chethu aradhya

2011-11-20T01:51:00.000-08:00

Etymology

The name India is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, the people of the Indus. The Constitution of India and usage in many Indian languages also recognizes Bharat as an official name of equal status. The name Bharat is derived from the name of the legendary king Bharata in Hindu scriptures. Hindustan originally a Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” and referring to northern India and Pakistan before 1947, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India.

History

The earliest anatomically modern human remains found in South Asia are from approximately 30,000 years ago. Near contemporaneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent, including at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh. Around 7000 BCE, the first known neolithic settlements appeared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in western Pakistan. These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, the first urban culture in South Asia, which flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India. Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.

Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, sixth century.

During the period 2000–500 BCE, many regions of the subcontinent evolved from copper age to iron age cultures. The Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed during this period, and historians have analyzed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Ganges Plain. Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the northwest. The caste system, which spawned a social hierarchy, appeared during this period. In the Deccan, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation. In South India, the large number of megalithic monuments found from this period, and nearby evidence of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions suggest progression to sedentary life.

By the fifth century BCE, the small chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the northwest regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies called Mahajanapadas. The emerging urbanisation as well as the orthodoxies of the late Vedic age created the religious reform movements of Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhism, based on the teachings of India's first historical figure, Gautam Buddha, attracted followers from all social classes; Jainism came into prominence around the same time during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira. In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal, and both established long-lasting monasteries. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire. The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas. The Maurya kings are known as much for their empire building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka the Great, who renounced militarism and widely advocated the Buddhist dhamma.[ The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that during the period from 200 BCE to 200 CE, the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with west and south-east Asia. In north Indian families, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control. By the fourth and fifth centuries CE, the Gupta Empire had created a complex administrative and taxation system in the greater Ganges Plain that became a model for later Indian kingdoms. Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion rather than the management of ritual began to assert itself; this was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite. Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.

Medieval India

The granite tower of Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by Raja Raja Chola.

The Indian early medieval age (600 CE to 1200 CE) is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity. When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Ganges plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan. When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[40] When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south. No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond his core region. During this time, pastoral peoples whose land was usurped by cultivators were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes. The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.

In the sixth and seventh centuries CE, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language. These were imitated all over India and led both to the resurgence of Hinduism and to the development of all the modern languages of the subcontinent. Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised, drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well. Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation. By the eight and ninth centuries, the effects were evident in South Indian culture and elsewhere, as political systems were exported to Southeast Asia, in particular to lands now composing Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Java. Indian merchants, scholars, and at times armies were involved in this transmission; south-east Asians sojourned in Indian seminaries and translated Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.

After the tenth century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, and led eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206. The Sultanate was to control much of North India, and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the Sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs. By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders in the thirteenth century, the Sultanate saved India from the destruction seen in west and central Asia, and set the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into India, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north. The Sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India, paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire. Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the Sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India and influence South Indian society and culture long afterwards.

Early modern India

Scribes and artists in the Mughal court, 1590–1595.

In the early sixteenth century, northern India, being then under mainly Muslim rulers, fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors. The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[56] leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule. Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near divine status. The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture, and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency, caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the seventeenth century was a factor in India's economic expansion, and resulted in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture. Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience. Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites in the southern and eastern coastal India. As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.

By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established outposts on coastal India. The East India Company's control of the seas, its greater resources, and its army's more advanced training and technology, led it to increasingly flex its military muscle and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; both these factors were crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765, and sidelining the other European companies. Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s. India was now no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the British empire with raw materials, and most historians consider this to be the true onset of India's colonial period. By this time also, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and effectively now an arm of British administration, the Company began to more consciously enter non-economic arenas such as education, social reform, and culture.

Modern India

The British Indian Empire, from the 1909 edition of The Imperial Gazetteer of India.

Depending upon the historian, India's modern age may have begun in 1848, when the appointment of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the Company rule in India inaugurated changes essential to the development of a modern state: the demarcation and consolidation of sovereignty; the surveillance of the population; the education of citizens; and the construction of railways, canals, and telegraph lines, which were introduced not long after they had taken root in Europe. The age may have begun in 1857, when British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and humiliations borne by landed and princely aristocracy led to the Indian rebellion of 1857 that challenged Company rule and ravaged many parts of northern India. It may also have begun in 1858 when, after the rebels were suppressed, the British government opted for direct administration of India and proclaimed a unitary state, which on the one hand envisaged slow transition to a British-style parliamentary system, but on the other hand favoured Indian princes and landlords as a feudal safeguard against popular unrest. Lastly, its modern era may have commenced with the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885, thus marking the start of an all-India public life.

Jawaharlal Nehru became India's first prime minister in 1947. Mahatma Gandhi led the independence movement.

The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks—many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets. There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines, and, despite the Indian taxpayers enduring the risks of infrastructure development, little industrial employment was generated for Indians. There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, increased food production for internal consumption, the railway network provided critical famine relief, notably reduced the cost of moving goods, and helped nascent Indian-owned industry. After the first world war, in which some one million Indians served, a new period began, which was marked by British reforms, but also repressive legislation, by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-cooperation, of which Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol. During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the British and the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections. However, the next decade would be beset with crises, which included, the second world war, the Congress's final push of non-cooperation, and the upsurge of Muslim nationalism—all capped by the independence of India in 1947, but tempered by the bloody partition of the subcontinent into two states.

Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a sovereign, secular, democratic republic. In the 60 years since, India has had a mixed bag of successes and failures. It has remained a democracy with civil liberties, an activist Supreme Court, and a largely independent press; economic liberalisation, which was begun in the 1990s, has created a large urban middle-class, transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world,[93] and increased its global clout; and Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings, have increasingly contributed to global culture. And yet India harbours seemingly unyielding rural and urban poverty and hosts religious, caste-related violence, Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies, and separatists in Jammu and Kashmir. It has unresolved territorial disputes with the People's Republic of China, which escalated into the Sino-Indian War of 1962; and with Pakistan, which flared into wars fought in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. The Indo-Pakistani nuclear rivalry came to a head in 1998.[98] India's democratic freedoms, which have survived for over 60 years, are unique among the world's new nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population, remains a goal yet to be realised.

Geography

Topographic map of India.

India comprises the bulk of the Indian subcontinent and lies atop the minor Indian tectonic plate, which in turn belongs to the Indo-Australian Plate. India's defining geological processes commenced seventy five million years ago when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift across the then-unformed Indian Ocean that lasted fifty million years. The subcontinent's subsequent collision with, and subduction under, the Eurasian Plate bore aloft the planet's highest mountains, the Himalayas. They abut India in the north and the north-east. In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough that has gradually filled with river-borne sediment; it now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain. To the west lies the Thar Desert, which is cut off by the Aravalli Range.

The original Indian plate survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India and extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east. To the south the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by the coastal ranges, the Western and Eastern Ghats respectively; the plateau contains the nation's oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44' and 35° 30' north latitude[c] and 68° 7' and 97° 25' east longitude.

The Kedar Range of the Greater Himalayas rises behind Kedarnath Temple, one of the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines.

India's coast is 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) long; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands. According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy coast.

Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges (Ganga) and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal. Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal; and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea. Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh. India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.

The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons. The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes. The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall. Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and mountain.

Biodiversity

The Indian peacock (Pavo cristatus) is the national bird. It roosts in moist and dry-deciduous forests, cultivated areas, and village precincts.India lies within the Indomalaya ecozone and contains three biodiversity hotspots. One of 17 megadiverse countries, it hosts 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all piscine, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species. Endemism is high among plants, 33%, and among ecoregions such as the shola forests. Habitat ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and Northeast India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India; the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain. Under 12% of India's landmass bears thick jungle. The medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies, is a key Indian tree. The luxuriant pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment.

Shola highlands in Kudremukh National Park, part of the Western Ghats.

Many Indian species descend from taxa originating in Gondwana, from which the Indian plate separated long ago. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards and collision with the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. Epochal volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago forced a mass extinction. Mammals then entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the rising Himalaya. Thus, while 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians are endemic, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are. Among them are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species. These include the Asiatic lion, the Bengal tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which, by ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-laced cattle, nearly went extinct.

The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988. India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and thirteen biosphere reserves, four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.

Politics

India is the world's most populous democracy. A parliamentary republic with a multi-party system, it has six recognised national parties, including the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 40 regional parties. The Congress is considered centre-left or "liberal" in Indian political culture, and the BJP centre-right or "conservative". For most of the period between 1950—when India first became a republic—and the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP, as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalitions at the Centre.

In the Republic of India's first three general elections, in 1951, 1957, and 1962, the Jawaharlal Nehru-led Congress won easy victories. On Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister; he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966, by Indira Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975, the Congress was voted out of power in 1977; the just-created Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency, was voted in. Its government lasted just over three years. Voted back into power in 1980, the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was assassinated; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a National Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front, won the elections; that government too proved relatively short-lived: it lasted just under two years. Elections were held again in 1991; no party won an absolute majority. But the Congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a minority government led by P.V. Narasimha Rao.

The two years after the general election of 1996 were marked by political turmoil. Several short-lived alliances shared power at the Centre. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996; it was followed by two comparatively long-lasting United Front coalitions, which depended on external support. In 1998, the BJP was able to form a successful coalition, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), which under the leadership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee, became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term. In the 2004 Indian general elections, again no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming a successful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA). It had the support of left-leaning parties and MPs opposed to the BJP. The UPA coalition was returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers, and it no longer required external support from India's Communist parties. That year, Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a second consecutive five-year term.

Government

Rashtrapati Bhavan, home of the President of India.

India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, in which "majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law". Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the federal government and the states. The government abides by constitutional checks and balances. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950, states in its preamble that India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India's form of government, traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states, has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes.

National symbols

Flag Tricolour

Emblem Sarnath Lion Capital

Anthem Jana Gana Mana

Song Vande Mataram

Calendar Saka

Game Hockey, KABADDI.

Flower Lotus

Fruit Mango

Tree Banyan

Bird Indian Peafowl (PEACOCK)

Land animal Royal Bengal Tiger

Aquatic animal River Dolphin

River Ganges

The federal government comprises three branches:

Executive: The President of India is the head of state who is elected indirectly by a national electoral college for a five-year term. The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most executive power. Appointed by the president, the prime minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of parliament. The executive branch of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the Council of Ministers—the cabinet being its executive committee—headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and his council directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.

Legislative: The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament. It operates under a Westminster-style parliamentary system and comprises the upper house called the Rajya Sabha ("Council of States") and the lower called the Lok Sabha ("House of the People"). The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body that has 245 members who serve in staggered six-year terms. Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's share of the national population. All but two of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote; they represent individual constituencies via five-year terms. The remaining two members are nominated by the president from among the Anglo-Indian community, in case the president decides that they are not adequately represented.

Judicial: India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 21 High Courts, and a large number of trial courts. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre; it has appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts. It is judicially independent and has the power both to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution. The Supreme Court is also the ultimate interpreter of the constitution.

Subdivisions

India is a federation composed of 28 states and 7 union territories. All states, as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments, both patterned on the Westminster model. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the Centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis. Since then, their structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts. The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and ultimately into villages.

States:

Andhra Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh

Assam

Bihar

Chhattisgarh

Goa

Gujarat

Haryana

Himachal Pradesh

Jammu and Kashmir

Jharkhand

Karnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Manipur

Meghalaya

Mizoram

Nagaland

Orissa

Punjab

Rajasthan

Sikkim

Tamil Nadu

Tripura

Uttar Pradesh

Uttarakhand

West Bengal

Union territories:

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Chandigarh

Dadra and Nagar Haveli

Daman and Diu

Lakshadweep

National Capital Territory of Delhi

Puducherry

A clickable map of India exhibiting its 28 states and 7 union territories.

Foreign relations and military

Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relations with most nations. In the 1950s, it strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia and played a lead role in the Non-Aligned Movement. In the late 1980s the Indian military twice intervened abroad, briefly, at the invitation of neighbouring countries: once by the Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka; and again during the 1988 Maldives coup d'état. Yet India has tense relation with neighbouring Pakistan; they have gone to war four times: in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. The Kashmir dispute triggered all such conflicts except the one in 1971, which followed civil unrest in erstwhile East Pakistan. After waging the 1962 Sino-Indian War and the 1965 war with Pakistan, India pursued close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier.

Aside from ongoing strategic relations with Russia, India has wide-ranging defence relations with Israel and France. In recent years, it has played key roles in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organization. The nation has provided 100,000 military and police personnel to serve in thirty-five UN peacekeeping operations across four continents. It is an active participant in various multilateral forums, most notably the East Asia Summit and the G8+5.[163] In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with the developing nations of South America, Asia, and Africa. For about a decade now, India has also pursued a "Look East" policy which has helped it strengthen its partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan and South Korea on a wide range of issues but especially economic investment and regional security.

China's nuclear test of 1964 as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war convinced India to develop nuclear weapons of its own. India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out further underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory. India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "minimum credible deterrence" doctrine. It is also developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, in collaboration with Russia, a fifth generation fighter jet. Other major indigenous military development projects include Vikrant class aircraft carriers and Arihant class nuclear submarines.

The HAL Tejas is a light supersonic fighter developed by the Aeronautical Development Agency and manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics.

India has increased its economic, strategic and military cooperation with the United States and the European Union. In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India has become the world's sixth de facto nuclear weapons state. Following the NSG waiver, India was also able to sign civilian nuclear energy cooperation agreements with other nations, including Russia, France, the United Kingdom, and Canada. With 1.6 million active troops, the Indian military is the world's third largest. India's armed forces consists of an Army, Navy, Air Force, and auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command.

The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces. The official Indian defence budget for 2011 stands at US$36.03 billion, or 1.83% of GDP.[179] According to a 2008 SIPRI report, India's annual military expenditure in terms of purchasing power stood at US$72.7 billion, In 2011 the annual defence budget increased by 11.6 per cent, although this does not include money that goes to the military through other branches of government. India has become the world's largest arms importer: in the period from 2006 to 2010 it accounted for 9% of all money spent on international arms purchases. Much of the military expenditure is focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean.

Economy

Indian agriculture dates from the period 7,000–6,000 BCE, employs most of the national workforce, and is second in farm output worldwide.

According to the International Monetary Fund, as of 2011, the Indian economy is worth US$1.631 trillion; it is the ninth-largest economy by market exchange rates, and is, at US$4.057 trillion, the fourth-largest by purchasing power parity, or PPP. With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over the past two decades, and reaching 10.4% during 2010, India is one of the world's fastest-growing economies. However, the country ranks 138th in the world in nominal GDP per capita and 129th in GDP per capita at PPP. Until 1991, all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world. An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 forced the nation to liberalise its economy; since then it has slowly moved towards a free-market system by emphasizing both foreign trade and direct investment inflows. India's recent economic model is largely capitalist.

The 467-million worker Indian labour force is the world's second-largest. The service sector makes up 54% of GDP, the agricultural sector 28%, and the industrial sector 18%. Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes. Major industries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery and software. In 2006, the share of external trade in India's GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985. In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.68%; India was the world's fifteenth largest importer in 2009 and the eighteenth largest exporter. Major exports include petroleum products, textile goods, jewelry, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and leather manufactures. Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, and chemicals.Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to 42%.

The Bombay Stock Exchange is Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange by market capitalisation.

Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% during the last few years, India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the last decade. Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India's middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030. Though ranking 51st in global competitiveness, India ranks 17th in financial market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication and 39th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies. With 7 of the world's top 15 information technology outsourcing companies based in India, the country is viewed as the second most favourable outsourcing destination after the United States. India's consumer market, currently the world's thirteenth-largest, is expected to become fifth-largest by 2030. Its telecommunication industry, the world's fastest-growing, added 227 million subscribers during the period 2010–11. Its automotive industry, the world's second fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–10, and exports by 36% during 2008–09. Power capacity is 250 gigawatts, of which 8% is renewable.

Despite impressive economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face socio-economic challenges. India contains the largest concentration of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of US$1.25 per day, the proportion having decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005. Half of the children in India are underweight, and 46% of children under the age of three suffer from malnutrition. The Mid-Day Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates. Since 1991, economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: the per capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest. Corruption in India is perceived to have increased significantly, with one report estimating the illegal capital flows since independence to be US$462 billion. Driven by growth, India's nominal GDP per capita has steadily increased from US$329 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to US$1,265 in 2010, and is estimated to increase to US$2,110 by 2016; however, it has always remained lower than those of other Asian developing countries such as Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so in the near future.

According to a 2011 PwC report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity will overtake that of the United States by 2045. During the next four decades, Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annualised average of 8%, making it potentially the world's fastest growing major economy until 2050. The report highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidly growing working-age population; growth in the manufacturing sector due to rising education and engineering skill levels; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle class. The World Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.

Demographics

Population density and Indian Railways connectivity map. The already densely settled Indo-Gangetic Plain is the main driver of Indian population growth.

With 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the 2011 provisional Census, India is the world's second most populous country. Its population grew at 1.76% per annum during the last decade, down from 2.13% per annum in the previous decade (1991–2001). The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males, the lowest since independence. The median age was 24.9 in the 2001 census. Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "Green Revolution" have caused India's population to grow rapidly. India continues to face several public health-related challenges. According to the World Health Organization, 900,000 Indians die each year from drinking contaminated water or breathing polluted air. There are around 50 physicians per 100,000 Indians. The percentage of Indians living in urban areas has grown by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001. Yet, in 2001, over 70% lived in rural areas. According to the 2001 census, there are 27 million-plus cities in India, with Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, and Chennai being the largest. The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males. Kerala is the most literate state; Bihar the least.

India is home to two major language families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman language families. India has no national language. Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the government. English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a "subsidiary official language"; it is important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. Each state and union territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 21 "scheduled languages". The Indian Constitution recognises 212 scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about 7.5% of the country's population. The 2001 census reported that Hinduism, with over 800 million adherents (80.5% of the population), was the largest religion in India; they are followed by Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians, and Bahá'ís. India has the world's largest Hindu, Sikh, Jain, Zoroastrian, and Bahá'í populations, and has the third-largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim population for a non-Muslim majority country.

Culture

Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years. During the Vedic age (c. 1700–500 BCE), the foundations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as dhárma, kárma, yóga, and mokSHa, were established. India is notable for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the nation's major religions. The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the Upanishads, the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement, and by Buddhist philosophy.

The Taj Mahal (thejo mahalaya) was built in Agra.

Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of Mughal architecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with imported styles. Vernacular architecture is also highly regional in it flavours. Indian cuisine is best known for its delicate use of herbs and spices and for its tandoori grilling techniques. The tandoor, a clay oven in use for almost 5,000 years in India, is known for its ability to grill meats to an "uncommon succulence" and for the puffy flatbread known as naan. Staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east), wheat (predominantly in the north) and lentils. Many spices which have worldwide appeal are originally native to the Indian subcontinent, while chili pepper, native to the Americas and introduced by the Portuguese, is widely used in Indian cuisine.

The earliest literary writings in India, composed between 1,400 BCE and 1,200 AD, were in the Sanskrit language. Prominent works of this Sanskrit literature include epics such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, the dramas of Kalidasa such as the Abhijñanasakuntalam (The Recognition of Sakuntala), and poetry such as the Mahakavya. Developed between 600 BCE and 300 AD in Southern India, the Sangam literature consisting of 2,381 poems is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil literature. From the 14th century AD to 18th century AD, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets such as Kabir, Tulsidas, and Guru Nanak. This period was characterised by varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions. In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. Twentieth-century Indian literature was influenced by the works of Bengali poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore.

Arts

"Sakuntala Looking Back to Glimpse Dushyanta". Scene from Kalidasa's The Recognition of Sakuntala as painted by Raja Ravi Varma.

Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles. Classical music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: the northern Hindustani and southern Carnatic schools.[248] Regionalised popular forms include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms. Among the better-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of West Bengal and Jharkhand, sambalpuri of Orissa, ghoomar of Rajasthan, and the Lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Orissa, and the sattriya of Assam.[249]

Theatre in India melds music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[250] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, tamasha of Maharashtra, burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka. The Indian film industry produces the world's most-watched cinema.Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the Assamese, Bengali, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Tamil, and Telugu languages. South Indian cinema attracts more than 75% of national film revenue.

Society

Traditional Indian society is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy. The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found in the Indian subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jatis, or "castes". Most Dalits ("Untouchables") and members of other lower-caste communities continue to live in segregation and often face persecution and discrimination. Traditional Indian family values are highly valued, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas. An overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or other family members. Marriage is thought to be for life, and the divorce rate is extremely low. Child marriage is still a common practice, more so in rural India, with more than half of women in India marrying before the legal age of 18.

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin. The best known include Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, and Vaisakhi. India has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union territories: Republic Day, Independence Day, and Gandhi Jayanti. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Traditional Indian dress varies in colour and style across regions and depends on various factors, including climate and faith. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as the sari for women and the dhoti or lungi for men. Stitched clothes, such as the shalwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama combinations or European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular. Use of delicate jewellery, modelled on real flowers worn in ancient India, is part of a tradition dating back some 5,000 years; gemstones are also worn in India as talismans.

Sport

In India, several traditional indigenous sports remain fairly popular, among them kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani, and gilli-danda. Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial arts, such as kalarippayattu, musti yuddha, silambam, and marma adi, originated in India. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are the highest forms of government recognition for athletic achievement; the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching. Chess, commonly held to have originated in India as chatura?ga, is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian Grandmasters. Pachisi, from which parcheesi derives, was played on a giant marble court by Akbar. Tennis has become increasingly popular; this stems from the victorious India Davis Cup team and the recent successes of Indian tennis players. India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports, and has won several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting Championships, and the Commonwealth Games. Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include badminton, boxing, and wrestling. Football is popular in the northeastern states and West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.

India's official national sport is field hockey; it is administered by Hockey India. The Indian national hockey team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup and have, as of 2011, taken eight gold, one silver, and two bronze Olympic medals, making it the sport's most successful team. Cricket is by far the most popular sport; the Indian national cricket team won the 1983 and 2011 World Cups, the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India, or BCCI; the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy, and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy are domestic competitions. The BCCI conducts a Twenty20 competition known as the Indian Premier League. India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events: the 1951 and 1982 Asian Games; the 1987, 1996, and 2011 Cricket World Cups; the 2003 Afro-Asian Games; the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy; the 2010 Hockey World Cup; and the 2010 Commonwealth Games. Major international sporting events held annually in India include the Chennai Open, Mumbai Marathon, Delhi Half Marathon, and the Indian Masters. The first Indian Grand Prix featured in late 2011.

(^ "[...] Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it." (Constituent Assembly of India 1950).

^ "The country’s exact size is subject to debate because some borders are disputed. The Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 km2 (1,269,220 sq mi) and the total land area as 3,060,500 km2 (1,181,700 sq mi); the United Nations lists the total area as 3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219 sq mi) and total land area as 2,973,190 km2 (1,147,960 sq mi)." (Library of Congress 2004).

^ The northernmost point under Indian control is the disputed Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, including the Northern Areas currently administered by Pakistan, to be its territory. It therefore assigns the longitude 37° 6' to its northernmost point.)

Let me discuss how India must be

Now we know that India is a developing country, but still we met with beggars, mud roads, suicides due to hunger etc....

On other face an IT cities, luxurious villas, comfortable coaches of cars and so on...

What’s the reason for these...

The main reason for these situation is

MONEY!!

Every problem that India facing is due to our economic condition and currency...

For example

*Terrorism: Of course how an enemy can get explosives from our country without Indian money, he must have our currency,

Where can they take shelter without Indian currency, how can he survive without jour currency,

And who are giving shelter to them...

*Black money: The most important problem of Indian economy is "Black money" here, not others but our VIP's are the creators of these problems.... And even they are the reasons for poor India...

We need a developed India, it must became number-1 country in the world

we process best culture, sentiment, knowledge, sports and everything but still we are not able to reach no-1 position..

Not because we are weak, but most of talented persons are economically back ward, only their talent not enough to grow up in there field they need financial support.

May be all of us know that what’s the monthly income of an sports man, does he need such a huge prize to him. Then what about the army, what about police, what worse case of a farmer.

If a liquor merchant can hold the flight then what about the rice merchant,

The public service has been taken as self employment.

Why a new born baby had 500RS of credit. Who knows why that money used.

The solution for all these problems is changing our currency into cards,

In these card every detail of that particular person is mentioned like money and property he owned (every single rupee belongs to him is noted like gold, silver etc) his phone number, finger print, blood group (and every medical report on him), also every bit of his profit, health etc are attached. Every Indian must own a single card he can be a public, police or politician, and a visitors will be given a card according to their visiting details, so that the illegal entry and terrorism will completely removed where they could not even survive without the card they don’t even get a food and shelter, and all of all illegal activities will be avoided and black money will completely destroyed after some time....

• THEN WHAT ABOUT HIDDEN TREASURES?

Yes the main thing arrives in your mind is about the hidden currency, gold, jewels, diamond etc,.

* If that’s in form of money that cant be used,

* On every property the owner number should be given.(HAL mark can be printed on gold) and the detail will be at his/her cad,

We are going to collect the opinion of each Indian about the finance system and every body needs to know about our country.

If you wish, first you clarify all your doubts, and fill the form below. If any question please let me know and I’ll try to answer you (if I can’t I’ll consult the person who are perfect to answer you) .

(discuss with me by giving solutions on the above article)

chethan143so@gmail.com

+919880941848

Sl no.	Name	Address / contact details	Is the card system will be good (YES/NO)	Opinion / question/ reason

PUBLIC OPINION (we are not going to publish the names because all are Indians )

1 If we made the card then we are interfering in their privacy …!

Answers- 1 No for this the idea is there will be two accounts

1. The public - with all the property, DNA details etc, which can be shared.

2. Private – medical, hotel bill etc (may be after 18)

2 But in public opinion according to answer 2, we are mentioned that every month we will get bill so in that both public and private are entered so we can issue under 18 also.

3 Ha every body must / will pay income tax.

4 I don’t think this will happen in this corrupted country.

Answer-1 who made this corrupted?

Answer- politicians

Who elected them?

Public

Who are public?

of course we

then we made it corrupted….

Answer-2 if two P’s ( politicians, police ) are servants the third P(public) is the king so the decision is belongs to king not to servants.

5 yes this will work…

6 yaar do your work first…

7 I think this wont work

8 Great idea but who’ll take care..

Answer-1 you sorry we…

9 May it work

10 Ruling party’s wont leave you but opposite parties may help you try once

Answer-1 just you help us that’s enough

11 Before I heard about this but may it not work

12 If you try u can’t complete with one area think about India.

13 I’ll suggest somebody to explain about this.

14 If you think it needs software then some one will hack it.

Answer-1 if you are interested then consult a good software engineer you’ll get a idea

15 No time sorry..

16 Can you think you can do this

17 Did you know constitution and can it accept

Answer-1 if you want I’ll get you the soft copy

18 Did you passed your semester

19 Do I’ll be with you

Thank you

20 Who’s idea is this

Answer-1 an Indian

21 Can you think it will work

22 Looks like any network marketing

23 Who’s idea is this

Answer-1 a Indian

24 This country can’t accept this may, be but its good

25 Why you are interested in this

26 Can I join you

Answer-1 of course and you must

27 Hey you are thinking that your idea will became a constitution

28 When can it happen

29 Do you will succeed

30 I’ll ask my dad

31 Its good I’ll but I should know about India first

32 If somebody among us helping terrorism what we will do

Answer-1 how they can get explosives, weapons at least how can they travel without the Indian Currency

USB READER

2011-07-29T10:21:00.001-07:00

USB IO Board Component List:

1x PIC18F2455 / PIC18F2550 Programmed Microcontroller (MCU)
1x USB Type B Connector
1x 20MHz Crystal Resonator
2x 10K Resistor (brown black orange gold)
1x 470 Resistor (yellow purple brown gold)
1x 470nF Ceramic Capacitor
1x 100nF Ceramic Capacitor

Technical Specifications:

Voltage Supply: 5V (USB powered)
Current Consumption: 5mA
I/O PINs: 16

About PIC18F2455 / PIC18F2550 USB IO Board

USB Input / Output Board is a spectacular little development board / parallel port replacement featuring PIC18F2455 / PIC18F2550 microcontroller. USB IO Board is compatibile with Windows / Mac OSX / Linux computers. When attached to Windows IO board will show up as RS232 COM port. You can control 16 individual microcontroller I/O pins by sending simple serial commands. USB Input / Output Board is self-powered by USB port and can provide up to 500mA for electronic projects. USB IO Board is breadboard compatible. Simply solder included 12-PIN & 8-PIN headers on the bottom side of the PCB and the board can be plugged into a breadboard for quick prototyping.

These are examples of what can be built using USB IO Board
USB Relay Controller (turn ON/OFF lights or appliances in the house)
Control LEDs, toys, electronic gadgets, wireless control, etc.
USB LCD Controller
USB Volt / Ampere / Wattage Meter
USB CNC Controller
USB Data Logger
USB Temperature Meter / Logger
USB Thermostat Controller
USB Humidity Meter / Logger
USB Stepper Motor Controller
USB RC Servo Controller
USB Countdown Timer with Relay

USB IO Board Schematic

USB IO Board PCB Layout

R1, R2 10K resistor
C1 470nF capacitor
C2 100nF capacitor
5-PIN header on the left is an ICSP connector (In Circuit Serial Programming) for downloading future firmware releases.

USB Connector

Quick Start

1) Download USB IO Board drivers and unzip it.

2) Connect USB IO Board to a computer using standard USB cable.

3) Windows will ask you if you want to install a driver. Point it to drivers you unzipped.

Windows 2000 / XP
Under Windows 2000 or XP you will be prompted twice to install two drivers. On the first prompt please browse and point to MCHPUSB driver folder. On the second prompt please browse and point to USB CDC driver folder.

Windows 7 / VISTA
Under Windows 7 or VISTA you might be only prompted once to install USB CDC driver if MCHPUSB driver is already installed.

4) After the drivers are installed go to the Device Manager (right click on My Computer and click Properties->Hardware->Device Manager), and look under the Ports (COM & LPT) section, and you should see a new serial port there. Note the COM port number.

5) Open up your favorite serial emulator; the really awful HyperTerminal that comes with Windows, or my personal favorite USB IO Board Controller which can be downloaded here.

6) After launching USB IO Board Controller select the COM port from the drop-down list to connect to the board, type “V” in the input box and hit Enter or click on “Send” button. You should get back a firmware version number from PIC18F2455 / PIC18F2550 chip. This proves that USB IO Board is working properly. Now you are ready to learn about the commands that can be used to control USB IO Board.

USB IO Board Controller

USB IO Board can be controlled with just about any serial port emulation program such as Hyper Terminal that comes with every Windows OS. The problem with Hyper Terminal is that you can't see the commands as you type them and that could be very annoying. With Hyper Terminal you also have to go through the wizard for setting up a serial port connection, and if the COM port changes you pretty much have to do it over and over again.

Luckily we have relesed our own little application called USB IO Board Controller that is so much easier and fun to use than Hyper Terminal. It only takes 25KB of space so it's very lightweight. USB IO Board Controller will also show you COM port of USB IO Board so that will save you the trip (and time) to Device Manager to find out USB IO Board COM port number.

To use USB IO Board Controller select the COM port from the drop down list, type the command and hit "Enter" key (or click on Send button). Each command returns "OK" message to acknowlege that the command was received and processed successfully.

Download USB IO Board Controller (Win 2K, XP, VISTA, Win7)

Note: If you try to execute USB IO Board Controller and it doesn't work you will need to download and install
.NET Framework from Microsoft's web site.

Testing USB IO Board

Lets run some sample commands to see how easy it is to turn LED ON/OFF.
Connect LED to microcontroller; longer leg to PIN28 (RB7), shorter leg to ground (GND) via 470 Ohm resistor. Now, to turn LED ON and OFF type these commands using USB IO Board Controller. Remember to hit "Enter" key after each command is entered.
Configure Port A, B and C as outputs:
C,0,0,0,0

Turn LED ON (+5V):
PO,B,7,1

Turn LED OFF (0V):
PO,B,7,0

Commands

Notes for ALL commands:

You end a command by sending a <CR> or <LF> or some combination of the two. This is how all commands must be terminated to be considered valid.
The total number of bytes of each command, counting from the very first byte of the command name up to and including the <CR> at the end of the command must be 64 bytes or less. If it is longer than 64 bytes, the command will be ignored, and other bad things may or may not happen. This limitation will hopefully be removed in future FW D versions.
You can string together as many commands as you want into one string, and then send that string all at once to the USB IO Board. As long as each individual command is not more than 64 bytes, this will work well. By putting many commands together (each with their own terminating <CR>) and sending it all to the USB IO Board at once, you make the most efficient use of the USB bandwidth.
After successful reception of a command, the USB IO Board will always send back an OK packet, which will consist of "OK<CR><LF>". For just testing things out with a terminal emulator, this is very useful because it tells you that the USB IO Board understood your command. However, it does add extra communications overhead that may not be appreciated in a higher speed application. Starting with this version (1.4.0) you can use the CU command to turn off the sending of "OK" packets. Errors will still be sent, but not any "OK" packets.
Currently, the backspace key does not work. For example, if you are typing a command to the USB IO Board from a terminal emulator and you make a mistake and try to backspace to correct your mistake, the USB IO Board will not recognize the backspace and will generate an error. This will hopefully be correct in a future FW D version.
All command names ("C", "BC", etc.) are case insensitive.
All port names ("A", "B", "C") are case insensitive

"C" Command:

The "C" command stands for 'Configure' and allows you to set the state of the port direction registers for ports A, B and C, as well as enable analog inputs. This allows you to turn each pin into an input or an output on a pin by pin basis, or enable one or more of the pins to be analog inputs.
Format: "C,<DirA>,<DirB>,<DirC>,<AnalogEnableCount><CR>" where <DirX> is a value between 0 and 255 that indicates the direction bits for that port. A 1 is an input, a 0 is an output.

<AnalogEnableCount> If this value is sent as a zero, then all analog inputs are turned off and all of the pins behave as just digital inputs or outputs.
If <AnalogEnableCount> is sent as a value from 1 to 12, then one or more of the analog inputs (see below) are enabled and will start sampling every millisecond. Any value over 12 is an error. Use the "A" command to retrieve the values of the enabled analog inputs.

Example: "C,4,245,52,0"
Warning on Analog Inputs: It is very important that if you enable an analog input on a pin, that you set that pin as an input (set the proper <DirX> bit). If you have a pin set as an output in the <DirX> bit but have it enabled as an analog input, your analog reading will simply convert the current digital output voltage on the pin (which may be what you want, but probably not). Also, if you have a pin set as a digital output with the <DirX> bit, but DON'T enable it as an analog input and then apply analog input levels to the pin, that pin may draw excessive power because it may float around between a High (5V) and Low (0V). PICs are very robust, but be careful.
Analog Input Matrix:

If one or more of the analog inputs are enabled, then use this chart to see which number for <AnanlogEnableCount> enables which pins as analog inputs. The PIC core that all of the USB PICs are built on has 13 analog input channels. However, on the 28 pin parts (which are currently used in USB IO Board designs) three of those analog inputs (AN5,AN6 and AN7) do not come out as pins. They still exist, and as far as Firmware D v1.2 is concerned, are treated exactly as all of the other analog input pins, so the show up in the "A" packet. Also, AN12 (the 13th analog input) is not available for Firmware D v1.2 use because enabling all 13 would create a USB packet greater than 64 bytes, which is not allowed.

<AnalogEnableCount>
value

AN11
RB4

AN10
RB1

AN9
RB3

AN8
RB2

AN7
N.A.

AN6
N.A.

AN5
N.A.

AN4
RA5

AN3
RA3

AN2
RA2

AN1
RA1

AN0
RA0

Return Packet: "OK"

"O" Command:

The "O" command stands for 'Output state' and will take the values you give it and write them to the port A, B and C data registers. This allows you to set the state of all pins that are outputs.
Format: "O,<PortA>,<PortB>,<PortC><CR>" where <PortX> is a value between 0 and 255 that indicates the value of the port pins for that register.
Example: "O,0,255,22"
Return Packet: "OK"

"I" Command

The "I" Command stands for 'Input state' and when you send the USB IO Board an "I" command, it will respond with an "I" packet back that will hold the value of each bit in each of the three ports A, B and C. It reads the state of the pin, no matter if the pin is an input or an output. If the pin is configured as an analog input, the bit will always read low (0) in the "I" packet.
Format: "I<CR>"
Example: "I"
Return Packet: "I,<StatusA>,<StatusB>,<StatusC><CR>" where <StatusX> is a number from 0 to 255 that indicates the current value of the pins on that port. Note that <StatusX> will always be 3 characters long, which means that leading zeros will be added so that the return packet is always the same length regardless of the data values.
Example Return Packet: "I,001,045,205"

"V" Command

The "V" Command stands for 'Version' and when you send the USB IO Board an "V" command, it will respond with a text string that looks something like this: "USB IO Board FW D Version 1.4.0"
Format: "V"
Return Packet: "USB IO Board FW D Version 1.4.0"

"R" Command

The "R" Command stands for 'Reset to default state' and when you send the USB IO Board an "R" command it will initialize all pins to digital inputs and stop any running timers.
Format: "R"
Return Packet: "OK"

"T" Command

The "T" Command stands for 'Timer read inputs' and when you send the USB IO Board an "T" command, it will set the delay for one of two timers. When the timer times out, it will cause an "I" packet or "A" packet response to get sent to the PC.
Format: "T,<TimeBetweenPacketsInMilliseconds>,<Mode><CR>"
<TimeBetweenPacketsInMilliseconds>: The time between response packets is determined by the <TimeBetweenPacketsInMilliseconds> value, and is expressed as a number between (and including) 1 and 30000 . If you send a 10 for <TimeBetweenPacketsInMilliseonds> then a new packet response would be sent every 10ms. If you sent a value of 30000, then it would send a packet response every 30 seconds. If you want to turn off either timer so that no more packets are sent, send a <TimeBetweenPacketsInMilliseconds> of zero. You have to send a time of zero for both "I" and "A" timers if you want them both to turn off. Note : just because the UWB can kick out I and A packets every 1ms (at its fastest) doesn't mean that your PC app can read them in that fast. Some terminal emulators are not able to keep up with this data rate coming back from the USB IO Board, and what happens is that the USB IO Board's internal buffers overflow. This will generate error messages being sent back from the USB IO Board. If you write your own custom application to receive data from the USB IO Board, make sure to not read in one byte at a time from the serial port - always ask for large amounts (10K or more) and then internally parse the contents of the data coming in. (Realizing that the last packet may not be complete.) Note 2 : It has been discovered that if an attempt is made to have all 13 channels of analog be reported any faster than every 4ms, then an internal USB IO Board buffer overflow occurs. Be careful with the speed you choose for A packets. The maximum speed is based upon how many analog channels are being sent back.
<Mode>: If <Mode> is "0" then the "I" packet timer (digital input packet) is set and will generate "I" packets back to the PC. If <Mode> is "1" then the "A" packet timer (analog input packet) is set and will generate "A" packets back to the PC. Both timers can be active and sending back their respective packets at different (or the same) rates.
Note : The USB IO Board is actually sampling the digital input pins at an extremely precise time interval of whatever you sent in the T command. The values of the pins are stored in a buffer, and then packet responses are generated whenever there is 'free time' on the USB back to the PC. So you can count the I packet responses between rising or falling edges of pin values and know the time between those events to the precision of the value of <TimeBetweenPacketsInMilliseconds>. This is true for <Mode>=0. For <Mode>=1, the analog inputs are sampled every 1ms. Each time the "A" timer times out, the latest set of analog values is used to create a new "A" packet and that is then sent out.
Example: "T,100,0" - this would send back 10 "I" packets per second, sampled every 100ms.
Example: "T,14,1" - this would sample all enabled analog inputs and send back an "A" packet every 14ms.
Return Packet: "OK". Note however, the "I" packet or "A" packet responses will start flowing at regular intervals after the T command is received by the UWB.
Note: If the "I" or "A" packet responses stop coming back after you've done a "T" command, and you didn't stop them yourself (with a "T,0,0" or "T,0,1") then what's happened is that the internal buffer in the USB IO Board for I or A packet data has been filled up. (There is room for 3 I packets and 3 A packets.) This means that the USB system is too busy to get the packet responses back to the PC fast enough. You need to have less USB traffic (from other devices) or increase the time between packet responses.

"A" Command

The "A" Command stands for 'Sample Analog Inputs'. When you send the "A" packet to the USB IO Board, it will send back the last sampled set of analog inputs. All enabled analog inputs are sampled every 1ms, and stored. Whenever an "A" packet is received, the latest stored value for the analog inputs is sent back in a returning "A" packet.
Format: "A<CR>"
Example: "A"
Return Packet: "A,0145,1004,0000,0045" (The return packet would look like this if there were 4 analog inputs enabled with the "C" command). There can be up to 12 analog input enabled, and thus there might 12 numbers between 0 and 1023 after the "A,". See the chart in the "C" command above for information on which analog inputs correspond to which pins. The numbers represent the analog voltage on each enabled analog input from 0V (0000) to 5V (1023). The first number after the "A," is for AN0, and the last number is for the highest analog input channel (ANx) that is currently enabled.

"MR" Command

The "MR" Command stands for 'Memory Read'.
Format: "MR,<Address><CR>"
<Address>: This is a number between and including 0 to 4095. It is the address in the USB IO Board's RAM that you wish to read.
Example: "MR,3968" (asks the USB IO Board to read the value in the PORTA register)
Return Packet: "MR,<Value>"
<Value>: This is a number between and including 0 to 255. It is the result of reading <Address>.
Example Return Packet: "MR,28"

"MW" Command

The "MW" Command stands for 'Memory Write'.
Format: "MR,<Address>,<Value><CR>"
<Address>: This is a number between and including 0 to 4095. It is the address in the USB IO Board's RAM that you wish to write into.
<Value>: This is a number between and including 0 to 255. It is the value you wish to write into <Address>.
Example: "MW,3968,56" (asks the USB IO Board to write the value 56 into the PORTA register)
Return Packet: "OK"
NOTE: This command can be extremely dangerous unless you read the PIC datasheet and understand what you are doing. With this command you have the ability to write over all of the current RAM in the USB IO Board - including all variables that the firmware is using, and all of the Special Function Registers in the PIC. It can be a very handy thing, but use it with caution.

"PD" Command

The "PD" command stands for "Pin Direction". It allows you to set the direction on just one pin at a time. (Input or Output)
Format: "PD,<Port>,<Pin>,<Direction><CR>"
<Port>: This is the character "A", "B", or "C" depending upon which port you want to change.
<Pin>: This is a number between and including 0 to 7. It indicates which pin in the port you want to change the direction on.
<Direction>: This is either "0" or "1", for Output (0) or Input (1).
Example: "PD,B,2,1" - This would change Port B, pin 2 to an input.
Return Packet: "OK"

"PI" Command

The "PI" command stands for "Pin Input". It allows you to read the state of just one pin at a time. (High or Low)
Format: "PI,<Port>,<Pin><CR>"
<Port>: This is the character "A", "B", or "C" depending upon which port you want to change.
<Pin>: This is a number between and including 0 to 7. It indicates which pin in the port you want to change the direction on.
Example: "PI,C,6" - This would read the state of Port C pin 6.
Return Packet: "PI,<Value>"
<Value>: This is either a High (1) or a Low (0) depending upon the voltage on the pin at the time it was read.
Example Return Packet: "PI,1" (Means that the pin was high.)

"PO" Command

The "PO" command stands for "Pin Output". It allows you to set the output value (if it is currently set to be an output) on just one pin at a time. (High or Low)
Format: "PO,<Port>,<Pin>,<Value><CR>"
<Port>: This is the character "A", "B", or "C" depending upon which port you want to set.
<Pin>: This is a number between and including 0 to 7. It indicates which pin in the port for which you want to set the state.
<Value>: This is either "0" or "1", for Low (0) or High (1).
Example: "PD,A,3,0" - This would make Port A pin 3 low.
Return Packet: "OK"

"CU" Command

The "CU" command stands for "Configure USB IO Board". It is designed to be a generic command for setting things that affect the general operation of the USB IO Board.
Format: "CU,<Parameter>,<Value><CR>"
<Parameter>: This is an unsigned 8 bit value, representing the parameter number you wish to change. (See table below)
<Value>: This is a value who's meaning depends upon the <Parameter> number chosen.
Example: "CU,1,0" - This would turn off the sending of the "OK" packets after each command.
Return Packet: "OK"

<Parameter>	<Value>	<Value> meaning
1	0 or 1	0 = Turn off "OK" packets 1 = Turn on "OK" packets (default)

"RC" Command

The "RC" command stands for "RC Servo Output". It will turn any pin into an RC servo output, if that pin is already configured as a digital output.
Format: "RC,<Port>,<Pin>,<Value><CR>"
<Port>: This is the character "A", "B", or "C" depending upon which port you want to set.
<Pin>: This is a number between and including 0 to 7. It indicates which pin in the port for which you want to set the state. Note that some pins do not come out of the chip (RA6, RA7, RC3, RC4 and RC5), and some pins are not accessible via headers on IO Board (RC0, RC1, RC2). You can still set RC outputs on those pins, but the non-existent ones will just be skipped by the RC code, and if you set RC outputs on RC0, RC1 or RC2, you may see interesting results (since RC0 and RC1 have LEDs on them).
<Value>: This is a value between 0 and 11890.

A <Value> of 0 (zero) will turn the RC output (for that pin) completely off. A <Value> of 1 will cause a 1ms high pulse on the pin. A <Value> of 11890 will cause a 2ms high pulse on the pin. Any <Value> inbetween 1 and 11890 will cause a high pulse whose duration is proportionally between 1ms and 2ms. These pulses repeat every 19ms.

Example: "RC,B,3,5945" - If PortB pin 3 was already an output, then there would be a 1.5ms (which is 'center' to an RC servo) high pulse coming out of PortB pin 3 every 19ms.
Return Packet: "OK"
Note: This command allows you to have up to 16 independant RC servo outputs.

Binary Output Commands
The "BC", "BO" and "BS" commands all work together to allow for high speed parallel output to a hardware device like an LCD panel or other latched 8-bit parallel interface. The basic idea is to take a byte, write it out to PortB, set a strobe bit on PortA, wait a bit, then clear the strobe bit on PortA, then wait for a busy bit to go high (or low) on PortA, then wait for the busy bit to go low (or high) on PortA and then repeat for as many bytes as there are to send out PortB. So PortB is used as the output to the parallel bus and two bits on PortA are used as a strobe bit (output) and a busy bit (input).
The BC command sets up all of the parameters, and then the BO or BS commands stream the data out PortB. Before this scheme will be very successful, make sure to set the direction bits on PortB and PortA properly.

"BC" Command

The "BC" command stands for "Bulk Configure". It allows you to configure the options for the BO and BS commands.
Format: "BC,<Init>,<WaitMask>,<WaitDelay>,<StrobeMask>,<StrobeDelay>,<CR>"
<Init>: This is the inital value written to PortA.
<WaitMask>: Each bit that is set in this mask indicates a 'busy' bit coming back from the LCD (or other hardware). This value is only used if <WaitDelay> is not zero.
<WaitDelay>: The <WaitDelay> is the maximum amount of time to wait for the busy bit to become asserted, and then to become de-asserted. If <WaitDelay> expires, then the next byte is just sent out. <WaitDelay> is in units of about 400ns.
<StrobeMask>: Each bit that is set in this mask indicates the strobe bits that are to be inverted after the byte is written to PortB. When <StrobeDelay> is over, the initial value (<Init>) is written back to PortA.
<StrobeDelay>: The length of time that the strobe bits (from <StrobeMask>) are inverted from their intial values. <StrobeDelay> is in units of about 830ns.
Example: "BC,1,1,1,1,1"
Return Packet: "OK"

"BO" Command

The "BO" command stands for "Bulk Output". It uses the settings from the BC command and outputs bytes to PortB. PortA bits are used as control bits, with at least one used as a strobe output (indicating that a new byte is present on PortB) and an optional second PortA bit used as a 'busy' input to prevent the next byte from being sent out before the receiver is able to process it.
Format: "BO,<ASCII_HEX_Bytes><CR>"
<ASCII_HEX_Bytes>: This group of characters are the hexadecimal representation of the bytes that you whish to send out PortB. For example, if you wanted to send 3 bytes, of values 0x55, 0xA7 and 0x21, you would use "BO,55A721" as your command. The total length of this command must not be more than 63 bytes, so at most you can pack 30 bytes worth of ASCII hex characters into this command.
The way that the bytes get sent out PortB is by using the WaitMask, WaitDelay, StrobeMask, StrobeDelay and Init values from the BC command above. When the BC command is accepted, PortA will be initalized to the value in the <Init> parameter. Note that you must have already set up PortB as outputs and have the direction of each bit in PortA set up according to what you need. When it is time to output a byte (with the BO or BS commands), the chain of events is as follows:

The byte is output on PortB.
The bits that are high in the <StrobeMask> are inverted on PortA.
A delay is executed for <StrobeDelay> units (each unit is about 830ns)
The PortA is then returned to the <Init> value.
If <WaitDelay> is greater than zero,

Wait (up to <WaitDelay> units) for the busy bit to become the state it is in <Init>
Wait (up to <WaitDelay> units) for the busy bit to become the inverse of what it is in <Init>

Repeat

Example: "BO,55A721"
Return Packet: "OK"

"BS" Command
NOTE: (09/18/08) Greg Corson has pointed out a serious bug in this command in Firmware D 1.4.3. If you send any <CR> or <LF> bytes in the binary data section of them command, they get eaten by the command processing fuctions, and don't make it out to the I/O pins! This will get fixed in a future version.

The "BS" command stands for "Bulk Stream". It uses the settings from the BC command and streams raw binary bytes to PortB, just like the "BO" command does.
Format: "BC,<ByteCount>,<BinaryStreamOfBytes><CR>"
<ByteCount>: This is the number of bytes in <BinaryStreamOfBytes>. It must be an exact number, because this his how the USB IO Board knows when the end of <BinaryStreamOfBytes> is and when to begin looking for the <CR>. The range of acceptable values for <ByteCount> are from 1 to 56 inclusive.
<BinaryStreamOfBytes>: Must be exactly <BinaryStreamOfBytes> bytes long. This stream is the _binary_ (NOT ASCII) bytes that you want to send out PortB. In other words, if you wanted to send three bytes who's values are 0x23, 0x49 and 0x6A then the three bytes in <BinaryStreamOfBytes> would be "#Ij" and <ByteCount> would be 3. Note that since this is pure binary, it does not suffer from the lower bandwidth utilization that the "BO" command has (where each byte to be output is represented by two ASCII HEX bytes in the command string). But it is also more difficult to use because many of the characters inside the binary stream are not printable, and/or are difficult to generate with a terminal emulator.
Example: "BS,3,#Ij"
Return Packet: "OK"

USB IO Board Projects with Controller Applications

USB Relay Controller
Allows to control eight lights / appliances through USB IO Board. Microcontroller Port-B PINs are buffered by BC549 transistors and drive 12V / 10A relays.

USB Thermometer
USB Thermometer allows to measure temperature in two different locations. Two Microchip MCP9700 temperature sensors in standard TO-92 package are used to sample temperature and allow to measure temperature from -40 to +125 Celsius degrees. Simply connect to a PC computer via standard USB cable and temperature readings will be displayed using included USB Thermometer software. USB Thermometer takes power directly from USB port and does not need external power supply. Temperature readings can be displayed in both Fahrenheit and Celsius degrees.

USB Voltmeter
USB Voltmeter has two voltage inputs for measuring voltage from 0V up to 500V. Simply connect to a PC computer via standard USB cable and voltage readings will be displayed via included USB Voltmeter software. USB Voltmeter takes power directly from USB port and does not need external power supply.

USB 0-500MHz RF Power Meter (AD8307)
AD8307 USB 0-500MHz RF Power Meter allows to measure the power of transmitters from 1nW to 2W. Output is displayed in dBm, Watts (nW, uW, mW and W range) as well as input voltage. USB RF Power Meter is based on popular AD8307 watt meter IC and PIC18F2550 microcontroller. Instead of using LCD display module the meter connects to a PC via USB port and displays measurements on a computer via USB RF Power Meter software. The software settings can be changed to use 10-50dBm attenuator and thus allowing to measure higher RF power than 2W.

4-Channel MCP9700 Temperature Meter
Output of MCP9700 temerature sensors (in TO-92 package) is directly connected to ports A0, A1, A2 & A3 (PIN2, PIN3, PIN4, PIN5). Sensors draw +5V power directly from USB port. Temperature is sampled every second and is displayed in either Celsius or Fahrenheit degrees. While testing MCP9700 we pushed it over the limit and were surprised that the sensor was still measuring temperature at over 230 degrees Celsius. That's very impressive for such a relatively inexpensive sensor!

USB Volt / Ampere Meter

2-Channel USB Volt / Ampere Meter

2-Channel USB Volt Meter

4-Channel USB Volt Meter

USB Relay Countdown Timer
USB Relay Countdown Timer can turn appliance OFF or ON after specified time. Countdown timer can be used as an exposure timer for UV light boxes, photography, egg timer, and many other projects. The countdown time can count from up to 99999 hours.

USB Relay Timer
USB Relay Timer can be programmed to turn relay ON and OFF at specified time during the day. Timer can turn off after the relay is powered off or be repeated daily.

USB Temperature Meter / Logger with Temperature Chart
USB Thermostat Controller
USB LCD Controller
USB Stepper Motor Controller
USB RGB LED Controller / Driver
USB CNC Controller

Windows Drivers

Download USB IO Board drivers (Win 2K, XP, VISTA, Win 7)

Using USB IO Board under Linux / Ubuntu

Here's how to control USB IO Board under Linux Ubuntu. Step 1: Plug in USB IO Board. It should appear at /dev/ttyACM0 or /dev/ttyACM1 - go take a look.
Step 2: Create a symbolic link from /dev/ttyS3 to /dev/ttyACM0 so gtkterm can talk to it.
Step 3: Run up gtkterm, connect to /dev/ttyS3, type "V" without the quotes and press ENTER. You should get back the firmware version and this proves that everything is working fine.

Controlling USB IO Board remotely over the internet using PHP under Linux Ubuntu:

<?php

include "php_serial.class.php";

// Let's start the class
$serial = new phpSerial;

// First we must specify the device. This works on both linux and windows (if
// your linux serial device is /dev/ttyS0 for COM1, etc)
$serial->deviceSet("/dev/ttyS3");

// Then we need to open it
$serial->deviceOpen();

// To write into
$serial->sendMessage("V\n");

// Or to read from
$read = $serial->readPort();
echo "output : \n $read \n";

// If you want to change the configuration, the device must be closed
$serial->deviceClose();

?>

Download php_serial.class.php
Note: Right-click on the link & select "Save Link As" to save it to your computer.

USB IO Board Kit

USB IO Board kit with programmed and ready to use PIC18F2455 / PIC18F2550 microcontroller is available at Electronics-DIY store. Please see the link for more details.

MINI FM

2011-07-29T10:04:00.001-07:00

Simple FM transmitter with a single transistor
Mini FM transmitters take place as one of the standard circuit types in an amateur electronics fan's beginning steps. When done right, they provide very clear wireless sound transmission through an ordinary FM radio over a remarkable distance. I've seen lots of designs through the years, some of them were so simple, some of them were powerful, some of them were hard to build etc.
Here is the last step of this evolution, the most stable, smallest, problem less, and energy saving champion of this race. Circuit given below will serve as a durable and versatile FM transmitter till you break or crush it's PCB. Frequency is determined by a parallel L-C resonance circuit and shifts very slow as battery drains out.

Simple FM Transmitter involves on a single transistor oscillator Technical datas:
Supply voltage    :    1.1 - 3 Volts
Power consumption :    1.8 mA at 1.5 Volts
Range             :    30 meters max. at 1.5 Volts
Main advantage of this circuit is that power supply is a 1.5Volts cell (any size) which makes it possible to fix PCB and the battery into very tight places. Transmitter even runs with standard NiCd rechargeable cells, for example a 750mAh AA size battery runs it about 500 hours (while it drags 1.4mA at 1.24V) which equals to 20 days. This way circuit especially valuable in amateur spy operations :)
Transistor is not a critical part of the circuit, but selecting a high frequency / low noise one contributes the sound quality and range of the transmitter. PN2222A, 2N2222A, BFxxx series, BC109B, C, and even well known BC238 runs perfect. Key to a well functioning, low consumption circuit is to use a high hFE / low Ceb (internal junction capacity) transistor.
Not all of the condenser microphones are the same in electrical characteristics, so after operating the circuit, use a 10K variable resistance instead of the 5.6K, which supplies current to the internal amplifier of microphone, and adjust it to an optimum point where sound is best in amplitude and quality. Then note the value of the variable resistor and replace it with a fixed one.
The critical part is the inductance L which should be handmade. Get an enameled copper wire of 0.5mm (AWG24) and round two loose loops having a diameter of 4-5mm. Wire size may vary as well. Rest of the work is much dependent on your level of knowledge and experience on inductances: Have an FM radio near the circuit and set frequency where is no reception. Apply power to the circuit and put a iron rod into the inductance loops to chance it's value. When you find the right point, adjust inductance's looseness and, if required, number of turns. Once it's OK, you may use trimmer capacitor to make further frequency adjustments. You may get help of a experienced person on this point. Do not forget to fix inductance by pouring some glue onto it against external forces. If the reception on the radio lost in a few meters range, than it's probably caused by a wrong coil adjustment and you are in fact listening to a harmonic of the transmitter instead of the center frequency. Place radio far away from the circuit and re-adjust. An oscilloscope would make it easier, if you know how to use it in this case. Unfortunately I don't have any :(
Every part should fit on the following PCB easily. Pay attention to the transistor's leads which should be connected right. Also try to connect trimmer capacitor's moving part to the + side, which may help unwanted frequency shift while adjusting. PCB drawing should be printed at 300DPI, here is a TIFF file already set.

PCB design for the FM Transmitter The one below is a past PCB work of mine, which was prepared to fit into a pocket flashlight. Since it was so crowded, use the new computerized PCB artwork instead, yet very small. Take a look at my PCB design page to get information on my work style.

Transmitter PCB compared in size with an AA battery Here is a completed and perfectly running circuit, mounted in a pocket light, taking the advantage of the 1.5V AA cell slot near it. Microphone is fixed into the bulb's place and antenna is made out of a 30cm soft cable. When cover is placed, it becomes very handy!

Transmitter placed in a pocket flashlight Do not forget, restrictions on radio frequency transmitting devices may differ in your local area. This circuit has a power output that should be less than 1mW so have to be safe under many kinds of legal conditions but particular attempts such as listening to other people's private life will always be disapproved everywhere.

video

2011-07-29T01:50:00.000-07:00

india

2011-07-29T01:38:00.001-07:00

robot

2011-07-29T01:24:00.001-07:00

This article is about mechanical robots. For other uses of the term, see robot (disambiguation). For software agents, see Bot.

TOPIO, a humanoid robot, played ping pong at Tokyo International Robot Exhibition (IREX) 2009.^[1]^[2]

ASIMO (2000) at the Expo 2005, a humanoid robot

A robot is a mechanical intelligent agent which can perform tasks on its own, or with guidance. In practice a robot is usually an electro-mechanical machine which is guided by computer and electronic programming. Robots can be autonomous or semi-autonomous and come in those two basic types: those which are used for research into human-like systems, such as ASIMO and TOPIO, as well as those into more defined and specific roles, such as Nano robots and Swarm robots; and helper robots which are used to make or move things or perform menial or dangerous tasks, such as Industrial robots or mobile or servicing robots. Another common characteristic is that, by its appearance or movements, a robot often conveys a sense that it has intent or agency of its own.
When societies began developing nearly all production and effort was the result of human labour. As mechanical means of performing functions were discovered, and mechanics and complex mechanisms were developed, the need for human labour was reduced. Machinery was initially used for repetitive functions, such as lifting water and grinding grain. With technological advances more complex machines were slowly developed, such as those invented by Hero of Alexandria (in Egypt) in the 1st century AD, and the first half of the second millennium AD, such as the Automata of Al-Jazari in the 12th century AD (in medieval Iraq). They were not widely adopted as human labour, particularly slave labour, was still inexpensive compared to the capital-intensive machines. Men such as Leonardo Da Vinci in 1495 through to Jacques de Vaucanson in 1739, as well as rediscovering the Greek engineering methods, have made plans for and built automata and robots leading to books of designs such as the Japanese Karakuri zui (Illustrated Machinery) in 1796. As mechanical techniques developed through the Industrial age we find more practical applications such as Nikola Tesla in 1898, who designed a radio-controlled torpedo, and the Westinghouse Electric Corporation creation of Televox in 1926. From here we also find a more android development as designers tried to mimic more human-like features including designs such as those of biologist Makoto Nishimura in 1929 and his creation Gakutensoku, which cried and changed its facial expressions, and the more crude Elektro from Westinghouse in 1938.
Electronics then became the driving force of development instead of mechanics, with the advent of the first electronic autonomous robots created by William Grey Walter in Bristol, England, in 1948. The first digital and programmable robot was invented by George Devol in 1954 and was ultimately called the Unimate. Devol sold the first Unimate to General Motors in 1960 where it was used to lift pieces of hot metal from die casting machines in a plant in Trenton, New Jersey. Since then we have seen robots finally reach a more true assimilation of all technologies to produce robots such as ASIMO which can walk and move like a human. Robots have replaced slaves in the assistance of performing those repetitive and dangerous tasks which humans prefer not to do, or are unable to do due to size limitations, or even those such as in outer space or at the bottom of the sea where humans could not survive the extreme environments.
Man has developed an awareness of the problems associated with autonomous robots and how they may act in society. Fear of robot behaviour, such as Shelley's Frankenstein and the EATR, drive current practice in establishing what autonomy a robot should and should not be capable of. Thinking has developed through discussion of robot control and artificial intelligence (AI) and how its application should benefit society, such as those based around Asimov's three laws. Practicality still drives development forwards and robots are used in an increasingly wide variety of tasks such as vacuuming floors, mowing lawns, cleaning drains, investigating other planets, building cars, in entertainment and in warfare.

History

Main article: History of robots

The idea of automata originates in the mythologies of many cultures around the world. Engineers and inventors from ancient civilizations, including Ancient China^[3], Ancient Greece, and Ptolemaic Egypt^[4], attempted to build self-operating machines, some resembling animals and humans. Early descriptions of automata include the artificial doves of Archytas^[5], the artificial birds of Mozi and Lu Ban^[6], a "speaking" automaton by Hero of Alexandria, a washstand automaton by Philo of Byzantium, and a human automaton described in the Lie Zi^[3] .

[edit] Ancient beginnings

Many ancient mythologies include artificial people, such as the mechanical servants built by the Greek god Hephaestus^[7] (Vulcan to the Romans), the clay golems of Jewish legend and clay giants of Norse legend, and Galatea, the mythical statue of Pygmalion that came to life.
In ancient Greece, the Greek engineer Ctesibius (c. 270 BC) "applied a knowledge of pneumatics and hydraulics to produce the first organ and water clocks with moving figures."^[8]^[9] In the 4th century BC, the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum postulated a mechanical steam-operated bird he called "The Pigeon". Hero of Alexandria (10–70 AD), a Greek mathematician and inventor, created numerous user-configurable automated devices, and described machines powered by air pressure, steam and water.^[10]
In ancient China, the 3rd century BC text of the Lie Zi describes an account of humanoid automata, involving a much earlier encounter between King Mu of Zhou (Chinese emperor 10th century BC) and a mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi , an 'artificer'. The latter proudly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical 'handiwork' made of leather, wood, and artificial organs.^[3] There are also accounts of flying automata in the Han Fei Zi and other texts, which attributes the 5th century BC Mohist philosopher Mozi and his contemporary Lu Ban with the invention of artificial wooden birds (ma yuan) that could successfully fly.^[6] In 1066, the Chinese inventor Su Song built a water clock in the form of a tower which featured mechanical figurines which chimed the hours. The beginning of automata is associated with the invention of early Su Song's astronomical clock tower featured mechanical figurines that chimed the hours.^[11]
In the medieval Islamic world, Al-Jazari (1136–1206), a Muslim inventor during the Artuqid dynasty, designed and constructed a number of automated machines, including kitchen appliances, musical automata powered by water, and programmable automata.^[12]^[13] The robots appeared as four musicians on a boat in a lake, entertaining guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bumped into little levers that operated percussion instruments. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns by moving the pegs to different locations.^[12]^[13]

Washstand automaton reconstruction, as described by Philo of Byzantium (Greece, 3rd century BC).
Al-Jazari's programmable automata
Tea-serving karakuri with mechanism. (Tokyo National Science Museum).
Su Song's astronomical clock tower showing the mechanical figurines which chimed the hours.

[edit] Early modern developments

In Renaissance Italy, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) sketched plans for a humanoid robot around 1495. Da Vinci's notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contain detailed drawings of a mechanical knight now known as Leonardo's robot, able to sit up, wave its arms and move its head and jaw.^[14] The design was probably based on anatomical research recorded in his Vitruvian Man. It is not known whether he attempted to build it.
In Japan, complex animal and human automata were built between the 17th to 19th centuries, with many described in the 18th century Karakuri zui (Illustrated Machinery, 1796). One such automaton was the karakuri ningyō, a mechanized puppet^[15]. Different variations of the karakuri existed: the Butai karakuri, which were used in theatre, the Zashiki karakuri, which were small and used in homes, and the Dashi karakuri which were used in religious festivals, where the puppets were used to perform reenactments of traditional myths and legends.
In France, between 1738 and 1739, Jacques de Vaucanson exhibited several life-sized automatons: a flute player, a pipe player and a duck. The mechanical duck could flap its wings, crane its neck, and swallow food from the exhibitor's hand, and it gave the illusion of digesting its food by excreting matter stored in a hidden compartment.^[16]

[edit] Modern developments

The Japanese craftsman Hisashige Tanaka (1799–1881), known as "Japan's Edison" or "Karakuri Giemon", created an array of extremely complex mechanical toys, some of which served tea, fired arrows drawn from a quiver, and even painted a Japanese kanji character.^[17] In 1898 Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrated a radio-controlled torpedo.^[18] Based on patents for "teleautomation", Tesla hoped to develop it into a weapon system for the US Navy.^[19]^[20]
In 1926, Westinghouse Electric Corporation created Televox, the first robot put to useful work. They followed Televox with a number of other simple robots, including one called Rastus, made in the crude image of a black man. In the 1930s, they created a humanoid robot known as Elektro for exhibition purposes, including the 1939 and 1940 World's Fairs.^[21]^[22] In 1928, Japan's first robot, Gakutensoku, was designed and constructed by biologist Makoto Nishimura.
The first electronic autonomous robots were created by William Grey Walter of the Burden Neurological Institute at Bristol, England in 1948 and 1949. They were named Elmer and Elsie. These robots could sense light and contact with external objects, and use these stimuli to navigate.^[23]
The first truly modern robot, digitally operated and programmable, was invented by George Devol in 1954 and was ultimately called the Unimate. Devol sold the first Unimate to General Motors in 1960, and it was installed in 1961 in a plant in Trenton, New Jersey to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them.^[24] Devol’s patent for the first digitally operated programmable robotic arm represents the foundation of the modern robotics industry.^[25]
Commercial and industrial robots are now in widespread use performing jobs more cheaply or with greater accuracy and reliability than humans. They are also employed for jobs which are too dirty, dangerous or dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, and mass production of consumer and industrial goods.^[26]

[edit] Etymology

[edit] Definitions

The word robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual software agents, but the latter are usually referred to as bots.^[30] There is no consensus on which machines qualify as robots but there is general agreement among experts, and the public, that robots tend to do some or all of the following: move around, operate a mechanical limb, sense and manipulate their environment, and exhibit intelligent behavior — especially behavior which mimics humans or other animals.
There is no one definition of robot which satisfies everyone and many people have their own.^[31] For example Joseph Engelberger, a pioneer in industrial robotics, once remarked: "I can't define a robot, but I know one when I see one."^[32] According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica a robot is "any automatically operated machine that replaces human effort, though it may not resemble human beings in appearance or perform functions in a humanlike manner".^[33] Merriam-Webster describes a robot as a "machine that looks like a human being and performs various complex acts (as walking or talking) of a human being", or a "device that automatically performs complicated often repetitive tasks", or a "mechanism guided by automatic controls".^[34]

The various types of robots
KITT (a fictitious robot) is mentally anthropomorphic
ASIMO is physically anthropomorphic

[edit] Defining characteristics

While there is no single correct definition of "robot,"^[35] a typical robot will have several, or possibly all, of the following characteristics.
It is an electric machine which has some ability to interact with physical objects and to be given electronic programming to do a specific task or to do a whole range of tasks or actions. It may also have some ability to perceive and absorb data on physical objects, or on its local physical environment, or to process data, or to respond to various stimuli. This is in contrast to a simple mechanical device such as a gear or a hydraulic press or any other item which has no processing ability and which does tasks through purely mechanical processes and motion.

Mental agency

For robotic engineers, the physical appearance of a machine is less important than the way its actions are controlled. The more the control system seems to have agency of its own, the more likely the machine is to be called a robot. An important feature of agency is the ability to make choices. Higher-level cognitive functions, though, are not necessary, as shown by ant robots.

A clockwork car is never considered a robot.
A mechanical device able to perform some preset motions but with no ability to adapt (an automaton) is rarely considered a robot.
A remotely-operated vehicle is sometimes considered a robot (or telerobot).^[36]
A car with an onboard computer, like Bigtrak, which could drive in a programmable sequence, might be called a robot.
A self-controlled car which could sense its environment and make driving decisions based on this information, such as the 1990s driverless cars of Ernst Dickmanns or the entries in the DARPA Grand Challenge, would quite likely be called a robot.
A sentient car, like the fictional KITT, which can make decisions, navigate freely and converse fluently with a human, is usually considered a robot.

Physical agency

However, for many laymen, if a machine appears able to control its arms or limbs, and especially if it appears anthropomorphic or zoomorphic (e.g. ASIMO or Aibo), it would be called a robot.

A player piano is rarely characterized as a robot.^[37]
A CNC milling machine is very occasionally characterized as a robot.
A factory automation arm is almost always characterized as an industrial robot.
An autonomous wheeled or tracked device, such as a self-guided rover or self-guided vehicle, is almost always characterized as a mobile robot or service robot.
A zoomorphic mechanical toy, like Roboraptor, is usually characterized as a robot.^[38]
A mechanical humanoid, like ASIMO, is almost always characterized as a robot, usually as a service robot.

Even for a 3-axis CNC milling machine using the same control system as a robot arm, it is the arm which is almost always called a robot, while the CNC machine is usually just a machine. Having eyes can also make a difference in whether a machine is called a robot, since humans instinctively connect eyes with sentience. However, simply being anthropomorphic is not a sufficient criterion for something to be called a robot. A robot must do something; an inanimate object shaped like ASIMO would not be considered a robot.

[edit] Modern robots

A laparoscopic robotic surgery machine

[edit] Mobile robot

Main articles: Mobile robot and Automated guided vehicle

Mobile robots have the capability to move around in their environment and are not fixed to one physical location. An example of a mobile robot that is in common use today is the automated guided vehicle or automatic guided vehicle (AGV). An AGV is a mobile robot that follows markers or wires in the floor, or uses vision or lasers. AGVs are discussed later in this article.
Mobile robots are also found in industry, military and security environments. They also appear as consumer products, for entertainment or to perform certain tasks like vacuum cleaning. Mobile robots are the focus of a great deal of current research and almost every major university has one or more labs that focus on mobile robot research.
Modern robots are usually used in tightly controlled environments such as on assembly lines because they have difficulty responding to unexpected interference. Because of this most humans rarely encounter robots. However domestic robots for cleaning and maintenance are increasingly common in and around homes in developed countries. Robots can also be found in military applications.

[edit] Industrial robots (manipulating)

Main articles: Industrial robot and Manipulator

Industrial robots usually consist of a jointed arm (multi-linked manipulator) and an end effector that is attached to a fixed surface. One of the most common type of end effector is a gripper assembly.
The International Organization for Standardization gives a definition of a manipulating industrial robot in ISO 8373:
"an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications."^[39]
This definition is used by the International Federation of Robotics, the European Robotics Research Network (EURON) and many national standards committees.^[40]

A Pick and Place robot in a factory

[edit] Service robot

Main article: Service robot

Most commonly industrial robots are fixed robotic arms and manipulators used primarily for production and distribution of goods. The term "service robot" is less well-defined. IFR has proposed a tentative definition, "A service robot is a robot which operates semi- or fully- autonomously to perform services useful to the well-being of humans and equipment, excluding manufacturing operations."
In South Africa robot is an informal and commonly used term for a set of traffic lights.

[edit] Social impact

Roughly half of all the robots in the world are in Asia, 32% in Europe, and 16% in North America, 1% in Australasia and 1% in Africa.^[41] 30% of all the robots in the world are in Japan,^[42] making Japan the country with the highest number of robots.

[edit] Regional perspectives

In Japan and South Korea, ideas of future robots have been mainly positive, and the start of the pro-robotic society there is thought to be possibly due to the famous 'Astro Boy'. Asian societies such as Japan, South Korea, and more recently, China, believe robots to be more equal to humans, having them care for old people, play with or teach children, or replace pets etc.^[43] The general view in Asian cultures is that the more robots advance, the better.
"This is the opening of an era in which human beings and robots can co-exist," says Japanese firm Mitsubishi about one of the many humanistic robots in Japan.^[44] South Korea aims to put a robot in every house there by 2015-2020 in order to help catch up technologically with Japan.^[45]^[46]
Western societies are more likely to be against, or even fear the development of robotics, through much media output in movies and literature that they will replace humans. Some believe that the West regards robots as a 'threat' to the future of humans, partly due to religious beliefs about the role of humans and society.^[47]^[48] Obviously, these boundaries are not clear, but there is a significant difference between the two cultural viewpoints.

[edit] Autonomy and ethical questions

Main articles: Roboethics and Ethics of artificial intelligence

As robots have become more advanced and sophisticated, experts and academics have increasingly explored the questions of what ethics might govern robots' behavior,^[49] and whether robots might be able to claim any kind of social, cultural, ethical or legal rights.^[50] One scientific team has said that it is possible that a robot brain will exist by 2019.^[51] Others predict robot intelligence breakthroughs by 2050.^[52] Recent advances have made robotic behavior more sophisticated.^[53] The social impact of intelligent robots is subject of a 2010 documentary film called Plug & Pray.^[54]
Vernor Vinge has suggested that a moment may come when computers and robots are smarter than humans. He calls this "the Singularity".^[55] He suggests that it may be somewhat or possibly very dangerous for humans.^[56] This is discussed by a philosophy called Singularitarianism.
In 2009, experts attended a conference hosted by the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) to discuss whether computers and robots might be able to acquire any autonomy, and how much these abilities might pose a threat or hazard. They noted that some robots have acquired various forms of semi-autonomy, including being able to find power sources on their own and being able to independently choose targets to attack with weapons. They also noted that some computer viruses can evade elimination and have achieved "cockroach intelligence." They noted that self-awareness as depicted in science-fiction is probably unlikely, but that there were other potential hazards and pitfalls.^[55] Various media sources and scientific groups have noted separate trends in differing areas which might together result in greater robotic functionalities and autonomy, and which pose some inherent concerns.^[57]^[58]^[59]

[edit] Military robots

Some experts and academics have questioned the use of robots for military combat, especially when such robots are given some degree of autonomous functions.^[60] There are also concerns about technology which might allow some armed robots to be controlled mainly by other robots.^[61] The US Navy has funded a report which indicates that as military robots become more complex, there should be greater attention to implications of their ability to make autonomous decisions.^[62]^[63] One researcher states that autonomous robots might be more humane, as they could make decisions more effectively. However, other experts question this.^[64]
Some public concerns about autonomous robots have received media attention.^[65] One robot in particular, the EATR, has generated concerns over its fuel source as it can continually refuel itself using organic substances.^[66] Although the engine for the EATR is designed to run on biomass and vegetation^[67] specifically selected by its sensors which can find on battlefields or other local environments the project has stated that chicken fat can also be used.^[68]

[edit] Contemporary uses

[edit] General-purpose autonomous robots

Main article: Autonomous robot

General-purpose autonomous robots can perform a variety of functions independently. General-purpose autonomous robots typically can navigate independently in known spaces, handle their own re-charging needs, interface with electronic doors and elevators and perform other basic tasks. Like computers, general-purpose robots can link with networks, software and accessories that increase their usefulness. They may recognize people or objects, talk, provide companionship, monitor environmental quality, respond to alarms, pick up supplies and perform other useful tasks. General-purpose robots may perform a variety of functions simultaneously or they may take on different roles at different times of day. Some such robots try to mimic human beings and may even resemble people in appearance; this type of robot is called a humanoid robot.

A general-purpose robot acts as a guide during the day and a security guard at night

[edit] Factory robots

Car production

Over the last three decades automobile factories have become dominated by robots. A typical factory contains hundreds of industrial robots working on fully automated production lines, with one robot for every ten human workers. On an automated production line, a vehicle chassis on a conveyor is welded, glued, painted and finally assembled at a sequence of robot stations.

An intelligent AGV drops-off goods without needing lines or beacons in the workspace

Packaging

Industrial robots are also used extensively for palletizing and packaging of manufactured goods, for example for rapidly taking drink cartons from the end of a conveyor belt and placing them into boxes, or for loading and unloading machining centers.

Electronics

Mass-produced printed circuit boards (PCBs) are almost exclusively manufactured by pick-and-place robots, typically with SCARA manipulators, which remove tiny electronic components from strips or trays, and place them on to PCBs with great accuracy.^[69] Such robots can place hundreds of thousands of components per hour, far out-performing a human in speed, accuracy, and reliability.^[70]

Automated guided vehicles (AGVs)

Mobile robots, following markers or wires in the floor, or using vision^[71] or lasers, are used to transport goods around large facilities, such as warehouses, container ports, or hospitals.^[72]

Early AGV-Style Robots

Limited to tasks that could be accurately defined and had to be performed the same way every time. Very little feedback or intelligence was required, and the robots needed only the most basic exteroceptors (sensors). The limitations of these AGVs are that their paths are not easily altered and they cannot alter their paths if obstacles block them. If one AGV breaks down, it may stop the entire operation.

Interim AGV-Technologies

Developed to deploy triangulation from beacons or bar code grids for scanning on the floor or ceiling. In most factories, triangulation systems tend to require moderate to high maintenance, such as daily cleaning of all beacons or bar codes. Also, if a tall pallet or large vehicle blocks beacons or a bar code is marred, AGVs may become lost. Often such AGVs are designed to be used in human-free environments.

Intelligent AGVs (i-AGVs)

A U.S. Marine Corps technician prepares to use a telerobot to detonate a buried improvised explosive device near Camp Fallujah, Iraq

Such as SpeciMinder,^[73] ADAM,^[74] Tug^[75] and MT 400 with Motivity^[76] are designed for people-friendly workspaces. They navigate by recognizing natural features. 3D scanners or other means of sensing the environment in two or three dimensions help to eliminate cumulative errors in dead-reckoning calculations of the AGV's current position. Some AGVs can create maps of their environment using scanning lasers with simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) and use those maps to navigate in real time with other path planning and obstacle avoidance algorithms. They are able to operate in complex environments and perform non-repetitive and non-sequential tasks such as transporting photomasks in a semiconductor lab, specimens in hospitals and goods in warehouses. For dynamic areas, such as warehouses full of pallets, AGVs require additional strategies using three-dimensional sensors such as time-of-flight or stereovision cameras.

[edit] Dirty, dangerous, dull or inaccessible tasks

There are many jobs which humans would rather leave to robots. The job may be boring, such as domestic cleaning, or dangerous, such as exploring inside a volcano.^[77] Other jobs are physically inaccessible, such as exploring another planet,^[78] cleaning the inside of a long pipe, or performing laparoscopic surgery.^[79]

Space probes

Almost every unmanned space probe ever launched was a robot. Some were launched in the 1960s with very limited abilities, but their ability to fly and land (in the case of Luna 9) is an indication of their status as a robot. This includes the Voyager probes and the Galileo probes, and others.

Telerobots

When a human cannot be present on site to perform a job because it is dangerous, far away, or inaccessible, teleoperated robots, or telerobots are used. Rather than following a predetermined sequence of movements, a telerobot is controlled from a distance by a human operator. The robot may be in another room or another country, or may be on a very different scale to the operator. For instance, a laparoscopic surgery robot allows the surgeon to work inside a human patient on a relatively small scale compared to open surgery, significantly shortening recovery time.^[79] When disabling a bomb, the operator sends a small robot to disable it. Several authors have been using a device called the Longpen to sign books remotely.^[80] Teleoperated robot aircraft, like the Predator Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, are increasingly being used by the military. These pilotless drones can search terrain and fire on targets.^[81]^[82] Hundreds of robots such as iRobot's Packbot and the Foster-Miller TALON are being used in Iraq and Afghanistan by the U.S. military to defuse roadside bombs or improvised explosive devices (IEDs) in an activity known as explosive ordnance disposal (EOD).^[83]

Automated fruit harvesting machines

The Roomba domestic vacuum cleaner robot does a single, menial job

Used to pick fruit on orchards at a cost lower than that of human pickers.

In the home

As prices fall and robots become smarter and more autonomous, simple robots dedicated to a single task work in over a million homes. They are taking on simple but unwanted jobs, such as vacuum cleaning and floor washing, and lawn mowing. Some find these robots to be cute and entertaining, which is one reason that they can sell very well.

Duct cleaning

The ANATROLLER ARI-100 is a modular mobile robot used for cleaning hazardous environments

In the hazardous and tight spaces of a building's duct work, many hours can be spent cleaning relatively small areas if a manual brush is used. Robots have been used by many duct cleaners primarily in the industrial and institutional cleaning markets, as they allow the job to be done faster, without exposing workers to the harmful enzymes released by dust mites. For cleaning high-security institutions such as embassies and prisons, duct cleaning robots are vital, as they allow the job to be completed without compromising the security of the institution. Hospitals and other government buildings with hazardous and cancerogenic environments such as nuclear reactors legally must be cleaned using duct cleaning robots, in countries such as Canada, in an effort to improve workplace safety in duct cleaning.

[edit] Military robots

Main article: Military robots

Military robots include the SWORDS robot which is currently used in ground-based combat. It can use a variety of weapons and there is some discussion of giving it some degree of autonomy in battleground situations.^[84]^[85]^[86]
Unmanned combat air vehicles (UCAVs), which are an upgraded form of UAVs, can do a wide variety of missions, including combat. UCAVs are being designed such as the Mantis UCAV which would have the ability to fly themselves, to pick their own course and target, and to make most decisions on their own.^[87] The BAE Taranis is a UCAV built by Great Britain which can fly across continents without a pilot and has new means to avoid detection.^[88] Flight trials are expected to begin in 2011.^[89]^[90]
The AAAI has studied this topic in depth^[49] and its president has commissioned a study to look at this issue.^[91]
Some have suggested a need to build "Friendly AI", meaning that the advances which are already occurring with AI should also include an effort to make AI intrinsically friendly and humane.^[92] Several such measures reportedly already exist, with robot-heavy countries such as Japan and South Korea^[45] having begun to pass regulations requiring robots to be equipped with safety systems, and possibly sets of 'laws' akin to Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics.^[93]^[94] An official report was issued in 2009 by the Japanese government's Robot Industry Policy Committee.^[95] Chinese officials and researchers have issued a report suggesting a set of ethical rules, and a set of new legal guidelines referred to as "Robot Legal Studies."^[96] Some concern has been expressed over a possible occurrence of robots telling apparent falsehoods.^[97]

[edit] Schools

Further information: FIRST Robotics Competition

Robotics have also been introduced into the lives of elementary and high school students with the company FIRST (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology). The organization is the foundation for the FIRST Robotics Competition, FIRST LEGO League, Junior FIRST LEGO League, and FIRST Tech Challenge competitions.

[edit] Healthcare

Robots in healthcare have two main functions. Those which assist an individual, such as a sufferer of a disease like Multiple Sclerosis, and those which aid in the overall systems such as pharmacies and hospitals.

Home automation for the elderly and disabled

Further information: Disability robot

The Care-Providing Robot FRIEND. (Photo: IAT)

Robots have developed over time from simple basic robotic assistants, such as the Handy 1,^[98] through to semi-autonomous robots, such as FRIEND which can assist the elderly and disabled with common tasks.
The population is aging in many countries, especially Japan, meaning that there are increasing numbers of elderly people to care for, but relatively fewer young people to care for them.^[99]^[100] Humans make the best carers, but where they are unavailable, robots are gradually being introduced.^[101]
FRIEND is a semi-autonomous robot designed to support disabled and elderly people in their daily life activities, like preparing and serving a meal. FRIEND make it possible for patients who are paraplegic, have muscle diseases or serious paralysis (due to strokes etc.), to perform tasks without help from other people like therapists or nursing staff.

Pharmacies

Main article: Pharmacy automation

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2009)

Script Pro manufactures a robot designed to help pharmacies fill prescriptions that consist of oral solids or medications in pill form. The pharmacist or pharmacy technician enters the prescription information into its information system. The system, upon determining whether or not the drug is in the robot, will send the information to the robot for filling. The robot has 3 different size vials to fill determined by the size of the pill. The robot technician, user, or pharmacist determines the needed size of the vial based on the tablet when the robot is stocked. Once the vial is filled it is brought up to a conveyor belt that delivers it to a holder that spins the vial and attaches the patient label. Afterwards it is set on another conveyor that delivers the patient’s medication vial to a slot labeled with the patient's name on an LED read out. The pharmacist or technician then checks the contents of the vial to ensure it’s the correct drug for the correct patient and then seals the vials and sends it out front to be picked up. The robot is a very time efficient device that the pharmacy depends on to fill prescriptions.
McKesson’s Robot RX is another healthcare robotics product that helps pharmacies dispense thousands of medications daily with little or no errors. The robot can be ten feet wide and thirty feet long and can hold hundreds of different kinds of medications and thousands of doses. The pharmacy saves many resources like staff members that are otherwise unavailable in a resource scarce industry. It uses an electromechanical head coupled with a pneumatic system to capture each dose and deliver it to its either stocked or dispensed location. The head moves along a single axis while it rotates 180 degrees to pull the medications. During this process it uses barcode technology to verify its pulling the correct drug. It then delivers the drug to a patient specific bin on a conveyor belt. Once the bin is filled with all of the drugs that a particular patient needs and that the robot stocks, the bin is then released and returned out on the conveyor belt to a technician waiting to load it into a cart for delivery to the floor.

[edit] Research robots

[edit] Future development

Further information: Future of robotics

[edit] Technological trends

Various techniques have emerged to develop the science of robotics and robots. One method is evolutionary robotics, in which a number of differing robots are submitted to tests. Those which perform best are used as a model to create a subsequent "generation" of robots. Another method is developmental robotics, which tracks changes and development within a single in the areas of problem-solving and other functions.

[edit] Technological development

Overall trends

Japan hopes to have full-scale commercialization of service robots by 2025. Much technological research in Japan is led by Japanese government agencies, particularly the Trade Ministry.^[116]
As robots become more advanced, eventually there may be a standard computer operating system designed mainly for robots. Robot Operating System is an open-source set of programs being developed at Stanford University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Technical University of Munich, Germany, among others. ROS provides ways to program a robot's navigation and limbs regardless of the specific hardware involved. It also provides high-level commands for items like image recognition and even opening doors. When ROS boots up on a robot's computer, it would obtain data on attributes such as the length and movement of robots' limbs. It would relay this data to higher-level algorithms. Microsoft is also developing a "Windows for robots" system with its Robotics Developer Studio, which has been available since 2007.^[117]

New functions and abilities

The Caterpillar Company is making a dump truck which can drive itself without any human operator.^[118]
Many future applications of robotics seem obvious to people, even though they are well beyond the capabilities of robots available at the time of the prediction. As early as 1982 people were confident that someday robots would:^[119] 1. clean parts by removing molding flash 2. spray paint automobiles with absolutely no human presence 3. pack things in boxes—for example, orient and nest chocolate candies in candy boxes 4. make electrical cable harness 5. load trucks with boxes—a packing problem 6. handle soft goods, such as garments and shoes 7. shear sheep 8. prosthesis 9. cook fast food and work in other service industries 10. household robot.
Generally such predictions are overly optimistic in timescale.

[edit] Reading robot

A literate or 'reading robot' named Marge has intelligence that comes from software. She can read newspapers, find and correct misspelled words, learn about banks like Barclays, and understand that some restaurants are better places to eat than others.^[120]

[edit] Relationship to unemployment

Further information: Structural unemployment

Some analysts, such as Martin Ford,^[121] argue that robots and other forms of automation will ultimately result in significant unemployment as machines begin to match and exceed the capability of workers to perform most jobs. At present the negative impact is only on menial and repetitive jobs, and there is actually a positive impact on the number of jobs for highly skilled technicians, engineers, and specialists. However, these highly skilled jobs are not sufficient in number to offset the greater decrease in employment among the general population, causing structural unemployment in which overall (net) unemployment rises.
As robotics and artificial intelligence develop further, some worry even many skilled jobs may be threatened. In conventional economic theory this should merely cause an increase in the productivity of the involved industries, resulting in higher demand for other goods, and hence higher labour demand in these sectors, off-setting whatever negatives are caused. Conventional theory describes the past well but may not describe the future due to shifts in the parameter values that shape the context.

[edit] Problems depicted in popular culture

Fears and concerns about robots have been repeatedly expressed in a wide range of books and films. A common theme is the development of a master race of conscious and highly intelligent robots, motivated to take over or destroy the human race. (See The Terminator, Runaway, Blade Runner, RoboCop, the Replicators in Stargate, the Cylons in Battlestar Galactica, The Matrix, and I, Robot.) Some fictional robots are programmed to kill and destroy; others gain superhuman intelligence and abilities by upgrading their own software and hardware. Examples of popular media where the robot becomes evil are 2001: A Space Odyssey, Red Planet and Enthiran. Another common theme is the reaction, sometimes called the "uncanny valley", of unease and even revulsion at the sight of robots that mimic humans too closely.^[122] Frankenstein (1818), often called the first science fiction novel, has become synonymous with the theme of a robot or monster advancing beyond its creator. In the TV show, Futurama, the robots are portrayed as humanoid figures that live alongside humans, not as robotic butlers. They still work in industry, but these robots carry out daily lives.
Manuel De Landa has noted that "smart missiles" and autonomous bombs equipped with artificial perception can be considered robots, and they make some of their decisions autonomously. He believes this represents an important and dangerous trend in which humans are handing over important decisions to machines.^[123]
Marauding robots may have entertainment value, but unsafe use of robots constitutes an actual danger. A heavy industrial robot with powerful actuators and unpredictably complex behavior can cause harm, for instance by stepping on a human's foot or falling on a human. Most industrial robots operate inside a security fence which separates them from human workers, but not all. Two robot-caused deaths are those of Robert Williams and Kenji Urada. Robert Williams was struck by a robotic arm at a casting plant in Flat Rock, Michigan on January 25, 1979. ^[124] Kenji Urada, a 37-year-old Japanese factory worker, was killed in 1981; Urada was performing routine maintenance on the robot, but neglected to shut it down properly, and was accidentally pushed into a grinding machine.^[125]

[edit] Timeline

Date	Significance	Robot name	Inventor
1st century AD and earlier	Descriptions of over a hundred machines and automata, including a fire engine, wind organ, coin-operated machine, and steam-powered aeliopile, in Pneumatica and Automata by Heron		Ctesibius, Philo, Heron, and others
1206	Early programmable automata	Robot band^[12]	Al-Jazari
c. 1495	Designs for a humanoid robot	Mechanical knight	Leonardo da Vinci
1738	Mechanical duck that was able to eat, flap its wings, and excrete	Digesting Duck	Jacques de Vaucanson
19th century	Japanese mechanical toys that served tea, fired arrows, and painted	Karakuri toys	Hisashige Tanaka
1898	radio controlled robot boats, Tesla demonstrated the vessels to a crowd in an indoor pool at Madison Square Garden in New York City.	Telautomatons	Nikola Tesla
1921	First fictional automata called "robots" appear in the play R.U.R.	Rossum's Universal Robots	Karel Čapek
1928	Humanoid robot, based on a suit of armor with electrical actuators, exhibited at the annual exhibition of the Model Engineers Society in London	Eric	W. H. Richards
1930s	Humanoid robot exhibited at the 1939 and 1940 World's Fairs	Elektro	Westinghouse Electric Corporation
1948	Simple robots exhibiting biological behaviors^[126]	Elsie and Elmer	William Grey Walter
1956	First commercial robot, from the Unimation company founded by George Devol and Joseph Engelberger, based on Devol's patents^[127]	Unimate	George Devol
1961	First installed industrial robot	Unimate	George Devol
1963	First palletizing robot^[128]	Palletizer	Fuji Yusoki Kogyo
1973	First robot with six electromechanically driven axes^[129]	Famulus	KUKA Robotics
1975	Programmable universal manipulation arm, a Unimation product	PUMA	Victor Scheinman

[edit] Literature

A gynoid, or robot designed to resemble a woman, can appear comforting to some people and disturbing to others^[122]

Main article: Robots in literature

Robotic characters, androids (artificial men/women) or gynoids (artificial women), and cyborgs (also "bionic men/women", or humans with significant mechanical enhancements) have become a staple of science fiction.
The first reference in Western literature to mechanical servants appears in Homer's Iliad. In Book XVIII, Hephaestus, god of fire, creates new armor for the hero Achilles, assisted by robots.^[130] According to the Rieu translation, "Golden maidservants hastened to help their master. They looked like real women and could not only speak and use their limbs but were endowed with intelligence and trained in handwork by the immortal gods." Of course, the words "robot" or "android" are not used to describe them, but they are nevertheless mechanical devices human in appearance. "The first use of the word Robot was in Karel Čapek's play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) (written in 1920)" Robots in literature.
The most prolific author of stories about robots was Isaac Asimov^{[citation needed]} (1920–1992), who placed robots and their interaction with society at the center of many of his works.^[131]^[132] Asimov carefully considered the problem of the ideal set of instructions robots might be given in order to lower the risk to humans, and arrived at his Three Laws of Robotics: a robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm; a robot must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law; and a robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.^[133] These were introduced in his 1942 short story "Runaround", although foreshadowed in a few earlier stories. Later, Asimov added the Zeroth Law: "A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm"; the rest of the laws are modified sequentially to acknowledge this.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first passage in Asimov's short story "Liar!" (1941) that mentions the First Law is the earliest recorded use of the word robotics. Asimov was not initially aware of this; he assumed the word already existed by analogy with mechanics, hydraulics, and other similar terms denoting branches of applied knowledge

2011-07-29T01:20:00.001-07:00

The Kargil War (Hindi: करगिल युद्ध kārgil yuddh),(Urdu: کارگل جنگ kārgil jang), also known as the Kargil conflict,^{[note (I)]} was an armed conflict between India and Pakistan that took place between May and July 1999 in the Kargil district of Kashmir and elsewhere along the Line of Control (LOC). The conflict is also referred to as Operation Vijay (Victory in Hindi) which was the name of the Indian operation to clear the Kargil sector.^[12]
The cause of the war was the infiltration of Pakistani soldiers and Kashmiri militants into positions on the Indian side of the LOC,^[13] which serves as the de facto border between the two states. During the initial stages of the war, Pakistan blamed the fighting entirely on independent Kashmiri insurgents, but documents left behind by casualties and later statements by Pakistan's Prime Minister and Chief of Army Staff showed involvement of Pakistani paramilitary forces,^[14]^[15]^[16] led by General Ashraf Rashid.^[17] The Indian Army, later on supported by the Indian Air Force, recaptured a majority of the positions on the Indian side of the LOC infiltrated by the Pakistani troops and militants. With international diplomatic opposition, the Pakistani forces withdrew from the remaining Indian positions along the LOC.
The war is one of the most recent examples of high altitude warfare in mountainous terrain, which posed significant logistical problems for the combating sides. This was only the second direct ground war between any two countries after they had developed nuclear weapons; it is also the most recent. (India and Pakistan both test-detonated fission devices in May 1998, though the first Indian nuclear test was conducted in 1974.)

Location

Before the Partition of India in 1947, Kargil was part of the Baltistan district of Ladakh, a sparsely populated region with diverse linguistic, ethnic and religious groups, living in isolated valleys separated by some of the world's highest mountains. The First Kashmir War (1947–48) concluded with the LOC bisecting the Baltistan district, with the town and district of Kargil lying on the Indian side in the Ladakh subdivision of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir.^[18] After Pakistan's defeat in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the two nations signed the Simla Agreement promising not to engage in armed conflict with respect to that boundary.^[19]

Location of the conflict

The town of Kargil is located 205 km (120 miles) from Srinagar,^[20] facing the Northern Areas across the LOC. Like other areas in the Himalayas, Kargil has a temperate climate. Summers are cool with frigid nights, while winters are long and chilly with temperatures often dropping to −48 °C (−54 °F).^[21]
An Indian national highway (NH 1D) connecting Srinagar to Leh cuts through Kargil. The area that witnessed the infiltration and fighting is a 160 km long stretch of ridges overlooking this only road linking Srinagar and Leh.^[13] The military outposts on the ridges above the highway were generally around 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) high, with a few as high as 5,485 metres (18,000 ft).^[22] Apart from the district capital, Kargil, the populated areas near the front line in the conflict included the Mushko Valley and the town of Drass, southwest of Kargil, as well as the Batalik sector and other areas, northeast of Kargil.
One of the reasons why Kargil was targeted was that the terrain surrounding it, lent itself to pre-emptive seizure of unoccupied military positions.^[23] With tactically vital features and well-prepared defensive posts atop the peaks, a defender of the high ground would enjoy advantages akin to a fortress. Any attack to dislodge a defender from high ground in mountain warfare requires a far higher ratio of attackers to defenders,^[24] and the difficulties would be exacerbated by the high altitude and freezing temperatures.^[25]
Kargil is just 173 km (108 mi) from the Pakistani-controlled town of Skardu, which was capable of providing logistical and artillery support to Pakistani combatants.

Background

The town of Kargil is strategically located.

After the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, there had been a long period with relatively few direct armed conflicts involving the military forces of the two neighbors - notwithstanding the efforts of both nations to control the Siachen Glacier by establishing military outposts on the surrounding mountains ridges and the resulting military skirmishes in the 1980s.^[26] During the 1990s, however, escalating tensions and conflict due to separatist activities in Kashmir, some of which were supported by Pakistan^{[citation needed]}, as well as the conducting of nuclear tests by both countries in 1998, led to an increasingly belligerent atmosphere. In an attempt to defuse the situation, both countries signed the Lahore Declaration in February 1999, promising to provide a peaceful and bilateral solution to the Kashmir conflict.
During the winter of 1998 -1999, some elements of the Pakistani Armed Forces were covertly training and sending Pakistani troops and paramilitary forces, some allegedly in the guise of mujahideen, into territory on the Indian side of the LOC. The infiltration was code named "Operation Badr";^[27] its aim was to sever the link between Kashmir and Ladakh, and cause Indian forces to withdraw from the Siachen Glacier, thus forcing India to negotiate a settlement of the broader Kashmir dispute. Pakistan also believed that any tension in the region would internationalise the Kashmir issue, helping it to secure a speedy resolution. Yet another goal may have been to boost the morale of the decade-long rebellion in Indian Administered Kashmir by taking a proactive role. Some writers have speculated that the operation's objective may also have been as a retaliation for India's Operation Meghdoot in 1984 that seized much of Siachen Glacier.^[28]
According to India's then army chief Ved Prakash Malik, and many other scholars,^[29]^[30] much of the background planning, including construction of logistical supply routes, had been undertaken much earlier. On several occasions during the 1980s and 1990s, the army had given Pakistani leaders (Zia ul Haq and Benazir Bhutto) similar proposals for infiltration into the Kargil region, but the plans had been shelved for fear of drawing the nations into all-out war.^[31]^[32]^[33]
Some analysts believe that the blueprint of attack was reactivated soon after Pervez Musharraf was appointed chief of army staff in October 1998.^[27]^[34] After the war, Nawaz Sharif, Prime Minister of Pakistan during the Kargil conflict, claimed that he was unaware of the plans, and that he first learned about the situation when he received an urgent phone call from Atal Bihari Vajpayee, his counterpart in India.^[35] Sharif attributed the plan to Musharraf and "just two or three of his cronies",^[36] a view shared by some Pakistani writers who have stated that only four generals, including Musharraf, knew of the plan.^[31]^[37] Musharraf, however, asserted that Sharif had been briefed on the Kargil operation 15 days ahead of Vajpayee's journey to Lahore on February 20.^[38]

War progress

Further information: Kargil order of battle

Conflict Events

DATE	HISTORICAL EVENT
May 3, 1999	Pakistani intrusion in Kargil reported by local shepherds
May 5	Indian Army patrols sent up; Five Indian soldier captured and tortured to death.
May 9	Heavy shelling by Pakistan Army damages ammunition dump in Kargil
May 10	Infiltrations first noticed in Dras, Kaksar and Mushkoh sectors
Mid-May	Indian Army moves in more troops from Kashmir Valley to Kargil Sector
May 26	IAF launches air strikes against infiltrators
May 27	IAF looses two fighters — MiG-21 and MiG-29;. Flt Lt Nachiketa taken POW (Prisioner of War)
May 28	IAF MI-17 shot down by Pakistan; four air crew dead
June 1	Pakistan steps up attacks; bombs NH-1-A
June 5	Indian Army releases documents recovered from three Pakistani soldiers indicating Pakistan’s involvement
June 6	Indian Army launches major offensive in Kargil
June 9	Indian Army re-captures two key positions in the Batalic sector
June 11	India releases intercepts of conversation between Pakistani Army Chief Gen Pervez Musharraf, while on a visit to China and Chief of General Staff Lt Gen Aziz Khan in Rawalpindi, as proof of Pakistani Army’s involvement
June 13	Indian Army secures Tololing in Dras
June 15	US President Bill Clinton, in a telephonic conversation, asks Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif to pull out from Kargil
June 29	Indian Army captures two vital posts — Point 5060 and Point 5100 near Tiger Hill
July 2	Indian Army launches three-pronged attack in Kargil
July 4	Indian Army recaptures Tiger Hill after an 11-hour battle
July 5	Indian Army takes control of Dras. Sharif announces Pakistani army’s withdrawal from Kargil following his meeting with Clinton
July 7	India recaptures Jubar Heights in Batalik
July 11	Pakistan begins pullout; India captures key peaks in Batalik
July 14	PM Vajpayee declares operation Vijay a success. Government sets condition for talks with Pakistan
July 26	Kargil conflict officially comes to an end. Indian Army announces complete eviction of Pak intruders

^[39]^[40]
There were three major phases to the Kargil War. First, Pakistan infiltrated forces into the Indian-controlled section of Kashmir and occupied strategic locations enabling it to bring NH1 within range of its artillery fire. The next stage consisted of India discovering the infiltration and mobilizing forces to respond to it. The final stage involved major battles by Indian and Pakistani forces resulting in India recapturing some territory held by Pakistani forces and the subsequent withdrawal of Pakistani forces back across the Line of Control after international pressure.

Occupation by Pakistan

Infiltration and military build-up.

During the winter season, due to extreme cold in the snow-capped mountainous areas of Kashmir, it was a common practice for both the Indian and Pakistan Armies to abandon some forward posts on their respective sides of the LOC and to reduce patrolling of areas that may be avenues of infiltration. When weather conditions became less severe, forward posts would be reoccupied and patrolling resumed.
During February 1999, the Pakistan Army began to re-occupy the posts it had abandoned on its side of the LOC in the Kargil region, but also sent forces to occupy some posts on the Indian side of the LOC.^[41] Troops from the elite Special Services Group as well as four to seven battalions^[42]^[43] of the Northern Light Infantry (a paramilitary regiment not part of the regular Pakistani army at that time) covertly and overtly set up bases on the vantage points of the Indian-controlled region. According to some reports, these Pakistani forces were backed by Kashmiri guerrillas and Afghan mercenaries.^[44]
Pakistani intrusions took place in the heights of the lower Mushkoh Valley, along the Marpo La ridgeline in Dras, in Kaksar near Kargil, in the Batalik sector east of the Indus River, on the heights above of the Chorbatla sector where the LOC turns North and in the Turtok sector south of the Siachen area.

India discovers infiltration and mobilizes

Initially, these incursions were not detected for a number of reasons: Indian patrols were not sent into some of the areas infiltrated by the Pakistani forces and heavy artillery fire by Pakistan in some areas provided cover for the infiltrators. But by the second week of May, the ambushing of an Indian patrol team led by Capt Saurabh Kalia,^[45] who acted on a tip-off by a local shepherd in the Batalik sector, led to the exposure of the infiltration. Initially, with little knowledge of the nature or extent of the infiltration, the Indian troops in the area assumed that the infiltrators were jihadis and claimed that they would evict them within a few days. Subsequent discovery of infiltration elsewhere along the LOC, and the difference in tactics employed by the infiltrators, caused the Indian army to realize that the plan of attack was on a much bigger scale. The total area seized by the ingress is generally accepted to between 130 km² - 200 km²;^[37]^[42]^[46]
The Government of India responded with Operation Vijay, a mobilisation of 200,000 Indian troops. However, because of the nature of the terrain, division and corps operations could not be mounted; subsequent fighting was conducted mostly at the regimental or battalion level. In effect, two divisions of the Indian Army,^[47] numbering 20,000, plus several thousand from the Paramilitary forces of India and the air force were deployed in the conflict zone. The total number of Indian soldiers that were involved in the military operation on the Kargil-Drass sector was thus close to 30,000. The number of infiltrators, including those providing logistical backup, has been put at approximately 5,000 at the height of the conflict.^[13]^[37]^[44] This figure includes troops from Pakistan-administered Kashmir who provided additional artillery support.
The Indian Air Force launched Operation Safed Sagar in support of the mobilization of Indian land forces, but its effectiveness during the war was limited by the high altitude and weather conditions, which in turn limited bomb loads and the number of airstrips that could be used.
The Indian Navy also prepared to blockade the Pakistani ports (primarily Karachi port)^[48] to cut off supply routes.^[49] Later, the then-Prime Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif disclosed that Pakistan was left with just six days of fuel to sustain itself if a full-fledged war had broken out.^[13]

India attacks Pakistani positions

It has been suggested that Operation Vijay (1999) be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since October 2009.

The terrain of Kashmir is mountainous and at high altitudes; even the best roads, such as National Highway 1D from Leh to Srinagar, are only two lanes. The rough terrain and narrow roads slowed traffic, and the high altitude, which affected the ability of aircraft to carry loads, made control of NH 1D (the actual stretch of the highway which was under Pakistani fire) a priority for India. From their observation posts, the Pakistani forces had a clear line-of-sight to lay down indirect artillery fire on NH 1D, inflicting heavy casualties on the Indians.^[50] This was a serious problem for the Indian Army as the highway was its main logistical and supply route.^[51] The Pakistani shelling of the arterial road posed the threat of Leh being cut off, though an alternative (and longer) road to Leh existed via Himachal Pradesh.
The infiltrators, apart from being equipped with small arms and grenade launchers, were also armed with mortars, artillery and anti-aircraft guns. Many posts were also heavily mined, with India later stating to having recovered more than 8,000 anti-personnel mines according to an ICBL report.^[52] Pakistan's reconnaissance was done through unmanned aerial vehicles and AN/TPQ-36 Firefinder radars supplied by the US.^[53] The initial Indian attacks were aimed at controlling the hills overlooking NH 1D, with high priority being given to the stretches of the highway near the town of Kargil. The majority of posts along the Line of Control were adjacent to the highway, and therefore the recapture of nearly every infiltrated post increased both the territorial gains and the security of the highway. The protection of this route and the recapture of the forward posts were thus ongoing objectives throughout the war.
The Indian Army's first priority was to recapture peaks that were in the immediate vicinity of NH 1D. This resulted in Indian troops first targeting the Tiger Hill and Tololing complex in Dras, which dominated the Srinagar-Leh route.^[54] This was soon followed by the Batalik-Turtok sub-sector which provided access to Siachen Glacier. Some of the peaks that were of vital strategic importance to the Pakistani defensive troops were Point 4590 and Point 5353. While 4590 was the nearest point that had a view of NH 1D, point 5353 was the highest feature in the Dras sector, allowing the Pakistani troops to observe NH 1D.^[55] The recapture of Point 4590 by Indian troops on June 14 was significant, notwithstanding the fact that it resulted in the Indian Army suffering the most casualties in a single battle during the conflict.^[56] Though most of the posts in the vicinity of the highway were cleared by mid-June, some parts of the highway near Drass witnessed sporadic shelling until the end of the war.

IAF MiG-21s were used extensively in the Kargil war.

Once India regained control of the hills overlooking NH 1D, the Indian Army turned to driving the invading force back across the Line of Control. The Battle of Tololing, among other assaults, slowly tilted the combat in India's favor. The Pakistani troops at Tololing were aided by Pakistani fighters from Kashmir. Some of the posts put up a stiff resistance, including Tiger Hill (Point 5140) that fell only later in the war. Indian troops found well-entrenched Pakistani soldiers at Tiger Hill, and both sides suffered heavy casualties. After a final assault on the peak in which 10 Pakistani soldiers and 5 Indian soldiers were killed, Tiger Hill finally fell. A few of the assaults occurred atop hitherto unheard of peaks – most of them unnamed with only Point numbers to differentiate them – which witnessed fierce hand to hand combat.
As the operation was fully underway, about 250 artillery guns were brought in to clear the infiltrators in the posts that were in the line-of-sight. The Bofors FH-77B field howitzer played a vital role, with Indian gunners making maximum use of the terrain that assisted such an attack. However, its success was limited elsewhere due to the lack of space and depth to deploy the Bofors gun.
It was in this type of terrain that aerial attacks were used with limited effectiveness. French made Mirage 2000H of the IAF were tasked to drop laser-guided bombs to destroy well-entrenched positions of the Pakistani forces.^[13] However, The IAF lost a MiG-27 strike aircraft which it attributed to an engine failure as well as a MiG-21 fighter which was shot down by Pakistan; initially Pakistan said it shot down both jets after they crossed into its territory.^[57] One Mi-8 helicopter was also lost, due to Stinger SAMs.

During the Kargil conflict IAF Mirage 2000Hs carried out strike missions.

On May 27, 1999, Flt. Lt. Nachiketa developed engine trouble in the Batalik sector and bailed out of his craft. Sqn Ldr Ajay Ahuja went out of his way to locate his comrade but was shot down by a shoulder-fired Stinger missile. According to reports, he had bailed out of his stricken plane safely but was apparently killed by his captors as his body was returned riddled with bullet wounds.^[13]
In many vital points, neither artillery nor air power could dislodge the outposts manned by the Pakistani soldiers, who were out of visible range. The Indian Army mounted some direct frontal ground assaults which were slow and took a heavy toll given the steep ascent that had to be made on peaks as high as 18,000 feet (5,500 m). Since any daylight attack would be suicidal, all the advances had to be made under the cover of darkness, escalating the risk of freezing. Accounting for the wind chill factor, the temperatures were often as low as −15 °C to −11 °C (12 °F to 5 °F) near the mountain tops. Based on military tactics, much of the costly frontal assaults by the Indians could have been avoided if the Indian Military had chosen to blockade the supply route of the opposing force, virtually creating a siege. Such a move would have involved the Indian troops crossing the LoC as well as initiating aerial attacks on Pakistan soil, a manoeuvre India was not willing to exercise fearing an expansion of the theatre of war and reducing international support for its cause.
Two months into the conflict, Indian troops had slowly retaken most of the ridges that were encroached by the infiltrators;^[58]^[59] according to official count, an estimated 75%–80% of the intruded area and nearly all high ground was back under Indian control.^[27]

Withdrawal and final battles

Following the outbreak of armed fighting, Pakistan sought American help in de-escalating the conflict. Bruce Riedel, aide to then President Bill Clinton reported that the US intelligence had imaged Pakistani movements of nuclear weapons to forward deployments for fear of the Kargil hostilities escalating into a wider conflict between the two countries. However, President Clinton refused to intervene until Pakistan had removed all forces from the Indian side of the Line of Control.^[60] Following the Washington accord on July 4, where Sharif agreed to withdraw Pakistani troops, most of the fighting came to a gradual halt, but some Pakistani forces remained in positions on the Indian side of the LOC. In addition, the United Jihad Council (an umbrella for extremist groups) rejected Pakistan's plan for a climb-down, instead deciding to fight on.^[61]
The Indian army launched its final attacks in the last week of July; as soon as the Drass subsector had been cleared of Pakistani forces, the fighting ceased on July 26. The day has since been marked as Kargil Vijay Diwas (Kargil Victory Day) in India. By the end of the war, India had resumed control of all territory south and east of the Line of Control, as was established in July 1972 as per the Simla Agreement.

World opinion

Pakistan was criticised by other countries for instigating the war, as its paramilitary forces and insurgents crossed the Line of Control.^[62] Pakistan's primary diplomatic response, one of plausible deniability linking the incursion to what it officially termed as "Kashmiri freedom fighters", was in the end not successful.^[63] Veteran analysts argued that the battle was fought at heights where only seasoned troops could survive, so poorly equipped "freedom fighters" would neither have the ability nor the wherewithal to seize land and defend it. Moreover, while the army had initially denied the involvement of its troops in the intrusion, two soldiers were awarded the Nishan-E-Haider (Pakistan's highest military honour). Another 90 soldiers were also given gallantry awards, most of them posthumously, confirming Pakistan's role in the episode. India also released taped phone conversations between the Army Chief and a senior Pakistani general where the latter is recorded saying: "the scruff of [the militants] necks is in our hands,"^[64] although Pakistan dismissed it as a "total fabrication". Concurrently, Pakistan made several contradicting statements, confirming its role in Kargil, when it defended the incursions saying that the LOC itself was disputed.^[65] Pakistan also attempted to internationalize the Kashmir issue, by linking the crisis in Kargil to the larger Kashmir conflict but, such a diplomatic stance found few backers on the world stage.^[66]
As the Indian counter-attacks picked up momentum, Pakistani prime minister Nawaz Sharif flew to meet U.S. President Bill Clinton on July 4 to obtain support from the United States. Clinton rebuked Sharif, however, and asked him to use his contacts to rein in the militants and withdraw Pakistani soldiers from Indian territory. Clinton would later reveal in his autobiography that "Sharif's moves were perplexing" since the Indian Prime Minister had travelled to Lahore to promote bilateral talks aimed at resolving the Kashmir problem and "by crossing the Line of Control, Pakistan had wrecked the [bilateral] talks."^[67] On the other hand, he applauded Indian restraint for not crossing the LoC and escalating the conflict into an all-out war.^[68]
G8 nations supported India and condemned the Pakistani violation of the LOC at the Cologne summit. The European Union also opposed Pakistan's violation of the LOC.^[69] China, a long-time ally of Pakistan, insisted on a pullout of forces to the pre-conflict positions along the LoC and settling border issues peacefully. Other organizations like the ASEAN Regional Forum too supported India's stand on the inviolability of the LOC.^[66]
Faced with growing international pressure, Sharif managed to pull back the remaining soldiers from Indian territory. The joint statement issued by Clinton and Sharif conveyed the need to respect the Line of Control and resume bilateral talks as the best forum to resolve all disputes.^[70]^[71]

Gallantry awards

A number of Indian soldiers earned awards for gallantry during the campaign.^[72]

Grenadier Yogendra Singh Yadav, 18 Grenadiers, Param Vir Chakra,
Lieutenant Manoj Kumar Pandey, 1/11 Gorkha Rifles, Param Vir Chakra, Posthumous
Captain Vikram Batra, 13 JAK Rifles, Param Vir Chakra, Posthumous
Captain Anuj Nayyar,17 JAT Regiment, Maha Vir Chakra, Posthumous
Major Saravanan, 1 Bihar, Vir Chakra, Posthumous
Squadron Leader Ajay Ahuja, Indian Air Force, Vir Chakra, Posthumous
Rifleman Sanjay Kumar, 13 JAK Rifles, Param Vir Chakra
Major Rajesh Singh Adhikari, 18 Grenadiers, Maha Vir Chakra , Posthumous

Two Pakistani soldiers received the Nishan-e-Haider.^[73]

Captain Karnal Sher Khan, Nishan-e-Haider, Posthumous
Havaldaar Lalak Jan, Northern Light Infantry, Nishan-e-Haider, Posthumous

Impact and influence of media

The Kargil War was significant for the impact and influence of the mass media on public opinion in both nations. Coming at a time of exploding growth in electronic journalism in India, the Kargil news stories and war footage were often telecast live on TV,^[74] and many websites provided in-depth analysis of the war. The conflict became the first "live" war in South Asia;^[75] it was given such detailed media coverage that one effect was the drumming up of jingoistic feelings.
The conflict soon turned into a news propaganda war, in which press briefings given by government officials of each nation produced conflicting claims and counterclaims. The Indian government placed a temporary news embargo on information from Pakistan, banning the telecast of the state-run Pakistani channel PTV^[76] and blocking access to online editions of the Dawn newspaper.^[77] The Pakistani media criticized this apparent curbing of freedom of the press in India, while India media claimed it was in the interest of national security. The Indian government ran advertisements in foreign publications including The Times and The Washington Post detailing Pakistan's role in supporting extremists in Kashmir in an attempt to garner political support for its position.
As the war progressed, media coverage of the conflict was more intense in India than in Pakistan.^[78] Many Indian channels showed images from the battle zone in a style reminiscent of CNN's coverage of the Gulf War (one of the shells fired by Pakistan troops even hit a Doordarshan transmission centre in Kargil while coverage continued).^[79] Reasons for India's increased coverage included the greater number of privately owned electronic media in India compared to Pakistan and relatively greater transparency in the Indian media. At a seminar in Karachi, Pakistani journalists agreed that while the Indian government had taken the press and the people into its confidence, Pakistan had not.^[80]
The print media in India and abroad was largely sympathetic to the Indian cause, with editorials in newspapers based in the west and other neutral countries observing that Pakistan was largely responsible for the conflict. Some analysts believe that Indian media, which was both larger in number and more credible, may have acted as a force multiplier for the Indian military operation in Kargil and served as a morale booster.^[81] As the fighting intensified, the Pakistani version of events found little backing on the world stage. This helped India gain valuable diplomatic recognition for its position.

WMDs and the nuclear factor

Since Pakistan and India each had weapons of mass destruction, many in the international community were concerned that if the Kargil conflict intensified, it could lead to nuclear war. Both countries had tested their nuclear capability in 1998 (India conducted its first test in 1974 while it was Pakistan's first-ever nuclear test). Many pundits believed the tests to be an indication of the escalating stakes in the scenario in South Asia. When the Kargil conflict started just a year after the nuclear tests, many nations desired to end it before it intensified.
International concerns increased when Pakistani foreign secretary Shamshad Ahmad made a statement on May 31 warning that an escalation of the limited conflict could lead Pakistan to use "any weapon" in its arsenal.^[82] This was immediately interpreted as a threat of nuclear retaliation by Pakistan in the event of an extended war, and the belief was reinforced when the leader of Pakistan's senate noted, "The purpose of developing weapons becomes meaningless if they are not used when they are needed."^[83] Many such ambiguous statements from officials of both countries were viewed as warnings of an impending nuclear crisis where the combatants would consider use of their limited nuclear arsenals in 'tactical' nuclear warfare in the belief that it would not have ended in mutual assured destruction, as could have occurred in a nuclear conflict between the United States and the USSR. Some experts believe that following nuclear tests in 1998, the Pakistani military was emboldened by its nuclear deterrent to markedly increase coercion against India.^[84]
The nature of the India-Pakistan conflict took a more sinister turn when the U.S. received intelligence that Pakistani nuclear warheads were being moved towards the border. Bill Clinton tried to dissuade Pakistan prime minister Nawaz Sharif from nuclear brinkmanship, even threatening Pakistan of dire consequences. According to a White House official, Sharif seemed to be genuinely surprised by this supposed missile movement and responded that India was probably planning the same. In an article in May 2000 Dr Sanjay Badri-Maharaj claimed that India too had readied at least five nuclear-tipped ballistic missiles, but could not back up this claim with any official proof.^[85]
Sensing a deteriorating military scenario, diplomatic isolation, and the risks of a larger conventional and nuclear war, Sharif ordered the Pakistani army to vacate the Kargil heights. He later claimed in his official biography that General Pervez Musharraf had moved nuclear warheads without informing him.^[86] Recently however, Pervez Musharraf revealed in his memoirs that Pakistan's nuclear delivery system was not operational during the Kargil war;^[42] something that would have put Pakistan under serious disadvantage if the conflict went nuclear.
The threat of WMD included chemical and even biological weapons. Pakistan accused India of using chemical weapons and incendiary weapons such as napalm against the Kashmiri fighters. India, on the other hand, showcased a cache of gas masks as proof that Pakistan may have been prepared to use non-conventional weapons. US official and the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons determined that Pakistani allegations of India using banned chemicals in its bombs were unfounded.^[87]^{[dead link]}

Aftermath

India

Indian PM A.B.Vajpayee flashes the V sign after the Parliamentary elections in which his coalition emerged the victors. His handling of the Kargil crisis is believed to have played a big part in garnering the votes.

From the end of the war until February 2000, the Indian stock market rose by over 30%. The next Indian national budget included major increases in military spending.
There was a surge in patriotism, with many celebrities expressing their support for the Kargil cause.^[88] Indians were angered by media reports of the death of pilot Ajay Ahuja, especially after Indian authorities reported that Ahuja had been murdered and his body mutilated by Pakistani troops. The war had produced higher than expected fatalities for the Indian military, with a sizeable percentage of them including newly commissioned officers. One month after conclusion of the Kargil war, the Atlantique Incident - where a Pakistan Navy plane was shot down by India - briefly reignited fears of a conflict between the two countries.
After the war, the Indian government severed ties with Pakistan and increased defence preparedness. India increased its defence budget as it sought to acquire more state of the art equipment.^[89] Media reported about military procurement irregularities^[90] and criticism of intelligence agencies like Research and Analysis Wing, which failed to predict the intrusions or the identity/number of infiltrators during the war. An internal assessment report by the armed forces, published in an Indian magazine, showed several other failings, including "a sense of complacency" and being "unprepared for a conventional war" on the presumption that nuclearism would sustain peace. It also highlighted the lapses in command and control, the insufficient troop levels and the dearth of large-calibre guns like the Bofors.^[91] In 2006, retired Air Chief Marshal, A.Y. Tipnis, alleged that the Indian Army did not fully inform the government about the intrusions, adding that the army chief Ved Prakash Malik, was initially reluctant to use the full strike capability of the Indian Air Force, instead requesting only helicopter gunship support.^[92] Soon after the conflict, India also decided to complete the project - previously stalled by Pakistan - to fence the entire LOC.^[93]
The end of the Kargil conflict was followed by the 13th Indian General Elections to the Lok Sabha, which gave a decisive mandate to the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government. It was re-elected to power in September–October 1999 with a majority of 303 seats out of 545 in the Lok Sabha. On the diplomatic front, Indo-U.S. relations improved, as the United States appreciated Indian attempts to restrict the conflict to a limited geographic area.^[94] Relations with Israel – which had discreetly aided India with ordnance supply and matériel such as unmanned aerial vehicles and laser-guided bombs, as well as satellite imagery – also were bolstered.^[95]

Kargil Review Committee

Soon after the war the Atal Behari Vajpayee government set up an inquiry into its causes and to analyze perceived Indian intelligence failures. The high-powered committee was chaired by eminent strategic affairs analyst K. Subrahmanyam and given powers to interview anyone with current or past associations with Indian security, including former Prime Ministers. The committee's final report (also referred to as the 'Subrahmanyam Report'^[96]) led to a large-scale restructuring of Indian Intelligence.^[97] It, however, came in for heavy criticism in the Indian media for its perceived avoidance of assigning specific responsibility for failures over detecting the Kargil intrusions.^[98] The Committee was also embroiled in controversy for indicting Brigadier Surinder Singh of the Indian Army for his failure to report enemy intrusions in time, and for his subsequent conduct. Many press reports questioned or contradicted this finding and claimed that Singh had in fact issued early warnings that were ignored by senior Indian Army commanders and, ultimately, higher government functionaries.^[99]^[100]^[101]
In a departure from the norm the final report was published and made publicly available.^[102] Some chapters and all annexures, however, were deemed to contain classified information by the government and not released. K. Subrahmanyam later wrote that the annexures contained information on the development of India's nuclear weapons program and the roles played by Prime Ministers Rajiv Gandhi, P. V. Narasimha Rao and V P Singh.^[103]^[104]

Pakistan

Faced with the possibility of international isolation, the already fragile Pakistani economy was weakened further.^[105]^[106] The morale of Pakistani forces after the withdrawal declined as many units of the Northern Light Infantry suffered heavy casualties.^[22]^[107] The government refused to accept the dead bodies of many officers,^[108]^[109] an issue that provoked outrage and protests in the Northern Areas.^[110]^[111] Pakistan initially did not acknowledge many of its casualties, but Sharif later said that over 4,000 Pakistani troops were killed in the operation.^[10] Responding to this, Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf said, "It hurts me when an ex-premier undermines his own forces," and claimed that Indian casualties were more than that of Pakistan.^[112]
Many in Pakistan had expected a victory over the Indian military based on Pakistani official reports on the war,^[105] but were dismayed by the turn of events and questioned the eventual retreat.^[31]^[113] The military leadership is believed to have felt let down by the prime minister's decision to withdraw the remaining fighters. However, some authors, including ex-CENTCOM Commander Anthony Zinni, and ex-PM Nawaz Sharif, state that it was General Musharraf who requested Sharif to withdraw the Pakistani troops.^[114]^[115] With Sharif placing the onus of the Kargil attacks squarely on the army chief Pervez Musharraf, there was an atmosphere of uneasiness between the two. On October 12, 1999, General Musharraf staged a bloodless coup d'état, ousting Nawaz Sharif.
Benazir Bhutto, an opposition leader and former prime minister, called the Kargil War "Pakistan's greatest blunder".^[116] Many ex-officials of the military and the Inter-Services Intelligence (Pakistan's principal intelligence agency) also believed that "Kargil was a waste of time" and "could not have resulted in any advantage" on the larger issue of Kashmir.^[117] A retired Pakistani Army General, Lt Gen Ali Kuli Khan, lambasted the war as "a disaster bigger than the East Pakistan tragedy",^[118] adding that the plan was "flawed in terms of its conception, tactical planning and execution" that ended in "sacrificing so many soldiers."^[118]^[119] The Pakistani media criticized the whole plan and the eventual climbdown from the Kargil heights since there were no gains to show for the loss of lives and it only resulted in international condemnation.^[120]
Despite calls by many, no public commission of inquiry was set up in Pakistan to investigate the people responsible for initiating the conflict. The Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML(N)) published a white paper in 2006, which stated that Nawaz Sharif constituted an inquiry committee that recommended a court martial for General Pervez Musharraf, but Musharraf "stole the report" after toppling the government, to save himself.^[121] The report also claims that India knew about the plan 11 months before its launch, enabling a complete victory for India on military, diplomatic and economic fronts.^[122] A statement in June, 2008 by a former Pakistan Army X Corps Core-commander and Director-General of Military Intelligence (M.I.) that time, Lieutenant-General (retired) Jamshed Gulzar Kiani said that As Prime minister, Nawaz Sharif "was never briefed by the army" on the Kargil attack,^[123] reignited the demand for a probe of the episode by legal and political groups.^[124]^[125]
Though the Kargil conflict had brought the Kashmir dispute into international focus – which was one of the aims of Pakistan – it had done so in negative circumstances that eroded its credibility, since the infiltration came just after a peace process between the two countries was underway. The sanctity of the LOC too received international recognition. President Clinton's move to ask Islamabad to withdraw hundreds of armed militants from Indian-administered Kashmir was viewed by many in Pakistan as indicative of a clear shift in US policy against Pakistan.^[126]
After the war, a few changes were made to the Pakistan army. In recognition of the Northern Light Infantry's performance in the war - which even drew praise from a retired Indian Lt. General^[50] - the regiment was incorporated into the regular army. The war showed that despite a tactically sound plan that had the element of surprise, little groundwork had been done to gauge the politico-diplomatic ramifications.^[127] And like previous unsuccessful infiltrations attempts, such as Operation Gibraltar, which sparked the 1965 war, there was little coordination or information sharing among the branches of the Pakistani Armed Forces. One U.S. Intelligence study is reported to have stated that Kargil was yet another example of Pakistan's (lack of) grand strategy, repeating the follies of the previous wars.^[128]

Casualties

Memorial of Operation Vijay.

Pakistan army losses have been difficult to determine. Pakistan confirmed that 453 soldiers were killed. The US Department of State had made an early, partial estimate of close to 700 fatalities. According to numbers stated by Nawaz Sharif there were over 4,000 fatalities. His PML (N) party in its "white paper" on the war mentioned that more than 3,000 Mujahideens, officers and soldiers were killed.^[129] Another major Pakistani political party, the Pakistan Peoples Party, also says that "thousands" of soldiers and irregulars died.^[130] Indian estimates stand at 1,042 Pakistani soldiers killed.^[131] Musharraf, in his Hindi version of his memoirs, titled "Agnipath", differs from all the estimates stating that 357 troops were killed with a further 665 wounded.^[9] Apart from General Musharraf's figure on the number of Pakistanis wounded, the number of people injured in the Pakistan camp is not yet fully known although they are at least more than 400 according to Pakistan army's website.^[132] One Indian Pilot was officially captured during the fighting, while there were eight Pakistani soldiers who were captured during the fighting, and were repatriated on 13 August 1999;^[11]
India gave its official casualty figures as 527 dead and 1,363 wounded.

Kargil War in the arts

The brief conflict provided considerable dramatic material for filmmakers and authors in India. Some documentaries which were shot on the subject were used by the ruling party coalition, led by Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), in furthering its election campaign that immediately followed the war. The following is a list of the major films and dramas on the subject.

"Lord John Marbury (The West Wing)" (1999), 11th episode of the first season depicts a fictionalized representation of the Kargil conflict.
Pentagram's single, 'Price Of Bullets', released in 1999 dealt with the Kargil War.
LOC: Kargil (2003), a Hindi movie which depicts many incidents from the war was one of the longest in Indian movie history, running for more than four hours.^[133]
Lakshya (2004), another Hindi movie portraying a fictionalised account of the conflict. Movie critics have generally appreciated the realistic portrayal of characters.^[134] The film also received good reviews in Pakistan because it portrays both sides fairly.^[135]
Sainika (2002),^[136] the Kannada film directed by Mahesh Sukhdhare depicted the life of a soldier with Kargil war as one of the events. Starring C.P.Yogishwar and Sakshi Shivanand.
Dhoop (2003),^[137] Hindi film, directed by national award winner Ashwini Chaudhary, which depicted the life of Anuj Nayyar's parents after his death. Anuj Nayyar was a captain in the Indian army and was awarded Maha Vir Chakra posthumously. Om Puri plays the role of S.K. Nayyar, Anuj's father.
Mission Fateh - Real Stories of Kargil Heroes, a TV series telecast on Sahara channel chronicling the Indian Army's missions.
Fifty Day War - A theatrical production on the war, directed by Aamir Raza Husain, the title indicating the length of the Kargil conflict. This was claimed to be the biggest production of its kind in Asia, budget of Rs. 1.5 crore, involving real aircraft and explosions in an outdoor setting.^[138]
Kurukshetra(2008) - A Malayalam film directed by a former Indian Army Major - major Ravi (Retd) based on his actual experience of Kargil War.

Many other movies like Tango Charlie^[139] drew heavily upon the Kargil episode, which still continues to be a plot for mainstream movies with a Malayalam movie Keerthi Chakra.^[140] The impact of the war in the sporting arena was also visible during the India-Pakistan clash in the 1999 Cricket World Cup, which coincided with the Kargil timeline. The game witnessed heightened passions and was one of the most viewed matches in the tournament.

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