advised that the serial order should be followed as far as possible. Again, it is not compulsory. If you are not able to answer any question, leave that and try to answer the next question.

Q.9.Will there be negative marking for exceeding word limit ?

Ans. There is no negative marking for exceeding the word limit.But, it is advised to follow the word limit. Without following the word limit, it will become difficult for students to complete the paper within the alloted time.

Q.10.What type of questions are asked in the papers like physics, chemistry, biology, economics, history, social science, economics, english, hindi etc. ?

Ans. The students can get an idea of the pattern of question paper and type of questions asked by going through the sample papers issued by CBSE. The marking scheme will help students to understand how they should write answers to get maximum marks.

Q.11. Is it compulsory to pass in theory and practical exams separately ?

Ans. Yes, it is compulsory to pass theory and practical exams separately in subjects which have both theory and practical exams in Class XII.

Q.12. While preparing for CBSE Board exams, which books should be followed? There are a lot of question banks and refreshers available in the market?

Ans. It is recommended to students that they should follow the NCERT books for CBSE Board exams. NCERT books cover the entire syllabus, these books are prepared by panel of expert teachers. A lot of research is done before prepairing these books and no other books available in the market are upto the standards of NCERT books.

Q. 13. I failed in the compartment examination in July-August.Would I have to re-appear in all subjects again?

Ans. There are three chances give to students to clear the compartment examination.First exam in July-August followed by second chance in March-April and third chance in July-August.If the student is unable to clear the compartment exam in these three chances, he will have to appear in all subjects again.

Q.14. If a students fails in the pre Board examination conducted by school, can he/she be detained from appearing in Board exams?

Ans. The student cannot be detained from appearing in Board exams if he.she is otherwise eligible. Failing in pre board exams cannot be used as a reason for detaining a student from appearing in Board exams.

Q.15. Which students can appear for Board examination as private candidate?

Ans. A student can appear as private candidate only under these conditions: 1. Failed Candidates 2. Teachers serving in educational institutes 3. Woman candidates who are bonafide residents of NCT of Delhi and 4. Physically handicapped students

Q.16. How can I get my answer sheets re-evaluated ?

Ans. There is no provision of re-evaluation of answer scripts in CBSE Board exams.There is the provision of scrutiny of re-checking in a particular subject or all subjects. Application for that should be made within 21 days for the main examination and 15 days for compartment examination from the date of declaration of result. Application along with the required fee should be sent to respective regional office only.

Q.17. Will there be a new pass certificate issued after I pass my improvement exam ?

Ans. No pass certificate is issued in the case of improvement exam. The Board issues only a statement of marks indicating the student’s performance.

Disclaimer : Please go through the guidelines published by CBSE for a particular year. There may be some changes in the pattern of examination and some of the information given above may become redundant.

New Guidelines by CBSE on Continuous & Comprehensive Evaluation

2009-12-22T11:28:00.000-08:00

Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), New Delhi has recently issued a teachers' manual on CCE for class 9 and class 10. From the current session 2009-2010, this new scheme of (CCE) continuous and comprehensive evaluation is being implemented in class 9th and the same will be implemented in class 10th too from next session i.e. 2010-2011. CCE is a continuous and comprehensive evaluation that aimed at evaluating performance on the basis of end term examinations and on academics, co-curricular sports etc on a regular basis. In this new grading system, CBSE board will not conduct board exams for class 10 and the school authorities will be issued a certificate of school as per the guidelines given by CBSE board.

The proposed Certificate of School Based Assessment will be divided into three parts.

1. Part 1 will consist of Scholastic areas

The academic performance of the learner in the classes 9th and 10th will reflect in the form of grades and percentile rank. During a year, two terms have been suggested, term 1 from April to September and term 2 from October to March for classes 9th and class 10th. Each term will carry two formative and one summative assessment. The grading scale for scholastic domain will be a nine point scale based on direct grading.

2. Part 2 will comprise of co-scholastic areas which include Life-Skills and attitudes and values.

A five point grading scale for assessment in Life-Skills and a three point scale for assessment in attitudes and values have been proposed.

3. Part 3 consists of co-scholastic activities which include participation in Literary, Scientific, aesthetic and Club activities.

Under this head , second sub-section includes Health and Physical Education. It is proposed that students will access on a three point scale in all these areas.

Evaluation of Scholastic areas:- Each term will carry two Formative assessments and one Summative assessment for the evaluation of Scholastic areas.

Formative Assessment: Formative assessment is a tool that will be used by the teacher to continuously monitor student progress in a non-threatening as well as supportive environment. If used effectively, it can improve the performance of a student tremendously while raising the self esteem of the child and reducing the work load of the teacher. Some of the great features of Formative assessment are that it is diagnostic and remedial that provides effective feedback to students and allows for the active involvement of students in their own learning, enables teachers for adjusting teaching to take account of the results of assessment and recognizes the profound influence that assessment has on the motivation and self-esteem of students, both of which are crucial influences in learning. It is advisable that the school should not restrict the Formative assessment to only a paper-pencil test. There are other means of testing for e.g. through quizzes, interviews, conversations, visual testing, oral testing, projects, practicals and assignments. For the current year, there will be only two Formative assessments for Class IX for the (remaining) second term. It is advised that the Schools may conduct more than two such assessments and take the best two out of those. Assessments done periodically will be shown to the students or parents for encouraging continuous participatory improvement.

Summative Assessment: The Summative assessment is the terminal assessment of performance at the end of instruction. Under the end term Summative assessment, the students will be tested internally that will based on the following criteria:-

a) Curriculum and Syllabus for Classes IX will be the same as circulated by the CBSE Boardearlier.

b) The Summative assessment will be in the form of a pen-paper test that is conducted by the schoolsthemselves. It will be conducted at the end of each term.

c) In order to ensure standardization, and to ensure uniformity, the Question Banks in different subjects for generating question papers will be forwarded by the Board to schools in March 2010.

d) In order to cater to difference in the pace of responding, the Schools will give flexible timing to the students during end term Summative assessment.

e) For the current year, there will be only one term end Summative assessment for the (remaining) second term to be conducted in March 2010 for Class IX students.

f) Evaluation of answer scripts will be done by the school Teachers themselves on the basis of the Marking Scheme provided by the Board.

g) There will be random verification of the assessments procedures carried on by schools by the Board officials/nominees appointed by the Board.

The Weightage of Formative Assessment (FA) and Summative Assessment (SA) will be as follows:

Term Type of Assessment Percentage of weightage in Academic session Term – wise weightage Total

FIRST TERM (April – Sept.) Formative Assessment I 10% Formative Assessment-1+2=20% Formative = 40%

Summative = 60%

Total 100%

Formative Assessment 2 10%

Summative Assessment 1 20% Summative Assessment -1=20%

SECOND TERM (Oct. – March) Formative Assessment 3 10% Formative Assessment-3+4=20%

Formative Assessment 4 10%

Summative Assessment 2 40% Summative Assessment-2=40%

However, considering that CCE has been introduced in middle of the academic year, it will only be implemented for the second term for Class IX. The schools have the choice to implement one of the following for this academic year:

Choice Type of assessment Term/period to be considered Percentage of weightage Total

Choice 1 Formative assessment 1 Oct-March 20% 40% + 60% =100%

Formative assessment 2 20%

Summative assessment 1 60%

Choice 2 Internal Assessment-(already done for 1st & 2nd term in school) April-Sept (already conducted)10% 20% 20% + 20% + 10% + 10% + 40% = 100%

Half-yearly Examination-(already conducted in school) 20%

Formative assessment 1 Oct-March 10%

Formative assessment 2 10%

Summative assessment 2 40%

Grading System

Now, there will be nine grades for measuring Scholastic achievements . The highest will be A1 (exceptional) with a grade point of 10 and a marks range of 91-100%. Second grade will be A2 (excellent) with a grade point of 9 and marks in the range of 81-90%. Third grade will be B1 (very good) with grade point of 8 and a marks range of 71-80%.

The fourth grade will be B2 (good) with a grade point of 7 and marks range of 61-70%. Fifth grade will be C1 (fair) with grade point of 6 and marks range of 51-60%. C2 (average) will be the sixth grade with grade point of 5 and marks range of 41-50%. D (below average) will be the seventh grade with 4 grade points and marks range of 33-40%. E1 (needs improvement) and E2 (unsatisfactory) are the last two grades. Grading system based on continuous and comprehensive evaluation (CCE) will be done in two terms (April-September, October-March). In a year, the school will conduct four formative and two summative assessments.

In the first term, there will be two formative assessments of 10% each and single summative assessment of 20%. In the second term also a similar format will be adopted. Formative assessment will carry 40% marks and summative assessment 60% marks.CBSE also plans to offer an aptitude test that will be available by February 2010. By the time a student reaches Class XI, he/she would have undertaken the aptitude test twice, once at the end of Class IX and then at the end of Class X.

But since the grade system is being introduced in the middle of the academic session, students of Class IX — who will be the first batch not to take Class X board examination in 2011 — will have to go through two formative and one summative assessment in the October-March term in schools.

The nine point grading scale for measuring Scholastic achievements is reproduced below: -

Marks Range Grade Grade point

91-100 A1 10.0

81-90 A2 90

71-80 B1 8.0

61-70 B2 7.0

51-60 C1 6.0

41-50 C2 5.0

33-40 D 4.0

21-32 E1 C

00-20 E2 C

There are lots of features in Continuous and comprehensive evaluation too. The term Continual means the assessment of students in the beginning of instructions (placement evaluation) as well as assessment during the instructional process (formative evaluation) will be done informally by using multiple techniques of evaluation. This system will help teachers to organize the effective teaching strategies. Children can know what are their strengths and what are their weaknesses. CCE identifies the areas of aptitude and interest that helps in identifying changes in attitudes and value systems. With this system, students can make decisions for their future by choosing subjects, courses and careers.

Chemistry project class 12th

2009-12-22T07:56:00.000-08:00

Dye

click here to download

A dye can generally be described as a coloured substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied. The dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution, and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fibre.

Both dyes and pigments appear to be coloured because they absorb some wavelengths of light preferentially. In contrast with a dye, a pigment generally is insoluble, and has no affinity for the substrate. Some dyes can be precipitated with an inert salt to produce a lake pigment, and based on the salt used they could be aluminium lake, calcium lake or barium lake pigments.

Synthetic dyes quickly replaced the traditional natural dyes. They cost less, they offered a vast range of new colours, and they imparted better properties upon the dyed materials. Dyes are now classified according to how they are used in the dyeing process.

Dyes are generally defined along the lines of being coloured, aromatic compounds that can ionise. Although this definition infers that ionic interaction with oppositely charged tissue constituents is the norm, there are exceptions. Some dyes require the presence of a metal to properly develop their colour or staining selectivity. These are termed mordant dyes. The Colour Index uses this as a classification and naming system. Each dye is named according to the pattern: mordant + base colour + number.

http://cbsekey.com/pradeep/blog/chemistry-project-report-dyeing-fabrics

Indian History: HISTORY AND IMPACT OF Indo-Greeks

2009-12-13T21:30:00.000-08:00

After Alexander the Great, the greed seleukidan dynasty of Persia held on to the trans-Indus region. After seleukos Nikator was defeated by Chanragupta Maurya in 303 B.C. the trans-Indus region was transferred to the Mauryas. In mid third century B.C. the seleukidan rule was ended by two peoples. In Iran the parthiar became independent and their sassanians in 226 A.D. In like manner the greeks of Bactria rose in revolt under the leadership of Diodotus. These Greeks were later known as Indo-Greeks when they gained a foot-hold in the Indian sub-continent.
Bactria situated between the Hindu Kush and the oxus, was a fertile region and it controlled the trade routes from Gandhara to the West. The greek settlement in Bactria began in the 5th century B.C. when Persian emperors settled the Greek exiles in that area.

Bactria figured in history with the revolt of diodotus against Antiochus the seleukidan king. This breakaway of Bactria was recnised by the seleukidans when the grandson of Diodotus, Enthymemes. Was given a seleukidan bride in about 200 B.C.

About the same time the seleukidan king defeated king subhagasena after crossing the Hindu Kush in 206 B.C. This defeat reveals the unguarded nature of northwestern India.

Thus begins the history of Indo-Greeks. The history of the Indo-Greeks is mainly gathered from their coins. This evidence is very often confusion because many kings had identical names.

The son of Euthydemos, Demetrios, Conquered modern southern afghanistion and the Makran area he also occupied some parts of Punjab. Then around 175 B.C. the homeland of Bactrians came to be ruled by Eukratides, another branch of the Bactrians. His son Demetrios-II penetrated deep into the Punjab proceeding along the Indus, he penetrated till kutch.

The most known Indo-Greek was Menander, whose claim rests on the Buddhist treatise the Questions of king Milinda-discussion between menander and the Buddhist philosopher, Nagasena and he ruled the Punjab from C.160 to 140 B.C.

Menander not only stabilized his power but extended his frontiers. His coins are to be found in the region extending from Kabul to Mathura near Delhi. He attempted to conquer the Ganges valley but in vain. Probabley he was defeated by the Sungas.

After menander one Strato ruled. At that time Bactaria was rule by a different group of Bactrians. Probably Mitrhadates - I of Persia annexed the region of Taxila during the third quarter of the second century B.C.

A little later, Antialkidas ruled from Taxila as known from the inscription from besnagar near Bhilsa. This inscription was incised on the order of Heliodoros, who was the envoy of antialkidas in the court of Besnagar. Heliodoros got a monolithic column built in honour of vasudeva. Thus began the Bhakti cult of Vasudeva.

The last known greek kings were hippostratos and Hermaeus, the former defeated by moga and the latter by khadphisus.

Indo-Greek influence declined from the time Bactria itself was attacked by the nomadic tribes from central Asia, the scythians.

The penetration of Indo-Greeks, as well as of sakas pahlavas and Kushana influenced the government, society, religion literature and art of ancient India. The very fact that India absorbed influences of these foreigners speaks for the then youthful nature of Indian civilization.

The extent of Greek influence of Indian Civilisation is a most point. Whatever the Greek influence that was felt by India came in the wake of Alexander's invasion of the cast and the settlement of Greeks in the Bactrian region. Alexander himself cannot be regarded as the standard bearer of the heritage of ancient Greece. By the time Alexander and his soldiers marched towards the east the culture of Greece was on the decline hence at the most Alexander and his men could have spread a debased version of the great Geek civilization represented by Socrates, Plato, Phidia, Aristotle, Sophocles, Pythagoras and others. Despite the fact that Alexander and his men could not be the true torch bearers of Greek culture to the east, the traces of Greek influence could be definitely found on India civilization.

To begin with, the invasion of Alexander left very little imprint on Indian civilization. Indian rulers did not adopt the military tactics of Alexander, but continued to rely on their forefold organization. Although the region that was beyond the Hindu Kush in the Mauryan period was definitely in close contact with whatever the Greek influence that was there, the Greek influence was not felt in the interior of India. Probably the use of stone in buildings and sculptures by the Mauryas was inspired by the Greek practice of working in stone. Columns of the Ionic order were definitely used in the buildings of Taxila.

To speak point wise, the first influence of the Greeks was on the divine right theory of kingship. The Indo-Greeks took high sounding title e like divine kings, sons of gods, etc. and maintained the myth of Empire. Even before Indo-Greek rulers established themselves in India the services of the Greeks were utilized. Ashoka appointed a Greek as very viceroy of his province. And after the Indo-Greek period, a Greek, during the period of Kushans, was entrusted with engineering work.

Talking of social life, a number of Greeks figure as donors in the inscription of the Karle caves. The Greek mode of wearing hair and the habit of eating in a lying posture came into vogue. Also when some of the Indo-Greeks settled in India, they took to trade and they became affluent merchants. Even Tamil literature refers to Greek ships bringing cargoes, and the Greek section of Kaveripatnam was very prosperous. And some of the Tamil kings kept Greek body-guards.

Regarding science, contemporary writers admit the greatness of the Greek scientists. The Gargi Samhita admits that the Greeks were like gods in science and they penetrated into India as far as Pataliputra. Varahmihira, during the Gupta age was in the know of Greek science and used a number of Greek technical terms in his works, It is also argued that Charaka was influenced by the works of Hippocrates, the father of Medicine, but there is not evidence to confirm this view. Thus it is difficult to conjecture the extent to which ancient scientists of India were influenced by the scientific knowledge of Greeks.

In the field of art, first the Indo-Greeks did contribute to die cutters' art. They showed a remarkable skill in making the portraits of rulers. Also the Greek kings adopt some of the indigenous methods of minting the coins. Although Indians did not fully learn the fine art of die-cutting, the coins of Indian rulers were influenced by the Greeks. Indian adopted the art of striking coins with two dies, the obverse and the reverse. Secondly, the curious open air theatre that came into being in this period was directly a Greek legacy. The term Yavanika for curtain shows that Indian drama, at least on one point, was influenced by the Greek model, Thridly, the Greek form of sculpture influenced the Gandhara art of the Kushan period. The school began in the Kabul valley where the Greek influence was the maximum. Accordingly tone author, the terracottas of toys and plaques were all influenced by the Greeks.

In the religious field too, the Greek influence was felt, as borne out by Millinda-Panho and the Besnagar inscription. Legions of Greeks were converted into Indian religions of the day. One Greek officer, Theodorus, got the relics of the Buddha enshrined in the Swat valley. Besides, Hindu iconography was greatly changed because of the Indo-Greek influences. It is difficult to say how many Babylonian and Iranian Gods were incorporated in Hindu religions. A few deities were taken over by the Parthians and they were adopted by the Kushans. But it is doubtful to say as to which of the Greek dieities were incorporated in the Pantheon of Indian gods.

All told, the Greek influence was mostly felt in art (the Gangdhara sculptures, which probably influenced the later day Mathura sculptures) and in religion (gave a fillip to Mahayana Buddhism and popularized the Bhakti aspect of religion as pioneered by the vasudeva cult).

Indian History: POST-MAURYAN PERIOD (20BC - 300AD) : ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

2009-12-13T21:27:00.000-08:00

In the post-Mauryan era (200 BC. To 300 A.D.) the economy moved at an accelerated tempo. Society witnessed structural reorientation as significant groups of foreigners penetrated into India and chose to be identified with the rest of the community.

The occupation of craftsmen was an important segement of the day's socio-economic milieu. The craftsment were not only associated with the towns but also villages like Karimnagar in the Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh. The categories of craftsmen who were known in this period bear out the truth that there was considerable specialization in mining and metallurgy. A large number of iron artifacts have been discovered at various excavated sites relating to the Kushan and Satavahans Periods. It is surprising to notice that the Telengana region appears to have made special progress in iron artifacts - not only weapons but also balance rods, sickles, ploughshares, razors and ladels have been found in the Karimnagar and Nalgonda districts. Also, cutlery made out of iron and steel was exported to the Abyssinian ports.

Equally significant was the progress made in cloth-making and silk-weaving. Dyeing was a craft of repute in some south Indian towns like Uraiyur, a shurb of Tiruchirapalli, and Arikamedu. The use of oil was also high because of the invention of oil wheel. The inscriptions of the day mention weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, workers in metal and ivory, jewelers, sculptors, fishermen, perfumers and smiths as the donors of caves, pillars, tablets, cisterns etc. Among the luxury items the important ones were ivory and glass articles and beed cutting. At the beginning of the coristian era the knowledge of glass-blowing reached India and attained its peak. Coin minting also reached a high level of excellence made out of gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead and potin. A coint mould of the Satavahans period shows that through it half a dozen coins could be turned out a time.

In urban handicrafts the pride of place goes to the beautiful pieces of terracotta produced in profuse quantities. They have been found in most of the sites belonging to the Kushan and Satavahans periods. In particular, terracotta figures of great beauty have been found in the Nalgonda district of Telengana. The terracotta figures were mostly meant for the use of upper classes in towns.

This immense manufacturing activity was maintained by guilds. At least to dozen kinds of guilds were there. Most of the artisans known from inscriptions hailed from the Mathura region and the western Deccan which lay on the trade routes leading to the ports on the western coast.

The guilds, coming from the days of the Mauryan period, became a more important factor in the urban life both in being instrumental to increase in production and moulding public opinion. The primary guilds of the day were those of the potters, metal workers and carpenters. Some guilds organized their own distribution system while owning a large number of boats to transport goods from various ports on the Ganges.

The guilds of the day fixed their own rules of work and the standards of the finished products. They exercised care regarding price also to safeguard the interest of both the artisan and the customer. They controlled the price of the manufactured articles. He conduct of the guild members was regulated through a guild court. The customary uses of the guilds had the same force as those of laws.

The extensive activity of the guilds can be known from their seals and emblems. The banners and insignia of each guild were carried in procession of festive occasions. These prosperous guilds in addition, donated large sums of money to religious institutions and charitable causes.

Since the activity of the guilds was so buoyant, it appears that they attracted the attention of kings too. It is said that kings had financial interests in guilds. Royalty invested its money in commercial activities. This naturally led to protection being provided by State to the guilds. Regarding the activities of guilds, it appears from inscriptions that they acted asbankers, financiers and trustees although these activities were carried out by a separate class of people known as sresthins. Usury was a part of banking and the general rate of interest was around 15% loans extended to sea-trade carried higher interest rate. An authority of the day states that the rate of interest should vary according to the caste of the man to whom money is lent.

Interestingly, apart from the guilds, there were workers bodies also. The workers co-operative included artisans and various crafts associated with a particular enterprise. The classic example of this activity was the co-operative of builders, which has its members drawn from specialized workers such as architects. Engineers, bricklayers etc.

The immense commercial activity was bolstered by the thriving trade between India and the Easter Roman Empire. With the movement of Central Asian people like Sakas, Parthians and Kushans, trade came to be carried across the sea. Among the ports, the important ones were Broach and Sopara on the western coast, and Arikamedu and Tamralipti on the eastern coast. Out of these ports Broach was the most important as not only goods were exported from here but a also goods were received. Across land, the converging point of trade routes was Taxila, which was connected with the Silk Route passing through Central Asia. Ujjain was the meeting point of good number of trade routes.

The trade between India and Rome mostly consisted of luxury goods. To begin with Rome got her imports from the southern most portions of the country. The Roman imports were Muslims, pearls, jewels and precious stones from Central and South India. Iron articles formed an important item of export to the Roman Empire. For certain articles India became the clearing house, as for example, silk from China because of impediments posed by the Parthian rule in Iran and the neighboring areas.

The Romans, in return, exported to India various types of potters found in excavations at places like Tamluk in West Bengal, Arikamedu nevar Pondicherry and a few other places. Probably lead was important from Rome. It is also presumed that the Kushans had brisk trade with the Romans as they conquered Mesopotamia in 115 A.D. At a place close to Kabul, glass jars made in Italy, Egypt and Syria have come to light, apart from small bronze statues of Greko-Roman style, And the most significant Roman export to India was the gold and silver coins - nearly 85 finds of Roman coins have been found. There is nothing surprising in the lamentation of the Roman writer Pliny in the 1st century A.D. that Roman was being drained of gold on account of trade with India.

Indian kingdoms sent embassies to Rome the best known being the one sent about 25 B.C. Which included strange collection of men and animals-tigers, snakes, tortoises a monk and an armless boy who could shoot arrows with his toes. This mission reached Rome during the days of Emperor Augustus in 21 B.C.

In the southern kingdoms maritime trade occupied the pride of place. The literature of the day refers to harbours, docks, light houses and custom offices. Large variety of ships were built, both for short distance as well as long distance voyages. According to pliny the largest Indian ship was 75 tons. Other sources mention higher figures.

In the self-same period there was a boom in trade with south-East Asia. This was first occasioned by the Roman demand for spices. Gradually this trade grew in dimensions.

The growing number of strangers in the port towns and trade centers led to their absorbing Indian habits as their numbers grew, social laws of the day became rigid as to be seen from the law code of Manu. Further as conversions to Hinduism was technically impossible the non-Indian groups gradually grew into separate sub-castes. After all the conversion of a single individual was a problem but the device of caste made such absorption easier. Moreover the foreigners found it easier to become Buddhists instead of Aryans. Faced one theoretical knowledge confined to brahmins and the other practical and technical knowledge which became the preserve of the professionals.

It was during this period Dharmashastras came to be written. These Shastras made the social structure to be rigid. Apart from these writings poetry and drama were also popular. The outstanding poem in Tamil was Shilappadigaram. Another poem in Tamil was Manimegalai. In Sanskrit, Asvaghosa and Bhasa were the two great dramatists. The manuscripts of Asvaghosa were found in a monastry in Turdan in Central Asia. Both of his plays deal with Buddhist themes. Bhasa appeared a couple of centuries later. His plays are based on the incident from the spics or historical romances around the exploits of king udayan in Avanti.

In the field of plastic art. Great were the achievement of this period like the stupas at Sanchi and Bar hut the caves at Karlellora and Ajanta. At Amravati the great age of painting began. Also the sculptures at Amravati show a mastery of stone sculpture and with the mathura school of sculpture the Indian tradition of sculpture began.

The booming trade and commerce of the period was at the base of the urban settlements that came into existence. The important towns of northern India were Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi, Kausambi, Sravasti, Hastinapur, Mathura and Indraprastha. Most of the towns flourished in the Kushan period as revealed by excavations. The excavations at Sonkh in Mathura show as many as seven levels of the Kushan are but only one of the Gupta period. Again in Jalandhar, Ludhiana and Ropar also several sites show good Kushan structures. The Satayahans kingdown also witnessed thriving towns like Tagar, Paithan, Dhanyakataka, Amravati, Nagarjunakonda, Broach, Sopara, Arikamedu and Kaveripattanam.

Indian History: The Splendour of the 'Dark Centuries'

2009-12-13T21:23:00.000-08:00

Indian History: The Splendour of the 'Dark Centuries'

The five centuries which passed between the decline of the first great Indian empire of the Mauryas and the emergence of the great classical empire of the Guptas has often been described as a dark period in Indian history when foreign dynasties fought each other for short-lived and ephemeral supremacy over Northern India. Apart from Kanishka's Indo-Central Asian empire which could claim to be similar in size and importance to has china, the parthians of Persia and to the contemporary Roman empire this period did lack the glamour of large empires. But this 'dark period' particularly the first two centuries AD was a period of intensive economic and cultural contact among the various parts of the Eurasian continent. Indian played a very active role in stimulating these contacts. Buddhism which has been fostered by Indian rulers since the days of Ashoka was greatly aided by the international connections of the Indo-Greeks and the Kushanas and thus rose to prominence in Central Asia. South India was establishing its important links with the West and with Southeast Asia in this period. These links especially those with southeast Asia, proved to be very important for the future course of Asian history.

But India it self experienced important social and cultural changes in this period. For centuries Buddhism had enjoyed royal patronage. This was partly due to the fact that the foreign rulers of India found Buddhism more accessible than orthodox Hinduism. The Vedic Brahmins had been pushed into the background by the course of historical development all though Hinduism as such did not experience a decline. On the contrary new popular cults arose around gods like Shiva, Krishna and Vishnu-Vasudeva who had played only a marginal role in an earlier age. The competition between Buddhism which dominated the royal courts and cities and orthodox Brahminism which was still represented by numerous Brahmin families every where left enough scope for these new cults to gain footholds of their own, of great importance for the further development of Hinduism and particularly for the Hindu idea of kingship was the Kushana rulers identification with certain Hindu gods - they were actually believed to attain a complete identity with the respective god after their death.

Religious legitimation was of greater importance to these foreign rulers than to other Indian kings. Menander's ashes had been distributed according to the Buddhist fashion and Kanishka was identified with Mithras but wima kadphises and Huvishka were closer to shiva as shown by the images on their coins. Huvishka's coins provide a regular almanac of the iconography of the early Shiva cult. The deification of the ruler which was so prevalent in the Roman and Hellenistic world as well as among the Iranians was thus introduced into India and left a mark on the future development of Hindu Kingship.

Another future of crucial importance for the future political development of India was the organization of the haka and Kushana Empires had been, but were based on the large-scale incorporation of local rulers. In subsequent centuries many regional Empires of India were organized on this pattern.

The most well-known contribution of the 'dark-period' was a course, to Indian art. After the early sculptures of the Mauryas which were greatly influenced by the Iranian style, a new Indian style, a new Indian style has fist emerged under Shungas and their successors in the Buddhist monuments of Bharhut and Sanchi which particularly showed a new style of relief sculpture. The merger of the Gandhara school of art, with its Graeco-Roman style and the Mathura school of art which included 'archaic' Indian elements and became the center of Indo-Kushana art, finally led to the rise of the Sarnath school of art. This school then set the pattern of the classical Gupta style.

Less-well-known, but much more important for the future development of Hindu society, was the compilation of the authoritative Hindu law books (dharmasastra), the foremost of them being the code of Manu which probably originated in the second or third century AD. After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga Empires, there must have been a period of uncertainty, which led to renewed interest in traditional social norms. These were then codified so as to remain inviolate for all times to come. If we add to this the resurgence of Sanskrit, as testified by Rudradaman's famous rock inscription of the second century AD. We see that this 'dark-period' actually contained all the element of the classical culture of the Gupta age, Thus the many splendoured and much maligned 'dark-period' was actually the harbinger of the classical age.

Indian History: Thus Saith His Majesty - Study Notes

2009-12-13T21:16:00.000-08:00

Indian History: Asoka's Dhamma (Need of Dharma)

Indian History: Indus And Vedic Civilisation

Indian History: Foreign Relation of Asoka

Indian History: Decline of The Mauryas

'Father and mother must be obeyed; similarly respect for living creatures must be enforced, truth must be spoken. These are the virtues of the law of Duty (or "Peity". Dhamma) which must be practisd. Similarly, the teacher must be reverenced by the pupil, and proper courtesy must be shown to relations.

This is the ancient standard of duty (or "Piety") - leads to length of days and according to this men must act.

The three obligations - of showing reverence, respecting animal life, and telling the truth - are inculcated over and over again in the edicts.

Besides, it was meant for all - Buddhists, brahmins, Jains and Ajivikas, In the way, it was the sara or the essence of the good principles of all religions. Also, while pleading on behalf of his dhamma, Asoka passionately appealed for toleration towards all religions and a reverence for each other.

Had this dhamma got anything to do with Buddhist principles, Asoka would have openly stated so in his edicts since he never southt to hid/his support for Buddhism. For that matter, Asoka did not incorporate any of the fundamental tenets of Buddhist faith such as the Four Noble Truths, the chain of casualty the sacred eight-fold path, and the Nirvana. The omissions, also with repeated reference to the concept of svarga or heaven (a Hindu belief) show that his dhamma cannot be identified with Buddhism.
Since Asoka's dhamma was not intended for the cause of Buddhims during his dharama-yatras, he not only visited various places of Buddhist importance, but also gave gifts to sramanas and Brahmins. Most of all, even after entrusting the propagation of dhamma to the Dharma Mahamatras, Asoka continued to style himself as the beloved of the devas, a Hindu concept, since there were no Gods in Buddhism at that time.

SUCCESS OF HIS DHARMA
Asoka specifically states that his missions were sent to various places (Ceylon and various Western countries) and maintains that they were all successful. It is difficult to accept this claim because historical evidence shows that his officials overshot the mark. Definitely, there was resentment against their way of doing things. It is known from evidence that Asoka presumed that not only he was a seeker of truth but also he did reach the truth. Such convictions are always harmful. Most of all, it is important to note that there is no authentic proof that his missions were a success. Significantly, none of Asoka's successors continued the propagation of dhamma. Far worse is the fact that in the later ages, his pillar inscriptions came to be misunderstood as symbols of phallus.

Indian History: Asoka's Dhamma (Need of Dharma)

2009-12-13T21:05:00.000-08:00

Indian History: Indus And Vedic Civilisation

Indian History: Foreign Relation of Asoka

Indian History: Decline of The Mauryas

1. There was considered intellectual ferment around 600 B.C. healthy rivalry was apparent among the number of sects such as the Charvaks, Jains and Ajivikas, whose doctrines ranged from bare materialism to determinism. This intellectual liveliness was reflected in the elected interests of the Mauryan rulers. It was claimed by the Jainas that Chandragupta was supporter and there is evidence that Bindusara favoured the Ajivikas.

Thus, the Empire of Asoka was inhabited by peoples of many cultures who were at many levels of development. The range of customs, beliefs, affinities, antagonisms, tensions and harmonies were galore. True, Magadha and the fringes of these areas. The north was in close contact with the Hellenized culture of Afganisthan and Iran. The far south was on the threshold of a creative efflorescence of Tamil culture. The ruler of such as Empire required the perceptions were addressed to the public at large. It is in these inscriptions that the king expounds his ideas on dhamma.

It appears, Asoka aimed at creating an attitude of mind among his subjects in which social behavior was accorded the highest place. The ideology of dhamma can be viewed as a focus of loyalty and as a point of convergence for the then bewildering diversities of the Empire. In a way, Asoka's dhamma was akin to the preamble in the constitution of India.

2. A centralized monarchy demands oneness of feeling on the part of its people. The ethics of the dhamma was intended to generate such a feeling, comparable to the preamble of the Indian Constitution.

3. The Mauryan Society with its heterogeneous ele ments and with economic, social and religious forces working against each other posed the threat of disruption. Asoka, therefore, needed some binding factor to allow the economic activity to proceed on an even keel and thereby ensure the security of his state.

4. Also as the commercial classes gained economic importance and resented the inferior social status as per the sanctions of the Brahmins, they want over to Buddhism, which preached social equality. Their support to the Mauryan king was very vital for the peace and prosperity of the Empire. Asoka thought that he could attract them by the propagation of this dhamma by weaning them away from too closely identifying themselves with Buddhism.

5. Asoka felt that the aforesaid forces of contrary pulls would threaten the peace of the realm not in the general interest of his Empire. Asoka's dhamma therefore, was intended to serve a practical purpose.

The dhamma was not meant to be a religion but what behooves a man of right feeling to do, or what man of sense would do. Such being the nature of his dhamma, it is primarily an ethic of social conduct.

Asoka's Moral code is most concisely formulated in the second Minor Rock Edict.