Chemical & Process Technology

Obtain Saturated Steam Properties & Pipe Sizing using Steam Tools via Iphone

2012-08-27T09:21:00.000-07:00

The Steam Tools app is an iPhone application developed by Spirax Sarco to assist engineers have quick and easy access to both Steam Tables and a Saturated Steam Pipe Sizing tool.

Steam Tables

The Steam Tables cover the thermodynamic data for water/steam, supporting the design and operation of expert steam/water equipment. You simply need to enter a pressure or a temperature into the app, returning:

- The corresponding pressure or temperature.
- Water (hf) (Sensible Heat)
- Evaporation (hfg) (Latent Heat)
- Steam (hg) (Total Heat)
- Specific Volume Steam

Pipe Sizing Tool
The pipe sizing tool allows access to Saturated Steam pipeline data, helping you to size a pipeline.

You may easily download from Iphone's APP STORE. Read more information in ITune.

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LNG Industry - Winter 2011

2012-08-12T08:47:00.001-07:00

LNG Industry is an unique quarterly magazine that covers the global LNG sector from start to finish, from liquefaction to regasification. Each issue provides :

in-depth technical articles focusing on all aspects of the LNG sector
quality keynote articles from LNG majors, financial institutions and industry commentators
regular regional reports from Europe, North and South America, Africa, Asia and the Middle East

The Winter 2011 issue of LNG Industry has a particular focus on LNG safety and alternative uses of LNG apart from transportation, ranging from locomotive use to shipping fuel.

Winter 2011 issue covers following topics :

Picking up the pace
Terry Willis, The EIC, Dubai, examines the increasing pace of new LNG liquefaction capacity and exports from the Middle East.

Is anyone thinking about the weather?
Mark W. Jessup, Markey Machinery Co., USA, examines the world’s changing weather patterns and what LNG companies can do to prepare themselves for the worst.

LNG: the flexible element
James Patrick O’Brien, EGL AG, Switzerland, comments on LNG market developments and the future of LNG from a market participant’s perspective.

Is LNG on track?
Constantyn Gieskes, Braemar Wavespec USA, Inc., USA, describes the potential benefits and pitfalls of converting rail locomotives to run on LNG.

Gas fuel: a new generation
Reidar Strande, Hamworthy Plc., UK, discusses the benefits of an LNG fuelling system.

The missing link
Jürgen Harperscheidt, TGE Marine Gas Engineering, Germany, discusses the development of bunkering LNG for shipping uses.

Who’s in control?
Dr. Ian Synge, ShipNet AS, UK, discusses the growing use of enterprise software to transport LNG efficiently and safely.

Intelligent valves
Sari Aronen, Metso Automation Inc., Finland, explains the benefits of selecting the right valves for LNG processing applications.

Pressure relief
Roger Bours, Fike Europe, Belgium, addresses the use of pressure safety devices in cryogenic processes.

Time to switch?
Amin Almasi, WorleyParsons, Australia, examines the benefits of switching to new aero-derivative gas turbines over their heavy frame counterparts.

Sustainable insulation
Steve Oslica, Pittsburgh Corning, USA, examines the environmental credentials of cellular glass insulation.

Mercury removal
Vince Atma Row and Matthew Humphrys, Johnson Matthey, UK, examine the problem of mercury adsorption on gas plants and pipelines.

Subscript FREE LNG Industry here

Some Milestones for LNG Development

2012-07-29T04:49:00.001-07:00

Natural gas is used in industry and household to provide heating energy. It is explored from gas well, treated transported to customer via large and long pipeline. It is become non-cost effective once the pipeline length is exceeded 3000 - 3500 km. Thus, another mode of transportation, Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is considered cost effective. Liquefied Natural gas (LNG) is a process of cooling down the natural gas to form liquid for easy storage and transportation. A LNG is normally contains of Methane (CH4) which is more than 90% and other light hydrocarbon such as Ethane (C2H6), Propane (C3H8), Butane (C4H10) and Nitrogen (N2) inert gas. LNG is non-corrosive, non-toxic, non-carcinogenic, odorless and colorless. However, it is flammable and explosive and create greenhouse effect to environment.

Following is an simple development milestones for LNG since 19th century

Year	Event	Remark
19th Century	Michael Faraday, a British Scientist liquefying various gases (including natural gas) in laboratory
1873	Karl Von Linde, a German engineer build 1st practical compressor refrigeration machine in Munich
1912	1st LNG plant is built in West Virginia
1914	1st (U.S.) patent awarded for LNG handling/shipping to Godfrey Cabot
1917	Start operation of 1st LNG plant in West Virginia
1941	1st commercial LNG plant is built in Cleveland, Ohio	2000 tpa
1944	At an LNG peak-shaving plant in Cleveland, an LNG storage tank with a low Nickel steel content (only 3.5%) fails. LNG spills into a sewer. Explosion within the sewer kills 128 people
1959	World 1st LNG tanker "The Methane Pioneer", safely carries LNG from Lake Charles, LA., to Canvey Island, United Kingdom, initiating commercial LNG shipping.	2000 tonnes LNG
1960	Conch International Methane conducts pioneering series of experiments involving small-scale LNG spills on land at Lake Charles, LA for U.S. Bureau of Mines.
1964	1st baseload LNG plant (CAMEL) in Algeria used Technip/Air Liquide's Cascade liquefaction process (three loops i.e. Propane, Ethylene & Methane) and Steam turbine to drive compressors The British Gas Council begins importing LNG from Algeria, making the United Kingdom the world's 1st LNG importer and Algeria as its first exporter.	3-trains with capacity of 1 mtpa, located in in Arzew, Algeria
1967	National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) adopts its first LNG safety standards, NFPA 59A Standard for the Production, Storage, and Handling of LNG.
1969	1st LNG plant (Kenai, Alaska) used Phillips Cascade liquefaction technology and 1st to use gas turbine (single shaft) 1st LNG cargoes from Alaska to Japan (world largest LNG importer)	1.5 mtpa in single train
1970	1st LNG plant in Marsa El Brega, Libya used APCI's SMR liquefaction technology	0.75 mtpa per trains
1971	Distrigas Corporation opens an LNG receiving and regasification terminal in Everett, MA.
1972	1st LNG baseload plant used APCI's C3MR liquefaction technology in BLNG 1st LNG plant used Technip 's Tealarc two pressure SMR technology in Skikda, Algeria 1st US federal LNG safety regulations adopted, incorporating NFPA 59A standards.	Skikda - 3 trains of 1 mtpa
1986	South Korea receives its 1st LNG shipment (from Indonesia).
1989	1st LNG plant (NWS) adopting Air-Cooling
1990	Taiwan’s 1st LNG terminal receives a shipment from Indonesia.
1991	1st LNG deliveries from Australia’s North West Shelf (NWS) arrive in Japan and South Korea.
1995	1st LNG plant adopting Gas turbine GE Frame 6/7
1999	1st LNG plant in West Hemisphere (Trinidad)
2000	1st peak shaving LNG plant in Pudong, Shanghai, China
2004	The 1st offshore LNG terminal is approved, Port Pelican. Explosions and fire destroy a portion of the LNG liquefaction plant in Skikda, Algeria, killing 27 people.
2007	1st LNG plant use Linde's Multi Fluid Cascade Cycle (MFCC) technology (Snohvit, Norway)	4.1 mtpa
2009	1st LNG plant use Shell's DMR technology (Sakhalin, Russia)	2 trains of 4.8 mtpa
2011	Qatar becomes world largest LNG exporter (using APCI's AP-X technology and gas turbine GE Frame 9E)	6 trains of 7.8 mtpa
Dec 2016	Petronas FLNG SATU - World 1st Mid scale FLNG (with N2 refrigeration cycle) comes on stream.(Kanowit gas field offshore Sarawak, Malaysia.)	1.2 mtpa
March 2018	Golar Hilli Episeyo FLNG, 1st FLNG (with PRICO SMR refrigeration process) converted from Moss LNG carrier, come on stream. (offshore Kribi in Cameroon)	4 x 0.5 mtpa
March 2018	Yamal LNG plant in Russian Arctic area in operation	5.5 mtpa
2018	World 1st large FLNG expected to comes on stream	3.6 mtpa

Sources ：

1) University of Texas, Austin
2) California energy commission

3) "Next Generation Onshore LNG plant design", Marjan et.al
4) "Liquefaction Technology : Developments through History", Paul Bosma et.al.
5) "Shell and Petronas to race on Floating LNG"

Featured Resources:
	LNG Industry Provides global coverage of the entire LNG value chain.... >>

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Obtain Pipe Info Instantly using Pipe tools via Iphone

2011-12-18T01:44:00.000-08:00

Pipe Tools is a handy simple tool available free for Iphone user to retrieve pipe and/or tubing data. Steel Pipe charts and Casing/Tubing charts that fit in your Iphone is really a handy tool helps engineer to obtain pipe information such as wall thickness, mass per unit length, etc. You can have quick conversion between feet, metres, net tons, metric tonnes for any pipe size. By entering unit Compare pipe costs $/ft, $/m, $/net ton, $/metric tonne. Plus more tools for the pipe industry!

Steel pipe charts are provided in the Pipe Tools summarize the Imperial wall thickness and pipe mass data from ASME B36.10M, and casing and tubing data from API 5CT.

Pipe Tools has a handy tool to present the metric equivalents of the pipe chart data. Navigation of this data is by tapable and movable tables and by picker selections.

This app has a conversion feature for comparing pipe prices., to calculate the carbon equivalents of your pipes, find out yield strength (YS) on your MTR is in Metric and the spec is in Imperial.

You may easily download from Iphone's APP STORE. Read more information in ITune.

Related Topics

HP Dec 2011

2011-12-18T01:42:00.000-08:00

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Optimize capacity for large ethylene oxide reactors
Many factors must be considered in fine-tuning unit design

Selecting the right steam methane reformer: Can vs. box design
Simulating various configurations and cost estimates aids in the selection of a steam methane reformer for hydrogen production

Investment roadmap: Planning for carbon capture and storage
Reducing emissions can be approached the same way as any other new capital project

Knowledge transfer: A primer for major capital projects
Improve transfer strategy across the project supply chain to achieve smooth end-user takeover

Manage risks with dividing-wall column installations
A simple auxiliary configuration and an extensive modeling study can mitigate the implementation risks of DWCs

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Factors and Risk of Non-Uniform gas liquid flow at Header–Channel junctions (T-J)

2011-12-15T08:51:00.000-08:00

Earlier post "Mal-Distribution of Phases at T-Junction Phenomenon" and "Stagnant Liquid In Inclined Parallel Pipe Downstream of T-Junction" have shown two phase flow mal-distribution and stagnant liquid phenomenon at T-junction or splitting tee.

The flow distribution from a manifold to parallel channels is becoming of interest in predicting the heat transfer performance of heat exchangers. As discussed, due to maldistribution of two phase flow at T-junction, flow rates through the channels to each heat exchanger are not uniform. In the extreme case, there is almost no flow through some of them (i.e. stagnant liquid phenomenon). As of today, there is still no general way to predict the distribution of two-phase mixtures at header–channel junctions (T-junction).

Simulation studies by Bernoux et al. (2001) with two-phase distribution at the inlet manifold of compact heat exchangers, results showed that the vapor distribution to the channels became uniform with the increase of the mass quality (X_v), but the liquid distribution still remained unbalanced. Besides, the liquid distribution through the channels was not much sensitive to the mass flux (M_Flux).

Flow behavior studies (by Osakabe et al, 1999) in a horizontal square header (with each side being 40 mm) connected to four parallel vertical tubes (10 mm in diameter) for the bubbly and slug flows at the inlet, largest amount of the liquid flow into the first tube for a low mass quality (X_v) flow in the header; however, the tendency of mal-distribution is reduced with the increase of the mass quality (X_v) inside the header.

Flow behavior at one junction has no influence on that at the next junction. On the other hand, for the most of the compact heat exchangers, the distance between the channels is comparable to or even smaller than the header size (hydraulic diameter), flow interaction between the junctions has to be taken into account.

Infact, behavior of flow separation in small T-junctions appeared different from that in the large T-junctions. There are strong interaction between each T-junctions. The flow behavior at one T-junction is strongly influenced by other T-junction especially when the distance between the T-junction is equivalent to or smaller than the hydraulic diameter of the header (as reported by Lee & Lee, 2004).

Further investigation on two-phase flow behavior at the upward header co-current flow and horizontal rectangular parallel channels and simulating the corresponding parts of compact heat exchangers shown that intrusion depth of the channels into header affects flow distribution of the liquid-phase. Less amount of liquid was separated out through the channels at the rear part except near the end-partition with the zero intrusion depth, Reversed trend observed for deeper intrusion. This indicated that a uniform distribution could be obtained by adjusting the intrusion depth. Deeper intrusion channel promote mixing effect and hence the uniform distribution to each outlet.

Above shown that mal-distribution of two phase flow at T-junctions affects by many factors i.e. vapor mass quality, flow pattern, distance of T-junction, size of T-junction and header size, penetration of T-junction into header, etc. Infact, above only several factors affecting mal-distribution, there are many more factors affecting it. In a compact heat exchanger i.e. Plate Fin Heat Exchanger (PFHE), Brazed Aluminum Heat Exchanger (BAHX), gas & liquid fraction flow from header to each channel may be different from tube to tube. This could seriously affects the heat transfer performance of the heat exchanger. Not only that performance varies at each channel would lead to change in temperature profile, and hence thermal stress profile of heat exchanger which increase the fatigue cracking tendency and life span of the heat exchanger.

Related Topics

Stagnant Liquid In Inclined Parallel Pipe Downstream of T-Junction

2011-12-14T07:25:00.000-08:00

In earlier post "Mal-Distribution of Phases at T-Junction Phenomenon", there were several mal-distribution phenomenon shown. In this post there is another phenomenon where engineer may not see or feel it and it may not has any consequence. It is flow preferential and stagnant liquid phenomenon in a inclined splitting tee.

Taitel et al (1999 & 2003) has investigated two phase flow with common inlet, split at impacting T-junction, flow in inclined parallel pipes and merge at common outlet. Flow splitting of gas and liquid in four (4) parallel pips was investigated. Experimental results were obtained for 0°, 5°, 10° and 15° inclinations.

For the horizontal case (0°) the flow takes place in all of the 4 pipes, usually with an "approximately" even splitting. For the inclined pipes various flow configuration could take place. For low liquid and gas flow rates the two-phase mixture prefers to flow in a single pipe while stagnant liquid fills part of the other three (3) pipes. As the flow rates of liquid and gas increase, flow in two, three and eventually in four pipes takes place.

This has provided some insight and idea to the designer and operator, there is a minimum flow for two phase flow in parallel pipes. Under turndown operation, there is possible flow in single pipe while liquid column stagnant in the other pipe. Whenever increase production, it shall be gradually increase to avoid large liquid volume feed to the downstream equipment and pipe failure due to slugging flow in downstream pipe.

Another potential issue is present of heavy sand in the two phase flow. Heavy sand will tend to stays and accumulates in the stagnant liquid and potentially partially block the pipes. Therefore, this stagnant liquid phenomenon should be checked and taken care during design and operation phase.

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Mal-Distribution of Phases at T-Junction Phenomenon

2011-12-12T06:58:00.000-08:00

Multiphase flow, primarily gas-liquid flow, exists in chemical, power, oil/gas production and refining plants. Multiphase flow is very complex phenomena. Most application has considered that fluid split at T-junction, all phases will be evenly split between the run and branch. In reality, maldistribution of phase occurred at T-junction. Each phase has their preference route. This maldistribution phenomenon has been experienced in many industrial applications.

Mal-Distribution of Phases at T-Junction Phenomenon

In the Oil and gas, refinery, petrochemical and chemical plant, pipes has been widely used to transfer product from equipment to equipment for further processing. Starting from offshore platform, oil & gas produce from reservoir via wellheads, partially stabilized in production separators (sometime produced water knocked-out in the production separator and further re-inject back to reservoir or treated and disposed locally), separated gas and condensate/oil will be transport to onshore via separate long pipelines. Along the pipeline, external cooling by ambient and seawater couple with pressure drop in the pipeline, condensation will occur in some places in the pipeline and two phase flow initiated. Gas with condensate arrived onshore will be dumped into a multi-fingers slugcatcher. Impacting Tee will be used to split the flow between the fingers. Gas-condensate is then separated in the slugcatcher via slight-inclined horizontal pipe with vertical Tee. At the impacting Tee, maldistribution of gas & condensate between the branches are observed in reality. These ended-up some fingers are over capacity and some under capacity.

Production from several wellhead platforms will be send to central processing platform (CEP) for partial separation and stabilization via long subsea pipeline. Due to geographical arrangement of wellhead platforms and well develop at different phases, those pipelines could be mixed at topside or subsea using Tee.

Gaslift used to enhance oil productivity will be supplied from central processing platform via long gaslift pipeline. The gaslift pipeline will be delivered from one platform to another platform. Tee will be used to split the gas flow. In order to avoid condensation, generally the gaslift dew point will be depressed to avoid condensation along the gaslift pipeline. Inefficient performance and mal-operation of topside gaslift dew point control will result saturated gas feed into the gaslift pipeline. Similar to above gas pipeline, condensation occurred in the long pipeline due to external cooling and pressure drop and affect the proper split.

Featured Resources:
	LNG Industry Provides global coverage of the entire LNG value chain.... >>

Oil production system producing high viscosity oil, steam will be injected to enhance oil recovery. Multiple steam injection is implemented to ensure proper distribution of steam and increase the oil recovery efficiency. Steam supply from main header will be distributed to all injection points via tees. In some cases, steam is supplied from central utility production unit which is far away from the users, cooling by external (imperfect insulation) and pressure drop along header will lead to two phase flow. Maldistribution of steam-condensate at each split will result oil recovery performance dropped.

The LPG or natural gas will be supplied to users such as factory, household, etc. A lot of pipeline and tees will be used for transfer and splitting the flow. Similar to above gas pipeline, condensation could occur in the pipeline and distribution network, malditribution at the splitting tee and could result some users received large amount of condensate.

In the chemical plant, there are two phase flow gas (with low liquid loading) feeding to condenser. In order to increase operability and turndown, multiple condensers will be installed. When the plant is operate under partial capacity, some condensers will be put in operation. Maldistribution occurred at splitting tee result some condenser over capacity (fed with high liquid loading) and the some condenser under capacity (fed with low liquid loading).

Phase maldistribution has been reported from offshore platforms in the UK North Sea. Two main (phase) vessel separators has been installed in parallel in order to enable production to continue albeit at a reduced level if there was a need for maintenance or modification of a separator. To ensure an even split of the phases, an impacting T-junction was employed. When the system was started up it was found that one separator received most of the gas whilst the other got most of the liquid. Inspection of the pipework upstream of the junction showed that bend located upstream result centrifuging of the phases and presenting each outlet with substantially one phase

There are others phase maldistribution observed on T-junction. For example, phase separation in main coolant piping of light water nuclear reactor (LWR) can play significant role in the effectiveness of emergency core cooling (ECC) system during analysis of Loss-of-coolant-accident (LOCA).

Therefore, in handling vapor near condensation point or two phase flow, phase separation is one of the phenomenon shall be analyzed to minimize mal-distribution.

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Handy DNV Conversion Calculator For Engineers with Iphone

2011-12-11T01:20:00.000-08:00

Nowadays Smart phone has been commonly used by most engineers. A lot of handy application has been created to ease engineers like you for daily activities. Similarly DNV has created and released a "LNG Conversion Calculator" for Iphone user. It is FREE.

Above is snapshot of the DNV's LNG Conversion Calculator.

This LNG Conversion Calculator cover several important units :

m3 NG
ft3 NG
tonnes oil eq
tonnes LNG
BTU
barrels oil eq
m3 LNG

You may easily download from Iphone's APP STORE. Read more information in ITune.

Following are some typical results :

1 x 10⁶ tonnes LNG = 52 x 10¹² BTU
1 x 10⁶ tonnes LNG = 8.68 x 10⁶ barrels oil eq
1 x 10⁶ tonnes LNG = 1.23 x 10⁶ tonnes oil eq
1 x 10⁶ tonnes LNG = 2255.822 x 10³ m3 LNG
1 x 10⁶ tonnes LNG = 1.38 x 10⁹ m3 NG
1 x 10⁶ tonnes LNG = 48.7 x 10⁹ ft3 NG

Featured Resources:
	LNG Industry Provides global coverage of the entire LNG value chain.... >>

Comments :

Exact conversion subjects to molecular weight. Above is only approximation.
Finding shows above was based on "BP Statistical Review of US, Energy" as source.
Present version is 1.1. Only cover mass-volume conversion. Wish develop can expand it to cover flowrate to ease users.
There is no clear definition of volumetric flow at condition i.e. at Standard or Normal condition, etc.

Related Topics

Contaminants and Impurities Limit in LNG

2011-12-10T10:17:00.000-08:00

Liquefied Natural gas (LNG) contains of majority Methane (CH4) which is more than 90% and other light hydrocarbon such as Ethane (C2H6), Propane (C3H8), Butane (C4H10) and Nitrogen (N2) inert gas. LNG is non-corrosive, non-toxic, non-carcinogenic, odorless and colorless. However, it is flammable and explosive and create greenhouse effect to environment.

Natural gas may contains of other contaminants such as Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), Water (H2O), Mercury (Hg), Nitrogen (N2), Helium (He), Heavy Hydrocarbon, BTEX, CO2, S, etc. These component need to be extracted from natural gas to an acceptable, practical and economic level when it is liquefied and transported. The following are general reasons why these contaminants need to be extracted :

solidify / freezing results cryogenic heat exchanger blockage (contaminants such as CO2, H2O, C5+, BTEX, etc)
corrosion & cracking of cryogenic heat exchanger made of aluminum material (contaminant such as Hg)
affecting product heating value (component such as N2, C2, C3, C4, etc)
extraction highly valuable / important component (such as N2, He, etc)
product toxicity (such as H2S, mercaptans i.e. methanethiol (CH3SH) and ethanethiol (C2H5SH), etc)
stratification results roller (such as N2)

Freeze & Blockage
Component in natural gas potentially freeze and blocking cryogenic heat exchanger need to be reduced to level at or below it freezing point. The following table list out the solubility of several components in LNG :

Component	Estimated Solubility Concentration (ppmV)	Practical Acceptable Concentration (ppmV)	Remark
n-C5	8,900	1,000
neo-C5	-	5
C6	217	150
C7	70	50
C8	0.5	0.5
C9	0.1	0.1
C10	0.000001	0
Cyclo-C6	115	100
M-Cyclo-C5	575	550
M-Cyclo-C6	335	300
Benzene	1.53	0.5
Toluene / M-Benzene	24.9	20
O-Xylene	0.22	0.1
M-Xylene	1.54	1.0
P-Xylene	120	100
CO2	40	50 - 100	Practical experience shown higher CO2 concentration is acceptable / practical.
H2O	0.0001	1.0	Practical experience shown higher H2O concentration is acceptable / practical.

Corrosion & Cracking

Mercury (Hg) present in natural gas can cause corrosion & cracking of cryogenic heat exchanger made of aluminum material. Typically Hg concentration shall be limited to 0.01 microgram / Nm3.

Featured Resources:
	LNG Industry Provides global coverage of the entire LNG value chain.... >>

Stratification & Rollover

At LNG storage condition, Nitrogen will have lower dew point compare to Methane. Nitrogen in LNG tends to vaporize first compare to Methane. As Nitrogen is heavier than Methane, top layer of LNG tank would tends to rollover and generate excessive vapor which can cause overpressure and relieve BOG to atmosphere. Through experience, Nitrogen content in LNG is normally limited to maximum 1 mol%.

Toxicity
Present of H2S, COS and merceptants in LNG would results high toxicity LNG. The following list out typical level in LNG :

Component	Practical Acceptable Concentration (ppmV)	Remark
H2S	4
COS	0.5
Total Sulfur	10 - 200	Subject to country
Merceptants Sulfur	6 - 15	Subject to country

Above are typical value for quick reference. Figures may change according to LNG composition, liquefaction temperature, etc and will varies from case to case. Shall be used as reference only.

Related Topics

Chemical Engineering Dec 2011

2011-12-08T08:31:00.000-08:00

Chemical Engineering Digital Issue for Dec 2011

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Thermal Fluid Systems
Design Considerations Single-fluid heat-transfer systems require specific design
considerations for troublefree operation

Troubleshooting Heat-Transfer Fluid SystemsReal cases illustrate how to analyze problems in heattransfer systems — sometimes symptoms can

Transporting Energy Through Time
A portfolio of new energy-storage technologies is poised to tackle applications on the next-generation power grid

Simulation Spreads its Wings
Simulation software is not just for designing plant layouts anymore. Enhancements and integration capabilities
allow it to help out in any number of ways around the facility

The Fractionation Column Lessons Learned in R&D
R&D projects should be undertaken thoughtfully, with involvement from marketing staff and with
cognizance of profit motive

Facts at Your Fingertips - Using Rupture Disks with Pressure Relief Valves
This one-page reference guide outlines considerations for using rupture disks in conjunction with pressure safety relief valves

Turnarounds : Shorter, Safer, Simpler
Wireless networks are easily justified in a turnaround budget, and keep paying off after startup

Solubility of Water in Benzenes as a Function of Temperature
Accurately determining the solubility of water in hydrocarbons is important for several reasons, including
product quality. A new correlation is compared to experimental data

Preventing Tank Corrosion
Why a tank’s coatingapplication process makes all the difference

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Design of Compact Plate Fin Heat Exchanger

2011-12-07T05:09:00.000-08:00

Plate fin heat exchangers (PFHE) is compact, low weight and high effectiveness are widely used in cryogenic applications. Normally PFHE is made of a stack of corrugated fins alternating with nearly equal number of flat separators known as parting sheets, bonded together to form a monolithic block. Feed and exit headers are welded to provide the necessary interface with the inlet and the exit streams. While aluminum is the most commonly used material, stainless steel construction is employed in high pressure and high temperature applications.

This following thesis "Design of Compact Plate Fin Heat Exchanger" by JAINENDER DEWATWAL is rather interesting for those who would like to have brief idea about PFHE and methodology for PFHE calculation. Several correlations such as MANGAHANIC, WIETING, JOSHI &WEB, DEEPAK & MAITY have been used in the calculation. For those who are new in PFHE design, this may be good source to start...

How much can be done in Six days ?

2010-11-13T00:17:00.000-08:00

What you can do with Six days ? Many things... Have you ever thought of a 15-story building erected within Six days ?

It took six days to build a level 9 Earthquake-resistant, sound-proofed, thermal-insulated 15-story hotel in Changsha, complete with everything, from the cabling to three-pane windows. This of course excludes the prefabrication of components and modules, earthing and foundation preparation. But believe it is sufficiently impress many peoples. This is the Ark Hotel in Changsha, HuNan county, China. May check Changsha using Google map.

Following video clip (Youtube) shows how a building is erected within 6 days.

This believe is another record... Nevertheless many out there still questioning on safety of this building. What do you think ?

The way Chinese do things, in particular this case, possibly may trigger another revolution in business...

Related Post

CE Oct 2010

2010-10-09T00:42:00.001-07:00

Chemical Engineering Digital Issue for Oct 2010...

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Rare-earth metals for the future
Issues revolving around economics, workforce and technological innovation will be crucial as rare-earth metal production diversifies and demand for these critical technology metals grows

FAYF - MSMPR crystallization
This one-page reference guide describes examples of mixed-suspension, mixed-product removal crystallizers

Industrial Insulation Systems : Material Selection Factors
To provide the desired functions while beingexposed to harsh environments, insulation material should be carefully selected and specified to meet the design goals

Improving control valve performance
Control valves have a major impact on control-loop performance, so improvements in valve performance can have significant economic benefits. This article shows how poor control-valve performance can be identified and corrected to achieve these benefits

Crossover applications for the ASME-Bioprocessing Equipment Standard
The ASME-BPE Standard was created for the pharmaceutical industry, but can be very useful in the biofuel and chemical industries as well

Lessons in feedstock changes
Switching to renewable feedstocks can offer financial and environmental benefits, but can also compound challenges associated with processing solids

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TIPS
If you are subscriber, you may access previous digital releases. Learn more in "How to Access Previous Chemical Engineering Digital Issue".

If you yet to be subscriber of Chemical Engineering, requested your FREE subscription via this link (click HERE). Prior to fill-up the form, read "Tips on Succession in FREE Subscription".

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HP Oct 2010

2010-10-08T22:14:00.001-07:00

FREE Hydrocarbon Processing for OCT 2010 is available now...

Click here to view the complete October issue

Articles from the October Issue in HP main focus on Advance control.

How to have a successful data reconciliation software implementation
Follow these guidelines to ensure success

Improve exploration, production and refining with 'add-at-will' wireless automation
After the technology was validated, a wireless infrastructure was installed blanketing 80% of a US refinery

Building and installing a reliable industrial Ethernet infrastructure
Here are six practical guidelines to consider

Increase your margin by 25%
Here's how to make sure that the planning LPs always match the plant

Advanced process control in the plant engineering and construction phases
Testing MVC performance using a dynamic model offers several benefits

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Quick Way To Find Altitude of a Plant

2010-10-08T09:59:00.000-07:00

Atmospheric pressure change with altitude and this will have impacts to facilities design. Do not Under-estimate The Impact of Altitude Change. Sometime you may want to find altitude of specific location in particular you are conducting feasibility study and identifying plant location. This post will provide a quick way to find altitude of a plant using Google Map.

Simple Steps
Following are some steps to find altitude of a specific location using Google Map :
Step 1 : Execute a "Find_Altitude.htm" by clicking here.
Step 2 : You may choose to Open the file using Internet Explorer or Save the file and execute later.
Step 3 : Google Map will shows map of Singapore island. You may zoom out the map by clicking "-" (in pull bar), left hand side of map
Step 4 : Zoom to the plant location you wish to find the altitude.
Step 5 : Double click the location. Altitude will be displaced in a box.

Example

Find altitude of "Nature Reserve" and "Sentosa Island Beach" in Singapore island.

Step 1 : Execute a "Find_Altitude.htm" by clicking here.
Step 2 : Open the file using Internet Explorer. Google Map will shows map of Singapore island.

Step 3 : Double click the "Nature Reserve". The altitude of "Nature Reserve" in Singapore is approximately 60.64 m. See below image.

Step 4 : Double click the "Sentosa Island Beach". The altitude of "Sentosa Island Beach" in Singapore is approximately 0.0 m. See below image.

Shall take note that this is just for reference only.
Do you have better idea ?

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Do not Under-estimate The Impact of Altitude Change

2010-10-06T06:34:00.000-07:00

Many LNG plants are built at the seaside to ease transportation, product loading and unloading. The atmospheric pressure with plant near seaside is 101325 Pa and all facilities are designed to the atmospheric pressure of 101325 Pa. However, if this plant is built in inland at high altitude, atmospheric pressure can seriously affect the design and operation of a LNG plant. Prior to discuss how the design and operation is impacted, lets step back to look at definition of pressure.

Operating pressure is commonly written as gauge pressure e.g. kPag, barg, etc in engineering whilst absolute pressure e.g kPaa, bara, etc. Absolute pressure equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.

Example :
5 bar abs = 5 barg + 1.01325 bar = 6.01325 bara

The standard atmosphere pressure is pressure defined as being equal to 101,325 Pa or 101.325 kPa and normally refer to mean sea level (h=0 m). Atmospheric pressure is decreased with altitude (elevation from mean sea level or earth surface) with following relation.

where
P_b = Static pressure (Pa)
T_b = Standard temperature (K)
L_b = Standard temperature lapse rate -0.0065 (K/m) in ISA
h = Height above sea level (meters)
h_b = Height at bottom of layer b (meters; e.g., h1 = 11,000 meters)
R = Universal gas constant for air: 8.31432 N.m /(mol.K)
g₀ = Gravitational acceleration (9.80665 m/s2)
M = Molar mass of Earth's air (0.0289644 kg/mol)

Altitude = 0 – 11000m, T_b = 288.15 K, L_b = -0.0065 K/m, P_b = 101325 Pa
Altitude = 11000 – 20000m, T_b = 216.65 K, L_b = -1 x 10E-30 K/m, P_b = 22632.1 Pa
Altitude = 20000 – 32000m, T_b = 216.65 K, L_b = 0.001 K/m, P_b = 5474.89 Pa

By inclusion of specific parameters, for altitude = 0 – 11000m, atmospheric pressure is

Example
At altitude of 500m above mean sea level, atmospheric pressure is approximately 95460.84 Pa.
At altitude of 1000m above mean sea level, atmospheric pressure is approximately 89874.57 Pa.

How altitude impacting LNG production rate ?
Let compare LNG production rate change with a plant built at seaside (h = 0) and another LNG plant built at a site with altitude of 1000m. For both plant, LNG store at same gauge pressure (e.g. 50 mbarg), same LNG rundown temperature (e.g. -163 degC), same LNG tank dimension with same in-leak heat (normally higher altitude is with lower ambient temperature, lower in-leak heat is expected. However, the impact is negligible).

LNG from Main Cryogenic Heat Exchanger (MCHE) outlet is set at 50 barg and negative 164.8 degC. A JT valve is letting down pressure to LNG storage tank operating pressure of 50 mbarg. MCHE outlet mass flow set at 50000 kg/h. LNG is pure Methane (C1). Assumed same in-leak heat of 300 kW.

Case : Seaside
Altitude, h = 0m
Atmospheric pressure = 101.325 kPa abs
LNG operating pressure = 50 mbarg = 5 + 101.325 kPa abs = 106.325 kPa abs
From simulation (see below image), BOG flow = 1374 kg/h,
LNG production rate = 48626 kg/h

Case : Inland
Altitude, h = 1000m
Atmospheric pressure = 101325 (1 - 2.25577E-05 x 1000)^5.25588 = 89.8746 kPa abs
LNG operating pressure = 50 mbarg = 5 + 89.8746 kPa abs = 94.8746 kPa abs
From simulation (see below image), BOG flow = 1863 kg/h,
LNG production rate = 48137 kg/h

Same facilities and operating condition, the LNG production in Inland (at 1000m) reduced by 1%.

How altitude impacting Air Compressor / Blower power requirement ?

Air compressor at seaside is sucking air at atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kPa abs. If this air compressor is located at altitude of 1000m, air compressor is sucking air at atmospheric pressure of 89.8746 kPa abs. With same discharge pressure, higher head is expected at high altitude and higher power is required. Normally the head is rather large for air compressor, therefore the additional power may not be so significant. However, it could be significant for an air blower sent air to process with fix pressure. One shall remember, it may have no significant impact to an air blower sucking air from atmosphere and discharging air to atmosphere again.

Concluding Remark
Atmospheric pressure change with altitude and this will have impacts to facilities design. Do not under-estimate this impact.

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Quick Way to Estimate Insulation for Cold Services

2010-09-29T08:15:00.000-07:00

Earlier post "How Boil-Off-Gas (BOG) is Generated" and "Quick Way to Estimate BOG" discussed several ways result Boil-Off-Gas (BOG) generation and simple way to estimate BOG. Heat leak into piping wrapped with Cold insulation is one of the way possibly result significant BOG generation, in particular in large base load plant where product is loaded into ship. Long rundown and loading line from production plant and from storage tank to ship can generate significant BOG. Proper selection and determination of insulation thickness can minimize BOG generation economically.

Key Rule

Rule of thumb for economic heat flux for heat in-leaks range from 25 to 35 W/m². This is the key rule to derive an economic insulation for cold service whilst minimizing BOG generation.

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Insulation Material & Thermal Conductivity

Common insulation material used in cold services (sometime called cryogenic service in extremely low temperature case e.g. LNG with operating temperature of approximately -162 degC) are typically Polyurethane and Polyisocyanurate Foam (PIR). These insulation material have very low conductivity minimizing heat from ambient entering cold fluid. Typical thermal conductivity for these material is approximately 0.023 W/mK @ 20 degC.

Insulated Piping In-Leak Heat

Estimation of piping in-leak heat from ambient starts with estimation of heat transfer coefficient using Nusselt number which is a function of Prandtle and Reynolds number.

Overall heat transfer cooefficient estimate from Nusselt number :

where Prandtle number

and Reynolds number

Piping in-leak heat can be estimated with following equation

with heat flux

Case study

Piping nominal size = 6"
Piping external diameter = 152.4 mm
Piping length = 100 m
Insulation material = Polyisocyanurate
Insulation thermal conductivity = 0.023 W/mK
Assumed Insulation thickness = 60 mm
Piping external diameter (including insulation) = 152.4 + 2x60 = 272.4mm

Air :
Air Velocity = 5 m/s
Air Thermal Conductivity = 0.029 W/mK
Air specific heat = 1009 J/kgK
Air density = 1.038 kg/m3
Air viscosity = 0.02 cP

Calculation :
Air Prandtle Number = 0.6959

Air Reynolds Number =70687.8
Overall Heat transfer Coefficienct = 18.096 W/m2K
Piping In-leak heat = 2125.72 W
Piping surface area = 85.58 m2
Average heat flux = 24.8 W/mK < 25 W/mK...OK

Similar calculation applied to 1" to 28"
1" - 50mm insulation thickness
2" - 50mm insulation thickness
3" - 60mm insulation thickness
4" - 60mm insulation thickness
6" - 60mm insulation thickness
8" - 70mm insulation thickness
10" - 70mm insulation thickness
12" - 70mm insulation thickness
16" - 70mm insulation thickness
20" - 70mm insulation thickness
24" - 70mm insulation thickness
28" - 70mm insulation thickness

Related Topics

Quick Way to Estimate BOG

2010-08-29T07:01:00.000-07:00

Earlier post "How Boil-Off-Gas (BOG) is Generated" has discussed several ways can result Boil-Off-Gas generation. They are listed below :

vaporized vapor due to barometric pressure decrease
vaporized vapor due to ambient temperature increase
cryogenic fluid rundown piping
cryogenic fluid circulation / loading line
ship / truck loading arm
cryogenic fluid storage tank
cryogenic fluid rundown pump
cryogenic fluid in-tank pump
flashed non-condensable gasses
negative Joule-Thompson effect
"hot" rundown cryogenic liquid into "cold" cryogenic liquid
cooling of loading arm
cooling of ship / truck

This post will discuss quick way to estimate BOG flow.

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Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 101.325 kPa abs. Atmospheric pressure is reduced with increase in altitude. For example, at elevation of 1,000 meter, the atmospheric pressure can be as low as 89.81 kPa abs. Cryogenic storage may be designed to operate between 50-70 mbar gauge. If the cryogenic storage tank is at beach (sea level), the operating pressure in the tank is approximately 106.325 - 108.325 kPa abs. If this cryogenic storage is at 1,000 meter, the operating pressure in the tank is approximately 94.81 - 96.81 kPa abs. Lower operating pressure in tank can results higher vaporization and more BOG is generated. Therefore, it is always a good practice to use absolute pressure whenever dealing with cryogenic storage tank. Correct pressure modeling in process simulator is extremely important in finding quantity of BOG generated.

Heat leaks into cryogenic fluid can be via rundown / circulation piping, loading arm & storage tank. Proper selection, installation and maintenance of insulation is one of the key factor in minimizing heat leaks into cryogenic system, hence BOG generation. Besides insulation, other external factors such as wind speed, solar radiation, ambient temperature, sand conductivity and etc, affect heat leak. However, these factors are hard to be managed. Heat leaks into system can be calculated by considering heat conduction, convection and radiation. However, this type calculation involve a lot of uncertainties, assumption and rather complicated. Based on past experiences, an approximate method using vaporization coefficient in determining BOG generation due to heat leaks via storage tank, may be considered during conceptual phase.

Vaporization coefficient (k) may range from 0.04% to 0.06% for LNG whilst 0.06% to 0.1% for Propane, Butane and LPG. One may take note that above are typical for large storage tank e.g. 160,000m3. Higher k factor should be used for smaller storage. For example, 60,000m3, k of 0.08 - 0.1% may be considered.

Above equation is applicable to storage tank which is low surface area-to-volume ratio. However, piping with very low volume and high surface area may experience higher heat input comparatively. Following equation may be used to estimate BOG generated due to piping.

Average heat flux subject to piping diameter. In general, k_p of 25 -35 W/m² may be considered.

Energy is transferred to pump to move quantity of liquid. Part of the energy will loss due to deficiency. and results BOG generation. Following equation may be considered to estimate BOG generated due to pump deficiency.

Pump efficiency can be range from 55% - 75% for common centrifugal pump.

Cryogenic liquid produced from main plant and transfer to cryogenic liquid storage tank. Inflow liquid will displaced vapor and add-on to BOG generation. Following equation may be used.

Other factors result generation of flashed vapor or BOG generation such as present of non-condensable gasses, negative Joule-Thompson effect and "hot" rundown cryogenic liquid into "cold" cryogenic liquid, will possibly be modeled in process simulator.

Cooling of loading arm and tank in ship / truck may generate substantial amount of vapor initially and reduce as loading arm and tank is cooled. This BOG generation may required dynamic simulation which will not be presented in this post.

Related Topics

How Boil-Off-Gas (BOG) is Generated

2010-08-23T08:16:00.001-07:00

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Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) contains mainly Propane (C3) and Butane (i-C4 & n-C4), Liquid Ethylene (C2=) and Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) contains mainly Methane will evaporate at ambient condition e.g. 20 degC @ 101.325 kPag.

LPG, Liquid Ethylene and LNG can be stored in refrigerated vessel at its bubble point and atmospheric pressure. Their bubble point can be as low as -40, -104 and -162 degC are commonly known as cryogenic temperature and fluid as cryogenic fluid.

Heat leaks into the cryogenic fluid will results vaporization and lead to Boil-Off-Gas (BOG) generation. Other than heat leak, there are other scenarios can lead to BOG generation :

vaporized vapor due to barometric pressure decrease
vaporized vapor due to ambient temperature increase
cryogenic fluid rundown piping
cryogenic fluid circulation / loading line
ship / truck loading arm
cryogenic fluid storage tank
cryogenic fluid rundown pump
cryogenic fluid in-tank pump
flashed non-condensable gasses
negative Joule-Thompson effect
"hot" rundown LNG into "cold" LNG
cooling of loading arm
cooling of ship / truck

Vaporized vapor due to barometric pressure decrease & ambient temperature increase

Environment pressure and temperature change affects BOG generation. Maximum BOG generation during summer, noon and high elevation (with low barometric pressure). On the other hand, minimum BOG generation during winter, mid-night and near sea side (high barometric pressure).

Heat leaks into Cryogenic fluid rundown piping, circulation / loading line, ship / truck loading arm & storage tank

Ambient heat leaks cryogenic fluid will be limited by insulation layer. Heat leaks into subjects to insulation thickness, thermal conductivity, installation quality, etc. Higher insulation thickness, lower thermal conductivity, high installation quality and etc maintain good heat insulation and reduce BOG generation.

Heat generated by rundown pump & in-tank pumpand leaks into Cryogenic fluid

Pumps is required for transferring cryogenic liquid from production plant to storage tank and from storage tank to ship/truck. Pump will absorb power to move cryogenic fluid and any deficiency will generate heat and it will transfer into cryogenic fluid. Pump heat leaks subject to pump capacity, develop head and efficiency. Larger pump, higher head and lower efficiency lead to excess heat generation and leaks into cryogenic fluid.

Flashing of non-condensable gasses

Present of inert / non-condensable gasses such as nitrogen, carbon monoxide in cryogenic fluid may flash in the storage tank.

Negative Joule-Thompson effect

Another phenomenon is negative Joule Thompson (negative JT) where pressure decrease in rundown line lead to higher temperature. Typical gas is Hydrogen.

"Hot" rundown into "cold" cryogenic fluid
Hot cryogenic fluid from one train with hotter temperature which carries heat and rundown into cryogenic tank with colder temperature can results vaporization.

Cooling of loading arm & tank in ship / truck

Loading arm is heated to ambient temperature when it is unrest for long time. Cryogenic tank in ship / truck is heated by ambient when it is returned with empty tank. All loading arm and tank in ship/truck will needs cooling prior to storage. Large amount of BOG is generated during cooling time.

Coming topic will discuss quick way to estimate BOG rate.

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Brazed Aluminium Heat Exchanger (BAHX) Standard

2010-08-23T08:16:00.000-07:00

A brazed aluminium plate-fin heat exchanger consists of a block (core) of alternating layers (passages) of corrugated fins. The layers are separated from each other by parting sheets and sealed along the edges by means of side bars, and are provided with inlet and outlet ports for the streams. The block is bounded by cap sheets at the top and bottom. An illustration of a multi-stream plate-fin heat exchanger is shown below image.

The Standards of the Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger Manufacturers' Association (ALPEMA) is the result of the work by a technical committee of all the Members to meet the objective of the Association to promote the quality and safe use of this type of heat exchanger. The Standards contain all relevant information for the specification, procurement, and use of Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers. The First Edition was published in 1994, has proved extremely successful and popular. Changes in the industry, experience with using the Standards and feedback from users has resulted released of Second Edition. Now the 3rd edition of Standards of the Brazed Aluminium Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger Manufacturers' Association (ALPEMA) is available at IHI.

Also visit ALPEMA.

For second edition, you may still download here.

CE Aug 2010

2010-08-23T08:15:00.000-07:00

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Some of you may not received your FREE Chemical Engineering Digital magazine for past two months. If you still complete the subscription form in recent update, you may still possible to access latest issue of Chemical Engineering of that particular month. The changes would lead to more visit to Chemical Engineering website and potentially increase sales to CE. However, it could be less favorable to most of you. But you may still obtain FREE Chemical Engineering continuously. The only differences is you need to login to Chemical Engineering website.

Free article from Chemical Engineering for August 2010.

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Synthetic natural gas

Technology developed 40 years ago to convert coal into substitute natural gas is making a comeback - processes to make Bio-SNG are approaching

FAYF - Heat Transfer Fluid - Filtration

Indirect heating of processes by organic thermal-liquid fluids offers highly reliable operation, and the heat transfer systems are generally treated as low-maintenance utilities. Occasionally, the heat transfer fluid can become contaminated, resulting in the formation of sludge particles, or other sources of dirt can in-filtrate the system. This contamination can cause operational problems. The solid particulates can cause shaft-seal leakage in the circulation pump, valve stem wear, plugging of flow passages and sometimes fouling of heat exchange surfaces. After contamination, the fluid can sometimes be cleaned by in-system, side-stream filtration. For seriously fouled systems requiring more extensive cleaning, the heat transfer fluid can sometimes be cold filtered outside of the system. Side stream filtration may also enhance the performance of pump suction strainers on startup of a system.

Oh What a Relief it is!
Improvements in pressure relief devices provide advanced process protection

Foolproofing Regulatory Document Generation
Software helps ensure that you always have the right data in the right format

pH Measurement And Control
When measured correctly, pH can be an invaluable tool for both product and process control

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2010-08-23T08:14:00.000-07:00

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HP Aug 2010

2010-08-23T08:13:00.000-07:00

FREE Hydrocarbon Processing for AUGUST 2010 is available now...

Select Articles from the August 2010 Issue

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Prevent electric erosion in variable-frequency drive bearings
Here are the reasons and remedial actions

Valve design reduces costs and increases safety for US refineries
The goals were achieved by using alloys with superior corrosion resistance

Pump aftermarket offers solutions for abrasive services
Upgrades substantially increased MTBR

How the inertia number points to compressor system design challenges
It facilitates predicting compressor system performance

Gas refineries can benefit from installing a flare gas recovery system
Take a look at these environmental and economic paybacks

Estimating tank calibration uncertaintyUse these calculations for a specific tank calibration

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Design guideline for subsea oil systems

2010-08-12T09:24:00.000-07:00

Design and operating guidelines for subsea oil systems have been developed to ensure the control of hydrates, wax, and other solids, which may impede flow. System designs are primarily driven by the need to avoid the formation of a hydrate plug in any portion of the system. Remediation of hydrate plugs may require system shut-in for weeks or even months. Design and operation guidelines for wax management are also well developed. Asphaltenes present a new challenge to subsea system design and operation. A number of projects now under development (Europa, Macaroni) are likely to experience some asphaltene deposition in flowlines and wellbores. Strategies have been developed to manage asphaltenes, but have not yet been tested in the field. The design and operating guidelines for control of solids in subsea oil systems are a product of the flow assurance process.

by S. E. LORIMER & B. T. ELLISON, Shell Deepwater Development Inc.

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