<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?><?xml-stylesheet href="http://www.blogger.com/styles/atom.css" type="text/css"?><feed xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom' xmlns:openSearch='http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/' xmlns:blogger='http://schemas.google.com/blogger/2008' xmlns:georss='http://www.georss.org/georss' xmlns:gd="http://schemas.google.com/g/2005" xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838</id><updated>2026-11-11T11:10:07.773-05:00</updated><category term="Ejercicios de química resueltos"/><category term="Ejercicios resueltos"/><category term="Genética"/><category term="Teorema"/><category term="demostración"/><category term="Álgebra"/><category term="Unidades y medidas"/><category term="Cuadro de Punnett"/><category term="Herencia autosómica"/><category term="Ligamiento dominante al X"/><category term="biología"/><category term="sexto grado"/><category term="6th grade"/><category term="Ligamiento al cromosoma Z"/><category term="sistema digestivo"/><category term="noveno grado"/><category term="8vo grado"/><category term="ABO y factor Rh"/><category term="Cromosomas sexuales"/><category term="Letalidad dominante"/><category term="Letalidad recesiva"/><category term="Ligamiento recesivo al X"/><category term="Ligamiento recesivo al cromosoma X"/><category term="Sistema ABO"/><category term="10mo grado"/><category term="once grado"/><category term="química de gases"/><category term="11vo grado"/><category term="blog de ciencias naturales"/><category term="introducción a la química"/><category term="Herencia dominante al Z"/><category term="Herencia recesiva al Z"/><category term="Química"/><category term="lenguaje químico"/><category term="disoluciones y propiedades coligativas"/><category term="estequiometría y balance de masas"/><category term="reacciones en disolución acuosa"/><category term="sistema respiratorio"/><category term="Nomenclatura química inorgánica"/><category term="física"/><category term="Colegio Venecia"/><category term="quimica general"/><category term="PRAE"/><category term="esqueleto"/><category term="el átomo moderno"/><category term="La materia y sus propiedades"/><category term="introducción a las ciencias naturales y otros"/><category term="tabla"/><category term="teoría atómica clásica"/><category term="9no grado"/><category term="IED venecia"/><category term="aves"/><category term="biología teórica"/><category term="dem"/><category term="ejer"/><category term="gases"/><category term="ilustración"/><category term="introduc"/><category term="once"/><category term="problemas de gases"/><category term="reciclaje biológico"/><category term="átomo moderno"/><title type='text'>Ciencias de Joseleg</title><subtitle type='html'></subtitle><link rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#feed' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default?redirect=false'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/'/><link rel='hub' href='http://pubsubhubbub.appspot.com/'/><link rel='next' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default?start-index=26&amp;max-results=25&amp;redirect=false'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><generator version='7.00' uri='http://www.blogger.com'>Blogger</generator><openSearch:totalResults>5693</openSearch:totalResults><openSearch:startIndex>1</openSearch:startIndex><openSearch:itemsPerPage>25</openSearch:itemsPerPage><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-9061935670157820869</id><published>2026-11-11T10:21:19.763-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T10:21:19.764-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Polimorfismo, poligenismo y herencia darwiniana</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot; p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/p/genetica-clasica-2.html&quot;&gt;Genética clásica 2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;genética
clásica&lt;/b&gt; relaciona la &lt;b&gt;transmisión de los alelos&lt;/b&gt; con las
características de la &lt;b&gt;descendencia&lt;/b&gt;. Sus modelos permiten formular
preguntas concretas: ¿qué variantes puede transmitir cada progenitor?, ¿qué
combinaciones pueden producirse?, ¿con qué probabilidad aparecerá determinado &lt;b&gt;genotipo&lt;/b&gt;?
Para resolverlas necesitamos identificar primero el &lt;b&gt;modelo biológico&lt;/b&gt; y
después representar matemáticamente sus condiciones.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Mendel ya utilizó
conteos y relaciones numéricas. Tras la recuperación de sus trabajos alrededor
de 1900, Correns, De Vries, Tschermak y otros investigadores participaron en su
interpretación y ampliación. Por tanto, no corresponde atribuir toda la matemática
mendeliana exclusivamente a Correns. La construcción de la &lt;b&gt;genética&lt;/b&gt;
reunió experimentos, debates y aportaciones de distintos investigadores, cuyas
interpretaciones tampoco fueron idénticas (Berry &amp;amp; Browne, 2022). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2122144119&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
&lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9335214/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En esta sección
resolveremos los problemas mediante &lt;b&gt;probabilidades de transmisión&lt;/b&gt;,
productos y sumas. El &lt;b&gt;cuadro de Punnett&lt;/b&gt; organiza las mismas
combinaciones en una tabla, pero no constituye una ley biológica diferente. Es
útil para visualizar cruces sencillos; cuando aumentan los genes o los alelos,
puede resultar demasiado grande. La &lt;b&gt;factorización&lt;/b&gt; permite conservar el
razonamiento sin dibujar cada casilla.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Por ejemplo, en un
cruce entre dos &lt;b&gt;heterocigotos&lt;/b&gt;, Aa y Aa, cada progenitor transmite A con
probabilidad 1/2 y a con probabilidad 1/2. Para obtener AA multiplicamos 1/2 ×
1/2 = 1/4. Para obtener Aa sumamos dos posibilidades: A materno con a paterno,
o a materno con A paterno. El resultado es 1/4 + 1/4 = 1/2.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Este cruce puede
representarse mediante un cuadrado de binomio, pero no todos los &lt;b&gt;cruzamientos&lt;/b&gt;
tienen esa forma. Si los progenitores producen gametos diferentes,
multiplicamos expresiones distintas; si existen varios loci, debemos considerar
su independencia o su &lt;b&gt;ligamiento&lt;/b&gt;. Lo decisivo es comprender qué
representa cada factor, no aplicar una identidad algebraica sin comprobar sus
condiciones.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Notación de los alelos y representación del genotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hasta ahora hemos
utilizado A y a para representar dos &lt;b&gt;alelos&lt;/b&gt; de un mismo &lt;b&gt;gen&lt;/b&gt;. Esta
convención facilita distinguir AA, Aa y aa, pero no basta cuando necesitamos
identificar numerosas variantes. Tampoco debemos suponer que una letra
mayúscula convierte automáticamente cualquier variante en dominante: su
significado depende de la &lt;b&gt;convención genética&lt;/b&gt; adoptada.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En &lt;i&gt;Drosophila
melanogaster&lt;/i&gt;, la nomenclatura distingue variantes mediante símbolos
relacionados históricamente con los &lt;b&gt;fenotipos mutantes&lt;/b&gt;. Por ejemplo, &lt;i&gt;e&lt;/i&gt;
corresponde al gen asociado con el fenotipo ébano. El signo + identifica el &lt;b&gt;alelo
silvestre&lt;/b&gt;, empleado como referencia. No significa «dominante»: una variante
silvestre puede mostrar distintas relaciones de dominancia frente a diferentes
alelos mutantes.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Cuando el símbolo
procede originalmente de una &lt;b&gt;mutación recesiva&lt;/b&gt;, suele comenzar con
minúscula; cuando procede de una mutación dominante, comienza con mayúscula.
Son reglas de nomenclatura, no una clasificación universal de todos los efectos
del gen. Las distintas variantes pueden distinguirse mediante superíndices y
otros identificadores normalizados (FlyBase, s. f.). &lt;a href=&quot;https://wiki.flybase.org/wiki/FlyBase:Nomenclature&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Nomenclatura oficial&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://wiki.flybase.org/wiki/FlyBase%3ANomenclature?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;wiki.flybase.org&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Tabla 1. Representación simplificada del genotipo
para el gen ébano.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent6&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 100%;&quot;&gt;
 &lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 16.96%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;16%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Notación&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 83.04%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;83%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Interpretación&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 16.96%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;16%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;e&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;⁺/&lt;i&gt;e&lt;/i&gt;⁺&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 83.04%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;83%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;Dos copias del alelo silvestre de referencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 16.96%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;16%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;e&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;⁺/&lt;i&gt;e&lt;/i&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 83.04%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;83%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;Individuo heterocigoto.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 16.96%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;16%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;e&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;/&lt;i&gt;e&lt;/i&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 83.04%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;83%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;Individuo homocigoto para el alelo ébano considerado.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La barra separa las
variantes presentes en los &lt;b&gt;cromosomas homólogos&lt;/b&gt;. En esta representación
sencilla, ambos símbolos corresponden al mismo locus, aunque se encuentran en
cromosomas distintos. Conviene evitar la expresión «dos alelos dentro de un
mismo cromosoma»: en una célula diploide típica, cada homólogo aporta una copia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Además, &lt;b&gt;silvestre&lt;/b&gt;
no significa perfecto, superior o invariable. Es una referencia definida dentro
del sistema estudiado. Del mismo modo, «mutante» no significa necesariamente
perjudicial. Para conocer sus consecuencias debemos investigar la función de la
variante y su relación con el &lt;b&gt;ambiente&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Polimorfismo, multialelismo y grupos sanguíneos&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El &lt;b&gt;polimorfismo&lt;/b&gt;
describe la coexistencia de variantes dentro de una población. Su significado
histórico y su uso molecular actual no son exactamente iguales. E. B. Ford
sistematizó su estudio durante las décadas de 1930 y 1940, prestando especial
atención a formas diferenciables de organismos, incluidos insectos con
distintas coloraciones.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En su revisión de
1945 examinó, entre otros fenómenos, el &lt;b&gt;melanismo&lt;/b&gt;, las formas mantenidas
por selección y los grupos sanguíneos humanos. No inventó la observación de que
existían organismos diferentes: contribuyó a delimitar y organizar un problema
de la &lt;b&gt;genética ecológica&lt;/b&gt;, la persistencia de formas distintas en una
misma población (Ford, 1945). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1945.tb00315.x&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1945.tb00315.x?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;onlinelibrary.wiley.com&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El &lt;b&gt;multialelismo&lt;/b&gt;
tiene una definición más específica: existen más de dos alelos de un gen en la
población. Un locus con dos variantes puede ser polimórfico sin ser
multialélico. Asimismo, una diferencia visible entre organismos puede depender
de varios genes. Por ello, &lt;b&gt;polimorfismo&lt;/b&gt;, &lt;b&gt;multialelismo&lt;/b&gt; y &lt;b&gt;herencia
poligénica&lt;/b&gt; no son términos intercambiables.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El sistema &lt;b&gt;ABO&lt;/b&gt;
permite reconocer esta distinción. En el modelo escolar utilizamos tres clases
principales de alelos: Iᴬ, Iᴮ e i. Sin embargo, cada persona diploide suele
poseer solamente dos copias del locus. Las tres alternativas pertenecen al
conjunto poblacional; no están necesariamente reunidas en un individuo.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Tabla 2. Genotipos y fenotipos del modelo básico
del sistema ABO.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent6&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 100%;&quot;&gt;
 &lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 50.92%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Fenotipo
  sanguíneo&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 49.08%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;49%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Genotipos
  posibles&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 50.92%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;A&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 49.08%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;49%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;IᴬIᴬ o Iᴬi&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 50.92%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;B&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 49.08%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;49%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;IᴮIᴮ o Iᴮi&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 50.92%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;AB&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 49.08%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;49%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;IᴬIᴮ&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 50.92%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;O&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 49.08%;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;49%&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;ii&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Este sistema
también muestra que el número de &lt;b&gt;alelos&lt;/b&gt;, &lt;b&gt;genotipos&lt;/b&gt; y &lt;b&gt;fenotipos&lt;/b&gt;
puede ser diferente. Tres clases alélicas producen seis genotipos no ordenados
y cuatro fenotipos principales. Iᴬ e Iᴮ presentan &lt;b&gt;codominancia&lt;/b&gt; entre sí,
mientras i se comporta como recesivo en este modelo. Los estudios moleculares
identifican variantes adicionales dentro de esas clases generales (Yamamoto et
al., 1990). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/345229a0&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2333095/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;PubMed&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;La caja de colores y la variación gradual&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Imaginemos una caja
con seis lápices de colores muy distintos. Podemos separar fácilmente rojo,
azul, amarillo y las demás categorías. Ahora imaginemos una caja con numerosas
tonalidades cercanas: distinguir dos verdes consecutivos exige comparar con cuidado.
La analogía ayuda a comprender por qué ciertos &lt;b&gt;fenotipos&lt;/b&gt; parecen formar
grupos claros, mientras otros presentan numerosas diferencias intermedias.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Sin embargo, seis
colores no equivalen matemáticamente a un cruce trihíbrido. En el modelo de
tres &lt;b&gt;loci independientes&lt;/b&gt;, cada uno con dos estados fenotípicos, pueden
obtenerse ocho combinaciones. La semejanza entre lápices y caracteres sirve
para imaginar categorías, pero no sustituye las reglas del &lt;b&gt;modelo
hereditario&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Tampoco existe un
número universal de categorías a partir del cual una colección finita se
convierta en un &lt;b&gt;continuo matemático&lt;/b&gt;. Podemos tener miles de tonalidades
discretas. En biología, hablamos de &lt;b&gt;variación aproximadamente continua&lt;/b&gt;
cuando los valores intermedios son numerosos y resulta más útil medir el
carácter que dividirlo en unas pocas categorías.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Muchos genes, junto
con el ambiente, pueden generar esa distribución. Fisher mostró en 1918 cómo
los &lt;b&gt;factores mendelianos&lt;/b&gt; podían contribuir conjuntamente a diferencias
cuantitativas entre familiares. Su trabajo ayudó a conectar la transmisión
discreta de los alelos con la continuidad del fenotipo. La &lt;b&gt;genética
cuantitativa&lt;/b&gt; desarrolló esta relación sin exigir que los alelos se
mezclaran o perdieran su identidad (Fisher, 1918). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080456800012163&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/earth-and-environmental-science-transactions-of-royal-society-of-edinburgh/article/abs/xvthe-correlation-between-relatives-on-the-supposition-of-mendelian-inheritance/A60675052E0FB78C561F66C670BC75DE?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;www.cambridge.org&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Cuántos alelos puede tener un gen&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;No existe una cifra
única de &lt;b&gt;alelos por gen humano&lt;/b&gt;. El recuento depende del locus, del
número de personas estudiadas y de qué diferencias consideremos variantes
distintas. Un cambio en una región reguladora, una sustitución dentro de una
proteína y una variante sin efecto conocido pueden contarse por separado según
el propósito del estudio.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;También importa
distinguir las variantes catalogadas de las &lt;b&gt;variantes frecuentes&lt;/b&gt;.
Secuenciar más personas permite descubrir alelos raros que antes no se habían
observado. Un aumento del catálogo no demuestra que todas esas mutaciones hayan
aparecido recientemente: muchas existían y simplemente no habían sido
registradas.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El sistema &lt;b&gt;HLA&lt;/b&gt;
ofrece un ejemplo extraordinario. Sus genes se encuentran dentro del &lt;b&gt;complejo
mayor de histocompatibilidad&lt;/b&gt; y participan en la presentación de fragmentos
moleculares a células del sistema inmunitario. Esta función ayuda al organismo
a reconocer amenazas, aunque también interviene en otros procesos
inmunológicos.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Una publicación de
2026 describió más de &lt;b&gt;43 000 alelos&lt;/b&gt; registrados entre 47 genes del
sistema estudiado. El catálogo oficial consultado el 11 de noviembre de 2026
recogía &lt;b&gt;11 328 alelos para HLA-B&lt;/b&gt;. Son recuentos poblacionales: una
persona diploide típica posee dos copias de ese locus, no miles (Barker et al.,
2026). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkaf1218&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;;
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ebi.ac.uk/ipd/imgt/hla/about/statistics/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;estadísticas oficiales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41251166/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descripción
matemática del polimorfismo tampoco corresponde a un único descubrimiento.
Hardy y Weinberg contribuyeron en 1908 al estudio de las frecuencias genéticas
poblacionales; Fisher, Haldane y Wright ampliaron después sus fundamentos. En
un modelo con apareamiento aleatorio, un alelo de frecuencia p puede formar
homocigotos con frecuencia esperada p². Estas expresiones requieren supuestos y
no describen automáticamente cualquier población (Hardy, 1908). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.28.706.49&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17779291/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Caracteres multilocus y crecimiento de la complejidad&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Un &lt;b&gt;carácter
multilocus&lt;/b&gt; depende de contribuciones procedentes de varios lugares del
genoma. Cuando intervienen numerosos genes hablamos de &lt;b&gt;herencia poligénica&lt;/b&gt;.
Además, cada gen participante puede ser polimórfico. La complejidad aumenta
porque combinamos diversidad dentro de cada locus con diversidad entre loci.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;pigmentación
cutánea&lt;/b&gt; no posee un inventario universal de «genes mayores» y «genes
menores». El efecto estimado depende de las variantes presentes, de las
poblaciones comparadas y del método utilizado. Una variante puede explicar
diferencias importantes en una muestra y contribuir poco en otra donde apenas
varía.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En un estudio de
poblaciones africanas, Crawford y colaboradores identificaron ocho variantes
candidatas destacadas agrupadas en cuatro regiones genómicas. Entre los genes
implicados estaban &lt;i&gt;SLC24A5&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;MFSD12&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;DDB1&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;TMEM138&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;OCA2&lt;/i&gt;
y &lt;i&gt;HERC2&lt;/i&gt;. Este resultado amplió el conocimiento de la pigmentación, pero
no significa que únicamente existan cuatro regiones responsables en toda
nuestra especie (Crawford et al., 2017). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan8433&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
&lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/pmid/29025994/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;estatura&lt;/b&gt; ilustra
una escala todavía mayor. Un estudio con aproximadamente &lt;b&gt;5.4 millones de
participantes&lt;/b&gt; identificó &lt;b&gt;12 111 marcadores asociados&lt;/b&gt; con sus
diferencias. Un marcador asociado no equivale necesariamente a un gen causal
distinto: varios pueden señalar una misma región, y algunos acompañan variantes
responsables sin producir directamente el efecto (Yengo et al., 2022). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05275-y?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36224396/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;fuerza
muscular&lt;/b&gt; y las &lt;b&gt;capacidades cognitivas&lt;/b&gt; también requieren estudiar
múltiples contribuciones y condiciones ambientales. El entrenamiento, la
nutrición, la salud y las experiencias modifican los resultados observados.
Ninguna de estas características queda explicada mediante un cruce escolar que
reúna toda la diversidad humana en dos o cuatro categorías.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Incluso antes de
incorporar esa complejidad, un cuadro de Punnett crece rápidamente. Diez loci
heterocigotos independientes pueden producir &lt;b&gt;1 024 clases de gametos&lt;/b&gt; por
progenitor; cruzarlas exige &lt;b&gt;1 048 576 casillas&lt;/b&gt;. La factorización evita
dibujarlas, aunque no convierte un carácter complejo en uno sencillo. Los
cálculos deben conservar los supuestos biológicos y las relaciones entre los
genes.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Datos poblacionales y medicina personalizada&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Las investigaciones
modernas utilizan secuenciación, grandes bases de datos y &lt;b&gt;análisis
computacionales&lt;/b&gt;. Buscan relaciones entre variantes y características,
comparan explicaciones y evalúan si los resultados se reproducen. El
procesamiento puede requerir recursos informáticos de alto rendimiento, pero
reunir muchos datos no elimina los errores de muestreo ni demuestra
automáticamente causalidad.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Una aplicación son
las &lt;b&gt;puntuaciones de riesgo poligénico&lt;/b&gt;, que combinan información de
numerosas variantes para estimar predisposiciones. No equivalen a diagnósticos
inevitables. Su utilidad depende del carácter estudiado, de la calidad del
modelo y de cómo se integren con otros datos clínicos.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Además, una
predicción desarrollada principalmente con participantes de determinada
ascendencia puede funcionar peor en otras poblaciones. Martin y colaboradores
mostraron que trasladar indiscriminadamente esas puntuaciones podía aumentar
las &lt;b&gt;desigualdades sanitarias&lt;/b&gt;. Ampliar la representación poblacional es
necesario para evaluar quiénes reciben predicciones útiles y quiénes quedan
peor atendidos (Martin et al., 2019). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-019-0379-x&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.nature.com/articles/s41588-019-0379-x?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;www.nature.com&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Las categorías
raciales tampoco sustituyen la &lt;b&gt;información genética individual&lt;/b&gt;. Pueden
tener importancia social y ayudar a estudiar desigualdades, pero no describen
conjuntos biológicos homogéneos. Cuando resulta clínicamente relevante, debemos
investigar antecedentes, variantes concretas, exposiciones y condiciones de
vida, en lugar de deducirlos del color de la piel (American Association of
Physical Anthropologists, 2019). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23882?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Declaración científica&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://bioanth.org/about/aaba-statement-on-race-racism/?trk=article-ssr-frontend-pulse_little-text-block&amp;amp;utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;bioanth.org&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El enfoque gradual
que aquí denominamos &lt;b&gt;darwiniano&lt;/b&gt; permite reconocer diferencias pequeñas
sin convertirlas en fronteras rígidas. Sin embargo, la medicina también
necesita modelos discretos cuando una variante concreta tiene consecuencias
importantes. Para una &lt;b&gt;medicina personalizada&lt;/b&gt;, la elección depende de la
evidencia: podemos necesitar un gen, numerosos loci, variables ambientales o su
combinación, según la pregunta clínica.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Expansiones polimórficas y jerarquías
de dominancia&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;El sistema &lt;b&gt;ABO&lt;/b&gt;, en su modelo básico,
presenta tres clases principales de &lt;b&gt;alelos&lt;/b&gt; y cuatro &lt;b&gt;fenotipos&lt;/b&gt;: A,
B, AB y O. Esto ocurre porque Iᴬ e Iᴮ son &lt;b&gt;codominantes&lt;/b&gt; entre sí y ambos
dominan sobre i. Por tanto, conocer únicamente el número de alelos no permite
determinar exactamente cuántos fenotipos aparecerán. También necesitamos
conocer las &lt;b&gt;relaciones de dominancia&lt;/b&gt; y cómo se manifiestan las
combinaciones. Conviene distinguir aquí dos situaciones: el &lt;b&gt;multialelismo&lt;/b&gt;
corresponde a varias alternativas en un mismo &lt;b&gt;locus&lt;/b&gt;, mientras la &lt;b&gt;herencia
multilocus&lt;/b&gt; implica que distintos loci contribuyen al carácter. Ambos
fenómenos pueden coexistir, pero requieren cálculos y condiciones diferentes.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Para un &lt;b&gt;locus
autosómico diploide&lt;/b&gt; con n alelos, existen n(n + 1)/2 &lt;b&gt;genotipos no
ordenados&lt;/b&gt;, suponiendo que todas las combinaciones son posibles. La &lt;b&gt;máxima
diversidad fenotípica&lt;/b&gt; sería igual a esa cantidad si cada genotipo produjera
un &lt;b&gt;fenotipo distinguible&lt;/b&gt;. En una &lt;b&gt;jerarquía de dominancia completa&lt;/b&gt;,
donde cada alelo domina sobre todos los inferiores y cada homocigoto presenta
una manifestación diferente, habría n fenotipos. Así, tres alelos permitirían
entre tres y seis fenotipos bajo esas condiciones; ABO presenta cuatro. Sin
embargo, n no constituye un mínimo universal: si varios alelos generan
manifestaciones indistinguibles, el número observado puede ser menor que ese
límite.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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El contenido generado por IA puede ser incorrecto.&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;396&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYS7fwufPm7_Uqkj3_kBHXAG3-puT2pH9STe8mTtMzp1h6R-kNyQj73n4dEeXOysLuYN-niy4ZqUZEV3NMr8mGXfPcBllxKgsgqRUrN7OpFrRM2SL1x_tF2GQ4Dx8fPABTX4NDVXfvhQo-HscvczK8QN-3_xtopNjZaxUJWgPG5ubOc8avE8Oh40fqNnU/s1600/image.png&quot; v:shapes=&quot;_x0000_i1026&quot; width=&quot;559&quot; /&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura 1. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-jerarquias-alelicas.html&quot;&gt;Jerarquías
alélicas&lt;/a&gt;]. En el &lt;b&gt;locus C&lt;/b&gt;, cuatro &lt;b&gt;alelos&lt;/b&gt; producen diez &lt;b&gt;genotipos&lt;/b&gt;,
pero sus relaciones de &lt;b&gt;dominancia&lt;/b&gt; y &lt;b&gt;dominancia incompleta&lt;/b&gt;
permiten distinguir cinco &lt;b&gt;fenotipos&lt;/b&gt; clásicos. Al combinar varios &lt;b&gt;loci&lt;/b&gt;,
las posibilidades aumentan multiplicativamente; sin embargo, la &lt;b&gt;epistasis&lt;/b&gt;,
las equivalencias &lt;b&gt;fenotípicas&lt;/b&gt; y los &lt;b&gt;efectos ambientales&lt;/b&gt; pueden
reducir la &lt;b&gt;diversidad observable&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En un &lt;b&gt;carácter
multilocus&lt;/b&gt;, estos recuentos permiten construir modelos de mayor
complejidad, pero debemos evitar una multiplicación automática. Si cada locus
genera cierto número de estados y todas sus combinaciones producen resultados
distinguibles, el número total de &lt;b&gt;combinaciones fenotípicas&lt;/b&gt; se obtiene
multiplicando los recuentos de cada locus. Sin embargo, distintos conjuntos
pueden generar el mismo resultado, especialmente cuando existen &lt;b&gt;epistasis&lt;/b&gt;,
&lt;b&gt;efectos acumulativos&lt;/b&gt; o límites de medición. En esos casos, el producto
representa combinaciones potenciales, no necesariamente fenotipos diferentes
del carácter. Por ello, calcular la diversidad de un &lt;b&gt;rasgo poligénico&lt;/b&gt;
exige especificar cómo se integran las contribuciones, además de contar alelos.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Expansiones multiloculares&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En lecciones
anteriores vimos fórmulas para calcular &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-del-producto-genotipico.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Teorema
del producto genotípico multilocus&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;] [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/demostracion-numero-genotipos-posible.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Demostración&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;],
y el [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-del-producto-fenotipico.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Teorema
del producto fenotípico multilocus&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;] [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/demostracion-numero-fenotipos-posible.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Demostración&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;].
&lt;/span&gt;El segundo es especialmente importante porque puede aplicarse tanto a
varios &lt;b&gt;caracteres&lt;/b&gt; de un individuo como a las contribuciones de distintos
&lt;b&gt;loci&lt;/b&gt; a un mismo carácter, siempre que especifiquemos cómo se relacionan
esas contribuciones con el &lt;b&gt;fenotipo final&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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 style=&#39;width:419.25pt;height:96pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square&#39;&gt;
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El contenido generado por IA puede ser incorrecto.&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;128&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyipfTM-8Y_fqWnfWz7pqKi3bYVw7v0gJuVsbc9BzCAK8bMNwk3crv_IPzTQt69futbEmNZUbuPUXsUpCxZULc1_b4OBqsiV1XXNpUTkwfQ47jq-j5wsppAufw1GdPykwQOz87bYejBF3Qc-Eqr4D4yBt1sCLypu4QR4xM-yADn7f72lfXGLPDJWD6rB8/s1600/image.png&quot; v:shapes=&quot;Imagen_x0020_1&quot; width=&quot;559&quot; /&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Imagina que el
color de la piel está diminado por 8 loci, y que cada uno posee un polimorfismo
fenotípico bajo, digamos 4 fenotipos como en el tipo de sangre, si sustituimos
eso en el teorema [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-del-producto-fenotipico.html&quot;&gt;Teorema
del producto fenotípico multilocus&lt;/a&gt;], asumiendo que los heterocigotos sean&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Imagina, como
modelo hipotético, que la &lt;b&gt;pigmentación de la piel&lt;/b&gt; depende de ocho loci y
que cada uno puede generar cuatro estados fenotípicos distinguibles, como
sucede en el modelo básico del sistema ABO. Si todas las combinaciones fueran
posibles y cada una produjera una manifestación diferente del carácter, al aplicar
el el [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-del-producto-fenotipico.html&quot;&gt;Teorema
del producto fenotípico multilocus&lt;/a&gt;] obtendríamos:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;\[ n_F=4^8 \] = 65 536&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Tendríamos &lt;b&gt;65
536 combinaciones potenciales&lt;/b&gt;, una diversidad comparable, por analogía, con
una paleta de numerosas tonalidades próximas. Si sus diferencias fueran
pequeñas, observaríamos una &lt;b&gt;variación aparentemente continua&lt;/b&gt;, darwiniana
en el sentido gradual que estamos utilizando. Sin embargo, para contar esas
combinaciones como fenotipos distintos debemos comprobar que no produzcan
resultados equivalentes. Si varias combinaciones generan la misma cantidad de
pigmento, o existen &lt;b&gt;interacciones epistáticas&lt;/b&gt;, el número de fenotipos
distinguibles será menor.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Considera, además,
que la diversidad genética no permanece fija. Las &lt;b&gt;mutaciones&lt;/b&gt; originan
nuevas variantes, mientras la &lt;b&gt;recombinación dentro de los genes&lt;/b&gt; y la &lt;b&gt;conversión
génica&lt;/b&gt; pueden reorganizar secuencias existentes y generar nuevos alelos. La
recombinación entre loci, por su parte, produce nuevas combinaciones de alelos
sin crear necesariamente variantes nuevas de cada gen.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El &lt;b&gt;complejo
mayor de histocompatibilidad&lt;/b&gt;, denominado MHC y representado en humanos por
el sistema HLA, ilustra la enorme diversidad que puede alcanzar un sistema
genético. Algunas estimaciones sitúan el número de variantes existentes en la
población humana en aproximadamente &lt;b&gt;2.7 millones para HLA-A, 3.3 millones
para HLA-B y 3.2 millones para HLA-C&lt;/b&gt;. Son estimaciones de diversidad
poblacional, no recuentos de alelos ya catalogados ni cantidades presentes en
una persona (Robinson et al., 2024). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/tan.15549?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Referencias&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;American
Association of Physical Anthropologists. (2019). AAPA statement on race and
racism. &lt;i&gt;American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 169&lt;/i&gt;(3), 400–402. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23882?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23882&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Barker, D. J.,
Natarajan, R. H. L., Cooper, M. A., Hopper, S. J. F., Yates, A. D., Parham, P.,
Marsh, S. G. E., &amp;amp; Robinson, J. (2026). The IPD-IMGT/HLA database: Recent
developments in sequence submission. &lt;i&gt;Nucleic Acids Research, 54&lt;/i&gt;(D1),
D1152–D1158. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkaf1218&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkaf1218&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Berry, A., &amp;amp;
Browne, J. (2022). Mendel and Darwin. &lt;i&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 119&lt;/i&gt;(30), e2122144119. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2122144119&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2122144119&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Crawford, N. G.,
Kelly, D. E., Hansen, M. E. B., Beltrame, M. H., Fan, S., Bowman, S. L.,
Jewett, E., Ranciaro, A., Thompson, S., Lo, Y., Pfeifer, S. P., Jensen, J. D.,
Campbell, M. C., Beggs, W., Hormozdiari, F., Mpoloka, S. W., Mokone, G. G.,
Nyambo, T., Meskel, D. W., … Tishkoff, S. A. (2017). Loci associated with skin
pigmentation identified in African populations. &lt;i&gt;Science, 358&lt;/i&gt;(6365),
eaan8433. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan8433&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan8433&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Fisher, R. A.
(1918). The correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian
inheritance. &lt;i&gt;Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 52&lt;/i&gt;(2),
399–433. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080456800012163&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080456800012163&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;FlyBase. (s. f.). &lt;i&gt;FlyBase:
Nomenclature&lt;/i&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://wiki.flybase.org/wiki/FlyBase:Nomenclature&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://wiki.flybase.org/wiki/FlyBase:Nomenclature&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Ford, E. B. (1945).
Polymorphism. &lt;i&gt;Biological Reviews, 20&lt;/i&gt;(2), 73–88. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1945.tb00315.x&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1945.tb00315.x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hardy, G. H.
(1908). Mendelian proportions in a mixed population. &lt;i&gt;Science, 28&lt;/i&gt;(706),
49–50. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.28.706.49&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.28.706.49&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;IPD-IMGT/HLA
Database. (s. f.). &lt;i&gt;Statistics&lt;/i&gt;. Recuperado el 11 de noviembre de 2026, de
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ebi.ac.uk/ipd/imgt/hla/about/statistics/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://www.ebi.ac.uk/ipd/imgt/hla/about/statistics/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Martin, A. R.,
Kanai, M., Kamatani, Y., Okada, Y., Neale, B. M., &amp;amp; Daly, M. J. (2019).
Clinical use of current polygenic risk scores may exacerbate health
disparities. &lt;i&gt;Nature Genetics, 51&lt;/i&gt;(4), 584–591. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-019-0379-x&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-019-0379-x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Robinson, J., Barker, D. J., &amp;amp; Marsh, S. G. E. (2024).
25 years of the IPD-IMGT/HLA database. HLA, 103(6), e15549. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/tan.15549?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/tan.15549&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Yamamoto, F.,
Clausen, H., White, T., Marken, J., &amp;amp; Hakomori, S. (1990). Molecular
genetic basis of the histo-blood group ABO system. &lt;i&gt;Nature, 345&lt;/i&gt;(6272),
229–233. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/345229a0&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/345229a0&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Yengo, L.,
Vedantam, S., Marouli, E., Sidorenko, J., Bartell, E., Sakaue, S., Graff, M.,
Eliasen, A. U., Jiang, Y., Raghavan, S., Miao, J., Arias, J. D., Graham, S. E.,
Mukamel, R. E., Spracklen, C. N., Yin, X., Chen, S.-H., Ferreira, T., Highland,
H. H., … Hirschhorn, J. N. (2022). A saturated map of common genetic variants
associated with human height. &lt;i&gt;Nature, 610&lt;/i&gt;(7933), 704–712. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05275-y?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05275-y&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/9061935670157820869/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/genetica-clasica-2-polimorfismo-poligenismo-darwinismo.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/9061935670157820869'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/9061935670157820869'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/genetica-clasica-2-polimorfismo-poligenismo-darwinismo.html' title='Polimorfismo, poligenismo y herencia darwiniana'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYS7fwufPm7_Uqkj3_kBHXAG3-puT2pH9STe8mTtMzp1h6R-kNyQj73n4dEeXOysLuYN-niy4ZqUZEV3NMr8mGXfPcBllxKgsgqRUrN7OpFrRM2SL1x_tF2GQ4Dx8fPABTX4NDVXfvhQo-HscvczK8QN-3_xtopNjZaxUJWgPG5ubOc8avE8Oh40fqNnU/s72-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-7004289547583101565</id><published>2026-11-11T10:15:37.163-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T10:15:37.163-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Jerarquías alélicas</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtXjFrgU2hCUZb-PIntRbppu9Egjd-DeITcAkMzBzmAJFh_wzjHGNA52Uz0nwwWTpkfqFPqssVpWAK18xVCJQIPptExtOXA106-ND2XWrdJ6n6MPy0nuO3DMiDe-padhGbtt45MsJVrDw5VN5carJn2Zpv48QSJDSWO4dpMIMmzjOIEedLm5rRfj9PAOQ/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1648&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2330&quot; height=&quot;389&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtXjFrgU2hCUZb-PIntRbppu9Egjd-DeITcAkMzBzmAJFh_wzjHGNA52Uz0nwwWTpkfqFPqssVpWAK18xVCJQIPptExtOXA106-ND2XWrdJ6n6MPy0nuO3DMiDe-padhGbtt45MsJVrDw5VN5carJn2Zpv48QSJDSWO4dpMIMmzjOIEedLm5rRfj9PAOQ/w551-h389/image.png&quot; width=&quot;551&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;Las &lt;b&gt;jerarquías
alélicas&lt;/b&gt; describen las relaciones de &lt;b&gt;dominancia&lt;/b&gt;, &lt;b&gt;recesividad&lt;/b&gt;
y &lt;b&gt;dominancia incompleta&lt;/b&gt; entre variantes de un mismo &lt;b&gt;locus genético&lt;/b&gt;.
Un ejemplo clásico aparece en el &lt;b&gt;locus C&lt;/b&gt; del gato doméstico, &lt;i&gt;Felis
catus&lt;/i&gt;, asociado con el &lt;b&gt;gen TYR&lt;/b&gt;, que codifica la enzima &lt;b&gt;tirosinasa&lt;/b&gt;,
indispensable para la &lt;b&gt;síntesis de melanina&lt;/b&gt;. En el modelo clásico, el &lt;b&gt;alelo
C&lt;/b&gt; permite una &lt;b&gt;pigmentación completa&lt;/b&gt;; \(c^b\) produce el patrón &lt;b&gt;burmés&lt;/b&gt;;
\(c^s\), el &lt;b&gt;siamés&lt;/b&gt;; y \(c\), el &lt;b&gt;albinismo&lt;/b&gt;. La combinación &lt;b&gt;heterocigota&lt;/b&gt;
\(c^bc^s\) origina un &lt;b&gt;fenotipo intermedio&lt;/b&gt;, denominado &lt;b&gt;mink&lt;/b&gt;,
característico del gato tonquinés. Esta interacción demuestra que las
relaciones entre alelos no siempre constituyen una &lt;b&gt;dominancia absoluta&lt;/b&gt;.
(&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01253.x&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Lyons et al., 2005&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;expresión
fenotípica&lt;/b&gt; también depende de mecanismos &lt;b&gt;bioquímicos&lt;/b&gt; y &lt;b&gt;ambientales&lt;/b&gt;.
Las variantes siamesa y burmesa producen formas de &lt;b&gt;tirosinasa termosensible&lt;/b&gt;,
cuya actividad disminuye en regiones corporales cálidas, restringiendo la &lt;b&gt;producción
de pigmento&lt;/b&gt;. Por eso, las extremidades frías presentan una &lt;b&gt;pigmentación
más intensa&lt;/b&gt;. En cambio, una mutación asociada al &lt;b&gt;albinismo&lt;/b&gt; altera la
secuencia codificante de &lt;b&gt;TYR&lt;/b&gt;, provocando una interrupción prematura de
la proteína. Estas diferencias moleculares explican por qué ciertos &lt;b&gt;genotipos&lt;/b&gt;
producen manifestaciones distinguibles, mientras otros pueden compartir un
mismo &lt;b&gt;fenotipo&lt;/b&gt;, aunque sus &lt;b&gt;combinaciones alélicas&lt;/b&gt; sean
diferentes. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01409.x&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Imes et al., 2006&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Desde la &lt;b&gt;combinatoria
genética&lt;/b&gt;, cuatro &lt;b&gt;alelos&lt;/b&gt; generan diez &lt;b&gt;genotipos diploides&lt;/b&gt; posibles:
\(4(4+1)/2=10\). Sin embargo, bajo la &lt;b&gt;jerarquía simplificada&lt;/b&gt;, estos
pueden agruparse en cinco &lt;b&gt;clases fenotípicas&lt;/b&gt;: pigmentación completa,
burmesa, intermedia, siamesa y albina. Para ocho &lt;b&gt;loci independientes&lt;/b&gt; con
idéntica estructura, existirían \(10^8\) &lt;b&gt;combinaciones genotípicas&lt;/b&gt;,
frente a \(5^8=390\ 625\) &lt;b&gt;combinaciones de estados fenotípicos&lt;/b&gt;. Este
último valor no garantiza igual cantidad de apariencias distintas: la &lt;b&gt;epistasis&lt;/b&gt;,
los &lt;b&gt;efectos ambientales&lt;/b&gt; y las equivalencias fenotípicas pueden
reducirla. Además, nuevos &lt;b&gt;alelos TYR&lt;/b&gt; amplían la &lt;b&gt;diversidad genética&lt;/b&gt;
conocida, superando el modelo clásico de cuatro variantes. (&lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/age.12765&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Yu et al., 2019&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;).&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Referencias APA
(7.ª edición)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Imes, D. L., Geary,
L. A., Grahn, R. A., &amp;amp; Lyons, L. A. (2006). Albinism in the domestic cat (&lt;i&gt;Felis
catus&lt;/i&gt;) is associated with a tyrosinase (TYR) mutation. &lt;i&gt;Animal Genetics,
37&lt;/i&gt;(2), 175–178. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01409.x&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01409.x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Lyons, L. A., Imes,
D. L., Rah, H. C., &amp;amp; Grahn, R. A. (2005). Tyrosinase mutations associated
with Siamese and Burmese patterns in the domestic cat (&lt;i&gt;Felis catus&lt;/i&gt;). &lt;i&gt;Animal
Genetics, 36&lt;/i&gt;(2), 119–126. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01253.x&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01253.x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;











&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Yu, Y., Grahn, R.
A., &amp;amp; Lyons, L. A. (2019). Mocha tyrosinase variant: A new flavour of cat
coat coloration. &lt;i&gt;Animal Genetics, 50&lt;/i&gt;(2), 182–186. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/age.12765&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/age.12765&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/7004289547583101565/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-jerarquias-alelicas.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/7004289547583101565'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/7004289547583101565'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-jerarquias-alelicas.html' title='Figura. Jerarquías alélicas'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtXjFrgU2hCUZb-PIntRbppu9Egjd-DeITcAkMzBzmAJFh_wzjHGNA52Uz0nwwWTpkfqFPqssVpWAK18xVCJQIPptExtOXA106-ND2XWrdJ6n6MPy0nuO3DMiDe-padhGbtt45MsJVrDw5VN5carJn2Zpv48QSJDSWO4dpMIMmzjOIEedLm5rRfj9PAOQ/s72-w551-h389-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-6352780282278599498</id><published>2026-11-11T09:17:07.552-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T09:17:07.552-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Errores del mendelismo</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot; p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/p/genetica-clasica-2.html&quot;&gt;Genética clásica 2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Un &lt;b&gt;modelo de
herencia&lt;/b&gt; permite relacionar los &lt;b&gt;genotipos parentales&lt;/b&gt; con las
posibilidades de su &lt;b&gt;descendencia&lt;/b&gt;, pero sus predicciones dependen de las
condiciones que se hayan establecido. Un ejercicio con un gen, dos alelos y &lt;b&gt;dominancia
completa&lt;/b&gt; describe una situación particular. El problema aparece cuando
trasladamos ese esquema a cualquier característica humana, sin comprobar
cuántos &lt;b&gt;genes&lt;/b&gt; intervienen ni cómo se relacionan con el &lt;b&gt;fenotipo&lt;/b&gt;.
Que podamos distinguir dos categorías a simple vista no demuestra que exista un
único &lt;b&gt;locus&lt;/b&gt; responsable de su diferencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Tras la
recuperación de los trabajos de Mendel alrededor de 1900, los investigadores
discutieron hasta dónde podían extenderse sus resultados. Algunas
características mostraban una &lt;b&gt;segregación mendeliana&lt;/b&gt; reconocible; otras
presentaban numerosas formas intermedias. Esto no convirtió los descubrimientos
de Mendel en errores. Obligó a distinguir la &lt;b&gt;transmisión de los alelos&lt;/b&gt;
de los mecanismos que producen las diferencias observables entre organismos.
Muchos genes pueden transmitirse siguiendo reglas mendelianas y, conjuntamente,
generar una &lt;b&gt;variación fenotípica continua&lt;/b&gt; (Visscher &amp;amp; Goddard,
2019). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.118.301594&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/genetics/article/211/4/1125/5931511?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;academic.oup.com&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Limitaciones del modelo mendeliano en genética humana&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Mendel trabajó con
plantas de &lt;i&gt;Pisum sativum&lt;/i&gt; y seleccionó características que podía
reconocer y seguir entre generaciones. La &lt;b&gt;autofecundación&lt;/b&gt; le permitió
establecer &lt;b&gt;líneas experimentales&lt;/b&gt; que conservaban determinados estados de
los caracteres. También pudo elegir los cruzamientos y reunir cantidades
importantes de descendientes. Estas condiciones facilitaban identificar
regularidades. Sin embargo, una &lt;b&gt;línea homocigota&lt;/b&gt; para un gen estudiado
no es necesariamente idéntica en todo su &lt;b&gt;genoma&lt;/b&gt;, y seleccionar un
carácter discreto no elimina la complejidad de los demás caracteres de la
especie.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En los seres
humanos no podemos organizar cruzamientos experimentales equivalentes. Las
familias suelen tener pocos descendientes y sus integrantes pueden diferir en
alimentación, edad, enfermedades y otras condiciones. Además, muchos &lt;b&gt;caracteres
humanos&lt;/b&gt; dependen de varios genes y de su interacción con el &lt;b&gt;ambiente&lt;/b&gt;.
Dos personas clasificadas dentro de una misma categoría, como «cabello
castaño», pueden presentar distintas combinaciones de &lt;b&gt;alelos&lt;/b&gt;, cantidades
de pigmento y tonalidades (Morgan et al., 2018). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07691-z?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6288091/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Estas dificultades
no impiden utilizar la &lt;b&gt;estadística&lt;/b&gt;. Precisamente porque una familia
pequeña proporciona información limitada, necesitamos expresar la incertidumbre
mediante probabilidades y estudiar conjuntos de familias. Un &lt;b&gt;pedigrí&lt;/b&gt;
permite reconstruir relaciones compatibles con determinados modelos, pero no
siempre permite asignar un &lt;b&gt;genotipo exacto&lt;/b&gt;. La ausencia de un fenotipo
tampoco demuestra automáticamente que falte el alelo asociado: deben
considerarse la &lt;b&gt;penetrancia&lt;/b&gt;, la edad de aparición y las condiciones
utilizadas para reconocer el carácter.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;También debemos
separar &lt;b&gt;herencia monogénica&lt;/b&gt; de «un gen determina por completo un rasgo».
En una condición monogénica, las variantes de un gen pueden explicar una parte
principal del patrón familiar, mientras otros genes modifican su intensidad. La
&lt;b&gt;expresividad variable&lt;/b&gt; y la &lt;b&gt;penetrancia incompleta&lt;/b&gt; muestran que
incluso un modelo centrado en un solo gen puede necesitar información
adicional. Por ello, reconocer una herencia mendeliana no autoriza a ignorar el
desarrollo, los genes modificadores o el ambiente (Cooper et al., 2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
&lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23820649/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Falsos caracteres con herencia Mendeliana&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Llamaremos &lt;b&gt;falso
mendelismo&lt;/b&gt; a la presentación de una característica como si dependiera de un
único gen con dominancia y recesividad simples, cuando la evidencia no respalda
esa explicación. El error puede consistir en inventar categorías rígidas,
ignorar resultados incompatibles o confundir una asociación genética importante
con una explicación completa. No significa que la característica carezca de &lt;b&gt;base
genética&lt;/b&gt; ni que los alelos dejen de transmitirse.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;hiperextensión
del pulgar&lt;/b&gt; ofrece un ejemplo histórico. Algunas personas pueden doblar
hacia atrás su articulación distal más que otras. Aunque ciertos materiales
escolares distinguen únicamente pulgares «rectos» y «curvos», existen ángulos
intermedios. Harris y Joseph estudiaron esta variación en 1949; Glass y Kistler
investigaron su herencia en 1953. La existencia de mediciones distribuidas
entre distintos ángulos exige justificar cualquier separación en dos grupos.
Establecer un límite sirve para clasificar datos, pero no demuestra por sí
mismo una &lt;b&gt;herencia monogénica recesiva&lt;/b&gt; (Harris &amp;amp; Joseph, 1949; Glass
&amp;amp; Kistler, 1953). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.31B4.547&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Estudio de variación&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1159/000150741&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;estudio
hereditario&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15397139/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura
1. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-variacion-del-pulgar-y-modelos.html&quot;&gt;Variación
del pulgar y modelos hereditarios&lt;/a&gt;]. La &lt;b&gt;hiperextensión del pulgar&lt;/b&gt;
presenta &lt;b&gt;variación continua&lt;/b&gt;, aquí denominada &lt;b&gt;darwiniana&lt;/b&gt; por su
carácter gradual. Separar los ángulos en dos categorías no demuestra una &lt;b&gt;herencia
monogénica&lt;/b&gt;. El &lt;b&gt;cuadro de Punnett&lt;/b&gt; expresa las consecuencias del
modelo propuesto, pero necesita respaldo experimental. La continuidad del
fenotipo es compatible con la transmisión mendeliana de múltiples &lt;b&gt;genes&lt;/b&gt;,
cuyos efectos conjuntos pueden producir numerosos valores intermedios.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La capacidad de &lt;b&gt;enrollar
la lengua&lt;/b&gt; tampoco debe enseñarse como un carácter dominante perfectamente
establecido. Matlock describió parejas de &lt;b&gt;gemelos monocigóticos&lt;/b&gt; que
diferían en esta capacidad. Estos resultados contradicen la explicación según
la cual un mismo genotipo determina inevitablemente una de dos posibilidades.
Sin embargo, tampoco prueban que los genes sean irrelevantes. La conclusión
adecuada es más limitada: el modelo escolar de un único gen con &lt;b&gt;penetrancia
completa&lt;/b&gt; no explica satisfactoriamente toda la variación observada
(Matlock, 1952). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a106251&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article-abstract/43/1/24/903604?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;academic.oup.com&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;unión del
lóbulo de la oreja&lt;/b&gt; proporciona evidencia moderna especialmente clara. Puede
describirse como libre, parcialmente unido o unido, aunque algunos ejercicios
la reducen a dos estados. Un estudio con &lt;b&gt;74 660 participantes&lt;/b&gt; encontró
múltiples regiones genómicas asociadas con esta característica. Sus resultados
respaldan una &lt;b&gt;arquitectura poligénica&lt;/b&gt;, no una explicación universal
mediante un alelo dominante para «libre» y otro recesivo para «pegado». La
facilidad para observar una estructura no garantiza sencillez genética (Shaffer
et al., 2017). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.10.001&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5812923/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El &lt;b&gt;color de los
ojos&lt;/b&gt; tampoco se reduce al conocido cruce entre «marrón dominante» y «azul
recesivo». Algunas regiones, especialmente las relacionadas con &lt;i&gt;HERC2&lt;/i&gt; y &lt;i&gt;OCA2&lt;/i&gt;,
tienen efectos importantes, pero intervienen muchas otras. Un estudio de casi &lt;b&gt;195
000 personas&lt;/b&gt; identificó 50 regiones previamente desconocidas asociadas con
este carácter. Por tanto, un cuadro de Punnett construido con un único par de
alelos puede servir como supuesto matemático, pero no como descripción completa
de la &lt;b&gt;pigmentación del iris&lt;/b&gt; humano (Simcoe et al., 2021). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd1239&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
&lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7946369?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El &lt;b&gt;cabello rojo&lt;/b&gt;
muestra otra diferencia importante: tener un gen de gran efecto no equivale a
tener un carácter completamente monogénico. Las variantes de &lt;i&gt;MC1R&lt;/i&gt;
explican una parte considerable de su base genética, pero su &lt;b&gt;penetrancia&lt;/b&gt;
depende de la variante y del contexto genético. Otros genes también
contribuyen. El estudio del UK Biobank mostró que muchas personas con dos
variantes de &lt;i&gt;MC1R&lt;/i&gt; tenían cabello rubio o castaño claro. La equivalencia
«dos alelos recesivos, necesariamente pelirrojo» resulta insuficiente (Morgan
et al., 2018). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07691-z?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6288091/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La sensibilidad al
compuesto amargo &lt;b&gt;PTC&lt;/b&gt;, o feniltiocarbamida, requiere una valoración
diferente. Aquí sí existe un &lt;b&gt;gen de gran efecto&lt;/b&gt;, &lt;i&gt;TAS2R38&lt;/i&gt;, cuyas
variantes influyen directamente en la percepción. Sin embargo, distinguir
«catadores» y «no catadores» puede ocultar diferencias de sensibilidad y varias
combinaciones de variantes. No conviene reemplazar un mito por su contrario:
este ejemplo no carece de fundamento genético; lo incorrecto es presentarlo
como una relación universal y perfecta entre dos alelos y dos respuestas (Kim
et al., 2003). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1080190&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12595690/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Consideraciones sobre el modelo humano y la enseñanza de la genética
clásica&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Estos ejemplos
muestran por qué debemos declarar las condiciones de un ejercicio. Podemos
escribir: «Supongamos un carácter autosómico con dos alelos y dominancia
completa». Así practicamos un &lt;b&gt;modelo mendeliano&lt;/b&gt; sin afirmar que describe
una característica humana real. También podemos emplear modelos biológicos
documentados, indicando sus límites. Lo que debemos evitar es convertir una
simplificación útil para calcular en una explicación falsa del organismo.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Personalmente,
considero insuficiente justificar cualquier ejemplo porque resulte cercano al
estudiante. La &lt;b&gt;transposición didáctica&lt;/b&gt; debe facilitar la comprensión sin
ocultar las condiciones de validez. Si enseñamos que un rasgo depende de un
único gen y después descubrimos que intervienen muchos, debemos reconocer que
el primer ejemplo era hipotético o incompleto. Aprender ciencia incluye
distinguir entre &lt;b&gt;observación&lt;/b&gt;, &lt;b&gt;hipótesis&lt;/b&gt;, &lt;b&gt;modelo&lt;/b&gt; y &lt;b&gt;evidencia&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La omisión de la &lt;b&gt;variación
continua&lt;/b&gt; plantea, además, un problema para comprender la evolución. Si solo
mostramos organismos separados en dos categorías, dejamos sin explicar cómo
aparecen numerosas diferencias pequeñas de estatura, pigmentación o
funcionamiento. El estudiante puede imaginar que todos los cambios hereditarios
producen saltos enormes. Pero tampoco sería correcto llamar «darwiniana» a
cualquier distribución continua: un histograma muestra una distribución de
valores, no demuestra por sí solo su causa genética ni la acción de la &lt;b&gt;selección
natural&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Históricamente, sí
existió una controversia relacionada con esta cuestión. Algunos primeros
mendelianos, como Bateson, destacaron las variaciones discontinuas y
cuestionaron que la acumulación de diferencias pequeñas explicara
suficientemente la evolución. Los &lt;b&gt;biometristas&lt;/b&gt;, entre ellos Pearson y
Weldon, estudiaban variaciones continuas y defendían el gradualismo. No
obstante, ambos sectores incluían investigadores que aceptaban la evolución.
Discutían sus mecanismos y la importancia relativa de las distintas clases de
variación (Berry &amp;amp; Browne, 2022). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2122144119&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
&lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9335214/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Por tanto, no
debemos atribuir todos los falsos ejemplos escolares a una intención de refutar
a Darwin. Una &lt;b&gt;hipótesis equivocada&lt;/b&gt;, una clasificación discutible y una
falsificación deliberada son situaciones diferentes. Para establecer mala fe
necesitamos documentos que demuestren intención de engañar. La controversia
histórica ayuda a explicar por qué la discontinuidad recibió tanta atención,
pero no prueba que cada error posterior formara parte de una estrategia
antievolucionista.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La reconciliación
fue posible al distinguir dos niveles: los &lt;b&gt;alelos&lt;/b&gt; pueden ser unidades
discretas, mientras sus efectos combinados producen un carácter aproximadamente
continuo. El trabajo de Fisher de 1918 mostró cómo la semejanza entre
familiares podía explicarse mediante numerosos factores mendelianos. La &lt;b&gt;genética
cuantitativa&lt;/b&gt; permitió estudiar sus contribuciones conjuntas y la variación
ambiental. La continuidad del fenotipo no requiere que los alelos se mezclen o
pierdan su identidad durante la transmisión (Fisher, 1918). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080456800012163&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/earth-and-environmental-science-transactions-of-royal-society-of-edinburgh/article/abs/xvthe-correlation-between-relatives-on-the-supposition-of-mendelian-inheritance/A60675052E0FB78C561F66C670BC75DE?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Cambridge Core&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Aquí debemos
corregir una afirmación importante: &lt;b&gt;la selección natural no exige que todos
los caracteres tengan variación continua&lt;/b&gt;. También puede modificar las
frecuencias de variantes que producen categorías discretas. Lo indispensable es
que existan diferencias heredables relacionadas con diferencias en &lt;b&gt;supervivencia&lt;/b&gt;
o &lt;b&gt;éxito reproductivo&lt;/b&gt;. La variación continua es fundamental para
comprender muchos cambios graduales, pero su ausencia en un carácter no
invalida la evolución. Si desapareciera toda variación heredable relevante,
faltaría la base para una respuesta evolutiva por selección en ese carácter
(Berry &amp;amp; Browne, 2022; Visscher &amp;amp; Goddard, 2019). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2122144119&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Historia
conceptual&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.118.301594&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;genética cuantitativa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9335214/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La enseñanza
también debe considerar las consecuencias personales de los ejemplos. No es
adecuado utilizar pulgares, lengua u ojos para que un estudiante evalúe su
parentesco. Una predicción basada en un &lt;b&gt;modelo hereditario incorrecto&lt;/b&gt; puede
generar sospechas injustificadas. Incluso los sistemas genéticos mejor
conocidos requieren interpretación especializada y no deben transformarse en
investigaciones escolares sobre relaciones familiares. Podemos trabajar con &lt;b&gt;pedigrís
ficticios&lt;/b&gt; y datos publicados, sin exigir información privada ni convertir
la diversidad corporal del alumnado en un diagnóstico.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;El concepto de raza humana&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;variación
humana&lt;/b&gt; tampoco puede comprenderse como un conjunto de paquetes hereditarios
fijos. El color de la piel, la forma del cabello y la pigmentación ocular no
tienen una distribución geográfica idéntica. Una característica no permite
deducir automáticamente todas las demás. Hablar de &lt;b&gt;ascendencia genética&lt;/b&gt;,
de una población estudiada y de sus frecuencias alélicas exige precisar qué
datos estamos analizando.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if gte vml 1]&gt;&lt;v:shape
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&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura
2. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-diversidad-humana-y-preconceptos.html&quot;&gt;Diversidad
humana y preconceptos raciales&lt;/a&gt;]. La &lt;b&gt;diversidad genética humana&lt;/b&gt; incluye
diferencias entre poblaciones y amplia &lt;b&gt;variación individual&lt;/b&gt;. Los &lt;b&gt;rasgos
visibles&lt;/b&gt; no forman paquetes raciales inseparables: piel oscura, ojos claros
y cabello rubio pueden combinarse. La apariencia no permite deducir la &lt;b&gt;inteligencia&lt;/b&gt;
de una persona. Las &lt;b&gt;capacidades cognitivas&lt;/b&gt; dependen de interacciones
entre &lt;b&gt;genes&lt;/b&gt; y &lt;b&gt;ambiente&lt;/b&gt;, y deben evaluarse considerando
experiencias, salud y oportunidades de aprendizaje disponibles.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los estudios
genéticos sí detectan &lt;b&gt;estructura poblacional&lt;/b&gt;: las frecuencias de ciertas
variantes reflejan migraciones, parentescos y separaciones geográficas
históricas. Negarlo sería otro error. Sin embargo, esa estructura no equivale a
dividir nuestra especie en razas biológicas puras, homogéneas y separadas.
Rosenberg y colaboradores encontraron que entre el 93 % y el 95 % de la
variación analizada correspondía a diferencias entre individuos dentro de las
poblaciones estudiadas. Al mismo tiempo, pudieron identificar agrupaciones
relacionadas con la geografía: ambos resultados son compatibles (Rosenberg et
al., 2002). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078311&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12493913/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Por ello,
necesitamos distinguir &lt;b&gt;categorías sociales&lt;/b&gt;, &lt;b&gt;poblaciones&lt;/b&gt;, &lt;b&gt;ascendencia&lt;/b&gt;
y &lt;b&gt;variantes genéticas&lt;/b&gt;. Las categorías raciales cambian entre sociedades
y épocas; no son equivalentes a conjuntos de genes exclusivos. Tampoco podemos
explicar la desigualdad social atribuyéndola directamente a diferencias
hereditarias entre grupos. La existencia de variación genética no establece
jerarquías humanas ni permite deducir capacidades individuales mediante una
etiqueta racial.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura
3. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-darwiniana.html&quot;&gt;Herencia
darwiniana&lt;/a&gt;]. La &lt;b&gt;variación continua&lt;/b&gt; comprende diferencias graduales
de un carácter, aquí denominadas darwinianas. Su &lt;b&gt;herencia multilocus&lt;/b&gt;
permite combinar alelos discretos y generar numerosos fenotipos intermedios. La
&lt;b&gt;selección natural&lt;/b&gt;, las migraciones y la &lt;b&gt;deriva genética&lt;/b&gt; pueden
cambiar la distribución poblacional, incluida su media y sus extremos. En la
piel, deben distinguirse &lt;b&gt;pigmentación heredable&lt;/b&gt; y &lt;b&gt;bronceado
individual&lt;/b&gt; al interpretar diferencias observadas entre personas.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Esta precisión
tiene consecuencias educativas documentadas. Donovan examinó cómo la enseñanza
puede reforzar o reducir el &lt;b&gt;esencialismo genético&lt;/b&gt;, entendido como la
creencia de que los grupos humanos poseen una esencia genética uniforme que
determina sus características. Presentar la diversidad como categorías rígidas
puede alimentar esa interpretación. Enseñar &lt;b&gt;variación intrapoblacional&lt;/b&gt;,
complejidad genética e interacción con el ambiente permite cuestionarla. En el
aula, estudiar diferencias humanas exige explicar qué se ha medido, qué
conclusiones permiten los datos y cuáles exceden la evidencia disponible
(Donovan, 2022). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xhgg.2021.100058&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8756492/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Referencias&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Berry, A., &amp;amp;
Browne, J. (2022). Mendel and Darwin. &lt;i&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 119&lt;/i&gt;(30), e2122144119. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2122144119&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2122144119&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Cooper, D. N.,
Krawczak, M., Polychronakos, C., Tyler-Smith, C., &amp;amp; Kehrer-Sawatzki, H.
(2013). Where genotype is not predictive of phenotype: Towards an understanding
of the molecular basis of reduced penetrance in human inherited disease. &lt;i&gt;Human
Genetics, 132&lt;/i&gt;(10), 1077–1130. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Donovan, B. M.
(2022). Ending genetic essentialism through genetics education. &lt;i&gt;Human
Genetics and Genomics Advances, 3&lt;/i&gt;(1), 100058. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xhgg.2021.100058&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xhgg.2021.100058&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Fisher, R. A.
(1918). The correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian
inheritance. &lt;i&gt;Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 52&lt;/i&gt;(2),
399–433. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080456800012163&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080456800012163&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Glass, B., &amp;amp;
Kistler, J. C. (1953). Distal hyper-extensibility of the thumbs. &lt;i&gt;Acta
Genetica et Statistica Medica, 4&lt;/i&gt;(2–3), 192–206. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1159/000150741&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1159/000150741&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Harris, H., &amp;amp;
Joseph, J. (1949). Variation in extension of the metacarpo-phalangeal and
interphalangeal joint of the thumb. &lt;i&gt;The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery.
British Volume, 31-B&lt;/i&gt;(4), 547–559. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.31B4.547&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.31B4.547&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Kim, U.-K.,
Jorgenson, E., Coon, H., Leppert, M., Risch, N., &amp;amp; Drayna, D. (2003).
Positional cloning of the human quantitative trait locus underlying taste
sensitivity to phenylthiocarbamide. &lt;i&gt;Science, 299&lt;/i&gt;(5610), 1221–1225. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1080190&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1080190&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Matlock, P. (1952).
Identical twins discordant in tongue-rolling. &lt;i&gt;Journal of Heredity, 43&lt;/i&gt;(1),
24. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a106251&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a106251&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Morgan, M. D.,
Pairo-Castineira, E., Rawlik, K., Canela-Xandri, O., Rees, J., Sims, D.,
Tenesa, A., &amp;amp; Jackson, I. J. (2018). Genome-wide study of hair colour in UK
Biobank explains most of the SNP heritability. &lt;i&gt;Nature Communications, 9&lt;/i&gt;,
5271. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07691-z?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07691-z&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Rosenberg, N. A.,
Pritchard, J. K., Weber, J. L., Cann, H. M., Kidd, K. K., Zhivotovsky, L. A.,
&amp;amp; Feldman, M. W. (2002). Genetic structure of human populations. &lt;i&gt;Science,
298&lt;/i&gt;(5602), 2381–2385. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078311&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078311&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Shaffer, J. R., Li,
J., Lee, M. K., Roosenboom, J., Orlova, E., Adhikari, K., 23andMe Research
Team, Gallo, C., Poletti, G., Schuler-Faccini, L., Bortolini, M.-C.,
Canizales-Quinteros, S., Rothhammer, F., Bedoya, G., González-José, R.,
Pfeffer, P. E., Wollenschlaeger, C. A., Hecht, J. T., Wehby, G. L., … Weinberg,
S. M. (2017). Multiethnic GWAS reveals polygenic architecture of earlobe
attachment. &lt;i&gt;The American Journal of Human Genetics, 101&lt;/i&gt;(6), 913–924. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.10.001&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.10.001&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Simcoe, M., Valdes,
A., Liu, F., Furlotte, N. A., Evans, D. M., Hemani, G., Ring, S. M., Davey
Smith, G., Duffy, D. L., Zhu, G., Gordon, S. D., Medland, S. E., Vuckovic, D.,
Girotto, G., Sala, C., Catamo, E., Concas, M. P., Brumat, M., Gasparini, P., …
Hysi, P. G. (2021). Genome-wide association study in almost 195,000 individuals
identifies 50 previously unidentified genetic loci for eye color. &lt;i&gt;Science
Advances, 7&lt;/i&gt;(11), eabd1239. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd1239&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd1239&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Visscher, P. M.,
&amp;amp; Goddard, M. E. (2019). From R. A. Fisher’s 1918 paper to GWAS a century
later. &lt;i&gt;Genetics, 211&lt;/i&gt;(4), 1125–1130. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.118.301594&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.118.301594&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/6352780282278599498/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/genetica-clasica-2-errores-mendelismo.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/6352780282278599498'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/6352780282278599498'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/genetica-clasica-2-errores-mendelismo.html' title='Errores del mendelismo'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEIpBuLQNVHn2dRqIAaLZvoFqrU4eoLZdWJ1h09leziUR-g_Tm2QIwKFuhulRBD5iRREvfxJepo-GTCJkPesqdW44hY_fMIhNPAp-1W-9Bccq7fX2tgTzv1qI0cr321uobknt_SCVvxThFSTWbyuZx6LPmebtVPh28ClODLe3yoIYhluz2aLADHsbXTkU/s72-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-3514058646756808324</id><published>2026-11-11T09:14:32.425-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T09:14:32.425-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Herencia darwiniana</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZ5mBb_zkHUpfoXHW8IpaErSHC6xjmlrQCyUG3lSrIecUvxOfwfI8Y7O-JvLf0uzrzI8CYCoXEXJkop8zM4LQQd7-3xBKVuUOEdX1br4acwYULohw5y125z8QhOtU2-g7SSIIf45HPzO2m7A8HFu_nDrgxV2Ze6_MZC-TquqCJQ6CIhFs4H0ivPeqldgI/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1386&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2772&quot; height=&quot;271&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZ5mBb_zkHUpfoXHW8IpaErSHC6xjmlrQCyUG3lSrIecUvxOfwfI8Y7O-JvLf0uzrzI8CYCoXEXJkop8zM4LQQd7-3xBKVuUOEdX1br4acwYULohw5y125z8QhOtU2-g7SSIIf45HPzO2m7A8HFu_nDrgxV2Ze6_MZC-TquqCJQ6CIhFs4H0ivPeqldgI/w542-h271/image.png&quot; width=&quot;542&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;La &lt;b&gt;herencia
darwiniana&lt;/b&gt;, entendida aquí como la &lt;b&gt;transmisión de diferencias graduales&lt;/b&gt;
de un &lt;b&gt;carácter&lt;/b&gt;, describe una &lt;b&gt;variación continua&lt;/b&gt; con numerosos &lt;b&gt;estados
intermedios&lt;/b&gt;, a veces apenas distinguibles. El &lt;b&gt;color de la piel&lt;/b&gt;
permite reconocer este patrón: no presenta cuatro categorías biológicas
naturales, sino diversidad de tonalidades dentro de las &lt;b&gt;poblaciones&lt;/b&gt; y
entre ellas. Su &lt;b&gt;base genética&lt;/b&gt; incluye múltiples &lt;b&gt;genes&lt;/b&gt;
relacionados con la &lt;b&gt;melanina&lt;/b&gt;, mientras la &lt;b&gt;exposición solar&lt;/b&gt;
también modifica el &lt;b&gt;fenotipo&lt;/b&gt;. La aparición y transmisión de esa
diversidad no implica necesariamente que esté actuando &lt;b&gt;selección natural&lt;/b&gt;
en ese momento. Primero distinguimos la &lt;b&gt;variación heredable&lt;/b&gt;; después
investigamos qué procesos cambian su &lt;b&gt;distribución&lt;/b&gt; (Jablonski &amp;amp;
Chaplin, 2010). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914628107&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3024016/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Darwin destacó la
importancia de las pequeñas &lt;b&gt;diferencias hereditarias&lt;/b&gt;, pero desconocía
sus &lt;b&gt;mecanismos genéticos&lt;/b&gt;. Un respaldo experimental decisivo llegó con
los estudios de Herman Nilsson-Ehle, publicados en 1909, sobre cereales: el &lt;b&gt;color
del grano&lt;/b&gt; del trigo podía depender de varios &lt;b&gt;factores hereditarios&lt;/b&gt;.
Sus combinaciones contribuían a diferentes &lt;b&gt;intensidades de pigmentación&lt;/b&gt;,
mostrando cómo una &lt;b&gt;herencia multilocus&lt;/b&gt; podía producir gradaciones.
Fisher desarrolló en 1918 una explicación matemática que relacionaba muchos &lt;b&gt;factores
mendelianos&lt;/b&gt; con la &lt;b&gt;variación cuantitativa&lt;/b&gt;. Así, los &lt;b&gt;alelos&lt;/b&gt;
podían conservar su identidad discreta al transmitirse, mientras sus &lt;b&gt;efectos
conjuntos&lt;/b&gt; generaban &lt;b&gt;fenotipos graduales&lt;/b&gt;, sin necesitar una mezcla
irreversible de las &lt;b&gt;variantes heredadas&lt;/b&gt; (Nilsson-Ehle, 1909; Fisher,
1918). &lt;a href=&quot;https://echo-old.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=%2Fpermanent%2Fvlp%2Flit20073%2Findex.meta&amp;amp;viewMode=thumbs&amp;amp;utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Investigación experimental&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080456800012163&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;desarrollo
matemático&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://echo-old.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=%2Fpermanent%2Fvlp%2Flit20073%2Findex.meta&amp;amp;viewMode=thumbs&amp;amp;utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Kreuzungsuntersuchungen an Hafer und Weizen&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Si ciertas &lt;b&gt;combinaciones
hereditarias&lt;/b&gt; dejan más &lt;b&gt;descendencia&lt;/b&gt;, los &lt;b&gt;alelos&lt;/b&gt; que
contribuyen a ellas pueden aumentar de &lt;b&gt;frecuencia&lt;/b&gt;. Durante varias &lt;b&gt;generaciones&lt;/b&gt;,
la distribución de tonalidades puede desplazarse hacia una &lt;b&gt;pigmentación
mayor o menor&lt;/b&gt;, cambiando su media. Los extremos también pueden volverse más
frecuentes, escasos o aparecer mediante &lt;b&gt;nuevas combinaciones&lt;/b&gt;; no avanzan
juntos ni al mismo ritmo. Sin embargo, las &lt;b&gt;migraciones&lt;/b&gt; y la &lt;b&gt;deriva
genética&lt;/b&gt; también modifican frecuencias sin favorecer obligatoriamente una
adaptación. Además, el &lt;b&gt;bronceado&lt;/b&gt; cambia el aspecto individual sin
equivaler a &lt;b&gt;evolución genética poblacional&lt;/b&gt;. En humanos, la relación
histórica entre &lt;b&gt;radiación ultravioleta&lt;/b&gt; y pigmentación ofrece evidencia
de &lt;b&gt;adaptación&lt;/b&gt;, no jerarquías (Jablonski &amp;amp; Chaplin, 2010; Visscher
&amp;amp; Goddard, 2019). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914628107&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Pigmentación y ambiente&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.118.301594&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;genética
cuantitativa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3024016/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Referencias&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Fisher, R. A.
(1918). The correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian
inheritance. &lt;i&gt;Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 52&lt;/i&gt;(2),
399–433. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080456800012163&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080456800012163&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Jablonski, N. G.,
&amp;amp; Chaplin, G. (2010). Human skin pigmentation as an adaptation to UV
radiation. &lt;i&gt;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107&lt;/i&gt;(Suppl.
2), 8962–8968. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914628107&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914628107&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Nilsson-Ehle, H.
(1909). &lt;i&gt;Kreuzungsuntersuchungen an Hafer und Weizen&lt;/i&gt;. Lunds Universitets
Årsskrift, N. F., Afd. 2, 5(2), 1–122. &lt;a href=&quot;https://echo-old.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=%2Fpermanent%2Fvlp%2Flit20073%2Findex.meta&amp;amp;viewMode=thumbs&amp;amp;utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Documento histórico&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;span face=&quot;&amp;quot;Aptos&amp;quot;,sans-serif&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: ES-CO; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Aptos; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;&quot;&gt;Visscher, P. M., &amp;amp; Goddard, M. E. (2019).
From R. A. Fisher’s 1918 paper to GWAS a century later. &lt;i&gt;Genetics, 211&lt;/i&gt;(4),
1125–1130. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.118.301594&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.118.301594&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/3514058646756808324/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-darwiniana.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/3514058646756808324'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/3514058646756808324'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-darwiniana.html' title='Figura. Herencia darwiniana'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZ5mBb_zkHUpfoXHW8IpaErSHC6xjmlrQCyUG3lSrIecUvxOfwfI8Y7O-JvLf0uzrzI8CYCoXEXJkop8zM4LQQd7-3xBKVuUOEdX1br4acwYULohw5y125z8QhOtU2-g7SSIIf45HPzO2m7A8HFu_nDrgxV2Ze6_MZC-TquqCJQ6CIhFs4H0ivPeqldgI/s72-w542-h271-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-7293859984463307453</id><published>2026-11-11T09:09:01.883-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T09:09:01.883-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Diversidad humana y preconceptos raciales</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5VXjfXM12EYdoIBr7aoZAVBNPRFUAl08dCg6r06ZETmKMciIASCc5qV5h7YysgdvJ1CV47YumuNG9zyf63TGk_xy00My8NGiFgUBYNqqZkCgOYYnHsq_7w0JqHQ8TVQM_d7mRXv0FJjfzbMA8UtqmJi6QRz4txhI2_vG4E840t1_qgs4rkKIUB1xUjWw/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1648&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2330&quot; height=&quot;374&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5VXjfXM12EYdoIBr7aoZAVBNPRFUAl08dCg6r06ZETmKMciIASCc5qV5h7YysgdvJ1CV47YumuNG9zyf63TGk_xy00My8NGiFgUBYNqqZkCgOYYnHsq_7w0JqHQ8TVQM_d7mRXv0FJjfzbMA8UtqmJi6QRz4txhI2_vG4E840t1_qgs4rkKIUB1xUjWw/w529-h374/image.png&quot; width=&quot;529&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;variación genética humana&lt;/strong&gt; presenta diferencias de frecuencia entre &lt;strong&gt;poblaciones&lt;/strong&gt;, relacionadas con su historia, las &lt;strong&gt;migraciones&lt;/strong&gt; y otros &lt;strong&gt;procesos evolutivos&lt;/strong&gt;. Sin embargo, una mayor frecuencia no significa exclusividad: un &lt;strong&gt;alelo&lt;/strong&gt; o un &lt;strong&gt;fenotipo&lt;/strong&gt; puede aparecer en personas de distintas procedencias. Además, gran parte de la &lt;strong&gt;diversidad genética&lt;/strong&gt; se encuentra entre individuos de una misma población. Esto permite reconocer &lt;strong&gt;ascendencia genética&lt;/strong&gt; sin convertir las categorías raciales sociales en &lt;strong&gt;razas biológicas&lt;/strong&gt; discretas, homogéneas y separadas. Los &lt;strong&gt;rasgos visibles&lt;/strong&gt; tampoco resumen todo el &lt;strong&gt;genoma&lt;/strong&gt;. Inferir la &lt;strong&gt;constitución genética completa&lt;/strong&gt; de alguien mediante su apariencia confunde una asociación poblacional con una &lt;strong&gt;predicción individual&lt;/strong&gt; segura (Rosenberg et al., 2002; American Association of Physical Anthropologists, 2019). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078311&quot;&gt;Estudio genético&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23882?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;declaración científica&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12493913/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Una persona de &lt;strong&gt;piel oscura&lt;/strong&gt; puede tener &lt;strong&gt;ojos azules&lt;/strong&gt; o &lt;strong&gt;cabello rubio&lt;/strong&gt;: esas combinaciones no contradicen la biología. La &lt;strong&gt;pigmentación cutánea&lt;/strong&gt;, la &lt;strong&gt;pigmentación del iris&lt;/strong&gt; y el &lt;strong&gt;color del cabello&lt;/strong&gt; comparten algunos mecanismos, pero no forman un &lt;strong&gt;paquete hereditario inseparable&lt;/strong&gt;. Un ejemplo documentado aparece en las islas Salomón, donde una variante de &lt;em&gt;TYRP1&lt;/em&gt; contribuye al cabello rubio en una &lt;strong&gt;población de piel oscura&lt;/strong&gt;, mediante una explicación distinta de la habitual en europeos. Por tanto, no debemos asignar automáticamente una ascendencia reciente determinada a cualquier rasgo llamativo. Para comprender cada &lt;strong&gt;combinación&lt;/strong&gt; necesitamos considerar &lt;strong&gt;genes&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;variantes&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;herencia&lt;/strong&gt; e &lt;strong&gt;historia poblacional&lt;/strong&gt;, sin estereotipos (Kenny et al., 2012). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1217849&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22556244/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;El &lt;strong&gt;color de piel&lt;/strong&gt; y los &lt;strong&gt;rasgos craneales&lt;/strong&gt; no proporcionan una base válida para asignar niveles de &lt;strong&gt;inteligencia&lt;/strong&gt; a personas o jerarquías entre poblaciones. Las &lt;strong&gt;capacidades cognitivas&lt;/strong&gt; presentan &lt;strong&gt;variación individual&lt;/strong&gt; y se desarrollan mediante interacciones complejas entre &lt;strong&gt;factores genéticos&lt;/strong&gt; y &lt;strong&gt;ambiente&lt;/strong&gt;. La &lt;strong&gt;nutrición&lt;/strong&gt;, la &lt;strong&gt;salud&lt;/strong&gt;, la escolarización, el &lt;strong&gt;estrés&lt;/strong&gt; y las oportunidades de aprendizaje influyen en su evaluación. Una diferencia estadística observada entre grupos no identifica automáticamente una &lt;strong&gt;causa genética&lt;/strong&gt;, ni determina las capacidades de cada integrante. Tampoco la &lt;strong&gt;heredabilidad&lt;/strong&gt; calculada dentro de una población explica por sí sola &lt;strong&gt;diferencias entre poblaciones&lt;/strong&gt;. Evaluar individuos requiere información individual, no etiquetas raciales (Nisbett et al., 2012; American Association of Physical Anthropologists, 2019). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026699&quot;&gt;Revisión científica&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23882?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;declaración antropológica&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22233090/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;PubMed&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Referencias&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;American Association of Physical Anthropologists. (2019). AAPA statement on race and racism. &lt;em&gt;American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 169&lt;/em&gt;(3), 400–402. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23882?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23882&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Kenny, E. E., Timpson, N. J., Sikora, M., Yee, M.-C., Moreno-Estrada, A., Eng, C., Huntsman, S., Burchard, E. G., Stoneking, M., Bustamante, C. D., &amp;amp; Myles, S. (2012). Melanesian blond hair is caused by an amino acid change in TYRP1. &lt;em&gt;Science, 336&lt;/em&gt;(6081), 554. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1217849&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1217849&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., &amp;amp; Turkheimer, E. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. &lt;em&gt;American Psychologist, 67&lt;/em&gt;(2), 130–159. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026699&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026699&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rosenberg, N. A., Pritchard, J. K., Weber, J. L., Cann, H. M., Kidd, K. K., Zhivotovsky, L. A., &amp;amp; Feldman, M. W. (2002). Genetic structure of human populations. &lt;em&gt;Science, 298&lt;/em&gt;(5602), 2381–2385. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078311&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1078311&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/7293859984463307453/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-diversidad-humana-y-preconceptos.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/7293859984463307453'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/7293859984463307453'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-diversidad-humana-y-preconceptos.html' title='Figura. Diversidad humana y preconceptos raciales'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5VXjfXM12EYdoIBr7aoZAVBNPRFUAl08dCg6r06ZETmKMciIASCc5qV5h7YysgdvJ1CV47YumuNG9zyf63TGk_xy00My8NGiFgUBYNqqZkCgOYYnHsq_7w0JqHQ8TVQM_d7mRXv0FJjfzbMA8UtqmJi6QRz4txhI2_vG4E840t1_qgs4rkKIUB1xUjWw/s72-w529-h374-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-2638381240119421050</id><published>2026-11-11T09:01:15.080-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T09:03:57.388-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Variación del pulgar y modelos hereditarios</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGRtWCV8SNTiqIk6o7MnfN2_Zyn0fKPODHub4ydjtmX0r1MKn8SlGGYI_9-JFOBqVzuMgmukZFyTdnHKZ6EC2JuRB1yReaTi2QToQgsul2ChffHQOsf8INR0wUiT6_FC_pwBXCO5M-9JWe2Qfv7YO_ZzKwKhMg_ziAFFQs3Y63JW0qMsWlli0SCI99z3c/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1600&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2400&quot; height=&quot;363&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGRtWCV8SNTiqIk6o7MnfN2_Zyn0fKPODHub4ydjtmX0r1MKn8SlGGYI_9-JFOBqVzuMgmukZFyTdnHKZ6EC2JuRB1yReaTi2QToQgsul2ChffHQOsf8INR0wUiT6_FC_pwBXCO5M-9JWe2Qfv7YO_ZzKwKhMg_ziAFFQs3Y63JW0qMsWlli0SCI99z3c/w545-h363/image.png&quot; width=&quot;545&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;hiperextensión del pulgar&lt;/strong&gt; describe cuánto puede doblarse hacia atrás su &lt;strong&gt;articulación distal&lt;/strong&gt;. En una &lt;strong&gt;población&lt;/strong&gt;, ese &lt;strong&gt;ángulo&lt;/strong&gt; presenta numerosos valores intermedios, por lo que distinguir únicamente &lt;strong&gt;pulgares rectos y curvos&lt;/strong&gt; puede ocultar parte de la &lt;strong&gt;variación fenotípica&lt;/strong&gt;. Harris y Joseph estudiaron esta diversidad mediante &lt;strong&gt;mediciones&lt;/strong&gt;, mostrando la importancia de analizar el &lt;strong&gt;carácter cuantitativo&lt;/strong&gt; antes de establecer categorías. Un &lt;strong&gt;histograma&lt;/strong&gt; agrupa los &lt;strong&gt;ángulos observados&lt;/strong&gt; y representa su &lt;strong&gt;frecuencia&lt;/strong&gt;; no identifica directamente &lt;strong&gt;genes&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;alelos&lt;/strong&gt; ni &lt;strong&gt;genotipos&lt;/strong&gt;. Tampoco demuestra que todos los valores dependan de una misma causa. La continuidad describe cómo varía el &lt;strong&gt;fenotipo&lt;/strong&gt;, pero no determina automáticamente su &lt;strong&gt;arquitectura genética&lt;/strong&gt; (Harris &amp;amp; Joseph, 1949). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.31B4.547&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15397139/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Glass y Kistler propusieron en 1953 una &lt;strong&gt;explicación mendeliana&lt;/strong&gt; para la &lt;strong&gt;hiperextensibilidad distal&lt;/strong&gt;. El problema de trasladarla a ejercicios escolares consiste en presentar &lt;strong&gt;dos categorías&lt;/strong&gt; como si correspondieran necesariamente a un &lt;strong&gt;gen con dos alelos&lt;/strong&gt;. Elegir un ángulo para separar grupos no demuestra &lt;strong&gt;dominancia&lt;/strong&gt; ni &lt;strong&gt;recesividad&lt;/strong&gt;: esas relaciones necesitan evidencia de &lt;strong&gt;transmisión familiar&lt;/strong&gt; y una evaluación de explicaciones alternativas. El &lt;strong&gt;cruce Aa por Aa&lt;/strong&gt; produce proporciones teóricas de 1/4 &lt;strong&gt;AA&lt;/strong&gt;, 1/2 &lt;strong&gt;Aa&lt;/strong&gt; y 1/4 &lt;strong&gt;aa&lt;/strong&gt;; sin embargo, escribir ese cálculo no prueba que explique el pulgar. Un &lt;strong&gt;cuadro de Punnett&lt;/strong&gt; representa las consecuencias de una &lt;strong&gt;hipótesis hereditaria&lt;/strong&gt;, no su demostración (Glass &amp;amp; Kistler, 1953). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1159/000150741&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://karger.com/age/article-abstract/4/2-3/192/13927/DISTAL-HYPEREXTENSIBILITY-OF-THE-THUMBS?redirectedFrom=PDF&amp;amp;utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;karger.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;variación continua&lt;/strong&gt; puede describirse aquí como &lt;strong&gt;darwiniana&lt;/strong&gt; porque presenta numerosas &lt;strong&gt;diferencias graduales&lt;/strong&gt; entre individuos, sin afirmar que el histograma demuestre un proceso evolutivo concreto. Esta continuidad del &lt;strong&gt;fenotipo&lt;/strong&gt; es compatible con la &lt;strong&gt;segregación mendeliana&lt;/strong&gt; de los &lt;strong&gt;alelos&lt;/strong&gt;: muchos &lt;strong&gt;loci&lt;/strong&gt; pueden contribuir conjuntamente al carácter, junto con el &lt;strong&gt;ambiente&lt;/strong&gt;. Fisher mostró cómo integrar &lt;strong&gt;factores mendelianos&lt;/strong&gt; con la &lt;strong&gt;semejanza cuantitativa entre familiares&lt;/strong&gt;, contribuyendo al desarrollo de la &lt;strong&gt;genética cuantitativa&lt;/strong&gt;. El error consiste en convertir una &lt;strong&gt;clasificación binaria&lt;/strong&gt; en una explicación hereditaria demostrada. Debemos conservar las mediciones originales y exigir evidencia independiente antes de atribuir esta diversidad a un &lt;strong&gt;único gen&lt;/strong&gt; responsable (Fisher, 1918; Visscher &amp;amp; Goddard, 2019). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080456800012163&quot;&gt;Trabajo fundacional&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.118.301594&quot;&gt;análisis posterior&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/earth-and-environmental-science-transactions-of-royal-society-of-edinburgh/article/abs/xvthe-correlation-between-relatives-on-the-supposition-of-mendelian-inheritance/A60675052E0FB78C561F66C670BC75DE?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;www.cambridge.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Referencias&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Fisher, R. A. (1918). The correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance. &lt;em&gt;Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 52&lt;/em&gt;(2), 399–433. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080456800012163&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1017/S0080456800012163&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Glass, B., &amp;amp; Kistler, J. C. (1953). Distal hyper-extensibility of the thumbs. &lt;em&gt;Acta Genetica et Statistica Medica, 4&lt;/em&gt;(2–3), 192–206. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1159/000150741&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1159/000150741&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Harris, H., &amp;amp; Joseph, J. (1949). Variation in extension of the metacarpo-phalangeal and interphalangeal joint of the thumb. &lt;em&gt;The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. British Volume, 31-B&lt;/em&gt;(4), 547–559. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.31B4.547&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.31B4.547&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Visscher, P. M., &amp;amp; Goddard, M. E. (2019). From R. A. Fisher’s 1918 paper to GWAS a century later. &lt;em&gt;Genetics, 211&lt;/em&gt;(4), 1125–1130. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.118.301594&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.118.301594&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/2638381240119421050/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-variacion-del-pulgar-y-modelos.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/2638381240119421050'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/2638381240119421050'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-variacion-del-pulgar-y-modelos.html' title='Figura. Variación del pulgar y modelos hereditarios'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGRtWCV8SNTiqIk6o7MnfN2_Zyn0fKPODHub4ydjtmX0r1MKn8SlGGYI_9-JFOBqVzuMgmukZFyTdnHKZ6EC2JuRB1yReaTi2QToQgsul2ChffHQOsf8INR0wUiT6_FC_pwBXCO5M-9JWe2Qfv7YO_ZzKwKhMg_ziAFFQs3Y63JW0qMsWlli0SCI99z3c/s72-w545-h363-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-7020386471114894518</id><published>2026-11-11T08:35:45.552-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T08:35:45.552-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Pedigrís avanzados</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/p/genetica-clasica-2.html&quot;&gt;Genética clásica 2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Un &lt;b&gt;pedigrí&lt;/b&gt;
representa relaciones de parentesco y registra cómo aparece un carácter entre
integrantes de una familia. En la primera unidad estudiamos ejemplos básicos
como parte del análisis &lt;i&gt;a posteriori&lt;/i&gt;: comenzamos con acontecimientos que
ya ocurrieron y utilizamos esa información para investigar sus posibles causas
hereditarias. Ahora incorporaremos patrones ligados a los cromosomas sexuales y
situaciones en las que la apariencia no permite identificar directamente el &lt;b&gt;genotipo&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En un análisis &lt;i&gt;a
priori&lt;/i&gt;, conocemos o suponemos los genotipos parentales y calculamos las
probabilidades de su descendencia. En el análisis &lt;i&gt;a posteriori&lt;/i&gt;,
observamos descendientes y familiares e intentamos reconstruir las
combinaciones hereditarias compatibles. Cambia la dirección del razonamiento:
pasamos de &lt;b&gt;predecir resultados&lt;/b&gt; a &lt;b&gt;evaluar explicaciones&lt;/b&gt; de
resultados existentes.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los datos
observados son &lt;b&gt;frecuencias&lt;/b&gt;, no probabilidades teóricas. Si una pareja
tiene cuatro descendientes y uno presenta el carácter, la frecuencia observada
es 1/4. Esto no demuestra que la probabilidad de manifestación fuera
exactamente 1/4: otros modelos también pueden producir ese resultado en una
familia pequeña. La frecuencia describe lo ocurrido; la probabilidad pertenece
al modelo empleado para explicarlo.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Un &lt;b&gt;cuadro de
Punnett&lt;/b&gt; puede ayudar a comprobar qué descendientes permite una hipótesis
parental. Sin embargo, dibujarlo no identifica automáticamente los genotipos
desconocidos. Para interpretar el pedigrí debemos comparar hipótesis, buscar
incompatibilidades y reconocer qué datos faltan. Un mismo conjunto de
apariencias puede admitir varias explicaciones.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;inducción&lt;/b&gt;
consiste en utilizar observaciones particulares para construir una explicación
general o apoyar una hipótesis. Sus conclusiones pueden ser razonables sin
resultar necesariamente únicas. En genética familiar también aplicamos
deducciones: si aceptamos ciertas reglas de herencia, algunas observaciones
obligan a asignar determinados alelos.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Por ejemplo, bajo
un modelo autosómico recesivo con penetrancia completa, un descendiente aa debe
recibir un alelo a de cada progenitor. Si ambos padres carecen del fenotipo
recesivo, deducimos que son Aa. La conclusión depende de los supuestos:
variantes nuevas, errores de identificación o información incompleta podrían
exigir revisar el modelo.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Antes de
interpretar, debemos leer la &lt;b&gt;leyenda&lt;/b&gt;, identificar generaciones y
localizar al individuo desde el que se estudia la familia, denominado &lt;b&gt;caso
índice&lt;/b&gt; o probando. También interesa registrar edades, diagnósticos y
resultados genéticos. «No afectado», «no examinado» y «sin información»
representan situaciones diferentes y no deben confundirse (Bennett et al.,
2008). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;&quot;&gt;Figura 1. [&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/figura-simbologia-basica-del-pedigri.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Simbología básica del pedigrí genético&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;&quot;&gt;]. Los pedigríes representan la herencia genética
mediante símbolos: cuadrados masculinos, círculos femeninos y rombos de sexo
indeterminado. Los símbolos sombreados identifican individuos afectados; los
parcialmente sombreados, portadores, y los tachados, fallecidos. Las líneas
horizontales indican parejas y las verticales, descendencia. Esta simbología
permite analizar genotipos, fenotipos y patrones hereditarios entre
generaciones (Bennett et al., 2008).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Representación de
tres generaciones que distinga fenotipos observados, genotipos confirmados,
genotipos inferidos e información desconocida.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Herencia autosómica dominante y recesiva&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En la &lt;b&gt;herencia
autosómica&lt;/b&gt;, el gen considerado se encuentra en un autosoma. En los modelos
básicos, su transmisión no depende de si el descendiente recibe una combinación
XX o XY. Esto no obliga a que una familia contenga cantidades iguales de
personas afectadas de cada sexo: el azar puede generar diferencias.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En un modelo de &lt;b&gt;dominancia
completa&lt;/b&gt;, AA y Aa presentan el fenotipo dominante, mientras aa manifiesta
el recesivo. Por tanto, observar el carácter dominante no permite distinguir
directamente entre homocigosis y heterocigosis. El pedigrí debe aportar
información adicional para resolver esa diferencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Si dos individuos
afectados tienen un descendiente no afectado, ambos deben aportar a. Bajo este
modelo, los progenitores son Aa y el descendiente es aa. Si uno de los padres
fuera AA, todos sus descendientes recibirían A y ninguno sería aa. Una observación
puede excluir una hipótesis aunque sea poco frecuente.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En cambio, que un
progenitor afectado tenga exclusivamente descendientes afectados no demuestra
que sea AA. Si fuera Aa y su pareja aa, cada descendiente tendría una
probabilidad de 1/2 de manifestar el carácter. Cuatro afectados consecutivos
tendrían probabilidad:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[
\left(\frac12\right)^4=\frac1{16}. \]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Es un resultado
posible, aunque menos frecuente que otras combinaciones.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los caracteres &lt;b&gt;autosómicos
dominantes&lt;/b&gt; suelen producir una distribución vertical: pueden aparecer en
generaciones sucesivas. Sin embargo, ese aspecto es una pista, no una
demostración. Una variante nueva puede originar el primer caso reconocido y la &lt;b&gt;penetrancia
incompleta&lt;/b&gt; puede permitir su transmisión mediante una persona sin
manifestación visible.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En la &lt;b&gt;herencia
autosómica recesiva&lt;/b&gt;, los heterocigotos pueden transmitir la variante sin
mostrar el carácter. Dos portadores Aa pueden tener descendencia aa; por ello,
el rasgo puede aparecer entre hermanos cuyos padres no están afectados. La
ausencia del fenotipo parental no excluye la presencia de alelos relevantes.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Cuando dos
portadores tienen un descendiente no afectado, este puede ser AA o Aa. Entre
las clases no afectadas del cruce existen dos posibilidades heterocigotas por
cada homocigota dominante. Así, bajo los supuestos del ejercicio, su
probabilidad de ser portador es &lt;b&gt;2/3&lt;/b&gt;, no 1/2. Hemos condicionado el
cálculo a conocer que no presenta el fenotipo recesivo.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El tamaño familiar
influye en la interpretación. Más descendientes pueden aportar nuevas
restricciones, pero no garantizan resolver toda incertidumbre. Además, varios
embarazos son acontecimientos distintos: que ya haya nacido un individuo
afectado no modifica por sí mismo la probabilidad del siguiente. Debemos
mantener separados &lt;b&gt;resultados previos&lt;/b&gt;, &lt;b&gt;genotipos parentales&lt;/b&gt; y &lt;b&gt;probabilidades
futuras&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La penetrancia y la
expresividad añaden dificultades: una manifestación leve puede no haberse
reconocido y una persona joven puede desarrollar signos después. Por ello, los
patrones familiares deben evaluarse con información clínica y molecular, cuando
exista, en lugar de interpretar cualquier símbolo sin sombrear como certeza de
ausencia genética (Cooper et al., 2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura
1. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-autosomica-dominante.html&quot;&gt;Herencia
autosómica dominante&lt;/a&gt;]. El &lt;b&gt;pedigrí&lt;/b&gt; muestra un &lt;b&gt;rasgo autosómico
dominante&lt;/b&gt; transmitido entre tres generaciones. Los &lt;b&gt;heterocigotos&lt;/b&gt;
manifiestan el &lt;b&gt;fenotipo&lt;/b&gt;, mientras los &lt;b&gt;homocigotos recesivos&lt;/b&gt; no lo
presentan. Las relaciones familiares permiten reconstruir la &lt;b&gt;transmisión&lt;/b&gt;
de alelos y comprobar &lt;b&gt;genotipos&lt;/b&gt;. Las proporciones observadas pueden
diferir de las probabilidades teóricas, especialmente en familias pequeñas. La
interpretación requiere considerar &lt;b&gt;penetrancia&lt;/b&gt; y posibles explicaciones
alternativas antes de establecer conclusiones.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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  o:title=&quot;&quot;/&gt;
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&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura
2. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-autosomica-recesiva.html&quot;&gt;Herencia
autosómica recesiva&lt;/a&gt;]. Dos &lt;b&gt;portadores heterocigotos&lt;/b&gt; pueden tener
descendientes que manifiesten un &lt;b&gt;rasgo recesivo&lt;/b&gt;. Los &lt;b&gt;individuos sin
manifestación&lt;/b&gt; pueden ser AA o Aa; entre ellos, la probabilidad de ser
portadores es 2/3. El &lt;b&gt;pedigrí&lt;/b&gt; contiene una unión entre hermanos, que
requiere indicar &lt;b&gt;consanguinidad&lt;/b&gt;. Las etiquetas deben concordar con el
relleno, y los &lt;b&gt;genotipos&lt;/b&gt; ambiguos necesitan información adicional para
poder resolverse con certeza.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Herencia ligada al sexo en los pedigrís&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;herencia
ligada al sexo&lt;/b&gt; corresponde a genes situados en cromosomas sexuales. En los
ejemplos humanos básicos, analizaremos principalmente regiones del X que no
tienen una copia equivalente en el Y. Una persona XY posee una sola copia de
esos genes y se encuentra en &lt;b&gt;hemicigosis&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La pista principal
es la dirección de transmisión cromosómica. En el modelo XX/XY habitual, el
padre aporta su X a las hijas y su Y a los hijos varones. Por tanto, una
variante situada exclusivamente en esa región del X &lt;b&gt;no pasa directamente de
padre a hijo varón&lt;/b&gt;. Si ambos presentan un carácter semejante, debemos
investigar de dónde procede la variante del hijo.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En la &lt;b&gt;herencia
recesiva ligada al X&lt;/b&gt;, utilizaremos Xᴬ para la variante funcional y Xᵃ para
la variante asociada con el carácter estudiado. Una madre XᴬXᵃ puede transmitir
cualquiera de sus dos cromosomas X. Un padre XᴬY puede aportar Xᴬ o Y.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;373&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEigmuto3EDE3gdQNs6SwsYejDbUgnF1L6wu7HIu5dPN_N4mDW5aYuPD5I8GlVaJVA4aDzH-X0awD9aGBG17NYSe9goQNQ6bJTvHehA0xFhxa6hhXDFm6Si4WC0GS0m1RKiLqwx6dVRWZrn_7FyMMxIirtqsZSaOpUiV8eYzHgSwXCPKPM3JmsxESJe3mNE/s1600/image.png&quot; v:shapes=&quot;_x0000_i1029&quot; width=&quot;559&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura
3. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-dominante-ligada-al-x.html&quot;&gt;Herencia
dominante ligada al X&lt;/a&gt;]. La &lt;b&gt;herencia dominante ligada al X&lt;/b&gt; permite
que mujeres &lt;b&gt;heterocigotas&lt;/b&gt; y varones &lt;b&gt;hemicigotos&lt;/b&gt; manifiesten el
rasgo. Una madre heterocigota puede transmitirlo a hijas e hijos. Un padre
transmite su X a todas sus hijas, pero nunca a sus hijos varones. El pedigrí
permite seguir los &lt;b&gt;alelos&lt;/b&gt;, aunque su interpretación requiere considerar &lt;b&gt;penetrancia&lt;/b&gt;
e &lt;b&gt;inactivación del X&lt;/b&gt; en las familias estudiadas.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if gte vml 1]&gt;&lt;v:shape
 id=&quot;_x0000_i1028&quot; type=&quot;#_x0000_t75&quot; style=&#39;width:419.25pt;height:314.25pt;
 visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square&#39;&gt;
 &lt;v:imagedata src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Usuario/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.png&quot;
  o:title=&quot;&quot;/&gt;
&lt;/v:shape&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if !vml]--&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;419&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYokiQjXzeRyhkXqJL_nsdedH4J2uFtfCrNzOXmKg9o869gaUfsjjUCk-yzZPrd88rBi0ZK9EvB4ppC_smLN5xcO5uvWXM_51uzdbGwfLAZno5ue9tChoh3fgG3lJ-Xl3p4zMH2Hh9gh83VJdLxwNbiVNEac51JxQ-7inb3KU3sRQ0jeJm0FKuvbOaf7c/s1600/image.png&quot; v:shapes=&quot;_x0000_i1028&quot; width=&quot;559&quot; /&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura
4. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-recesiva-ligada-al-x.html&quot;&gt;Herencia
recesiva ligada al X&lt;/a&gt;]. La &lt;b&gt;herencia recesiva ligada al X&lt;/b&gt; puede
manifestarse en varones &lt;b&gt;hemicigotos&lt;/b&gt; y mujeres &lt;b&gt;homocigotas&lt;/b&gt;. Las &lt;b&gt;heterocigotas&lt;/b&gt;
suelen ser portadoras. Una madre transmite su X tanto a hijas como a hijos; un
padre lo transmite únicamente a sus hijas. Las nietas sin manifestación pueden
conservar una probabilidad de portación de 1/2. La &lt;b&gt;inactivación del X&lt;/b&gt;
puede modificar la &lt;b&gt;expresión&lt;/b&gt; del rasgo.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if gte vml 1]&gt;&lt;v:shape
 id=&quot;_x0000_i1027&quot; type=&quot;#_x0000_t75&quot; alt=&quot;Diagrama&amp;#10;&amp;#10;El contenido generado por IA puede ser incorrecto.&quot;
 style=&#39;width:419.25pt;height:279.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square&#39;&gt;
 &lt;v:imagedata src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Usuario/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image011.png&quot;
  o:title=&quot;Diagrama&amp;#10;&amp;#10;El contenido generado por IA puede ser incorrecto&quot;/&gt;
&lt;/v:shape&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if !vml]--&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;Diagrama

El contenido generado por IA puede ser incorrecto.&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;373&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEr0MiF0IVYVWb5pDYDyi5n0PImVFmU-ifTueX8mdyObm9-sVRSkRE0MGp333DNzFyRwqdN9y0SPoDCpzfmGwEKbrJmGX5uy9D_6iQR4_iuRdQFinCyaAcXUZEuMnolISI8oc_G2CZiLlww09OQgUVzp38npBW2IXiAR-rOeKmZBCisisrkKWJ4c3psA4/s1600/image.png&quot; v:shapes=&quot;_x0000_i1027&quot; width=&quot;559&quot; /&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura
5. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-ligada-al-y.html&quot;&gt;Herencia
ligada al Y&lt;/a&gt;]. La &lt;b&gt;herencia ligada al Y&lt;/b&gt; sigue la &lt;b&gt;línea paterna&lt;/b&gt;:
los padres transmiten este cromosoma a sus hijos varones, pero no a sus hijas.
El &lt;b&gt;pedigrí&lt;/b&gt; muestra continuidad del rasgo entre generaciones masculinas.
Las etiquetas XY no identifican por sí mismas la &lt;b&gt;variante genética&lt;/b&gt;. La
interpretación requiere distinguir &lt;b&gt;ligamiento&lt;/b&gt; de expresión limitada por
sexo y considerar &lt;b&gt;penetrancia&lt;/b&gt; y otras &lt;b&gt;explicaciones&lt;/b&gt; posibles.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Bajo penetrancia completa y los demás supuestos básicos, sus hijas serán XᴬXᴬ o XᴬXᵃ; sus hijos varones serán XᴬY o XᵃY. La mitad de los varones presentará el carácter. Entre toda la descendencia, la probabilidad de un varón afectado será 1/4 si ambos sexos tienen inicialmente igual probabilidad.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La pregunta determina el denominador. «¿Qué proporción de los hijos varones estará afectada?» se responde considerando únicamente varones. «¿Qué proporción de toda la descendencia serán varones afectados?» exige combinar ambas condiciones. Confundir estos grupos produce errores aunque el análisis de alelos sea correcto.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Un padre XᵃY transmite Xᵃ a todas sus hijas. Si la madre es XᴬXᴬ, todas serán heterocigotas y ninguno de sus hijos varones recibirá la variante paterna. Esta transmisión mediante hijas permite que un carácter reaparezca posteriormente en &lt;b&gt;nietos varones&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Las mujeres heterocigotas no deben considerarse universalmente libres de manifestaciones. En condiciones ligadas al X, la &lt;b&gt;inactivación cromosómica&lt;/b&gt;, entre otros factores, puede contribuir a variabilidad clínica. En hemofilia, algunas portadoras presentan niveles reducidos del factor de coagulación y síntomas hemorrágicos. El modelo escolar debe explicitar cuándo simplifica esta situación (Goodeve, 2015). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.12958&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En un modelo &lt;b&gt;dominante ligado al X&lt;/b&gt;, un padre afectado y una madre no afectada producen hijas que reciben la variante y varones que no la reciben de él. Una madre heterocigota puede transmitirla a descendientes de ambos sexos. Estos patrones deben interpretarse considerando penetrancia y posibles diferencias de manifestación.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El &lt;b&gt;ligamiento al Y&lt;/b&gt; presenta otra dirección: una variante de su región exclusiva puede transmitirse de padre a hijo varón. Sin embargo, observar solamente varones afectados no demuestra este patrón. Un carácter autosómico limitado por condiciones hormonales también puede manifestarse principalmente en un sexo.&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Cómo valorar las inferencias y sus límites&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Analizar un pedigrí
exige distinguir entre &lt;b&gt;compatibilidad&lt;/b&gt;, &lt;b&gt;probabilidad&lt;/b&gt; y &lt;b&gt;confirmación&lt;/b&gt;.
Un modelo compatible permite explicar las observaciones. Un modelo más probable
las explica mejor que determinadas alternativas bajo ciertos supuestos. Una
identificación molecular puede confirmar una variante concreta, pero tampoco
explica automáticamente todas sus manifestaciones.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La ausencia de
descendientes afectados proporciona información diferente de su presencia. Si
una pareja tiene varios descendientes no afectados, un modelo con riesgo bajo
puede seguir siendo compatible. En cambio, un descendiente que el modelo
considera imposible exige revisar la hipótesis o alguno de sus supuestos.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Cuando un pedigrí
permite varios genotipos, debemos conservar esa incertidumbre. No corresponde
elegir el que produzca el cuadro más sencillo. Podemos representar alternativas
o asignar probabilidades si el ejercicio aporta información suficiente. &lt;b&gt;Inferir&lt;/b&gt;
no equivale a completar todas las casillas con una certeza inexistente.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los antecedentes
también importan. Una persona no afectada emparentada con portadores puede
tener una probabilidad de portar la variante diferente de la de otra persona
sin antecedentes conocidos. Sin embargo, desconocer casos familiares no
demuestra ausencia de la variante: algunas familias son pequeñas o disponen de
registros incompletos.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los datos clínicos
necesitan una definición clara del carácter. Dos familiares con hemorragias no
presentan necesariamente la misma enfermedad. A la inversa, una misma variante
puede producir manifestaciones de intensidad diferente. La comparación debe identificar
qué diagnóstico se está siguiendo y qué evidencia respalda cada clasificación.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;información
molecular&lt;/b&gt; permite distinguir personas portadoras, identificar variantes y
comprobar su distribución familiar. En hemofilia B, el análisis de F9 ha
permitido complementar los antecedentes y los estudios de transmisión con la
identificación de alteraciones concretas (Goodeve, 2015). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.12958&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los registros deben
mantenerse actualizados y utilizar símbolos acompañados de una leyenda. Un
diagnóstico posterior puede cambiar la interpretación de una rama familiar. La
calidad del pedigrí depende tanto del razonamiento como de la &lt;b&gt;calidad de las
observaciones&lt;/b&gt; que contiene (Bennett et al., 2008). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;La descendencia de la reina Victoria y la hemofilia de Alexéi&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La familia de la
reina Victoria del Reino Unido constituye un caso histórico de &lt;b&gt;herencia
recesiva ligada al X&lt;/b&gt;. La condición apareció en su hijo Leopoldo y se
transmitió mediante algunas de sus hijas a otras casas reales europeas. Los
matrimonios dinásticos conectaron ramas familiares que hoy permiten reconstruir
la distribución del carácter.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if gte vml 1]&gt;&lt;v:shape
 id=&quot;Imagen_x0020_1&quot; o:spid=&quot;_x0000_i1026&quot; type=&quot;#_x0000_t75&quot; alt=&quot;Calendario&amp;#10;&amp;#10;El contenido generado por IA puede ser incorrecto.&quot;
 style=&#39;width:419.25pt;height:592.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square&#39;&gt;
 &lt;v:imagedata src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Usuario/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image013.png&quot;
  o:title=&quot;Calendario&amp;#10;&amp;#10;El contenido generado por IA puede ser incorrecto&quot;/&gt;
&lt;/v:shape&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if !vml]--&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;Calendario

El contenido generado por IA puede ser incorrecto.&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;790&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi93E0yYEkxHd-wGOq-fptwZJ8ha4fNR6F4vFet_76RzoIfeJSzK6yvilAcD1q577-fe3HCjpujLoIULlecgPGiNFEjTsy4bqC__7C-4AvMfXPqTpF9OBEFV0McNzUleZruHmGkhE4-99xhnhyphenhyphen2QmP0Y38YmyG-UNvIbpZVouXl1-41F0kjaDD3lyFsFwc/s1600/image.png&quot; v:shapes=&quot;Imagen_x0020_1&quot; width=&quot;559&quot; /&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura
6. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-hemofilia-en-la-descendencia-de.html&quot;&gt;Hemofilia
en la descendencia de Victoria&lt;/a&gt;]. La &lt;b&gt;hemofilia&lt;/b&gt; se transmitió entre
descendientes de Victoria mediante una &lt;b&gt;herencia recesiva ligada al X&lt;/b&gt;.
Alicia y Beatriz conectaron su &lt;b&gt;transmisión&lt;/b&gt; con Rusia y España. El &lt;b&gt;ADN&lt;/b&gt;
de los Románov confirmó una variante de &lt;b&gt;F9&lt;/b&gt; relacionada con &lt;b&gt;hemofilia
B&lt;/b&gt;. Las &lt;b&gt;portadoras&lt;/b&gt; también pueden sangrar. La enfermedad influyó en
preocupaciones sucesorias, pero no explica por sí sola los acontecimientos
políticos posteriores.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En este análisis
debemos separar el parentesco documentado de la identificación directa del ADN.
La genealogía y los casos clínicos permiten inferir que Victoria portaba la
variante familiar, pero no identifican con certeza en qué célula ancestral
apareció originalmente. La ausencia de antecedentes reconocidos no permite
reconstruir por completo ese primer acontecimiento.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Una rama conduce
desde Victoria hasta su hija Alicia, después a Alejandra y finalmente al
zarévich &lt;b&gt;Alexéi Románov&lt;/b&gt;, hijo de Alejandra y Nicolás II. Esta ruta
encaja con la transmisión de una variante ligada al X mediante mujeres
heterocigotas hacia un descendiente varón hemicigoto (Stevens, 1999). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Figura 3.
Transmisión de la variante familiar desde Victoria hasta Alexéi.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Pedigrí parcial con
Victoria, Alicia, Alejandra y Alexéi, indicando por separado las inferencias
genealógicas y los resultados moleculares disponibles.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Durante mucho
tiempo, los registros permitían reconocer hemofilia, pero no distinguir
definitivamente su tipo molecular. En 2009, Rogaev y colaboradores analizaron
ADN recuperado de restos de miembros de la familia imperial rusa. Identificaron
una variante de &lt;b&gt;F9&lt;/b&gt;, gen que contiene las instrucciones para producir el &lt;b&gt;factor
IX de coagulación&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Alejandra
presentaba la variante en heterocigosis y Alexéi, en hemicigosis. Los
investigadores también la encontraron en una hermana, identificada entonces de
manera probable como Anastasia. Los experimentos mostraron que la variante
alteraba el &lt;b&gt;procesamiento del ARN&lt;/b&gt;. El resultado permitió identificar la
enfermedad familiar estudiada como &lt;b&gt;hemofilia B grave&lt;/b&gt;, fortaleciendo
mediante evidencia molecular una reconstrucción basada anteriormente en
genealogía y síntomas (Rogaev et al., 2009). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1180660&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Rogaev_et_al_2009_Science%20326,817.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;mun.ca&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La hemofilia no
significa que cualquier herida produzca inevitablemente la muerte. El problema
es una capacidad reducida para completar normalmente la coagulación. Las formas
graves pueden causar hemorragias internas, musculares o articulares y episodios
peligrosos incluso sin un traumatismo importante. Antes de disponer de
tratamientos eficaces, estas complicaciones condicionaban profundamente la vida
familiar.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Alexéi era el único
hijo varón de Nicolás II y Alejandra, por lo que su salud tenía importancia
dinástica. Las reglas sucesorias privilegiaban la línea masculina, convirtiendo
sus episodios hemorrágicos en una preocupación por la continuidad del poder imperial.
No era solamente un problema médico privado: afectaba la seguridad que la
familia atribuía al futuro de la monarquía.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La preocupación por
el heredero favoreció la confianza de Alejandra en &lt;b&gt;Grigori Rasputín&lt;/b&gt;, a
quien atribuía capacidad para aliviar sus crisis. La relación dio a Rasputín
acceso e influencia y alimentó controversias sobre la corte. Los relatos de
mejorías no demuestran que curara la alteración hereditaria ni que dispusiera
de un tratamiento específico para la hemofilia (Tarrés et al., 2011). &lt;a href=&quot;https://revistas.usal.es/cinco/index.php/medicina_y_cine/article/view/13784?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La enfermedad
agravó una &lt;b&gt;vulnerabilidad sucesoria&lt;/b&gt; y contribuyó al contexto de
desconfianza que rodeaba al gobierno. Sin embargo, no explica por sí sola la
Revolución rusa ni permite afirmar que una mutación causó los acontecimientos
del siglo XX. La guerra, las dificultades económicas, el conflicto social y la
resistencia del régimen a reformas políticas también fueron factores
fundamentales.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En 1917, Nicolás II
abdicó y también renunció a la sucesión de Alexéi. La monarquía se derrumbó en
una crisis mucho más amplia que la enfermedad del heredero. El caso muestra
cómo una condición hereditaria puede adquirir consecuencias políticas al interactuar
con reglas dinásticas y decisiones humanas, sin convertir la historia en una
consecuencia inevitable del &lt;b&gt;genotipo&lt;/b&gt; (Tarrés et al., 2011; Harris,
2016). &lt;a href=&quot;https://revistas.usal.es/cinco/index.php/medicina_y_cine/article/view/13784?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Estudio histórico y médico&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt; y &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/what-you-need-know-understand-russian-revolution-180961214/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;contexto de la Revolución rusa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if gte vml 1]&gt;&lt;v:shape
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&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura
7. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-pedigri-de-la-hemofilia-real.html&quot;&gt;Pedigrí
de la hemofilia real&lt;/a&gt;]. El &lt;b&gt;pedigrí&lt;/b&gt; permite seguir una &lt;b&gt;variante
ligada al X&lt;/b&gt; entre descendientes de Victoria. Las mujeres &lt;b&gt;portadoras&lt;/b&gt;
pueden transmitirla sin presentar manifestaciones evidentes. Alberto no
necesitaba poseerla para que Leopoldo tuviera &lt;b&gt;hemofilia&lt;/b&gt;. El &lt;b&gt;ADN&lt;/b&gt;
confirmó &lt;b&gt;hemofilia B&lt;/b&gt; en los Románov y permitió identificar otra
portadora. La interpretación debe distinguir &lt;b&gt;inferencias familiares&lt;/b&gt;,
observaciones clínicas y resultados moleculares, actualizando los símbolos
cuando corresponda.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Referencias&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Bennett, R. L.,
French, K. S., Resta, R. G., &amp;amp; Doyle, D. L. (2008). Standardized human
pedigree nomenclature: Update and assessment of the recommendations of the
National Society of Genetic Counselors. &lt;i&gt;Journal of Genetic Counseling, 17&lt;/i&gt;(5),
424–433. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Cooper, D. N.,
Krawczak, M., Polychronakos, C., Tyler-Smith, C., &amp;amp; Kehrer-Sawatzki, H.
(2013). Where genotype is not predictive of phenotype: Towards an understanding
of the molecular basis of reduced penetrance in human inherited disease. &lt;i&gt;Human
Genetics, 132&lt;/i&gt;(10), 1077–1130. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Goodeve, A. C.
(2015). Hemophilia B: Molecular pathogenesis and mutation analysis. &lt;i&gt;Journal
of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 13&lt;/i&gt;(7), 1184–1195. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.12958&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.12958&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Harris, C. (2016,
28 de noviembre). &lt;i&gt;What you need to know first to understand the Russian
Revolution&lt;/i&gt;. Smithsonian Magazine. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/what-you-need-know-understand-russian-revolution-180961214/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/what-you-need-know-understand-russian-revolution-180961214/&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Rogaev, E. I.,
Grigorenko, A. P., Faskhutdinova, G., Kittler, E. L. W., &amp;amp; Moliaka, Y. K.
(2009). Genotype analysis identifies the cause of the “royal disease”. &lt;i&gt;Science,
326&lt;/i&gt;(5954), 817. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1180660&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1180660&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Stevens, R. F.
(1999). The history of haemophilia in the royal families of Europe. &lt;i&gt;British
Journal of Haematology, 105&lt;/i&gt;(1), 25–32. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Tarrés, M. C.,
D’Ottavio, A. E., &amp;amp; Gayol, M. del C. (2011). Genética, historia, genealogía
y cine: La hemofilia de Alexis Románov. &lt;i&gt;Revista de Medicina y Cine, 7&lt;/i&gt;(1),
21–28. &lt;a href=&quot;https://revistas.usal.es/cinco/index.php/medicina_y_cine/article/view/13784?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;https://revistas.usal.es/cinco/index.php/medicina_y_cine/article/view/13784&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/7020386471114894518/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/genetica-clasica-2-pedigris-avanzados.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/7020386471114894518'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/7020386471114894518'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/genetica-clasica-2-pedigris-avanzados.html' title='Pedigrís avanzados'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSSQNFLxmIL2kZebMGQs858ry7GWBph8NjYtxsZvYn5uk1E8Ki6OXZWd_LDdyIqY-UFh2-wpBihq7ML4FaoFOv2MB7hfhxaXXPgU2VEdgnqpCaZD1GZGKGZl_izE39r6OZN-DNdUmzL0kFcfnoDCV8p_b7fhutYvYnBoelMtEdnG342wHPRbWxqcA3Bgk/s72-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-1939888502226442945</id><published>2026-11-11T08:32:43.073-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T08:32:43.074-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Pedigrí de la hemofilia real</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvZl__ADAd3tOG9rgefz27HKPiNejW11JUV0a5x0p_rSzFaTEC679hcBOQhJ6zrz7xpvPCPSQhBcuaKvsllaz5UqP0gpim1l2E4m2hQPDP049CW1KUWYnYOWZQ7ax8Zy1ER39kHR_1R7NikI65pB5rUmcxVza4ryCi5OqTO8OjQew_hawLeDnQ1XiY0dU/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1355&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1953&quot; height=&quot;377&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvZl__ADAd3tOG9rgefz27HKPiNejW11JUV0a5x0p_rSzFaTEC679hcBOQhJ6zrz7xpvPCPSQhBcuaKvsllaz5UqP0gpim1l2E4m2hQPDP049CW1KUWYnYOWZQ7ax8Zy1ER39kHR_1R7NikI65pB5rUmcxVza4ryCi5OqTO8OjQew_hawLeDnQ1XiY0dU/w543-h377/image.png&quot; width=&quot;543&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;El &lt;strong&gt;pedigrí&lt;/strong&gt; de la reina Victoria muestra cómo una &lt;strong&gt;variante recesiva ligada al X&lt;/strong&gt; puede transmitirse durante varias &lt;strong&gt;generaciones&lt;/strong&gt; sin manifestarse en todas las &lt;strong&gt;personas que la poseen&lt;/strong&gt;. Los &lt;strong&gt;cuadrados rojos&lt;/strong&gt; identifican varones con &lt;strong&gt;hemofilia&lt;/strong&gt;; los &lt;strong&gt;círculos con punto&lt;/strong&gt; señalan mujeres &lt;strong&gt;heterocigotas portadoras&lt;/strong&gt;. Las líneas unen parejas y conectan su &lt;strong&gt;descendencia&lt;/strong&gt;, mientras los números romanos ordenan las generaciones. El esquema permite seguir el &lt;strong&gt;alelo&lt;/strong&gt; hacia familias reales británicas, prusianas, rusas y españolas. Sin embargo, los símbolos vacíos no equivalen automáticamente a &lt;strong&gt;genotipos confirmados&lt;/strong&gt;: deben interpretarse considerando la información histórica disponible, la &lt;strong&gt;penetrancia&lt;/strong&gt; y las limitaciones de una &lt;strong&gt;reconstrucción familiar&lt;/strong&gt; retrospectiva (Stevens, 1999). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;onlinelibrary.wiley.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;transmisión ligada al X&lt;/strong&gt; explica por qué Alberto no necesitaba ser portador para que Leopoldo tuviera &lt;strong&gt;hemofilia&lt;/strong&gt;: el &lt;strong&gt;hijo recibió&lt;/strong&gt; su &lt;strong&gt;X materno&lt;/strong&gt; y el &lt;strong&gt;Y paterno&lt;/strong&gt;. Victoria también transmitió la &lt;strong&gt;variante&lt;/strong&gt; a Alicia y Beatriz, quienes la llevaron a otras ramas familiares. Alicia fue madre de Irene y Alejandra; sus descendientes incluyeron &lt;strong&gt;varones afectados&lt;/strong&gt; en Prusia y Rusia. Beatriz fue madre de Victoria Eugenia, cuyos hijos Alfonso y Gonzalo presentaron hemofilia. Leopoldo, por su parte, transmitió su &lt;strong&gt;X con la variante&lt;/strong&gt; a su hija Alicia de Athlone, quien tuvo un &lt;strong&gt;hijo afectado&lt;/strong&gt;. Esto ilustra la &lt;strong&gt;transmisión padre-hija-nieto&lt;/strong&gt; característica (Jackson et al., 2018; Stevens, 1999). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&quot;&gt;Fundamento genético&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x&quot;&gt;historia familiar&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6279436/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;El análisis de &lt;strong&gt;ADN&lt;/strong&gt; de los Románov confirmó una variante en &lt;strong&gt;F9&lt;/strong&gt;, responsable de &lt;strong&gt;hemofilia B&lt;/strong&gt;, que afecta al &lt;strong&gt;factor IX de coagulación&lt;/strong&gt;. Alejandra era &lt;strong&gt;heterocigota&lt;/strong&gt; y Alexéi, &lt;strong&gt;hemicigoto&lt;/strong&gt;. También se identificó como &lt;strong&gt;portadora&lt;/strong&gt; a una hermana, presumiblemente Anastasia; por tanto, su círculo vacío no recoge ese &lt;strong&gt;hallazgo molecular&lt;/strong&gt;. La comparación muestra que un &lt;strong&gt;pedigrí histórico&lt;/strong&gt; puede actualizarse mediante &lt;strong&gt;evidencia genética&lt;/strong&gt;. Asimismo, no debemos asumir que toda &lt;strong&gt;persona aparentemente sana&lt;/strong&gt; carecía del &lt;strong&gt;alelo&lt;/strong&gt; ni atribuir cada muerte familiar a la hemofilia. Las &lt;strong&gt;inferencias genealógicas&lt;/strong&gt;, los &lt;strong&gt;diagnósticos clínicos&lt;/strong&gt; y la &lt;strong&gt;confirmación molecular&lt;/strong&gt; aportan información diferente, que debe distinguirse al interpretar cada símbolo (Rogaev et al., 2009). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1180660&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Rogaev_et_al_2009_Science%20326%2C817.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;mun.ca&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Referencias&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Jackson, M., Marks, L., May, G. H. W., &amp;amp; Wilson, J. B. (2018). The genetic basis of disease. &lt;em&gt;Essays in Biochemistry, 62&lt;/em&gt;(5), 643–723. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rogaev, E. I., Grigorenko, A. P., Faskhutdinova, G., Kittler, E. L. W., &amp;amp; Moliaka, Y. K. (2009). Genotype analysis identifies the cause of the “royal disease”. &lt;em&gt;Science, 326&lt;/em&gt;(5954), 817. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1180660&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1180660&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Stevens, R. F. (1999). The history of haemophilia in the royal families of Europe. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Haematology, 105&lt;/em&gt;(1), 25–32. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/1939888502226442945/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-pedigri-de-la-hemofilia-real.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/1939888502226442945'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/1939888502226442945'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-pedigri-de-la-hemofilia-real.html' title='Figura. Pedigrí de la hemofilia real'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvZl__ADAd3tOG9rgefz27HKPiNejW11JUV0a5x0p_rSzFaTEC679hcBOQhJ6zrz7xpvPCPSQhBcuaKvsllaz5UqP0gpim1l2E4m2hQPDP049CW1KUWYnYOWZQ7ax8Zy1ER39kHR_1R7NikI65pB5rUmcxVza4ryCi5OqTO8OjQew_hawLeDnQ1XiY0dU/s72-w543-h377-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-1400359490911568606</id><published>2026-11-11T08:20:54.607-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T08:20:54.608-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Hemofilia en la descendencia de Victoria</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgC5jeF5xBhVmT1oHe5NBKKTG1azXtsQS2jygNYnVhmV_d5jslIxn-sEYra9sl41SmVMppZsUNOgww6YdL0LceF6sMADdmSLcwIeZ5FnsheeJj6z8Y5tn_2vPaF661CcGeUSIP2zqkm2DyDPAwu84cM2NQC5n-JiPgMiEioY3TJ_HX7Si5JRju5LnIglhk/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;2330&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1648&quot; height=&quot;777&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgC5jeF5xBhVmT1oHe5NBKKTG1azXtsQS2jygNYnVhmV_d5jslIxn-sEYra9sl41SmVMppZsUNOgww6YdL0LceF6sMADdmSLcwIeZ5FnsheeJj6z8Y5tn_2vPaF661CcGeUSIP2zqkm2DyDPAwu84cM2NQC5n-JiPgMiEioY3TJ_HX7Si5JRju5LnIglhk/w550-h777/image.png&quot; width=&quot;550&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;hemofilia&lt;/strong&gt; presente en la descendencia de la reina Victoria constituye un caso clásico de &lt;strong&gt;herencia recesiva ligada al X&lt;/strong&gt;. La &lt;strong&gt;variante genética&lt;/strong&gt; circuló por distintas casas reales mediante los matrimonios dinásticos, durante los siglos XIX y XX. Victoria tuvo un hijo con &lt;strong&gt;hemofilia&lt;/strong&gt;, Leopoldo, y dos hijas reconocidas como &lt;strong&gt;portadoras&lt;/strong&gt;, Alicia y Beatriz. Alicia &lt;strong&gt;transmitió el alelo&lt;/strong&gt; a Alejandra, madre del zarévich Alexéi; Beatriz lo transmitió a Victoria Eugenia, cuyos hijos Alfonso y Gonzalo también presentaron la &lt;strong&gt;enfermedad&lt;/strong&gt;. Estas conexiones permiten reconstruir una &lt;strong&gt;transmisión familiar&lt;/strong&gt;, pero no prueban dónde apareció por primera vez la &lt;strong&gt;mutación&lt;/strong&gt; ni quién la originó (Stevens, 1999). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;onlinelibrary.wiley.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;En el modelo &lt;strong&gt;recesivo ligado al X&lt;/strong&gt;, una &lt;strong&gt;mujer heterocigota&lt;/strong&gt; puede &lt;strong&gt;transmitir la variante a sus hijas y sus hijos&lt;/strong&gt;. Si el padre no presenta la variante, cada hijo varón tiene una probabilidad de 1/2 de presentar &lt;strong&gt;hemofilia&lt;/strong&gt;, mientras cada hija tiene una probabilidad de 1/2 de ser &lt;strong&gt;portadora&lt;/strong&gt;. Los &lt;strong&gt;varones hemicigotos&lt;/strong&gt; poseen una sola &lt;strong&gt;copia de estos genes del X&lt;/strong&gt;, lo que explica la mayor frecuencia de manifestación masculina. Un &lt;strong&gt;padre transmite su X&lt;/strong&gt; a todas sus hijas, nunca a sus hijos varones. Algunas &lt;strong&gt;portadoras&lt;/strong&gt; también presentan &lt;strong&gt;sangrado&lt;/strong&gt;, por lo que no deben considerarse necesariamente mujeres libres de síntomas (Goodeve, 2015). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.12958&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25851415/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;El análisis de &lt;strong&gt;ADN&lt;/strong&gt; de los Románov identificó una &lt;strong&gt;variante de F9&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;gen que codifica&lt;/strong&gt; el &lt;strong&gt;factor IX de coagulación&lt;/strong&gt;. El resultado confirmó &lt;strong&gt;hemofilia B&lt;/strong&gt; en Alexéi y la condición &lt;strong&gt;heterocigota&lt;/strong&gt; de Alejandra. La variante altera el &lt;strong&gt;procesamiento del ARN&lt;/strong&gt;, comprometiendo la &lt;strong&gt;producción de una proteína funcional&lt;/strong&gt;. La enfermedad favorecía &lt;strong&gt;hemorragias prolongadas&lt;/strong&gt;, incluidas &lt;strong&gt;hemorragias articulares&lt;/strong&gt;, sin implicar que cualquier herida causara inevitablemente la muerte. Su impacto sobre la familia imperial incrementó las preocupaciones sucesorias y contribuyó a la confianza depositada en Rasputín. Sin embargo, explicar la Revolución rusa únicamente por esta condición confunde una influencia histórica con una causa suficiente (Rogaev et al., 2009; Stevens, 1999). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1180660&quot;&gt;Análisis genético&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x&quot;&gt;estudio histórico&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19815722/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Referencias&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Goodeve, A. C. (2015). Hemophilia B: Molecular pathogenesis and mutation analysis. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 13&lt;/em&gt;(7), 1184–1195. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.12958&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.12958&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rogaev, E. I., Grigorenko, A. P., Faskhutdinova, G., Kittler, E. L. W., &amp;amp; Moliaka, Y. K. (2009). Genotype analysis identifies the cause of the “royal disease”. &lt;em&gt;Science, 326&lt;/em&gt;(5954), 817. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1180660&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1180660&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Stevens, R. F. (1999). The history of haemophilia in the royal families of Europe. &lt;em&gt;British Journal of Haematology, 105&lt;/em&gt;(1), 25–32. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2141.1999.01327.x&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/1400359490911568606/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-hemofilia-en-la-descendencia-de.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/1400359490911568606'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/1400359490911568606'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-hemofilia-en-la-descendencia-de.html' title='Figura. Hemofilia en la descendencia de Victoria'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgC5jeF5xBhVmT1oHe5NBKKTG1azXtsQS2jygNYnVhmV_d5jslIxn-sEYra9sl41SmVMppZsUNOgww6YdL0LceF6sMADdmSLcwIeZ5FnsheeJj6z8Y5tn_2vPaF661CcGeUSIP2zqkm2DyDPAwu84cM2NQC5n-JiPgMiEioY3TJ_HX7Si5JRju5LnIglhk/s72-w550-h777-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-5483804410054591168</id><published>2026-11-11T08:16:13.671-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T08:16:33.538-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Herencia ligada al Y</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr8MJYomkUWNmgJH9xx6YTZBoCj3epxwSGiwtkx4Mp7iVuqC3SMNPoV7uJ_y7_X1RmeaBC4sWHtV-Ws1rj9PKjKfIeCuDowfCzAIKbj0HehRWsTGHZnTWWQ_UvAt5sVbDb6HK1QtyxMrJR50ug6BCiOdKlcxBb4Bp8h2moPlA6aaH-8aklp3EMHwa_JQY/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1600&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2400&quot; height=&quot;363&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr8MJYomkUWNmgJH9xx6YTZBoCj3epxwSGiwtkx4Mp7iVuqC3SMNPoV7uJ_y7_X1RmeaBC4sWHtV-Ws1rj9PKjKfIeCuDowfCzAIKbj0HehRWsTGHZnTWWQ_UvAt5sVbDb6HK1QtyxMrJR50ug6BCiOdKlcxBb4Bp8h2moPlA6aaH-8aklp3EMHwa_JQY/w546-h363/image.png&quot; width=&quot;546&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;herencia ligada al cromosoma Y&lt;/strong&gt;, también llamada &lt;strong&gt;herencia holándrica&lt;/strong&gt;, corresponde a variantes situadas en regiones del &lt;strong&gt;cromosoma Y&lt;/strong&gt; que no se recombinan normalmente con el X. En el modelo humano XX/XY, el padre transmite su &lt;strong&gt;cromosoma Y&lt;/strong&gt; a sus hijos varones, mientras sus hijas reciben su &lt;strong&gt;cromosoma X&lt;/strong&gt;. Por ello, una &lt;strong&gt;variante ligada al Y&lt;/strong&gt; puede seguir una &lt;strong&gt;línea paterna&lt;/strong&gt; durante varias &lt;strong&gt;generaciones&lt;/strong&gt;. Para un &lt;strong&gt;gen&lt;/strong&gt; sin una segunda copia equivalente, no se aplica la comparación habitual entre &lt;strong&gt;alelos dominantes y recesivos&lt;/strong&gt;. Sin embargo, portar una variante no garantiza manifestar un &lt;strong&gt;fenotipo&lt;/strong&gt;: también importan su función y su &lt;strong&gt;penetrancia&lt;/strong&gt; (Hughes &amp;amp; Page, 2015). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genet-112414-055311&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-genet-112414-055311?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;annualreviews.org&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;El varón I-1 presenta el &lt;strong&gt;rasgo estudiado&lt;/strong&gt; y lo transmite a sus &lt;strong&gt;hijos II-4 y II-8&lt;/strong&gt;. Sus &lt;strong&gt;hijas II-5 y II-6&lt;/strong&gt; no reciben el &lt;strong&gt;Y paterno&lt;/strong&gt;. En la siguiente generación, II-4 transmite la &lt;strong&gt;variante&lt;/strong&gt; a sus hijos III-10 y III-11; II-8 la transmite a III-15, pero no a su hija III-14. Por su parte, II-6 tiene dos hijos sin el rasgo, III-12 y III-13, porque ellos reciben el Y de II-7, quien no presenta la variante. Así, el &lt;strong&gt;pedigrí&lt;/strong&gt; distingue la &lt;strong&gt;transmisión directa entre varones&lt;/strong&gt; de una transmisión mediante mujeres. Este resultado supone &lt;strong&gt;penetrancia completa&lt;/strong&gt; y ausencia de &lt;strong&gt;mutaciones nuevas&lt;/strong&gt; (Jackson et al., 2018). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6279436/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Los &lt;strong&gt;cuadrados rojos&lt;/strong&gt; representan varones y los &lt;strong&gt;círculos azules&lt;/strong&gt;, mujeres; el &lt;strong&gt;relleno completo&lt;/strong&gt; identifica quienes manifiestan el &lt;strong&gt;carácter&lt;/strong&gt;. Las etiquetas XY indican la &lt;strong&gt;composición cromosómica&lt;/strong&gt;, pero no distinguen el &lt;strong&gt;Y con la variante&lt;/strong&gt; del Y sin ella. Esa diferencia depende aquí del relleno y debería explicarse en una leyenda. Además, observar varones con un rasgo no demuestra &lt;strong&gt;ligamiento al Y&lt;/strong&gt;: algunos &lt;strong&gt;caracteres autosómicos&lt;/strong&gt; también pueden expresarse principalmente en &lt;strong&gt;un sexo&lt;/strong&gt;. Para sostener la interpretación debemos examinar la &lt;strong&gt;transmisión familiar&lt;/strong&gt;, considerar otras explicaciones y, cuando sea posible, identificar la &lt;strong&gt;variante genética&lt;/strong&gt;. El esquema representa un &lt;strong&gt;patrón hereditario&lt;/strong&gt;, no una enfermedad concreta (Jackson et al., 2018). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6279436/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Referencias&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Hughes, J. F., &amp;amp; Page, D. C. (2015). The biology and evolution of mammalian Y chromosomes. &lt;em&gt;Annual Review of Genetics, 49&lt;/em&gt;, 507–527. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genet-112414-055311&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genet-112414-055311&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Jackson, M., Marks, L., May, G. H. W., &amp;amp; Wilson, J. B. (2018). The genetic basis of disease. &lt;em&gt;Essays in Biochemistry, 62&lt;/em&gt;(5), 643–723. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/5483804410054591168/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-ligada-al-y.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/5483804410054591168'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/5483804410054591168'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-ligada-al-y.html' title='Figura. Herencia ligada al Y'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr8MJYomkUWNmgJH9xx6YTZBoCj3epxwSGiwtkx4Mp7iVuqC3SMNPoV7uJ_y7_X1RmeaBC4sWHtV-Ws1rj9PKjKfIeCuDowfCzAIKbj0HehRWsTGHZnTWWQ_UvAt5sVbDb6HK1QtyxMrJR50ug6BCiOdKlcxBb4Bp8h2moPlA6aaH-8aklp3EMHwa_JQY/s72-w546-h363-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-2043878441841775236</id><published>2026-11-11T08:11:14.632-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T08:11:14.632-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Herencia recesiva ligada al X</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_yPm-WpIXDzlvbSr4OsfFba0Kfp3IiDWV14oNueydnJUtHhX2aTCYDKKNTdRmcKBSzlRkStEehJJixO5TaYMKx9wy1PZr-KkadFnFBVYp0Lmr2ihQGxRPa4sS6m8Ck3yJnh5lvsmYDSt0DweutEJZIms1V73DAUn3Bh1cCDUWjzCriG_wl18Uz9sLbLw/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1697&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2263&quot; height=&quot;416&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_yPm-WpIXDzlvbSr4OsfFba0Kfp3IiDWV14oNueydnJUtHhX2aTCYDKKNTdRmcKBSzlRkStEehJJixO5TaYMKx9wy1PZr-KkadFnFBVYp0Lmr2ihQGxRPa4sS6m8Ck3yJnh5lvsmYDSt0DweutEJZIms1V73DAUn3Bh1cCDUWjzCriG_wl18Uz9sLbLw/w555-h416/image.png&quot; width=&quot;555&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;herencia recesiva ligada al X&lt;/strong&gt; corresponde a un &lt;strong&gt;carácter&lt;/strong&gt; asociado con un &lt;strong&gt;alelo recesivo&lt;/strong&gt; situado en el &lt;strong&gt;cromosoma X&lt;/strong&gt;. En este modelo, las &lt;strong&gt;mujeres homocigotas&lt;/strong&gt;, XᵃXᵃ, y los &lt;strong&gt;varones hemicigotos&lt;/strong&gt;, XᵃY, manifiestan el &lt;strong&gt;fenotipo estudiado&lt;/strong&gt;. Las &lt;strong&gt;mujeres heterocigotas&lt;/strong&gt;, XᴬXᵃ, son &lt;strong&gt;portadoras&lt;/strong&gt; sin manifestación bajo los supuestos del ejercicio. Los &lt;strong&gt;círculos azules&lt;/strong&gt; representan mujeres y los &lt;strong&gt;cuadrados rojos&lt;/strong&gt;, varones; el relleno completo identifica quienes expresan el &lt;strong&gt;rasgo&lt;/strong&gt;. Un símbolo vacío no excluye la presencia del &lt;strong&gt;alelo recesivo&lt;/strong&gt; en una mujer. La interpretación supone &lt;strong&gt;penetrancia completa&lt;/strong&gt; en los genotipos indicados, ausencia de &lt;strong&gt;mutaciones nuevas&lt;/strong&gt; y clasificación correcta de los &lt;strong&gt;fenotipos familiares&lt;/strong&gt; (Jackson et al., 2018). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6279436/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;La mujer I-1, XᵃXᵃ, &lt;strong&gt;transmite el alelo recesivo&lt;/strong&gt; a toda su descendencia. El varón I-2, XᴬY, aporta Xᴬ a sus hijas y Y a sus hijos. Por ello, las &lt;strong&gt;hijas II-4 y II-6&lt;/strong&gt; son &lt;strong&gt;heterocigotas portadoras&lt;/strong&gt;, mientras los &lt;strong&gt;hijos II-5 y II-7&lt;/strong&gt; presentan el &lt;strong&gt;rasgo&lt;/strong&gt;. La mujer II-4 forma pareja con II-3, XᴬY: cada hijo varón tiene una probabilidad de 1/2 de manifestarlo, mientras cada hija tiene una probabilidad de 1/2 de ser &lt;strong&gt;portadora&lt;/strong&gt;. Las nietas III-10 y III-12 pueden ser &lt;strong&gt;XᴬXᴬ o XᴬXᵃ&lt;/strong&gt;. Su &lt;strong&gt;fenotipo&lt;/strong&gt; no permite resolver esa diferencia; ambas conservan una probabilidad de &lt;strong&gt;portación&lt;/strong&gt; igual a 1/2 (Jackson et al., 2018). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6279436/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;El varón II-7, XᵃY, y la mujer II-8, XᵃXᵃ, transmiten el &lt;strong&gt;alelo recesivo&lt;/strong&gt; a todos sus &lt;strong&gt;descendientes&lt;/strong&gt;. Los hijos III-13 y III-15 son &lt;strong&gt;hemicigotos&lt;/strong&gt;, y la hija III-14 es &lt;strong&gt;homocigota recesiva&lt;/strong&gt;; los tres manifiestan el &lt;strong&gt;carácter&lt;/strong&gt;. Esta rama demuestra que la &lt;strong&gt;herencia ligada al X&lt;/strong&gt; también puede producir mujeres que expresen el rasgo. Ningún padre transmite su &lt;strong&gt;cromosoma X&lt;/strong&gt; a sus hijos varones: ellos reciben el &lt;strong&gt;X materno&lt;/strong&gt;. Finalmente, ser &lt;strong&gt;portadora&lt;/strong&gt; no garantiza siempre ausencia de síntomas en organismos reales. La &lt;strong&gt;inactivación del X&lt;/strong&gt; puede favorecer la manifestación en algunas &lt;strong&gt;heterocigotas&lt;/strong&gt;, de modo que estos patrones requieren considerar la &lt;strong&gt;penetrancia&lt;/strong&gt; (Cooper et al., 2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23820649/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Referencias&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cooper, D. N., Krawczak, M., Polychronakos, C., Tyler-Smith, C., &amp;amp; Kehrer-Sawatzki, H. (2013). Where genotype is not predictive of phenotype: Towards an understanding of the molecular basis of reduced penetrance in human inherited disease. &lt;em&gt;Human Genetics, 132&lt;/em&gt;(10), 1077–1130. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Jackson, M., Marks, L., May, G. H. W., &amp;amp; Wilson, J. B. (2018). The genetic basis of disease. &lt;em&gt;Essays in Biochemistry, 62&lt;/em&gt;(5), 643–723. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/2043878441841775236/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-recesiva-ligada-al-x.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/2043878441841775236'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/2043878441841775236'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-recesiva-ligada-al-x.html' title='Figura. Herencia recesiva ligada al X'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj_yPm-WpIXDzlvbSr4OsfFba0Kfp3IiDWV14oNueydnJUtHhX2aTCYDKKNTdRmcKBSzlRkStEehJJixO5TaYMKx9wy1PZr-KkadFnFBVYp0Lmr2ihQGxRPa4sS6m8Ck3yJnh5lvsmYDSt0DweutEJZIms1V73DAUn3Bh1cCDUWjzCriG_wl18Uz9sLbLw/s72-w555-h416-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-6527879581321061865</id><published>2026-11-11T08:06:07.278-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T08:06:07.279-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Herencia dominante ligada al X</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0Ee89TgJ84sIfrztPlbdn2y7W4wJv8ojvv6RyAeQR9EBnEkNmuWNuVHa6ilDzogRiS3vy5lQPhJI7K9J0IfmTNoL8daK-B5f63CdamdCdADAgjI7UIADjlwJS7iPoacvY8c5yq5JlHX7semIEgxaOI45GZWI_dvIChU-nPyEFKXNm817JE0ZRmcrJt_4/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;1600&quot; data-original-width=&quot;2400&quot; height=&quot;359&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0Ee89TgJ84sIfrztPlbdn2y7W4wJv8ojvv6RyAeQR9EBnEkNmuWNuVHa6ilDzogRiS3vy5lQPhJI7K9J0IfmTNoL8daK-B5f63CdamdCdADAgjI7UIADjlwJS7iPoacvY8c5yq5JlHX7semIEgxaOI45GZWI_dvIChU-nPyEFKXNm817JE0ZRmcrJt_4/w539-h359/image.png&quot; width=&quot;539&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;herencia dominante ligada al X&lt;/strong&gt; corresponde a un &lt;strong&gt;carácter&lt;/strong&gt; cuyo &lt;strong&gt;alelo dominante&lt;/strong&gt;, A, está situado en el &lt;strong&gt;cromosoma X&lt;/strong&gt;. En el modelo representado, las &lt;strong&gt;mujeres heterocigotas&lt;/strong&gt;, XᴬXᵃ, manifiestan el &lt;strong&gt;fenotipo&lt;/strong&gt;, al igual que los &lt;strong&gt;varones hemicigotos&lt;/strong&gt;, XᴬY. Por eso, las mujeres heterocigotas aparecen completamente coloreadas: no son &lt;strong&gt;portadoras sin manifestación&lt;/strong&gt;. Los círculos azules representan mujeres y los cuadrados rojos, varones; los símbolos vacíos identifican individuos sin el &lt;strong&gt;rasgo&lt;/strong&gt;. El cromosoma Y no contiene aquí un &lt;strong&gt;alelo equivalente&lt;/strong&gt; que oculte A. Estas reglas describen un &lt;strong&gt;modelo mendeliano simplificado&lt;/strong&gt;, cuya aplicación supone &lt;strong&gt;penetrancia completa&lt;/strong&gt; y una identificación correcta del &lt;strong&gt;fenotipo estudiado&lt;/strong&gt; (Jackson et al., 2018). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6279436/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;La mujer I-1 es &lt;strong&gt;heterocigota&lt;/strong&gt;, XᴬXᵃ, y el varón I-2 presenta XᵃY. Sus &lt;strong&gt;hijas reciben&lt;/strong&gt; necesariamente el &lt;strong&gt;X paterno&lt;/strong&gt; con a, mientras sus &lt;strong&gt;hijos reciben&lt;/strong&gt; el &lt;strong&gt;Y paterno&lt;/strong&gt;. La diferencia depende del &lt;strong&gt;alelo materno&lt;/strong&gt;: tanto hijas como hijos tienen una probabilidad de 1/2 de &lt;strong&gt;heredar Xᴬ&lt;/strong&gt; y manifestar el &lt;strong&gt;carácter&lt;/strong&gt;. Así se explican los individuos II-3 y II-4 coloreados, frente a II-5 y II-6 sin relleno. Entre toda la &lt;strong&gt;descendencia&lt;/strong&gt;, cada combinación de &lt;strong&gt;sexo y fenotipo&lt;/strong&gt; tendría probabilidad de 1/4, suponiendo igual probabilidad de ambos sexos. Las &lt;strong&gt;frecuencias observadas&lt;/strong&gt; coinciden aquí con las esperadas, pero esa coincidencia no resulta obligatoria (Jackson et al., 2018). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6279436/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;La mujer II-6, XᵃXᵃ, forma pareja con el varón II-7, XᴬY. Todas sus hijas reciben el &lt;strong&gt;alelo dominante paterno&lt;/strong&gt;, por lo que III-8 y III-10 son &lt;strong&gt;heterocigotas&lt;/strong&gt; y manifiestan el &lt;strong&gt;rasgo&lt;/strong&gt;. Sus hijos reciben el &lt;strong&gt;cromosoma Y paterno&lt;/strong&gt; y un &lt;strong&gt;X materno&lt;/strong&gt; con a; por eso III-9 y III-11 presentan XᵃY. Esta diferencia permite reconocer una característica fundamental: no existe &lt;strong&gt;transmisión del X de padre a hijo varón&lt;/strong&gt;. Sin embargo, observar un &lt;strong&gt;pedigrí pequeño&lt;/strong&gt; no demuestra por sí solo este patrón. La &lt;strong&gt;inactivación del X&lt;/strong&gt; y la &lt;strong&gt;penetrancia incompleta&lt;/strong&gt; pueden complicar la relación entre &lt;strong&gt;genotipo&lt;/strong&gt; y &lt;strong&gt;fenotipo&lt;/strong&gt; en familias reales (Cooper et al., 2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23820649/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Referencias&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cooper, D. N., Krawczak, M., Polychronakos, C., Tyler-Smith, C., &amp;amp; Kehrer-Sawatzki, H. (2013). Where genotype is not predictive of phenotype: Towards an understanding of the molecular basis of reduced penetrance in human inherited disease. &lt;em&gt;Human Genetics, 132&lt;/em&gt;(10), 1077–1130. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Jackson, M., Marks, L., May, G. H. W., &amp;amp; Wilson, J. B. (2018). The genetic basis of disease. &lt;em&gt;Essays in Biochemistry, 62&lt;/em&gt;(5), 643–723. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20170053&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/6527879581321061865/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-dominante-ligada-al-x.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/6527879581321061865'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/6527879581321061865'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-dominante-ligada-al-x.html' title='Figura. Herencia dominante ligada al X'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0Ee89TgJ84sIfrztPlbdn2y7W4wJv8ojvv6RyAeQR9EBnEkNmuWNuVHa6ilDzogRiS3vy5lQPhJI7K9J0IfmTNoL8daK-B5f63CdamdCdADAgjI7UIADjlwJS7iPoacvY8c5yq5JlHX7semIEgxaOI45GZWI_dvIChU-nPyEFKXNm817JE0ZRmcrJt_4/s72-w539-h359-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-4891799639983289886</id><published>2026-11-11T07:44:04.706-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T07:44:04.707-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Herencia autosómica recesiva</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLEd1t-dSlK8qlsJexaMo5CDVx4skcT5rpB1_5jdF-EIsmT12nPVG4T5zrqyn9yupk9z8BUxRCB4egQ_LWE3EMnNWJ-GHfZA5aJyS4lGdTVZdAs1kFkHEIP32N-2yZfXUi0PmKFxouOgsznhCHGrJzbMgBRKEiaoFgyIFywbx-86VyhxlR0DNlqr7kQd4/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;583&quot; data-original-width=&quot;874&quot; height=&quot;373&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLEd1t-dSlK8qlsJexaMo5CDVx4skcT5rpB1_5jdF-EIsmT12nPVG4T5zrqyn9yupk9z8BUxRCB4egQ_LWE3EMnNWJ-GHfZA5aJyS4lGdTVZdAs1kFkHEIP32N-2yZfXUi0PmKFxouOgsznhCHGrJzbMgBRKEiaoFgyIFywbx-86VyhxlR0DNlqr7kQd4/w560-h373/image.png&quot; width=&quot;560&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;herencia autosómica recesiva&lt;/strong&gt; permite que dos &lt;strong&gt;progenitores sin el rasgo&lt;/strong&gt; tengan descendientes que sí lo manifiestan. En este modelo, los &lt;strong&gt;homocigotos recesivos&lt;/strong&gt;, aa, presentan el &lt;strong&gt;fenotipo estudiado&lt;/strong&gt;; los &lt;strong&gt;heterocigotos&lt;/strong&gt;, Aa, son &lt;strong&gt;portadores&lt;/strong&gt;, y los &lt;strong&gt;homocigotos dominantes&lt;/strong&gt;, AA, no poseen el &lt;strong&gt;alelo recesivo&lt;/strong&gt;. Los &lt;strong&gt;cuadrados&lt;/strong&gt; representan varones y los &lt;strong&gt;círculos&lt;/strong&gt;, mujeres. El &lt;strong&gt;relleno completo&lt;/strong&gt; identifica individuos aa, mientras el &lt;strong&gt;medio relleno&lt;/strong&gt; señala &lt;strong&gt;portadores heterocigotos&lt;/strong&gt;. Los colores distinguen los sexos, sin representar variantes diferentes. Como el &lt;strong&gt;gen&lt;/strong&gt; es &lt;strong&gt;autosómico&lt;/strong&gt;, puede transmitirse y manifestarse en ambos sexos. Esta interpretación supone &lt;strong&gt;dominancia completa&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;penetrancia completa&lt;/strong&gt; y ausencia de &lt;strong&gt;mutaciones nuevas&lt;/strong&gt; durante las generaciones (Bennett et al., 2008; Cooper et al., 2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9&quot;&gt;Nomenclatura&lt;/a&gt;; &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&quot;&gt;penetrancia&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18792771/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Los dos integrantes de la primera generación son &lt;strong&gt;heterocigotos&lt;/strong&gt; Aa. Cada uno puede &lt;strong&gt;transmitir A o a&lt;/strong&gt;, por lo que cada &lt;strong&gt;descendiente&lt;/strong&gt; tiene probabilidades de 1/4 de ser &lt;strong&gt;homocigoto dominante&lt;/strong&gt;, 1/2 de ser &lt;strong&gt;portador heterocigoto&lt;/strong&gt; y 1/4 de ser &lt;strong&gt;homocigoto recesivo&lt;/strong&gt;. Estas probabilidades se aplican a cada embarazo; no obligan a obtener cantidades exactas en familias pequeñas. La presencia de un &lt;strong&gt;hijo aa&lt;/strong&gt; permite deducir que ambos &lt;strong&gt;progenitores&lt;/strong&gt; &lt;strong&gt;aportaron a&lt;/strong&gt;. Sin embargo, un &lt;strong&gt;descendiente sin manifestación&lt;/strong&gt; podría ser AA o Aa. Entre esos descendientes, la probabilidad de ser &lt;strong&gt;portador&lt;/strong&gt; es 2/3, mientras la de ser AA corresponde al 1/3 restante. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK5191/box/further_illus-19/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;Fundamento del cálculo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK5191/box/further_illus-19/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;En la segunda generación, los dos &lt;strong&gt;portadores&lt;/strong&gt; que forman pareja aparecen conectados también como &lt;strong&gt;hermanos&lt;/strong&gt;. Por tanto, existe &lt;strong&gt;consanguinidad&lt;/strong&gt;, que debería señalarse mediante una &lt;strong&gt;línea doble&lt;/strong&gt; de unión. Su descendencia puede incluir &lt;strong&gt;individuos AA, Aa y aa&lt;/strong&gt;, pero los &lt;strong&gt;fenotipos&lt;/strong&gt; no permiten resolver todos los &lt;strong&gt;genotipos&lt;/strong&gt;. El hijo sin relleno de la tercera generación no puede identificarse como AA: podría ser &lt;strong&gt;heterocigoto&lt;/strong&gt;, con probabilidad de 2/3 si solo conocemos que no manifiesta el rasgo. La última hija, rotulada Aa, debería mostrar &lt;strong&gt;medio relleno&lt;/strong&gt; para mantener la leyenda. Asignar &lt;strong&gt;genotipos exactos&lt;/strong&gt; requiere &lt;strong&gt;información adicional&lt;/strong&gt;, como una &lt;strong&gt;prueba molecular&lt;/strong&gt;, cuando hay ambigüedad (Bennett et al., 2008). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://geneticcounselingtoolkit.com/cases/pedigree/Bennett%20JGC%202008%20-%20Standardized%20Human%20Pedigree%20Nomenclature%20-%20Update%20and%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Recommendations%20of%20the%20National%20Society%20of%20Genetic%20Counselors.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;geneticcounselingtoolkit.com&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Referencias&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bennett, R. L., French, K. S., Resta, R. G., &amp;amp; Doyle, D. L. (2008). Standardized human pedigree nomenclature: Update and assessment of the recommendations of the National Society of Genetic Counselors. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Genetic Counseling, 17&lt;/em&gt;(5), 424–433. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cooper, D. N., Krawczak, M., Polychronakos, C., Tyler-Smith, C., &amp;amp; Kehrer-Sawatzki, H. (2013). Where genotype is not predictive of phenotype: Towards an understanding of the molecular basis of reduced penetrance in human inherited disease. &lt;em&gt;Human Genetics, 132&lt;/em&gt;(10), 1077–1130. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;University of Washington, Seattle. (s. f.). Learn more (carrier). En &lt;em&gt;GeneReviews glossary&lt;/em&gt;. National Center for Biotechnology Information. &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK5191/box/further_illus-19/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK5191/box/further_illus-19/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/4891799639983289886/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-autosomica-recesiva.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/4891799639983289886'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/4891799639983289886'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-autosomica-recesiva.html' title='Figura. Herencia autosómica recesiva'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLEd1t-dSlK8qlsJexaMo5CDVx4skcT5rpB1_5jdF-EIsmT12nPVG4T5zrqyn9yupk9z8BUxRCB4egQ_LWE3EMnNWJ-GHfZA5aJyS4lGdTVZdAs1kFkHEIP32N-2yZfXUi0PmKFxouOgsznhCHGrJzbMgBRKEiaoFgyIFywbx-86VyhxlR0DNlqr7kQd4/s72-w560-h373-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-6561719963585793736</id><published>2026-11-11T07:40:49.910-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-11T07:40:49.911-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Herencia autosómica dominante</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUr4hxlljVkcWHWm71Zm-ws9y0tRUHvtXqg0o4hvYxvy4ukAQ8UoFuOO1KS9oPFbjzhyphenhyphenvsy2XMd9mcKF5mpRl7DXqLKyhuWQfxrnK3y4-NKsnf6SNZPgwqqORsmy10-LZ4TCoswZEovwHHKCQvqXGTEjam27h29db3_c4AYe-OosbVcVg-8FH1HMwqxdI/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;437&quot; data-original-width=&quot;874&quot; height=&quot;275&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUr4hxlljVkcWHWm71Zm-ws9y0tRUHvtXqg0o4hvYxvy4ukAQ8UoFuOO1KS9oPFbjzhyphenhyphenvsy2XMd9mcKF5mpRl7DXqLKyhuWQfxrnK3y4-NKsnf6SNZPgwqqORsmy10-LZ4TCoswZEovwHHKCQvqXGTEjam27h29db3_c4AYe-OosbVcVg-8FH1HMwqxdI/w549-h275/image.png&quot; width=&quot;549&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;El &lt;strong&gt;pedigrí&lt;/strong&gt; representa una &lt;strong&gt;herencia autosómica dominante&lt;/strong&gt;: el &lt;strong&gt;alelo dominante&lt;/strong&gt; A permite manifestar el &lt;strong&gt;carácter&lt;/strong&gt; en &lt;strong&gt;individuos heterocigotos&lt;/strong&gt;, Aa, mientras los &lt;strong&gt;homocigotos recesivos&lt;/strong&gt;, aa, no lo manifiestan. Los &lt;strong&gt;cuadrados&lt;/strong&gt; representan varones y los &lt;strong&gt;círculos&lt;/strong&gt;, mujeres; el &lt;strong&gt;relleno&lt;/strong&gt; identifica quienes presentan el &lt;strong&gt;fenotipo estudiado&lt;/strong&gt;, suponiendo esa convención como leyenda. Los colores distinguen los símbolos, pero no indican enfermedades diferentes. Las filas corresponden a tres &lt;strong&gt;generaciones&lt;/strong&gt;, identificadas mediante números romanos. El &lt;strong&gt;rasgo&lt;/strong&gt; aparece en ambos sexos y puede transmitirse de padre a hijo, algo compatible con un &lt;strong&gt;gen autosómico&lt;/strong&gt;, situado fuera de los &lt;strong&gt;cromosomas sexuales&lt;/strong&gt;. No se identifica aquí ninguna enfermedad concreta (Bennett et al., 2008). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18792771/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;En la primera generación, el &lt;strong&gt;padre heterocigoto&lt;/strong&gt; Aa y la &lt;strong&gt;madre homocigota recesiva&lt;/strong&gt; aa tienen tres descendientes: una &lt;strong&gt;hija heterocigota&lt;/strong&gt;, un &lt;strong&gt;hijo homocigoto recesivo&lt;/strong&gt; y otro &lt;strong&gt;hijo heterocigoto&lt;/strong&gt;. Como la madre únicamente aporta el &lt;strong&gt;alelo recesivo&lt;/strong&gt;, cada &lt;strong&gt;descendiente Aa&lt;/strong&gt; necesariamente recibió el &lt;strong&gt;alelo dominante paterno&lt;/strong&gt;. Por eso, conocer un &lt;strong&gt;genotipo parental&lt;/strong&gt; ayuda a reconstruir el origen de los &lt;strong&gt;alelos&lt;/strong&gt;. Cada &lt;strong&gt;fecundación&lt;/strong&gt; tiene una probabilidad de 1/2 de producir Aa y de 1/2 de producir aa. Sin embargo, observar dos descendientes con el &lt;strong&gt;carácter&lt;/strong&gt; entre tres no contradice ese modelo: una &lt;strong&gt;familia pequeña&lt;/strong&gt; no debe reproducir exactamente las &lt;strong&gt;proporciones teóricas&lt;/strong&gt; previstas (Bennett et al., 2008). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;En la tercera generación, las parejas &lt;strong&gt;heterocigoto por homocigoto recesivo&lt;/strong&gt; tienen, cada una, un descendiente con el &lt;strong&gt;rasgo&lt;/strong&gt; y otro sin él. La pareja formada por dos &lt;strong&gt;homocigotos recesivos&lt;/strong&gt; tiene dos hijas aa, resultado esperado porque ninguno posee A. Estas relaciones permiten comprobar la coherencia del &lt;strong&gt;modelo hereditario&lt;/strong&gt; y distinguir &lt;strong&gt;genotipos&lt;/strong&gt; de &lt;strong&gt;fenotipos&lt;/strong&gt;. La interpretación supone &lt;strong&gt;penetrancia completa&lt;/strong&gt;, ausencia de &lt;strong&gt;mutaciones nuevas&lt;/strong&gt; y &lt;strong&gt;clasificación correcta&lt;/strong&gt; del &lt;strong&gt;carácter&lt;/strong&gt;. Con &lt;strong&gt;penetrancia incompleta&lt;/strong&gt;, alguien podría &lt;strong&gt;portar A sin manifestarlo&lt;/strong&gt;. Además, sin los genotipos escritos, este árbol por sí solo no demostraría la &lt;strong&gt;dominancia&lt;/strong&gt;, pues otros modelos podrían ser compatibles con una familia pequeña (Cooper et al., 2013). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23820649/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Referencias&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bennett, R. L., French, K. S., Resta, R. G., &amp;amp; Doyle, D. L. (2008). Standardized human pedigree nomenclature: Update and assessment of the recommendations of the National Society of Genetic Counselors. &lt;em&gt;Journal of Genetic Counseling, 17&lt;/em&gt;(5), 424–433. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9169-9&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Cooper, D. N., Krawczak, M., Polychronakos, C., Tyler-Smith, C., &amp;amp; Kehrer-Sawatzki, H. (2013). Where genotype is not predictive of phenotype: Towards an understanding of the molecular basis of reduced penetrance in human inherited disease. &lt;em&gt;Human Genetics, 132&lt;/em&gt;(10), 1077–1130. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-013-1331-2&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/6561719963585793736/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-autosomica-dominante.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/6561719963585793736'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/6561719963585793736'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-herencia-autosomica-dominante.html' title='Figura. Herencia autosómica dominante'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUr4hxlljVkcWHWm71Zm-ws9y0tRUHvtXqg0o4hvYxvy4ukAQ8UoFuOO1KS9oPFbjzhyphenhyphenvsy2XMd9mcKF5mpRl7DXqLKyhuWQfxrnK3y4-NKsnf6SNZPgwqqORsmy10-LZ4TCoswZEovwHHKCQvqXGTEjam27h29db3_c4AYe-OosbVcVg-8FH1HMwqxdI/s72-w549-h275-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-8488002732943406846</id><published>2026-11-10T21:48:31.849-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-10T21:48:31.849-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Penetrancia, expresividad y plasticidad</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;[&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/p/genetica-clasica-2.html&quot;&gt;Genética clásica 2&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Penetrancia&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;penetrancia&lt;/b&gt;
indica qué proporción de los individuos con un genotipo determinado manifiesta
el fenotipo asociado. Para calcularla debemos conocer dos cantidades: cuántos
individuos poseen la combinación hereditaria estudiada y cuántos presentan el
carácter definido. No basta observar una población y contar cuántos tienen una
característica, porque necesitamos identificar también a quienes poseen el &lt;b&gt;genotipo&lt;/b&gt;,
aunque no muestren el &lt;b&gt;fenotipo&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Supongamos que
estudiamos 100 individuos con una misma variante hereditaria y encontramos el
carácter en 85. La penetrancia observada es del &lt;b&gt;85 %&lt;/b&gt;. Los otros 15
poseen la variante, pero no presentan el carácter según los criterios
utilizados. Este resultado no significa que hayan perdido el alelo ni que
necesariamente hayan dejado de transmitirlo: describe la relación entre la &lt;b&gt;constitución
genética&lt;/b&gt; y su manifestación observable.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Cuando todos los
individuos estudiados presentan el carácter, hablamos de &lt;b&gt;penetrancia
completa&lt;/b&gt;. Si solo lo presenta una parte, hablamos de &lt;b&gt;penetrancia
incompleta&lt;/b&gt;. Estas expresiones siempre deben relacionarse con un fenotipo
concreto, una edad y unas condiciones de observación. La ausencia de una
característica durante la infancia, por ejemplo, no demuestra que nunca vaya a
aparecer.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La definición del
carácter resulta decisiva. Podemos preguntar si una persona presenta una
enfermedad, una alteración molecular o una manifestación específica, como
fracturas. Las respuestas no tienen por qué coincidir. Una persona sin
fracturas puede mostrar otros cambios relacionados con la misma condición. Por
eso, antes de calcular una penetrancia debemos establecer &lt;b&gt;qué manifestación
se contará&lt;/b&gt; y cómo se reconocerá.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La penetrancia
tampoco es una propiedad que deba tener idéntico valor en cualquier población.
Su estimación puede depender de las variantes estudiadas, el ambiente, la edad
y la manera de seleccionar a los participantes. Los estudios centrados en
familias con síntomas evidentes pueden producir resultados distintos de los
obtenidos examinando personas seleccionadas sin conocer previamente su estado
clínico.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En un patrón
hereditario dominante, una variante puede transmitirse mediante una persona que
no manifiesta el carácter. Su descendiente podría heredarla y sí expresarla.
Desde fuera, parecería que el rasgo «saltó» una generación; sin embargo, la &lt;b&gt;transmisión
del alelo&lt;/b&gt; continuó. La falta de manifestación no equivale a ausencia de la
variante.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Para comprender
esta diferencia conviene recordar que entre una secuencia de ADN y una
característica corporal intervienen numerosos procesos. Los genes pueden
producir &lt;b&gt;ARN funcional&lt;/b&gt; o servir como instrucciones para fabricar
proteínas. Cuando existe una proteína como producto final, su cantidad,
estructura, localización y actividad contribuyen al resultado biológico.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

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&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura 1.[&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-regulacion-genica-y-penetrancia.html&quot;&gt;Regulación
génica y penetrancia&lt;/a&gt;]. La &lt;b&gt;expresión génica&lt;/b&gt; depende de múltiples
controles. Algunos implican &lt;b&gt;metilación&lt;/b&gt; o modificaciones de &lt;b&gt;histonas&lt;/b&gt;;
otros funcionan mediante mecanismos distintos. La &lt;b&gt;penetrancia&lt;/b&gt; mide
cuántos individuos con determinado genotipo manifiestan un &lt;b&gt;fenotipo&lt;/b&gt;. Su
variación puede involucrar ambiente, otros genes y fluctuaciones celulares. La &lt;b&gt;epigenética&lt;/b&gt;
constituye una explicación posible, cuya participación requiere evidencia
experimental para cada caso estudiado.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Esquema de la &lt;b&gt;expresión
génica&lt;/b&gt; de un gen codificante de proteína en una célula eucariota: ADN,
transcripción, procesamiento del ARN, exportación del ARN mensajero, traducción
y procesamiento de la proteína. La figura debe distinguir &lt;b&gt;traducción&lt;/b&gt; de
transcripción y mostrar que no todas las proteínas necesitan una activación
posterior independiente.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;transcripción&lt;/b&gt;
produce ARN a partir de ADN. En numerosos genes eucariotas, el ARN inicial se
procesa antes de funcionar como mensajero maduro. Después, los ribosomas
realizan la &lt;b&gt;traducción&lt;/b&gt;, que ensambla una cadena de aminoácidos. El
plegamiento, las modificaciones y las interacciones con otras moléculas pueden
influir en la función de la proteína resultante.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;No todos estos
controles son necesariamente &lt;b&gt;epigenéticos&lt;/b&gt;. La regulación génica es una
categoría amplia; la epigenética estudia determinados estados de regulación y
organización de la cromatina que pueden mantenerse sin modificar la secuencia
del ADN. La metilación del ADN y algunas modificaciones de histonas participan
en estos mecanismos. Una mutación en una proteína reguladora, en cambio, sigue
siendo una diferencia genética, aunque modifique la actividad de otros genes
(Berger et al., 2009). &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/3959995/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Un ejemplo
experimental permite precisar el significado de penetrancia. Pereira y
colaboradores estudiaron embriones de ratón que expresaban una versión alterada
de &lt;b&gt;COL1A1&lt;/b&gt;, relacionada con la formación de colágeno. Examinaron 51
embriones transgénicos de 11 camadas: aproximadamente el 22 % presentó
fracturas extensas, el 51 % mostró fracturas limitadas a las costillas y el 27
% no presentó fracturas detectables.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En ese estudio, la &lt;b&gt;penetrancia
del fenotipo de fracturas&lt;/b&gt; fue aproximadamente del 73 %. Los autores no
encontraron que las diferencias se explicaran simplemente por el fondo genético
o por los niveles relativos del ARN medidos. El resultado no demuestra que los
embriones sin fracturas fueran idénticos en todos los aspectos a los controles;
tampoco permite concluir que cualquier variante humana de COL1A1 tenga esa
penetrancia. Describe un modelo experimental y un criterio de observación
específicos (Pereira et al., 1994). &lt;a href=&quot;https://jci.org/articles/view/117161?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;jci.org&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;osteogénesis
imperfecta&lt;/b&gt; humana también exige distinguir manifestaciones. El colágeno
tipo I es una proteína estructural, no un tejido. Las variantes que alteran su
cantidad o sus propiedades pueden afectar la resistencia ósea y otros
componentes del organismo. La ausencia de fracturas en una persona no basta,
por sí sola, para clasificarla como no afectada.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Expresividad&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;expresividad&lt;/b&gt;
describe cómo se manifiesta un carácter en individuos que comparten una
variante o un genotipo relevante: qué características aparecen, &lt;b&gt;con qué
intensidad&lt;/b&gt; y en qué partes del organismo. El &lt;b&gt;polimorfismo genético&lt;/b&gt;,
en cambio, se refiere a la presencia de distintas variantes en una población;
cuando se consideran varios alelos de un mismo gen, esas diferencias pueden
producir manifestaciones distintas. La &lt;b&gt;herencia multilocus&lt;/b&gt; indica que
varios genes contribuyen al carácter. Los conceptos responden, por tanto, a
preguntas diferentes: la expresividad describe la &lt;b&gt;variación de la
manifestación&lt;/b&gt;, el polimorfismo identifica diversidad genética y el modelo
multilocus reconoce la participación de varios genes. Una diferencia de
apariencia entre portadores de alelos distintos no demuestra, por sí sola,
expresividad variable de una misma variante.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En la naturaleza,
estas situaciones pueden ser difíciles de distinguir y aparecer conjuntamente.
Dos individuos pueden compartir una variante asociada con un carácter, pero
poseer diferentes &lt;b&gt;alelos modificadores&lt;/b&gt; en otros genes, desarrollarse en
ambientes distintos o encontrarse en edades diferentes. El resultado puede ser
una &lt;b&gt;expresividad variable&lt;/b&gt; cuya explicación incluya tanto diversidad
genética como participación multilocus e influencias ambientales. Por ello,
expresividad y herencia multilocus no son explicaciones excluyentes: la primera
describe lo observado y la segunda puede contribuir a explicarlo. Para
diferenciarlas necesitamos comparar individuos con variantes conocidas,
examinar otros genes y controlar las condiciones de observación. La &lt;b&gt;apariencia
externa&lt;/b&gt; permite reconocer diferencias, pero rara vez revela por sí sola
cuáles de estos procesos las producen.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if gte vml 1]&gt;&lt;v:shape
 id=&quot;_x0000_i1027&quot; type=&quot;#_x0000_t75&quot; alt=&quot;Drosophila eye colour&quot; style=&#39;width:420pt;
 height:468pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square&#39;&gt;
 &lt;v:imagedata src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Usuario/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.jpg&quot;
  o:title=&quot;Drosophila eye colour&quot; cropbottom=&quot;4599f&quot;/&gt;
&lt;/v:shape&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if !vml]--&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;Drosophila eye colour&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;624&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgynobFBkMeQMD6o7bwwZ2yPyV_ZAhjocIRHkrUB027jyGrr5M6G__5vGBNiFsebnr7YFERwI1mdlrQ448J94BCaExmBab25zO3ilXhdUxTSJeH2OhKOf1Fe1BS4_t6dK4-M1UqduB7zwemgh2phTnpIxFjkVIagxopuoSIILDc54YynXp_Voz2bXshyrs/s1600/image.jpeg&quot; v:shapes=&quot;_x0000_i1027&quot; width=&quot;560&quot; /&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura
2. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-variacion-del-color-ocular-de-la.html&quot;&gt;Variación
del color ocular&lt;/a&gt;]. Distintos &lt;b&gt;alelos&lt;/b&gt; y &lt;b&gt;genes&lt;/b&gt; modifican la
cantidad, composición y distribución de &lt;b&gt;pigmentos&lt;/b&gt; en los ojos. La &lt;b&gt;expresividad
variable&lt;/b&gt; se estudia comparando portadores de una misma variante relevante.
Los &lt;b&gt;genes modificadores&lt;/b&gt; y el &lt;b&gt;ambiente&lt;/b&gt; pueden contribuir a las
diferencias. Estas ilustraciones reúnen diversas causas genéticas, por lo que
no representan exclusivamente variaciones de &lt;b&gt;expresividad&lt;/b&gt; entre
individuos.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Imaginemos 20
animales con una misma variante que produce dedos adicionales. Si los 20
muestran algún dedo extra, la penetrancia observada para ese criterio es del
100 %. Si unos tienen un dedo adicional y otros varios, existe variación en la
expresividad. Si algunos no muestran ninguno, también habría penetrancia
incompleta para la presencia de dedos adicionales.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Ambos conceptos
dependen de la escala de observación. Una manifestación muy leve puede pasar
inadvertida durante una revisión superficial y detectarse mediante una
exploración más detallada. Por ello, clasificar un individuo como «sin
manifestación» exige especificar qué se buscó. Una diferencia aparente de &lt;b&gt;penetrancia&lt;/b&gt;
puede relacionarse, en parte, con diferencias en la capacidad de detectar una
expresión leve.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La expresividad no
se limita a una escala sencilla de «poco» a «mucho». Dos individuos pueden
presentar manifestaciones distintas sin que uno sea globalmente más afectado
que el otro. Uno puede mostrar cambios más evidentes en el esqueleto y otro en
un órgano diferente. Conviene describir cada componente del &lt;b&gt;fenotipo&lt;/b&gt;, en
lugar de reducirlo siempre a una única puntuación.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El &lt;b&gt;síndrome de
Marfan&lt;/b&gt; relacionado con variantes de FBN1 constituye un ejemplo. Este gen
participa en la producción de fibrilina 1, componente de estructuras de la
matriz extracelular. Las manifestaciones pueden involucrar el esqueleto, los
ojos y el sistema cardiovascular. Ser alto y tener dedos largos no permite, por
sí solo, establecer el diagnóstico.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En un estudio de 1
306 personas con variantes de FBN1, se analizaron 23 características clínicas.
Las manifestaciones de un mismo sistema corporal tendían a relacionarse más
entre sí que con las de otros sistemas. Esto muestra por qué la &lt;b&gt;variabilidad
clínica&lt;/b&gt; no puede explicarse únicamente mediante una escala general de
gravedad. Además, conocer una variante no permite predecir con exactitud todas
las características de una persona (Grange et al., 2020). &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32443863/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Comparar personas
con variantes diferentes no demuestra, por sí solo, que una misma variante
tenga expresividad variable: parte de la diferencia podría deberse a sus
distintas alteraciones genéticas. Para estudiar esa cuestión resulta
especialmente útil comparar individuos que comparten la variante relevante, sin
suponer que también poseen un genoma completo o una historia ambiental
idénticos.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if gte vml 1]&gt;&lt;v:shape
 id=&quot;_x0000_i1026&quot; type=&quot;#_x0000_t75&quot; alt=&quot;Imagen que contiene Calendario&amp;#10;&amp;#10;El contenido generado por IA puede ser incorrecto.&quot;
 style=&#39;width:420pt;height:366.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square&#39;&gt;
 &lt;v:imagedata src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Usuario/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.png&quot;
  o:title=&quot;Imagen que contiene Calendario&amp;#10;&amp;#10;El contenido generado por IA puede ser incorrecto&quot;
  cropbottom=&quot;13203f&quot;/&gt;
&lt;/v:shape&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if !vml]--&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;Imagen que contiene Calendario

El contenido generado por IA puede ser incorrecto.&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;489&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgz_zYoyvw2CNtcMvvgSFEmRWh2N8o5EGgsVqLeH1PdplmcQ0TQdl8T2x_PKxutkyRvTVxiP7Ddob7L0h6qvVwmtPCwjBOFGJmltYLv4AEB-nnuKDiQCA6iGFCRmFVhsEWekKIZLDoJlOUBuLy9HGoc7MGjGdJATCQh_pMwzlFk8SjF9M2wbZDjvxeP5No/s1600/image.png&quot; v:shapes=&quot;_x0000_i1026&quot; width=&quot;560&quot; /&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura 3. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-polidactilia-y-expresividad.html&quot;&gt;Polidactilia
y expresividad felina&lt;/a&gt;]. La &lt;b&gt;polidactilia&lt;/b&gt; produce &lt;b&gt;dedos adicionales&lt;/b&gt;.
Algunas variantes alteran una &lt;b&gt;región reguladora&lt;/b&gt; de SHH, modificando el
patrón embrionario de las extremidades. La &lt;b&gt;expresividad variable&lt;/b&gt;
describe diferencias en número y distribución de dedos; la &lt;b&gt;penetrancia&lt;/b&gt;
indica cuántos portadores manifiestan el carácter. La &lt;b&gt;dominancia&lt;/b&gt; no
garantiza manifestación universal ni permite deducir individualmente el
genotipo mediante la apariencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Comparación de
patas con diferente número y distribución de dedos adicionales. La figura debe
identificar la &lt;b&gt;polidactilia&lt;/b&gt; y mostrar variación entre individuos sin
afirmar que todas sus causas presentan penetrancia completa.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En gatos
domésticos, &lt;i&gt;Felis catus&lt;/i&gt;, ciertas formas de polidactilia se relacionan
con variantes en una región reguladora llamada ZRS. Esta región participa en el
control espacial de &lt;b&gt;SHH&lt;/b&gt;, una señal importante durante el desarrollo de
las extremidades. Algunas variantes hacen que la señal aparezca en una zona
adicional, modificando el patrón de formación de los dedos.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Lettice y
colaboradores identificaron variantes de esta región en poblaciones de gatos
polidáctilos, incluidos los conocidos gatos de Hemingway. Los experimentos
mostraron que cambios pequeños en la secuencia reguladora podían modificar su
actividad durante el desarrollo. No se trata simplemente de un «gen de dedos
extra» que añada siempre el mismo número de dedos, sino de una alteración en un
sistema de &lt;b&gt;organización embrionaria&lt;/b&gt; (Lettice et al., 2008). &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/point-mutations-in-a-distant-sonic-hedgehog-cis-regulator-generat/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;University of Edinburgh Research
Explorer&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La presencia de
polidactilia tampoco demuestra que una población sea endogámica. La &lt;b&gt;endogamia&lt;/b&gt;
puede modificar la frecuencia de ciertas combinaciones hereditarias, pero no es
una condición necesaria para que aparezca o se transmita una variante
dominante. Para explicar un caso necesitamos información sobre la variante, la
familia y el desarrollo, no solamente sobre su apariencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La penetrancia y la
expresividad son descripciones del resultado, no nombres de mecanismos únicos.
Una variación en la &lt;b&gt;expresión génica&lt;/b&gt;, una interacción con otros genes o
una diferencia durante el desarrollo pueden contribuir a cualquiera de las dos.
No existe una regla universal según la cual bloquear una proteína afecte
exclusivamente a la penetrancia y reducirla afecte exclusivamente a la
expresividad.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Modelo matemático&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Para trabajar
matemáticamente debemos separar dos preguntas: &lt;b&gt;qué genotipo recibe un
descendiente&lt;/b&gt; y qué probabilidad tiene de manifestar el carácter si recibe
ese genotipo. La penetrancia interviene en la segunda pregunta. Por sí sola, no
cambia las probabilidades de transmisión de los alelos calculadas para el
cruce.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos corchetes
para representar probabilidades, como convención de esta sección. Así, [AA]₀
representa la probabilidad genotípica obtenida del cruce. El subíndice cero
indica el cálculo de transmisión previo a considerar la manifestación
fenotípica. Por su parte, [D | AA] representa la probabilidad de observar el
fenotipo D &lt;b&gt;dado que el individuo es AA&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La barra vertical
se lee «dado que». Es una &lt;b&gt;probabilidad condicionada&lt;/b&gt;: limita la pregunta
a los individuos que cumplen una condición. Si la penetrancia de D en AA es del
90 %, entonces [D | AA] = 0.90. Esto no significa que el 90 % de toda la
descendencia sea AA ni que el 90 % de toda la descendencia presente D.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La probabilidad de
que un descendiente tenga AA y manifieste D se obtiene multiplicando:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ [D\cap
AA]=[AA]_0[D\mid AA]. \tag{28.1} \]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El símbolo de
intersección indica que ocurren ambas condiciones. Esta operación calcula la &lt;b&gt;contribución
de un genotipo al fenotipo&lt;/b&gt;, no una nueva frecuencia del genotipo. Los
individuos AA que no manifiestan D siguen siendo AA.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La misma regla
puede aplicarse a cualquier genotipo, incluidos los homocigotos recesivos. No
está limitada a los genotipos que contienen alelos dominantes. Lo que cambia
entre ejercicios es la probabilidad condicionada asignada a cada combinación.
Si un genotipo nunca presenta D bajo el modelo, su contribución se multiplica
por cero.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En un sistema
monohíbrido A/a, las tres clases posibles son AA, Aa y aa. Para calcular la
probabilidad total de D sumamos sus contribuciones:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ [D]=[AA]_0[D\mid
AA]+[Aa]_0[D\mid Aa]+[aa]_0[D\mid aa]. \tag{28.2} \]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Esta suma utiliza
clases genotípicas mutuamente excluyentes: un individuo no puede pertenecer
simultáneamente a AA, Aa y aa para el mismo gen considerado. Por ello, podemos
reunir sus contribuciones sin contar dos veces al mismo descendiente.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Si clasificamos a
todos los individuos únicamente en «manifiesta D» y «no manifiesta D», las dos
categorías completan el total:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ [\text{no
D}]=1-[D]. \]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Conviene llamar a
la segunda categoría &lt;b&gt;fenotipo no manifestado&lt;/b&gt; o «no D». Denominarla
automáticamente «fenotipo recesivo» podría confundir apariencia con genotipo,
porque puede incluir individuos AA o Aa cuya manifestación no se produjo.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Consideremos el
siguiente ejemplo de práctica. En una colonia de moscas, un carácter ocular
presenta penetrancia del 90 % en AA y del 70 % en Aa. Los individuos aa no lo
manifiestan. Estos porcentajes son datos del ejercicio; no deben interpretarse
como valores universales de una especie o una mutación concreta. Se cruzan dos
individuos Aa.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Primero resolvemos
la &lt;b&gt;transmisión monohíbrida&lt;/b&gt;:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[
[AA]_0=\frac14,\qquad [Aa]_0=\frac12,\qquad [aa]_0=\frac14. \]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Después
incorporamos las penetrancias. La contribución de AA al carácter ocular es:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[
\frac14(0.90)=0.225. \]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La contribución de
Aa es:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[
\frac12(0.70)=0.350. \]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La contribución de
aa es cero. Por tanto:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[
[D]=0.225+0.350+0=0.575. \]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;probabilidad
fenotípica esperada&lt;/b&gt; es del 57.5 %. La probabilidad de no manifestar el
carácter es:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ [\text{no
D}]=1-0.575=0.425, \]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;es decir, el 42.5
%. Podemos comprobar el segundo resultado sumando por separado las
contribuciones de quienes no manifiestan el carácter.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent6&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;&quot;&gt;
 &lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Genotipo&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Probabilidad
  de heredarlo&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Contribución
  a D&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Contribución
  a no D&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;AA&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;0.25&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;0.225&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;0.025&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Aa&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;0.50&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;0.350&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;0.150&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;aa&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;0.25&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;0&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;0.250&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Total&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;1&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;0.575&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
  &lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;0.425&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
  &lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Para una muestra de
400 descendientes, las &lt;b&gt;cantidades esperadas&lt;/b&gt; serían:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[
E_D=400(0.575)=230, \]\[ E_{\text{no D}}=400(0.425)=170. \]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Estas cantidades
expresan una expectativa, no una garantía. Una muestra concreta puede contener
números diferentes por azar. El cálculo supone, además, que la supervivencia y
la detección del carácter no introducen otras diferencias entre las clases.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La estimación
directa de penetrancia requiere un denominador adecuado. Si identificamos 80
individuos con un genotipo y 60 manifiestan el carácter, obtenemos:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[
\text{Penetrancia observada} =\frac{60}{80}\times100=75\%. \]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dividir esos 60
casos entre todos los individuos de una población respondería otra pregunta: la
frecuencia del carácter en esa población. Tampoco conviene deducir penetrancia
a partir de una desviación fenotípica sin comprobar otras explicaciones, como errores
de clasificación o &lt;b&gt;supervivencia diferencial&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;expresividad&lt;/b&gt;
necesita un cálculo adicional cuando se divide en categorías. Si, entre quienes
manifiestan un carácter, el ejercicio establece un 60 % de casos leves y un 40
% de casos intensos, multiplicamos la probabilidad de manifestación por esas
proporciones. En el ejemplo anterior:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[
[\text{leve}]=0.575(0.60)=0.345, \]\[ [\text{intenso}]=0.575(0.40)=0.230. \]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Ambas categorías
suman 0.575. Junto con los casos no manifestados, completan la probabilidad
total. Esta distribución de intensidades debe proporcionarse o estimarse
mediante observaciones; no puede deducirse únicamente de conocer los genotipos
parentales.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Plasticidad fenotípica&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;plasticidad
fenotípica&lt;/b&gt; es la capacidad de un mismo genotipo para producir diferentes
características según las condiciones ambientales. Aunque a veces se denomina
«plasticidad genética», el cambio ocurre en el &lt;b&gt;fenotipo&lt;/b&gt; y no requiere
modificar la secuencia del ADN. La capacidad de responder puede tener una base
hereditaria, mientras que su manifestación depende de señales externas y del
estado del organismo. Algunas respuestas son reversibles; otras se establecen
durante periodos específicos del &lt;b&gt;desarrollo&lt;/b&gt; y persisten después. Por
ello, poseer una capacidad plástica no significa poder adoptar cualquier
apariencia: cada organismo presenta posibilidades y límites determinados por su
organización biológica (Tollrian, 1995). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/1940703&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El &lt;b&gt;zorro ártico&lt;/b&gt;,
&lt;i&gt;Vulpes lagopus&lt;/i&gt;, permite observar plasticidad estacional. Los individuos
del morfo blanco desarrollan un pelaje invernal blanco y abundante, que
posteriormente reemplazan por otro generalmente pardo o grisáceo. El &lt;b&gt;fotoperiodo&lt;/b&gt;,
o duración diaria de la luz, contribuye a coordinar respuestas hormonales
relacionadas con la &lt;b&gt;muda&lt;/b&gt;. La melatonina participa en esta regulación: su
administración experimental puede modificar el calendario de renovación del
pelaje. No se trata de que el animal cambie sus alelos cuando llega otra
estación, sino de que reorganiza procesos fisiológicos y de crecimiento.
Además, el morfo azul conserva pigmentación invernal, mostrando límites
genéticos de la respuesta (Nieminen et al., 2004; Våge et al., 2005). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.09.002&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Muda&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
y &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2004.11.040&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;pigmentación&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;!--[if gte vml 1]&gt;&lt;v:shape
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 &lt;v:imagedata src=&quot;file:///C:/Users/Usuario/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.png&quot;
  o:title=&quot;&quot;/&gt;
&lt;/v:shape&gt;&lt;![endif]--&gt;&lt;!--[if !vml]--&gt;&lt;img border=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;790&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiA67CSdefFi8Qw97qDxygeTuG_JnyovXjW2HAuql691O_ecTv-v0hUF66kk8QKctJIr2q7nIANhjIf8VFmtL1_BycEDTZsceUqnfw0n-ddVKCtVdL38q9IEXugLnBwWvgRPMmK2qxJLdpfNPVCWufexnVhwn2l-R1G3X5a5wxD6wCdGIQZ0k_tUmzCVtY/s1600/image.png&quot; v:shapes=&quot;Imagen_x0020_1&quot; width=&quot;559&quot; /&gt;&lt;!--[endif]--&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Figura
4. [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-plasticidad-estacional-del-zorro.html&quot;&gt;Plasticidad
estacional del zorro ártico&lt;/a&gt;]. La &lt;b&gt;plasticidad fenotípica&lt;/b&gt; permite
renovar el &lt;b&gt;pelaje&lt;/b&gt; según señales estacionales. El &lt;b&gt;fotoperiodo&lt;/b&gt; y la
&lt;b&gt;melatonina&lt;/b&gt; participan en su regulación. El &lt;b&gt;morfo blanco&lt;/b&gt; alterna
cubiertas invernales y estivales, mientras el morfo azul conserva pigmentación
oscura. La respuesta depende del &lt;b&gt;genotipo&lt;/b&gt;, que establece posibilidades
heredadas; cambiar de apariencia no requiere adquirir mutaciones nuevas cada
estación anual.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En &lt;i&gt;Daphnia pulex&lt;/i&gt;,
pequeño crustáceo de agua dulce, determinadas señales químicas asociadas con
depredadores pueden inducir &lt;b&gt;defensas morfológicas&lt;/b&gt;, como espinas
cervicales. Individuos de un mismo clon pueden desarrollar defensas diferentes
dependiendo de su exposición. La respuesta combina un &lt;b&gt;desencadenante
ambiental&lt;/b&gt; con la sensibilidad propia de ciertas etapas del desarrollo:
recibir la señal en cualquier momento no garantiza idéntico resultado. Estas
estructuras pueden reducir la vulnerabilidad frente a algunos depredadores,
pero producirlas implica recursos y posibles compensaciones con otras
funciones. La plasticidad permite ajustar la inversión defensiva al contexto,
sin que cada individuo necesite adquirir una mutación nueva para responder
(Tollrian, 1995). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/1940703&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El &lt;b&gt;cambio de
sexo secuencial&lt;/b&gt; de los peces payaso muestra una plasticidad que integra
ambiente social y desarrollo. En &lt;i&gt;Amphiprion bicinctus&lt;/i&gt;, la desaparición
de la hembra dominante puede desencadenar la transformación del macho
reproductor en hembra. La señal social inicia cambios de comportamiento,
regulación hormonal y &lt;b&gt;expresión génica&lt;/b&gt;, acompañados por reorganización
de las gónadas. La capacidad depende del estado reproductivo y de la posición
del individuo dentro del grupo; no constituye una respuesta automática de
cualquier pez. Este ejemplo muestra cómo los &lt;b&gt;desencadenantes externos&lt;/b&gt;
interactúan con condiciones internas y procesos del desarrollo para producir
una transformación funcional del organismo (Casas et al., 2016). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/srep35461?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Hacia una mirada evolutiva sintética&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La variación entre
individuos con un mismo genotipo relevante puede comenzar durante el
desarrollo. Los procesos celulares implican cantidades de moléculas, momentos
de activación y relaciones entre tejidos. Pequeñas diferencias pueden quedar
compensadas o, en determinadas circunstancias, superar un &lt;b&gt;umbral de
respuesta&lt;/b&gt; y producir resultados observables diferentes.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Raj y colaboradores
estudiaron este fenómeno en embriones de &lt;i&gt;Caenorhabditis elegans&lt;/i&gt;.
Encontraron que, en determinados mutantes, fluctuaciones en la expresión de
genes podían conducir a diferencias en la activación de un regulador del
desarrollo intestinal. El trabajo mostró un mecanismo concreto por el que la &lt;b&gt;variabilidad
molecular&lt;/b&gt; puede contribuir a la penetrancia incompleta; no propuso una
explicación única para todos los organismos y caracteres (Raj et al., 2010). &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20164922/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Estos resultados
ayudan a abandonar la idea de que una variante determina siempre una apariencia
de manera aislada. Sin embargo, tampoco significan que los resultados sean
impredecibles en cualquier circunstancia. Las probabilidades permiten describir
&lt;b&gt;regularidades biológicas&lt;/b&gt; incluso cuando no podemos anticipar con certeza
el resultado de un individuo.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La &lt;b&gt;expresividad
variable&lt;/b&gt; puede generar diferencias sobre las que actúe la selección natural
si esas diferencias afectan la supervivencia o la reproducción. Para producir
una respuesta evolutiva, además, debe existir una relación heredable entre la
variación y la contribución a las generaciones siguientes. No toda diferencia
observada entre individuos se transmite del mismo modo.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Finalmente,
expresar un carácter en distintos grados no equivale necesariamente a presentar
&lt;b&gt;herencia cuantitativa continua&lt;/b&gt;. Un mismo gen puede mostrar expresividad
variable, mientras numerosos caracteres continuos dependen de muchas variantes
y del ambiente. Antes de relacionar una distribución de apariencias con un
modelo evolutivo, necesitamos identificar qué se hereda, qué se manifiesta y
cómo se midió cada diferencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;h2 style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Referencias&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Berger, S. L.,
Kouzarides, T., Shiekhattar, R., &amp;amp; Shilatifard, A. (2009). An operational
definition of epigenetics. &lt;i&gt;Genes &amp;amp; Development, 23&lt;/i&gt;(7), 781–783. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.1787609&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.1787609&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;Casas, L., Saborido-Rey, F.,
Ryu, T., Michell, C., Ravasi, T., &amp;amp; Irigoien, X. (2016). Sex change in
clownfish: Molecular insights from transcriptome analysis. &lt;i&gt;Scientific
Reports, 6&lt;/i&gt;, 35461. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/srep35461?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/srep35461&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Grange, T., Aubart,
M., Langeois, M., Benarroch, L., Arnaud, P., Milleron, O., Eliahou, L., Gross,
M.-S., Hanna, N., Boileau, C., Gouya, L., &amp;amp; Jondeau, G. (2020). Quantifying
the genetic basis of Marfan syndrome clinical variability. &lt;i&gt;Genes, 11&lt;/i&gt;(5),
574. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.3390/genes11050574&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/genes11050574&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Lettice, L. A.,
Hill, A. E., Devenney, P. S., &amp;amp; Hill, R. E. (2008). Point mutations in a
distant sonic hedgehog cis-regulator generate a variable regulatory output
responsible for preaxial polydactyly. &lt;i&gt;Human Molecular Genetics, 17&lt;/i&gt;(7),
978–985. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddm370?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddm370&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;Nieminen, P., Pyykönen, T.,
Asikainen, J., Mononen, J., &amp;amp; Mustonen, A.-M. (2004). Effects of fasting
and exogenous melatonin on annual rhythms in the blue fox (&lt;i&gt;Alopex lagopus&lt;/i&gt;).
&lt;i&gt;Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular &amp;amp; Integrative
Physiology, 139&lt;/i&gt;(2), 183–197. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.09.002&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.09.002&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Pereira, R.,
Halford, K., Sokolov, B. P., Khillan, J. S., &amp;amp; Prockop, D. J. (1994).
Phenotypic variability and incomplete penetrance of spontaneous fractures in an
inbred strain of transgenic mice expressing a mutated collagen gene (COL1A1). &lt;i&gt;The
Journal of Clinical Investigation, 93&lt;/i&gt;(4), 1765–1769. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI117161&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI117161&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Raj, A., Rifkin, S.
A., Andersen, E., &amp;amp; van Oudenaarden, A. (2010). Variability in gene
expression underlies incomplete penetrance. &lt;i&gt;Nature, 463&lt;/i&gt;(7283), 913–918. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08781&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08781&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;Tollrian, R. (1995).
Predator-induced morphological defenses: Costs, life history shifts, and
maternal effects in &lt;i&gt;Daphnia pulex&lt;/i&gt;. &lt;i&gt;Ecology, 76&lt;/i&gt;(6), 1691–1705. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.2307/1940703&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.2307/1940703&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &amp;quot;Times New Roman&amp;quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&quot;&gt;Våge, D. I., Fuglei, E.,
Snipstad, K., Beheim, J., Landsem, V. M., &amp;amp; Klungland, H. (2005). Two
cysteine substitutions in the MC1R generate the blue variant of the Arctic fox
(&lt;i&gt;Alopex lagopus&lt;/i&gt;) and prevent expression of the white winter coat. &lt;i&gt;Peptides,
26&lt;/i&gt;(10), 1814–1817. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2004.11.040&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2004.11.040&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/8488002732943406846/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/genetica-clasica-2-enetrancia-expresividad-lasticidad.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/8488002732943406846'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/8488002732943406846'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/genetica-clasica-2-enetrancia-expresividad-lasticidad.html' title='Penetrancia, expresividad y plasticidad'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfFT5wm_O5uD_aA6b_SiIf0ZVvrcsldk4a4blDsPryW-oXj7usEnoFBXDOJsXAvIEhjXyP2Uyx_9rs702cvpXZZw5XHbFSjzeeCZsKj2pLR3oQTQ7TSlkcqBh1xZASaFYAfIn1EotzUTCvttXuNzK-ra6-r9I0QuxwzFPoCgsdIgQfwlHn37wG1BqjVUg/s72-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-404924613125517780</id><published>2026-11-10T21:46:15.086-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-10T21:46:15.086-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Plasticidad estacional del zorro ártico</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkEGz3SbgPgW8C7IqE5hK87pSWYyTBvl-p_uOatYT7zCRefCIBkHvyA0ua0kl1wlUbyoYnmNRsv1vxFEKFTEoPKLoMFcERx-8C4TqEHLg13W6n0gYwRbl10e3Zrz3dm2SgCzZMFGoGB_O4B7cmCUAqxoVP3UnLr3UARC3SAK9PncG10TbIzbL_HEyOnpU/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;2330&quot; data-original-width=&quot;1648&quot; height=&quot;775&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkEGz3SbgPgW8C7IqE5hK87pSWYyTBvl-p_uOatYT7zCRefCIBkHvyA0ua0kl1wlUbyoYnmNRsv1vxFEKFTEoPKLoMFcERx-8C4TqEHLg13W6n0gYwRbl10e3Zrz3dm2SgCzZMFGoGB_O4B7cmCUAqxoVP3UnLr3UARC3SAK9PncG10TbIzbL_HEyOnpU/w549-h775/image.png&quot; width=&quot;549&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;plasticidad fenotípica&lt;/strong&gt; permite que un mismo organismo desarrolle características diferentes en respuesta a condiciones ambientales, sin necesitar cambios en su secuencia de ADN. El &lt;strong&gt;zorro ártico&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Vulpes lagopus&lt;/em&gt;, ejemplifica esta capacidad mediante la &lt;strong&gt;renovación estacional del pelaje&lt;/strong&gt;. En los individuos del &lt;strong&gt;morfo blanco&lt;/strong&gt;, la cubierta invernal es blanca y abundante; durante la primavera se reemplaza progresivamente por un pelaje estival generalmente pardo o grisáceo. La transformación ocurre mediante &lt;strong&gt;muda y crecimiento de pelos nuevos&lt;/strong&gt;, no porque cada pelo cambie instantáneamente de color. El resultado combina cambios de pigmentación y características de la cubierta corporal dentro del ciclo anual del animal (Nieminen et al., 2004; Våge et al., 2005). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.09.002&quot;&gt;Muda&lt;/a&gt; y &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2004.11.040&quot;&gt;pigmentación&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;El &lt;strong&gt;fotoperiodo&lt;/strong&gt;, es decir, la duración diaria de la luz, constituye una señal para coordinar los &lt;strong&gt;ritmos estacionales&lt;/strong&gt;. El organismo procesa esa información mediante respuestas nerviosas y hormonales relacionadas con la &lt;strong&gt;melatonina&lt;/strong&gt;, cuya señal nocturna cambia durante el año. Estas respuestas contribuyen a regular la actividad de los &lt;strong&gt;folículos pilosos&lt;/strong&gt; y el calendario de renovación del pelo. Los experimentos con zorros árticos de morfo azul mostraron que administrar melatonina podía adelantar la muda otoñal. Por ello, la explicación debe centrarse en la &lt;strong&gt;regulación neuroendocrina&lt;/strong&gt;, sin atribuir el proceso únicamente a la temperatura ni presentar la leptina como su interruptor principal universal (Nieminen et al., 2004). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.09.002&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;La &lt;strong&gt;respuesta plástica&lt;/strong&gt; depende también del &lt;strong&gt;genotipo&lt;/strong&gt;: no todos los zorros árticos desarrollan pelaje blanco durante el invierno. El &lt;strong&gt;morfo azul&lt;/strong&gt; mantiene pigmentación oscura y presenta variantes de MC1R asociadas con esa diferencia. Así, los cambios ambientales actúan dentro de posibilidades heredadas, no sobre una capacidad ilimitada de transformación. Conviene distinguir la variación entre morfos, relacionada con &lt;strong&gt;diversidad genética&lt;/strong&gt;, de la alternancia estacional dentro de un individuo, que constituye &lt;strong&gt;plasticidad fenotípica&lt;/strong&gt;. Tampoco se necesita suponer una mutación nueva cuando cambia la estación. La capacidad de responder es hereditaria, mientras su manifestación concreta depende de señales y procesos fisiológicos durante el desarrollo (Våge et al., 2005). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2004.11.040&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Referencias&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nieminen, P., Pyykönen, T., Asikainen, J., Mononen, J., &amp;amp; Mustonen, A.-M. (2004). Effects of fasting and exogenous melatonin on annual rhythms in the blue fox (&lt;em&gt;Alopex lagopus&lt;/em&gt;). &lt;em&gt;Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular &amp;amp; Integrative Physiology, 139&lt;/em&gt;(2), 183–197. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.09.002&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.09.002&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Våge, D. I., Fuglei, E., Snipstad, K., Beheim, J., Landsem, V. M., &amp;amp; Klungland, H. (2005). Two cysteine substitutions in the MC1R generate the blue variant of the Arctic fox (&lt;em&gt;Alopex lagopus&lt;/em&gt;) and prevent expression of the white winter coat. &lt;em&gt;Peptides, 26&lt;/em&gt;(10), 1814–1817. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2004.11.040&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2004.11.040&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/404924613125517780/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-plasticidad-estacional-del-zorro.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/404924613125517780'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/404924613125517780'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-plasticidad-estacional-del-zorro.html' title='Figura. Plasticidad estacional del zorro ártico'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkEGz3SbgPgW8C7IqE5hK87pSWYyTBvl-p_uOatYT7zCRefCIBkHvyA0ua0kl1wlUbyoYnmNRsv1vxFEKFTEoPKLoMFcERx-8C4TqEHLg13W6n0gYwRbl10e3Zrz3dm2SgCzZMFGoGB_O4B7cmCUAqxoVP3UnLr3UARC3SAK9PncG10TbIzbL_HEyOnpU/s72-w549-h775-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-5665521920727917615</id><published>2026-11-10T21:28:29.045-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-10T21:28:29.046-05:00</updated><title type='text'>Figura. Variación del color ocular de la mosca de la fruta</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;separator&quot; style=&quot;clear: both; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihVIONZbrY8TvjeCf7fEJ75mJ5XYqLwbbgoJ7HthwTMJzMvN22AFLHHeUC6pjRS5nhU55HpEbo6ciIxgaRNolH-fVVXHlpy_jZtOX-lcbiUeQhN_JE9thQLzFG_1IW9o9i8Hi27XwvZC00sVRom-OSZ89qIcH8EC5Te1t2K2LVowbYvC548hYZp3f__vk/s1600/image.png&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; data-original-height=&quot;975&quot; data-original-width=&quot;874&quot; height=&quot;604&quot; src=&quot;https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihVIONZbrY8TvjeCf7fEJ75mJ5XYqLwbbgoJ7HthwTMJzMvN22AFLHHeUC6pjRS5nhU55HpEbo6ciIxgaRNolH-fVVXHlpy_jZtOX-lcbiUeQhN_JE9thQLzFG_1IW9o9i8Hi27XwvZC00sVRom-OSZ89qIcH8EC5Te1t2K2LVowbYvC548hYZp3f__vk/w542-h604/image.png&quot; width=&quot;542&quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;El &lt;strong&gt;color ocular&lt;/strong&gt; de &lt;em&gt;Drosophila melanogaster&lt;/em&gt; admite tonalidades: no todos los ojos clasificados como rojos contienen idénticas cantidades de pigmento. Una explicación es la &lt;strong&gt;diversidad alélica&lt;/strong&gt;, es decir, la existencia de variantes diferentes de un mismo gen en una población. Los alelos &lt;em&gt;white-eosin&lt;/em&gt; y &lt;em&gt;white-apricot&lt;/em&gt;, por ejemplo, pertenecen al gen &lt;em&gt;white&lt;/em&gt;, pero producen apariencias distintas. Esto debe distinguirse de la &lt;strong&gt;expresividad variable&lt;/strong&gt;: comparar alelos diferentes no demuestra que una misma variante se manifieste con distinta intensidad. Para estudiar expresividad necesitamos comparar individuos que compartan la variante relevante y examinar diferencias en su manifestación bajo condiciones de observación comparables y controladas experimentalmente (Mount et al., 1988). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/118.2.221&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2834265/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Otra explicación es la &lt;strong&gt;participación de varios genes&lt;/strong&gt; en la pigmentación. Un gen ocupa un &lt;em&gt;locus&lt;/em&gt;; el &lt;strong&gt;carácter&lt;/strong&gt;, en cambio, puede depender de numerosos &lt;em&gt;loci&lt;/em&gt;. Los ojos normales combinan &lt;strong&gt;drosopterinas rojas&lt;/strong&gt; y &lt;strong&gt;omocromos pardos&lt;/strong&gt;, cuya proporción modifica la tonalidad final. Genes diferentes intervienen en la síntesis de estas sustancias, su transporte y la formación de &lt;strong&gt;gránulos pigmentarios&lt;/strong&gt;. Alteraciones de &lt;em&gt;vermilion&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;brown&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;sepia&lt;/em&gt; o &lt;em&gt;garnet&lt;/em&gt; afectan componentes distintos del sistema. Por ello, los ejemplares ilustrados no representan necesariamente grados de un único rasgo hereditario: incluyen diferencias entre genes y entre alelos que modifican la &lt;strong&gt;composición pigmentaria&lt;/strong&gt; y sus mecanismos celulares de producción y almacenamiento (Grant et al., 2016). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.116.032508&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5068940/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;PMC&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Incluso cuando dos moscas comparten un alelo, otros &lt;strong&gt;genes modificadores&lt;/strong&gt; pueden aumentar o reducir su efecto. En &lt;em&gt;white-apricot&lt;/em&gt;, investigadores identificaron variantes de otros genes que intensifican o atenúan la &lt;strong&gt;pigmentación ocular&lt;/strong&gt;, demostrando que el resultado depende del &lt;strong&gt;contexto genético&lt;/strong&gt;. También debemos controlar edad, sexo, condiciones de desarrollo e iluminación antes de interpretar diferencias visuales. Una fotografía más brillante no demuestra mayor concentración de pigmento. Para distinguir explicaciones, conviene combinar cruces, identificación genética y mediciones comparables del color. La &lt;strong&gt;expresividad&lt;/strong&gt; describe cómo varía la manifestación; la &lt;strong&gt;diversidad alélica&lt;/strong&gt;, la &lt;strong&gt;interacción génica&lt;/strong&gt; y las condiciones de observación ayudan a investigar por qué varía (Mount et al., 1988). &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/118.2.221&quot;&gt;Artículo&lt;/a&gt;. &lt;a href=&quot;https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2834265/?utm_source=chatgpt.com&quot;&gt;pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Referencias&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;Grant, P., Maga, T., Loshakov, A., Singhal, R., Wali, A., Nwankwo, J., Baron, K., &amp;amp; Johnson, D. (2016). An eye on trafficking genes: Identification of four eye color mutations in &lt;em&gt;Drosophila&lt;/em&gt;. &lt;em&gt;G3: Genes|Genomes|Genetics, 6&lt;/em&gt;(10), 3185–3196. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.116.032508&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.116.032508&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mount, S. M., Green, M. M., &amp;amp; Rubin, G. M. (1988). Partial revertants of the transposable element-associated suppressible allele &lt;em&gt;white-apricot&lt;/em&gt; in &lt;em&gt;Drosophila melanogaster&lt;/em&gt;: Structures and responsiveness to genetic modifiers. &lt;em&gt;Genetics, 118&lt;/em&gt;(2), 221–234. &lt;a href=&quot;https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/118.2.221&quot;&gt;https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/118.2.221&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/5665521920727917615/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-variacion-del-color-ocular-de-la.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/5665521920727917615'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/5665521920727917615'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/figura-variacion-del-color-ocular-de-la.html' title='Figura. Variación del color ocular de la mosca de la fruta'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><media:thumbnail xmlns:media="http://search.yahoo.com/mrss/" url="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihVIONZbrY8TvjeCf7fEJ75mJ5XYqLwbbgoJ7HthwTMJzMvN22AFLHHeUC6pjRS5nhU55HpEbo6ciIxgaRNolH-fVVXHlpy_jZtOX-lcbiUeQhN_JE9thQLzFG_1IW9o9i8Hi27XwvZC00sVRom-OSZ89qIcH8EC5Te1t2K2LVowbYvC548hYZp3f__vk/s72-w542-h604-c/image.png" height="72" width="72"/><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-8610109524060452532</id><published>2026-11-10T18:50:33.182-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-10T18:50:33.265-05:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Cuadro de Punnett"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ejercicios resueltos"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Genética"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Letalidad recesiva"/><title type='text'>Ejercicios resueltos de letalidad en homocigosis por cuadro de Punnett 5</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count:2;column-gap:22px;text-align:justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt; [&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/ejercicios-resueltos-de-letalidad-por.html&quot;&gt;Mas
ejercicios&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(239, 249, 235);&quot;&gt;García-García, Ejemplo 5. Se cruzan dos gallinas Creeper portadoras y se examinan 240 huevos fecundados. Se registraron 58 embriones no viables, 120 polluelos de patas cortas y 62 polluelos de patas habituales. Predice las proporciones para el total de huevos, representa los datos en una gráfica y evalúa el ajuste con chi cuadrado a mano y en Excel, usando α = 0.05.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Plantear la ley de la dominancia y la letalidad en una tabla&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La variante A manifiesta el carácter en heterocigosis, pero el genotipo AA no es viable. La expresión fenotípica se clasifica en las categorías L, D y r.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;margin:8px auto;max-width:100%;font-size:13px;break-inside:avoid;page-break-inside:avoid;&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;Carácter&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;Rasgo&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;Fenotipo&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;Genotipo&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;Longitud de patas&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;No viable por homocigosis&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(L\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(AA\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;Longitud de patas&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;Patas cortas (Creeper)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(D\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(Aa\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;Longitud de patas&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;Patas habituales&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(r\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(aa\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Nota del modelo: el alelo A expresa el carácter dominante en el heterocigoto Aa; el homocigoto AA es no viable. El recuento incluye tanto las concepciones no viables como los descendientes viables; se asume clasificación completa y ausencia de otras fuentes de mortalidad.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Cruce&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Planteamos los gametos de cada parental: Aa × Aa. Cada progenitor heterocigoto forma gametos A y a.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;margin:8px auto;max-width:100%;font-size:13px;break-inside:avoid;page-break-inside:avoid;&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(A\)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(a\)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(A\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(AA\) — \(L\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(Aa\) — \(D\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(a\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(Aa\) — \(D\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(aa\) — \(r\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Reemplazamos por los fenotipos \(1L+2D+1r\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Calculamos las probabilidades usando el &lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-calculo-de-la-probabilidad.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Teorema de la probabilidad&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;], &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{P_i=\frac{n_i}{n}}\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;donde la
cantidad total \(n\)&lt;/span&gt; es la suma de los coeficientes.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n=1+2+1=4\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Calculamos
las probabilidades usando la &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-equivalencias-entre-numeros.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Equivalencias
entre números decimales y fracciones racionales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[P(L)=\frac{1}{4}=0.25=25.0\%,\quad P(D)=\frac{2}{4}=0.50=50.0\%,\quad P(r)=\frac{1}{4}=0.25=25.0\%\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Conclusión
en texto&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Se espera en la F1, considerando todas las concepciones:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de homocigotos AA no viables (L); 50 % de heterocigotos Aa con patas cortas (creeper) (D).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de homocigotos aa con patas habituales (r).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En este ejercicio los embriones no viables permanecen dentro del total de concepciones; por ello se utiliza la proporción 1:2:1, no la proporción 2:1 de los nacidos vivos.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
al tamaño de la muestra&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el Teorema
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/4465910371602944838/2940973246924217403&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
de las frecuencias teóricas según el tamaño de la muestra&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;\[ n_{oi}=p_i \cdot n_o\]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El enunciado proporciona 240 observaciones de concepciones, huevos o gestaciones.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n_o=240\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;Y reemplazamos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n(L)=0.25\times 240=60,\quad n(D)=0.50\times 240=120,\quad n(r)=0.25\times 240=60\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Gráfica&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;margin:8px auto;max-width:100%;font-size:13px;break-inside:avoid;page-break-inside:avoid;&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(i\)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(L\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;58&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(D\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;120&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;120&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(r\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;62&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;Tot&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;240&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;240&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;border:1px solid #d6d6d6;padding:10px 6px 8px;max-width:550px;margin:10px auto;background:white;break-inside:avoid;page-break-inside:avoid;text-align:center;color:#424242;font-family:Arial,sans-serif;font-size:12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;padding-bottom:8px;font-size:12px;&quot;&gt;▤ experimentales     ▤ esperados&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;justify-content:space-around;align-items:flex-end;gap:8px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;flex:1;min-width:72px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:240px;display:flex;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;gap:5px;border-bottom:1px solid #aeb9bf;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex-direction:column;align-items:center;justify-content:flex-end;min-width:27px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:3px;font-size:12px;&quot;&gt;58&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:99px;width:30px;max-width:100%;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#559fbe 0px,#559fbe 2px,#e8f6fc 2px,#e8f6fc 4px);border:1px solid #559fbe;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex-direction:column;align-items:center;justify-content:flex-end;min-width:27px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:3px;font-size:12px;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:102px;width:30px;max-width:100%;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#d88564 0px,#d88564 2px,#fee7dc 2px,#fee7dc 4px);border:1px solid #d88564;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;padding:5px 1px 0px;font-size:12px;&quot;&gt;\(L\)&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:10px;color:#666;&quot;&gt;No viables&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;flex:1;min-width:72px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:240px;display:flex;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;gap:5px;border-bottom:1px solid #aeb9bf;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex-direction:column;align-items:center;justify-content:flex-end;min-width:27px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:3px;font-size:12px;&quot;&gt;120&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:205px;width:30px;max-width:100%;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#559fbe 0px,#559fbe 2px,#e8f6fc 2px,#e8f6fc 4px);border:1px solid #559fbe;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex-direction:column;align-items:center;justify-content:flex-end;min-width:27px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:3px;font-size:12px;&quot;&gt;120&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:205px;width:30px;max-width:100%;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#d88564 0px,#d88564 2px,#fee7dc 2px,#fee7dc 4px);border:1px solid #d88564;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;padding:5px 1px 0px;font-size:12px;&quot;&gt;\(D\)&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:10px;color:#666;&quot;&gt;Patas cortas (Creeper)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;flex:1;min-width:72px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:240px;display:flex;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;gap:5px;border-bottom:1px solid #aeb9bf;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex-direction:column;align-items:center;justify-content:flex-end;min-width:27px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:3px;font-size:12px;&quot;&gt;62&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:106px;width:30px;max-width:100%;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#559fbe 0px,#559fbe 2px,#e8f6fc 2px,#e8f6fc 4px);border:1px solid #559fbe;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex-direction:column;align-items:center;justify-content:flex-end;min-width:27px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-bottom:3px;font-size:12px;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:102px;width:30px;max-width:100%;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#d88564 0px,#d88564 2px,#fee7dc 2px,#fee7dc 4px);border:1px solid #d88564;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;padding:5px 1px 0px;font-size:12px;&quot;&gt;\(r\)&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:10px;color:#666;&quot;&gt;Patas habituales&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Las barras representan las frecuencias experimentales (58, 120, 62) y esperadas (60, 120, 60) para las clases L, D, r. La decisión sobre el ajuste se toma mediante la prueba de chi cuadrado.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 13.5pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Pearson
manual&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis nula H₀:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La distribución de embriones no viables (L), descendientes con el carácter (D) y descendientes de fenotipo habitual (r) sigue el modelo 1:2:1 correspondiente al cruzamiento Aa × Aa.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis alternativa H₁:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La distribución observada de las categorías L, D, r no sigue la proporción teórica 1:2:1.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el teorema
de la &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-prueba-de-chi-cuadrado-de.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba
de chi cuadrado de Pearson&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{\chi^2=\sum_{i=1}^{k}\left(\frac{(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2}{n_{oi}}\right)}\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que la fórmula
es compleja, la descompondremos en cuadrado de la diferencia.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[(\Delta n_i)^2=(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Fracción del cuadrado de la diferencia con respecto a la cantidad teórica
esperada.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[f_i=\frac{(\Delta n_i)^2}{n_{oi}}\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Chi cuadrado calculada, cómo función de las fracciones anteriores.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\chi^2=\sum_{i=1}^{k} f_i\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;margin:8px auto;max-width:100%;font-size:13px;break-inside:avoid;page-break-inside:avoid;&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;(i)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\((\Delta n_i)^2\)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #84E290;border-bottom:2px solid #47D459;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(f_i\)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(L\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;58&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0.0667&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(D\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;120&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;120&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0.0000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(r\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;62&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0.0667&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(\chi^2\) a dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;0.13&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background:rgb(217,242,208);border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;gl = número de categorías (i) – 1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border:1px solid #B3E5A1;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Buscamos el valor crítico de chi cuadrado de Pearson para un nivel de significación α = 0.05, con gl = 2, que corresponde a 5.99 con dos decimales de exactitud.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el valor calculado χ² = 0.13 es menor que el crítico 5.99 (gl = 2, α = 0.05), no rechazamos la hipótesis nula: no hay evidencia de diferencias estadísticamente significativas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Excel&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Asumiendo que
tenemos la tabla de Excel.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;margin:8px auto;max-width:100%;font-size:13px;break-inside:avoid;page-break-inside:avoid;&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;A&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;B&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;C&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:white;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:white;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;(i)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:white;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:white;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:white;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;Valor p contraste&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(L\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;58&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B4;C2:C4)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:white;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:white;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(D\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:white;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;120&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:white;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;120&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:white;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;\(r\)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;62&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:#f2f2f2;border:1px solid #bfbfbf;padding:4px 6px;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La función de Excel (=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B4;C2:C4)) devuelve un valor p de 0.9355 (aproximadamente 0.94), que comparamos con el nivel de significación α = 0.05.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Como el valor p = 0.9355 es mayor que 0.05, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula: no hay evidencia de diferencias estadísticamente significativas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/8610109524060452532/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/garcia-garcia-letalidad-homocigota-punnett-5.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/8610109524060452532'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/8610109524060452532'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/garcia-garcia-letalidad-homocigota-punnett-5.html' title='Ejercicios resueltos de letalidad en homocigosis por cuadro de Punnett 5'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-3706746086696693385</id><published>2026-11-09T13:25:00.000-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-10T19:46:33.163-05:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ejercicios resueltos"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Genética"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ligamiento dominante al X"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Álgebra"/><title type='text'>Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 25</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/ejercicios-resueltos-ligamiento-al-sexo-algebra.html&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Mas
ejercicios&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(239, 249, 235);&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;García-García, Ejemplo 25.&lt;/b&gt; En un modelo didáctico de ratones, una mancha clara en el pecho es dominante y está ligada al X. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo materno:&lt;/b&gt; heterocigota, con la mancha. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo paterno:&lt;/b&gt; hemicigoto para la variante no asociada con la mancha, sin ella. Entre 200 crías, se observaron 49 machos con mancha y 51 sin ella, y 51 hembras con mancha y 49 sin ella. Calcula los valores esperados por sexo, grafica y contrasta los resultados mediante chi cuadrado.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Plantear
la ley de la dominancia en una tabla&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En este caso la distinción entre rasgo y código fenotipo se
diluyen.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent3&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(132, 226, 144); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Carácter&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Rasgo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Fenotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Genotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext; border-left: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Mancha clara&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;en el pecho&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino con la mancha clara en el pecho&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^A\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino sin la mancha clara en el pecho&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino con la mancha clara en el pecho&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino sin la mancha clara en el pecho&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Cruce&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos maternos son \(X^A\) y \(X^a\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos paternos son \(X^a\) y \(Y\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los cigotos resultan del producto de los gametos. Cada combinación tiene probabilidad \(\frac{1}{2}\times\frac{1}{2}=\frac{1}{4}\).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\left(X^A+X^a\right)\left(X^a+Y\right)=X^AX^a+X^AY+X^aX^a+X^aY\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Calculamos las probabilidades usando el &lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-calculo-de-la-probabilidad.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Teorema de la probabilidad&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;], &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{P_i=\frac{n_i}{n}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Calculamos
las probabilidades usando la &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-equivalencias-entre-numeros.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Equivalencias
entre números decimales y fracciones racionales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ P(D\unicode{x2642}) = P(D\unicode{x2640}) =
P(r\unicode{x2642}) = P(r\unicode{x2640}) =\frac{1}{4}=0.25=25.0\%\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el código fenotípico y el fenotipo concreto son lo
mismo en este caso, no necesitamos traducir la respuesta.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Conclusión
en texto&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Se espera que el:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras con la mancha clara en el pecho.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras sin la mancha clara en el pecho.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos con la mancha clara en el pecho.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos sin la mancha clara en el pecho.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
al tamaño de la muestra&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el Teorema
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/4465910371602944838/2940973246924217403&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
de las frecuencias teóricas según el tamaño de la muestra&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;\[ n_{oi}=p_i \cdot n_o\]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El enunciado indica que el tamaño de la muestra es 200.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n_o=200\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;Y reemplazamos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n(D\unicode{x2642})=n(D\unicode{x2640})=n(r\unicode{x2642})=n(r\unicode{x2640})=0.25\times 200=50\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Gráfica&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En 200 crías se observaron 49 machos con la mancha clara en el pecho y 51 sin el rasgo; entre las hembras, 51 con la mancha clara en el pecho y 49 sin el rasgo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent6&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(i\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;49&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;51&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;51&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;49&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Tot&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;200&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;200&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:100%;max-width:560px;margin:7px auto 12px;padding:12px 8px 8px;box-sizing:border-box;background:#fff;border:1px solid #dedede;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:12px;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:10px;&quot;&gt;Frecuencias observadas y esperadas por fenotipo&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:196px;display:flex;align-items:stretch;justify-content:space-around;padding:3px 0 0;border-bottom:1px solid #888;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:124px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;49&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;49&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:126px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;50&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:129px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;51&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;51&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:126px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;50&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:129px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;51&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;51&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:126px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;50&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:124px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;49&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;49&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:126px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;50&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;justify-content:center;gap:16px;margin:8px 0 1px;font-size:11px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#156082;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Experimentales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#e97132;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Esperados&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La gráfica muestra frecuencias experimentales cercanas a las esperadas; el contraste de chi cuadrado permite comprobar el ajuste.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 13.5pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Pearson
manual&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis nula \(H_0\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis alternativa \(H_1\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia no sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el teorema
de la &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-prueba-de-chi-cuadrado-de.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba
de chi cuadrado de Pearson&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{\chi^2=\sum_{i=1}^{k}\left(\frac{(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2}{n_{oi}}\right)}\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que la fórmula
es compleja, la descompondremos en cuadrado de la diferencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[(\Delta n_i)^2=(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Fracción del cuadrado de la diferencia con respecto a la cantidad teórica
esperada.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[f_i=\frac{(\Delta
n_i)^2}{ n_{oi}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Chi cuadrado calculada, cómo función de las fracciones anteriores.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ \chi^2=\Sigma
f_i\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;(i)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\((\Delta n_i)^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt; &lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;f_i \)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;49&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.02&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;51&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.02&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;51&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.02&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;49&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.02&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\( \chi^2\) a dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.08&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;gl = número de categorías (i) – 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;3.00&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Buscamos el valor
teórico de chi cuadrado en &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-valores-criticos-de-chi-cuadrado.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Valores
críticos de chi cuadrado de Pearson para un nivel de significación alfa de 0.05&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]
que corresponde a 7.81 &lt;b&gt;con dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el chi cuadrado calculado 0.08 es menor que el valor crítico 7.81, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula; no se detectan diferencias significativas con el modelo 1:1:1:1.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Excel&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Asumiendo que
tenemos la tabla de Excel.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Plain1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;A&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;B&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;C&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;D&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;1&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;(i)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Valor p contraste&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;2&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;49&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;3&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;51&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;4&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;51&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;5&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;49&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La función (=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)) devuelve 0.9941 como valor p de contraste, y lo comparamos contra el valor p de exclusión 0.05.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el valor p de contraste 0.9941 es mayor que el nivel de exclusión 0.05, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula; no se detectan diferencias estadísticamente significativas.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado por sexo (1 grado de libertad)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Para cada sexo comparamos dos categorías equiprobables, con valores esperados iguales a la mitad de los descendientes de ese sexo.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\chi^2_{\mathrm{sexo}}=\frac{(n_{D}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}}+\frac{(n_{r}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}},\qquad gl=2-1=1\]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Sexo&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{D}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{r}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(\chi^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Valor p&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Machos&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;49&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;51&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.04&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.8415&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Hembras&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;51&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;49&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.04&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.8415&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;




&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En machos, χ² = 0.04 (p = 0.8415), por tanto no rechazamos H₀; en hembras, χ² = 0.04 (p = 0.8415), por tanto no rechazamos H₀, con α = 0.05 y χ² crítico = 3.84.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/3706746086696693385/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-25.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/3706746086696693385'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/3706746086696693385'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-25.html' title='Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 25'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-7851872445083852019</id><published>2026-11-09T13:24:00.000-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-10T19:46:23.729-05:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ejercicios resueltos"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Genética"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ligamiento dominante al X"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Álgebra"/><title type='text'>Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 24</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/ejercicios-resueltos-ligamiento-al-sexo-algebra.html&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Mas
ejercicios&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(239, 249, 235);&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;García-García, Ejemplo 24.&lt;/b&gt; En un modelo didáctico de gatos, una zona clara en la punta de la cola es dominante y está ligada al X. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo materno:&lt;/b&gt; heterocigota, con la zona clara. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo paterno:&lt;/b&gt; hemicigoto para la variante no asociada con el rasgo, sin la zona clara. De 240 crías, los machos fueron 80 con la zona clara y 40 sin ella; las hembras, 60 con la zona clara y 60 sin ella. Calcula las expectativas por sexo, grafica y realiza las pruebas de chi cuadrado.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Plantear
la ley de la dominancia en una tabla&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En este caso la distinción entre rasgo y código fenotipo se
diluyen.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent3&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(132, 226, 144); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Carácter&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Rasgo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Fenotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Genotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext; border-left: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Zona clara&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;en la punta de la cola&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino con la zona clara en la punta de la cola&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^A\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino sin la zona clara en la punta de la cola&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino con la zona clara en la punta de la cola&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino sin la zona clara en la punta de la cola&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Cruce&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos maternos son \(X^A\) y \(X^a\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos paternos son \(X^a\) y \(Y\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los cigotos resultan del producto de los gametos. Cada combinación tiene probabilidad \(\frac{1}{2}\times\frac{1}{2}=\frac{1}{4}\).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\left(X^A+X^a\right)\left(X^a+Y\right)=X^AX^a+X^AY+X^aX^a+X^aY\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Calculamos las probabilidades usando el &lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-calculo-de-la-probabilidad.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Teorema de la probabilidad&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;], &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{P_i=\frac{n_i}{n}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Calculamos
las probabilidades usando la &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-equivalencias-entre-numeros.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Equivalencias
entre números decimales y fracciones racionales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ P(D\unicode{x2642}) = P(D\unicode{x2640}) =
P(r\unicode{x2642}) = P(r\unicode{x2640}) =\frac{1}{4}=0.25=25.0\%\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el código fenotípico y el fenotipo concreto son lo
mismo en este caso, no necesitamos traducir la respuesta.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Conclusión
en texto&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Se espera que el:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras con la zona clara en la punta de la cola.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras sin la zona clara en la punta de la cola.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos con la zona clara en la punta de la cola.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos sin la zona clara en la punta de la cola.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
al tamaño de la muestra&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el Teorema
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/4465910371602944838/2940973246924217403&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
de las frecuencias teóricas según el tamaño de la muestra&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;\[ n_{oi}=p_i \cdot n_o\]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El enunciado indica que el tamaño de la muestra es 240.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n_o=240\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;Y reemplazamos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n(D\unicode{x2642})=n(D\unicode{x2640})=n(r\unicode{x2642})=n(r\unicode{x2640})=0.25\times 240=60\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Gráfica&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En 240 crías se observaron 80 machos con la zona clara en la punta de la cola y 40 sin el rasgo; entre las hembras, 60 con la zona clara en la punta de la cola y 60 sin el rasgo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent6&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(i\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Tot&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;240&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;240&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:100%;max-width:560px;margin:7px auto 12px;padding:12px 8px 8px;box-sizing:border-box;background:#fff;border:1px solid #dedede;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:12px;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:10px;&quot;&gt;Frecuencias observadas y esperadas por fenotipo&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:196px;display:flex;align-items:stretch;justify-content:space-around;padding:3px 0 0;border-bottom:1px solid #888;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:129px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;80&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:97px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;60&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:97px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;60&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:97px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;60&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:64px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;40&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:97px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;60&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:97px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;60&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:97px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;60&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;justify-content:center;gap:16px;margin:8px 0 1px;font-size:11px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#156082;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Experimentales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#e97132;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Esperados&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En la gráfica se observan diferencias entre los valores experimentales y los teóricos; el contraste de chi cuadrado permite evaluar si son significativas.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 13.5pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Pearson
manual&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis nula \(H_0\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis alternativa \(H_1\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia no sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el teorema
de la &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-prueba-de-chi-cuadrado-de.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba
de chi cuadrado de Pearson&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{\chi^2=\sum_{i=1}^{k}\left(\frac{(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2}{n_{oi}}\right)}\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que la fórmula
es compleja, la descompondremos en cuadrado de la diferencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[(\Delta n_i)^2=(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Fracción del cuadrado de la diferencia con respecto a la cantidad teórica
esperada.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[f_i=\frac{(\Delta
n_i)^2}{ n_{oi}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Chi cuadrado calculada, cómo función de las fracciones anteriores.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ \chi^2=\Sigma
f_i\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;(i)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\((\Delta n_i)^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt; &lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;f_i \)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;400&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;6.66667&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;400&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;6.66667&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\( \chi^2\) a dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;13.33&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;gl = número de categorías (i) – 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;3.00&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Buscamos el valor
teórico de chi cuadrado en &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-valores-criticos-de-chi-cuadrado.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Valores
críticos de chi cuadrado de Pearson para un nivel de significación alfa de 0.05&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]
que corresponde a 7.81 &lt;b&gt;con dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el chi cuadrado calculado 13.33 es mayor que el valor crítico 7.81, rechazamos la hipótesis nula; hay diferencias significativas con el modelo 1:1:1:1.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Excel&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Asumiendo que
tenemos la tabla de Excel.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Plain1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;A&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;B&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;C&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;D&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;1&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;(i)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Valor p contraste&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;2&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;3&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;4&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;5&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La función (=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)) devuelve 0.0040 como valor p de contraste, y lo comparamos contra el valor p de exclusión 0.05.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el valor p de contraste 0.0040 es menor que el nivel de exclusión 0.05, rechazamos la hipótesis nula; hay diferencias estadísticamente significativas.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado por sexo (1 grado de libertad)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Para cada sexo comparamos dos categorías equiprobables, con valores esperados iguales a la mitad de los descendientes de ese sexo.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\chi^2_{\mathrm{sexo}}=\frac{(n_{D}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}}+\frac{(n_{r}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}},\qquad gl=2-1=1\]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Sexo&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{D}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{r}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(\chi^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Valor p&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Machos&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;13.33&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.0003&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Hembras&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.00&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1.0000&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;




&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En machos, χ² = 13.33 (p = 0.0003), por tanto rechazamos H₀; en hembras, χ² = 0.00 (p = 1.0000), por tanto no rechazamos H₀, con α = 0.05 y χ² crítico = 3.84.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/7851872445083852019/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-24.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/7851872445083852019'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/7851872445083852019'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-24.html' title='Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 24'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-7300317533314886580</id><published>2026-11-09T13:23:00.000-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-10T19:46:12.525-05:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ejercicios resueltos"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Genética"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ligamiento dominante al X"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Álgebra"/><title type='text'>Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 23</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/ejercicios-resueltos-ligamiento-al-sexo-algebra.html&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Mas
ejercicios&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(239, 249, 235);&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;García-García, Ejemplo 23.&lt;/b&gt; En un modelo didáctico de hurones, una mancha clara en el lomo es dominante y está ligada al X. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo materno:&lt;/b&gt; heterocigota, con la mancha. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo paterno:&lt;/b&gt; hemicigoto para la variante no asociada con la mancha, sin ella. Entre 160 crías, se observaron 40 machos con mancha y 40 sin ella, y 41 hembras con mancha y 39 sin ella. Calcula las expectativas para cada sexo, grafica y aplica chi cuadrado.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Plantear
la ley de la dominancia en una tabla&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En este caso la distinción entre rasgo y código fenotipo se
diluyen.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent3&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(132, 226, 144); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Carácter&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Rasgo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Fenotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Genotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext; border-left: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Mancha clara&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;en el lomo&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino con la mancha clara en el lomo&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^A\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino sin la mancha clara en el lomo&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino con la mancha clara en el lomo&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino sin la mancha clara en el lomo&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Cruce&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos maternos son \(X^A\) y \(X^a\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos paternos son \(X^a\) y \(Y\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los cigotos resultan del producto de los gametos. Cada combinación tiene probabilidad \(\frac{1}{2}\times\frac{1}{2}=\frac{1}{4}\).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\left(X^A+X^a\right)\left(X^a+Y\right)=X^AX^a+X^AY+X^aX^a+X^aY\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Calculamos las probabilidades usando el &lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-calculo-de-la-probabilidad.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Teorema de la probabilidad&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;], &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{P_i=\frac{n_i}{n}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Calculamos
las probabilidades usando la &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-equivalencias-entre-numeros.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Equivalencias
entre números decimales y fracciones racionales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ P(D\unicode{x2642}) = P(D\unicode{x2640}) =
P(r\unicode{x2642}) = P(r\unicode{x2640}) =\frac{1}{4}=0.25=25.0\%\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el código fenotípico y el fenotipo concreto son lo
mismo en este caso, no necesitamos traducir la respuesta.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Conclusión
en texto&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Se espera que el:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras con la mancha clara en el lomo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras sin la mancha clara en el lomo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos con la mancha clara en el lomo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos sin la mancha clara en el lomo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
al tamaño de la muestra&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el Teorema
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/4465910371602944838/2940973246924217403&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
de las frecuencias teóricas según el tamaño de la muestra&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;\[ n_{oi}=p_i \cdot n_o\]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El enunciado indica que el tamaño de la muestra es 160.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n_o=160\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;Y reemplazamos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n(D\unicode{x2642})=n(D\unicode{x2640})=n(r\unicode{x2642})=n(r\unicode{x2640})=0.25\times 160=40\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Gráfica&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En 160 crías se observaron 40 machos con la mancha clara en el lomo y 40 sin el rasgo; entre las hembras, 41 con la mancha clara en el lomo y 39 sin el rasgo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent6&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(i\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;41&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;39&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Tot&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;160&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;160&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:100%;max-width:560px;margin:7px auto 12px;padding:12px 8px 8px;box-sizing:border-box;background:#fff;border:1px solid #dedede;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:12px;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:10px;&quot;&gt;Frecuencias observadas y esperadas por fenotipo&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:196px;display:flex;align-items:stretch;justify-content:space-around;padding:3px 0 0;border-bottom:1px solid #888;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:126px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;40&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:126px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;40&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:129px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;41&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;41&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:126px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;40&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:126px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;40&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:126px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;40&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:122px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;39&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;39&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:126px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;40&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;justify-content:center;gap:16px;margin:8px 0 1px;font-size:11px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#156082;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Experimentales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#e97132;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Esperados&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La gráfica muestra frecuencias experimentales cercanas a las esperadas; el contraste de chi cuadrado permite comprobar el ajuste.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 13.5pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Pearson
manual&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis nula \(H_0\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis alternativa \(H_1\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia no sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el teorema
de la &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-prueba-de-chi-cuadrado-de.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba
de chi cuadrado de Pearson&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{\chi^2=\sum_{i=1}^{k}\left(\frac{(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2}{n_{oi}}\right)}\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que la fórmula
es compleja, la descompondremos en cuadrado de la diferencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[(\Delta n_i)^2=(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Fracción del cuadrado de la diferencia con respecto a la cantidad teórica
esperada.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[f_i=\frac{(\Delta
n_i)^2}{ n_{oi}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Chi cuadrado calculada, cómo función de las fracciones anteriores.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ \chi^2=\Sigma
f_i\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;(i)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\((\Delta n_i)^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt; &lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;f_i \)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;41&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.025&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;39&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.025&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\( \chi^2\) a dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.05&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;gl = número de categorías (i) – 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;3.00&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Buscamos el valor
teórico de chi cuadrado en &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-valores-criticos-de-chi-cuadrado.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Valores
críticos de chi cuadrado de Pearson para un nivel de significación alfa de 0.05&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]
que corresponde a 7.81 &lt;b&gt;con dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el chi cuadrado calculado 0.05 es menor que el valor crítico 7.81, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula; no se detectan diferencias significativas con el modelo 1:1:1:1.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Excel&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Asumiendo que
tenemos la tabla de Excel.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Plain1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;A&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;B&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;C&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;D&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;1&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;(i)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Valor p contraste&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;2&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;3&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;41&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;4&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;5&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;39&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La función (=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)) devuelve 0.9971 como valor p de contraste, y lo comparamos contra el valor p de exclusión 0.05.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el valor p de contraste 0.9971 es mayor que el nivel de exclusión 0.05, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula; no se detectan diferencias estadísticamente significativas.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado por sexo (1 grado de libertad)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Para cada sexo comparamos dos categorías equiprobables, con valores esperados iguales a la mitad de los descendientes de ese sexo.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\chi^2_{\mathrm{sexo}}=\frac{(n_{D}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}}+\frac{(n_{r}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}},\qquad gl=2-1=1\]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Sexo&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{D}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{r}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(\chi^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Valor p&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Machos&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;40&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.00&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1.0000&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Hembras&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;41&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;39&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.05&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.8231&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;




&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En machos, χ² = 0.00 (p = 1.0000), por tanto no rechazamos H₀; en hembras, χ² = 0.05 (p = 0.8231), por tanto no rechazamos H₀, con α = 0.05 y χ² crítico = 3.84.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/7300317533314886580/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-23.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/7300317533314886580'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/7300317533314886580'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-23.html' title='Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 23'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-9160345998437990444</id><published>2026-11-09T13:22:00.000-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-10T19:46:00.607-05:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ejercicios resueltos"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Genética"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ligamiento dominante al X"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Álgebra"/><title type='text'>Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 22</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/ejercicios-resueltos-ligamiento-al-sexo-algebra.html&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Mas
ejercicios&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(239, 249, 235);&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;García-García, Ejemplo 22.&lt;/b&gt; En un modelo didáctico de conejillos de Indias, una marca oscura cerca de la nariz es dominante y está ligada al X. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo materno:&lt;/b&gt; heterocigota, con la marca. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo paterno:&lt;/b&gt; hemicigoto para la variante no asociada con la marca, sin ella. De 320 descendientes, los machos fueron 81 con marca y 79 sin ella; las hembras, 79 con marca y 81 sin ella. Calcula las expectativas por sexo, grafica y contrasta mediante chi cuadrado.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Plantear
la ley de la dominancia en una tabla&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En este caso la distinción entre rasgo y código fenotipo se
diluyen.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent3&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(132, 226, 144); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Carácter&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Rasgo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Fenotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Genotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext; border-left: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Marca oscura&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;cerca de la nariz&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino con la marca oscura cerca de la nariz&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^A\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino sin la marca oscura cerca de la nariz&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino con la marca oscura cerca de la nariz&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino sin la marca oscura cerca de la nariz&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Cruce&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos maternos son \(X^A\) y \(X^a\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos paternos son \(X^a\) y \(Y\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los cigotos resultan del producto de los gametos. Cada combinación tiene probabilidad \(\frac{1}{2}\times\frac{1}{2}=\frac{1}{4}\).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\left(X^A+X^a\right)\left(X^a+Y\right)=X^AX^a+X^AY+X^aX^a+X^aY\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Calculamos las probabilidades usando el &lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-calculo-de-la-probabilidad.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Teorema de la probabilidad&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;], &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{P_i=\frac{n_i}{n}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Calculamos
las probabilidades usando la &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-equivalencias-entre-numeros.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Equivalencias
entre números decimales y fracciones racionales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ P(D\unicode{x2642}) = P(D\unicode{x2640}) =
P(r\unicode{x2642}) = P(r\unicode{x2640}) =\frac{1}{4}=0.25=25.0\%\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el código fenotípico y el fenotipo concreto son lo
mismo en este caso, no necesitamos traducir la respuesta.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Conclusión
en texto&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Se espera que el:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras con la marca oscura cerca de la nariz.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras sin la marca oscura cerca de la nariz.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos con la marca oscura cerca de la nariz.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos sin la marca oscura cerca de la nariz.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
al tamaño de la muestra&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el Teorema
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/4465910371602944838/2940973246924217403&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
de las frecuencias teóricas según el tamaño de la muestra&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;\[ n_{oi}=p_i \cdot n_o\]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El enunciado indica que el tamaño de la muestra es 320.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n_o=320\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;Y reemplazamos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n(D\unicode{x2642})=n(D\unicode{x2640})=n(r\unicode{x2642})=n(r\unicode{x2640})=0.25\times 320=80\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Gráfica&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En 320 crías se observaron 81 machos con la marca oscura cerca de la nariz y 79 sin el rasgo; entre las hembras, 79 con la marca oscura cerca de la nariz y 81 sin el rasgo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent6&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(i\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;81&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;79&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;79&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;81&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Tot&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;320&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;320&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:100%;max-width:560px;margin:7px auto 12px;padding:12px 8px 8px;box-sizing:border-box;background:#fff;border:1px solid #dedede;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:12px;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:10px;&quot;&gt;Frecuencias observadas y esperadas por fenotipo&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:196px;display:flex;align-items:stretch;justify-content:space-around;padding:3px 0 0;border-bottom:1px solid #888;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:129px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;81&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;81&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:127px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;80&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:126px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;79&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;79&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:127px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;80&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:126px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;79&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;79&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:127px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;80&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:129px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;81&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;81&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:127px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;80&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;justify-content:center;gap:16px;margin:8px 0 1px;font-size:11px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#156082;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Experimentales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#e97132;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Esperados&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La gráfica muestra frecuencias experimentales cercanas a las esperadas; el contraste de chi cuadrado permite comprobar el ajuste.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 13.5pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Pearson
manual&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis nula \(H_0\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis alternativa \(H_1\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia no sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el teorema
de la &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-prueba-de-chi-cuadrado-de.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba
de chi cuadrado de Pearson&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{\chi^2=\sum_{i=1}^{k}\left(\frac{(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2}{n_{oi}}\right)}\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que la fórmula
es compleja, la descompondremos en cuadrado de la diferencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[(\Delta n_i)^2=(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Fracción del cuadrado de la diferencia con respecto a la cantidad teórica
esperada.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[f_i=\frac{(\Delta
n_i)^2}{ n_{oi}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Chi cuadrado calculada, cómo función de las fracciones anteriores.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ \chi^2=\Sigma
f_i\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;(i)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\((\Delta n_i)^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt; &lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;f_i \)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;81&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.0125&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;79&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.0125&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;79&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.0125&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;81&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.0125&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\( \chi^2\) a dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.05&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;gl = número de categorías (i) – 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;3.00&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Buscamos el valor
teórico de chi cuadrado en &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-valores-criticos-de-chi-cuadrado.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Valores
críticos de chi cuadrado de Pearson para un nivel de significación alfa de 0.05&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]
que corresponde a 7.81 &lt;b&gt;con dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el chi cuadrado calculado 0.05 es menor que el valor crítico 7.81, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula; no se detectan diferencias significativas con el modelo 1:1:1:1.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Excel&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Asumiendo que
tenemos la tabla de Excel.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Plain1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;A&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;B&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;C&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;D&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;1&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;(i)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Valor p contraste&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;2&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;81&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;3&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;79&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;4&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;79&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;5&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;81&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;80&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La función (=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)) devuelve 0.9971 como valor p de contraste, y lo comparamos contra el valor p de exclusión 0.05.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el valor p de contraste 0.9971 es mayor que el nivel de exclusión 0.05, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula; no se detectan diferencias estadísticamente significativas.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado por sexo (1 grado de libertad)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Para cada sexo comparamos dos categorías equiprobables, con valores esperados iguales a la mitad de los descendientes de ese sexo.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\chi^2_{\mathrm{sexo}}=\frac{(n_{D}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}}+\frac{(n_{r}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}},\qquad gl=2-1=1\]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Sexo&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{D}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{r}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(\chi^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Valor p&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Machos&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;81&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;79&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.03&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.8744&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Hembras&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;79&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;81&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.03&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.8744&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;




&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En machos, χ² = 0.03 (p = 0.8744), por tanto no rechazamos H₀; en hembras, χ² = 0.03 (p = 0.8744), por tanto no rechazamos H₀, con α = 0.05 y χ² crítico = 3.84.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/9160345998437990444/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-22.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/9160345998437990444'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/9160345998437990444'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-22.html' title='Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 22'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-1192183728194708998</id><published>2026-11-09T13:21:00.000-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-10T19:45:52.203-05:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ejercicios resueltos"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Genética"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ligamiento dominante al X"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Álgebra"/><title type='text'>Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 21</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/ejercicios-resueltos-ligamiento-al-sexo-algebra.html&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Mas
ejercicios&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(239, 249, 235);&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;García-García, Ejemplo 21.&lt;/b&gt; En un modelo didáctico de perros, una franja oscura en la frente es dominante y está ligada al X. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo materno:&lt;/b&gt; heterocigota, con la franja. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo paterno:&lt;/b&gt; hemicigoto para la variante no asociada con la franja, sin ella. Entre 200 cachorros, se observaron 63 machos con franja y 37 sin ella, y 50 hembras con franja y 50 sin ella. Calcula las cantidades esperadas por sexo, grafica y aplica chi cuadrado.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Plantear
la ley de la dominancia en una tabla&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En este caso la distinción entre rasgo y código fenotipo se
diluyen.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent3&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(132, 226, 144); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Carácter&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Rasgo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Fenotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Genotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext; border-left: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Franja oscura&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;en la frente&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino con la franja oscura en la frente&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^A\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino sin la franja oscura en la frente&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino con la franja oscura en la frente&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino sin la franja oscura en la frente&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Cruce&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos maternos son \(X^A\) y \(X^a\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos paternos son \(X^a\) y \(Y\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los cigotos resultan del producto de los gametos. Cada combinación tiene probabilidad \(\frac{1}{2}\times\frac{1}{2}=\frac{1}{4}\).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\left(X^A+X^a\right)\left(X^a+Y\right)=X^AX^a+X^AY+X^aX^a+X^aY\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Calculamos las probabilidades usando el &lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-calculo-de-la-probabilidad.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Teorema de la probabilidad&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;], &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{P_i=\frac{n_i}{n}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Calculamos
las probabilidades usando la &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-equivalencias-entre-numeros.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Equivalencias
entre números decimales y fracciones racionales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ P(D\unicode{x2642}) = P(D\unicode{x2640}) =
P(r\unicode{x2642}) = P(r\unicode{x2640}) =\frac{1}{4}=0.25=25.0\%\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el código fenotípico y el fenotipo concreto son lo
mismo en este caso, no necesitamos traducir la respuesta.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Conclusión
en texto&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Se espera que el:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras con la franja oscura en la frente.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras sin la franja oscura en la frente.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos con la franja oscura en la frente.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos sin la franja oscura en la frente.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
al tamaño de la muestra&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el Teorema
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/4465910371602944838/2940973246924217403&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
de las frecuencias teóricas según el tamaño de la muestra&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;\[ n_{oi}=p_i \cdot n_o\]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El enunciado indica que el tamaño de la muestra es 200.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n_o=200\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;Y reemplazamos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n(D\unicode{x2642})=n(D\unicode{x2640})=n(r\unicode{x2642})=n(r\unicode{x2640})=0.25\times 200=50\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Gráfica&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En 200 crías se observaron 63 machos con la franja oscura en la frente y 37 sin el rasgo; entre las hembras, 50 con la franja oscura en la frente y 50 sin el rasgo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent6&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(i\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;63&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;37&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Tot&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;200&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;200&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:100%;max-width:560px;margin:7px auto 12px;padding:12px 8px 8px;box-sizing:border-box;background:#fff;border:1px solid #dedede;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:12px;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:10px;&quot;&gt;Frecuencias observadas y esperadas por fenotipo&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:196px;display:flex;align-items:stretch;justify-content:space-around;padding:3px 0 0;border-bottom:1px solid #888;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:129px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;63&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;63&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:102px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;50&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:102px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;50&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:102px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;50&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:76px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;37&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;37&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:102px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;50&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:102px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;50&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:102px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;50&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;justify-content:center;gap:16px;margin:8px 0 1px;font-size:11px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#156082;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Experimentales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#e97132;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Esperados&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La gráfica muestra frecuencias experimentales cercanas a las esperadas; el contraste de chi cuadrado permite comprobar el ajuste.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 13.5pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Pearson
manual&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis nula \(H_0\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis alternativa \(H_1\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia no sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el teorema
de la &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-prueba-de-chi-cuadrado-de.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba
de chi cuadrado de Pearson&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{\chi^2=\sum_{i=1}^{k}\left(\frac{(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2}{n_{oi}}\right)}\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que la fórmula
es compleja, la descompondremos en cuadrado de la diferencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[(\Delta n_i)^2=(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Fracción del cuadrado de la diferencia con respecto a la cantidad teórica
esperada.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[f_i=\frac{(\Delta
n_i)^2}{ n_{oi}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Chi cuadrado calculada, cómo función de las fracciones anteriores.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ \chi^2=\Sigma
f_i\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;(i)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\((\Delta n_i)^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt; &lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;f_i \)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;63&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;169&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;3.38&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;37&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;169&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;3.38&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\( \chi^2\) a dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;6.76&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;gl = número de categorías (i) – 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;3.00&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Buscamos el valor
teórico de chi cuadrado en &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-valores-criticos-de-chi-cuadrado.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Valores
críticos de chi cuadrado de Pearson para un nivel de significación alfa de 0.05&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]
que corresponde a 7.81 &lt;b&gt;con dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el chi cuadrado calculado 6.76 es menor que el valor crítico 7.81, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula; no se detectan diferencias significativas con el modelo 1:1:1:1.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Excel&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Asumiendo que
tenemos la tabla de Excel.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Plain1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;A&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;B&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;C&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;D&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;1&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;(i)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Valor p contraste&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;2&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;63&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;3&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;4&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;37&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;5&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La función (=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)) devuelve 0.0800 como valor p de contraste, y lo comparamos contra el valor p de exclusión 0.05.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el valor p de contraste 0.0800 es mayor que el nivel de exclusión 0.05, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula; no se detectan diferencias estadísticamente significativas.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado por sexo (1 grado de libertad)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Para cada sexo comparamos dos categorías equiprobables, con valores esperados iguales a la mitad de los descendientes de ese sexo.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\chi^2_{\mathrm{sexo}}=\frac{(n_{D}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}}+\frac{(n_{r}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}},\qquad gl=2-1=1\]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Sexo&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{D}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{r}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(\chi^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Valor p&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Machos&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;63&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;37&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;6.76&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.0093&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Hembras&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;50&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.00&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1.0000&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;




&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En machos, χ² = 6.76 (p = 0.0093), por tanto rechazamos H₀; en hembras, χ² = 0.00 (p = 1.0000), por tanto no rechazamos H₀, con α = 0.05 y χ² crítico = 3.84.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/1192183728194708998/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-21.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/1192183728194708998'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/1192183728194708998'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-21.html' title='Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 21'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-6875109098172957476</id><published>2026-11-09T13:20:00.000-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-10T19:45:34.826-05:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ejercicios resueltos"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Genética"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ligamiento dominante al X"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Álgebra"/><title type='text'>Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 20</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/ejercicios-resueltos-ligamiento-al-sexo-algebra.html&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Mas
ejercicios&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(239, 249, 235);&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;García-García, Ejemplo 20.&lt;/b&gt; En un modelo didáctico de conejos, una marca blanca en el pecho es dominante y está ligada al X. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo materno:&lt;/b&gt; heterocigota, con la marca. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo paterno:&lt;/b&gt; hemicigoto para la variante no asociada con la marca, sin ella. De 120 crías, los machos fueron 30 con marca y 30 sin ella; las hembras, 31 con marca y 29 sin ella. Calcula las expectativas por sexo, grafica y contrasta los datos mediante chi cuadrado.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Plantear
la ley de la dominancia en una tabla&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En este caso la distinción entre rasgo y código fenotipo se
diluyen.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent3&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(132, 226, 144); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Carácter&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Rasgo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Fenotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Genotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext; border-left: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Marca blanca&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;en el pecho&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino con la marca blanca en el pecho&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^A\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino sin la marca blanca en el pecho&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino con la marca blanca en el pecho&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino sin la marca blanca en el pecho&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Cruce&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos maternos son \(X^A\) y \(X^a\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos paternos son \(X^a\) y \(Y\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los cigotos resultan del producto de los gametos. Cada combinación tiene probabilidad \(\frac{1}{2}\times\frac{1}{2}=\frac{1}{4}\).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\left(X^A+X^a\right)\left(X^a+Y\right)=X^AX^a+X^AY+X^aX^a+X^aY\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Calculamos las probabilidades usando el &lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-calculo-de-la-probabilidad.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Teorema de la probabilidad&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;], &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{P_i=\frac{n_i}{n}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Calculamos
las probabilidades usando la &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-equivalencias-entre-numeros.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Equivalencias
entre números decimales y fracciones racionales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ P(D\unicode{x2642}) = P(D\unicode{x2640}) =
P(r\unicode{x2642}) = P(r\unicode{x2640}) =\frac{1}{4}=0.25=25.0\%\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el código fenotípico y el fenotipo concreto son lo
mismo en este caso, no necesitamos traducir la respuesta.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Conclusión
en texto&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Se espera que el:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras con la marca blanca en el pecho.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras sin la marca blanca en el pecho.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos con la marca blanca en el pecho.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos sin la marca blanca en el pecho.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
al tamaño de la muestra&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el Teorema
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/4465910371602944838/2940973246924217403&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
de las frecuencias teóricas según el tamaño de la muestra&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;\[ n_{oi}=p_i \cdot n_o\]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El enunciado indica que el tamaño de la muestra es 120.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n_o=120\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;Y reemplazamos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n(D\unicode{x2642})=n(D\unicode{x2640})=n(r\unicode{x2642})=n(r\unicode{x2640})=0.25\times 120=30\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Gráfica&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En 120 crías se observaron 30 machos con la marca blanca en el pecho y 30 sin el rasgo; entre las hembras, 31 con la marca blanca en el pecho y 29 sin el rasgo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent6&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(i\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;31&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;29&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Tot&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;120&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;120&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:100%;max-width:560px;margin:7px auto 12px;padding:12px 8px 8px;box-sizing:border-box;background:#fff;border:1px solid #dedede;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:12px;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:10px;&quot;&gt;Frecuencias observadas y esperadas por fenotipo&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:196px;display:flex;align-items:stretch;justify-content:space-around;padding:3px 0 0;border-bottom:1px solid #888;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:125px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;30&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:125px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;30&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:129px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;31&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;31&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:125px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;30&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:125px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;30&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:125px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;30&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:120px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;29&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;29&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:125px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;30&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;justify-content:center;gap:16px;margin:8px 0 1px;font-size:11px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#156082;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Experimentales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#e97132;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Esperados&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La gráfica muestra frecuencias experimentales cercanas a las esperadas; el contraste de chi cuadrado permite comprobar el ajuste.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 13.5pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Pearson
manual&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis nula \(H_0\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis alternativa \(H_1\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia no sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el teorema
de la &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-prueba-de-chi-cuadrado-de.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba
de chi cuadrado de Pearson&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{\chi^2=\sum_{i=1}^{k}\left(\frac{(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2}{n_{oi}}\right)}\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que la fórmula
es compleja, la descompondremos en cuadrado de la diferencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[(\Delta n_i)^2=(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Fracción del cuadrado de la diferencia con respecto a la cantidad teórica
esperada.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[f_i=\frac{(\Delta
n_i)^2}{ n_{oi}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Chi cuadrado calculada, cómo función de las fracciones anteriores.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ \chi^2=\Sigma
f_i\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;(i)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\((\Delta n_i)^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt; &lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;f_i \)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;31&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.03333&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;29&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.03333&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\( \chi^2\) a dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.07&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;gl = número de categorías (i) – 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;3.00&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Buscamos el valor
teórico de chi cuadrado en &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-valores-criticos-de-chi-cuadrado.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Valores
críticos de chi cuadrado de Pearson para un nivel de significación alfa de 0.05&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]
que corresponde a 7.81 &lt;b&gt;con dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el chi cuadrado calculado 0.07 es menor que el valor crítico 7.81, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula; no se detectan diferencias significativas con el modelo 1:1:1:1.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Excel&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Asumiendo que
tenemos la tabla de Excel.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Plain1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;A&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;B&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;C&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;D&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;1&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;(i)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Valor p contraste&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;2&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;3&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;31&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;4&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;5&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;29&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La función (=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)) devuelve 0.9955 como valor p de contraste, y lo comparamos contra el valor p de exclusión 0.05.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el valor p de contraste 0.9955 es mayor que el nivel de exclusión 0.05, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula; no se detectan diferencias estadísticamente significativas.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado por sexo (1 grado de libertad)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Para cada sexo comparamos dos categorías equiprobables, con valores esperados iguales a la mitad de los descendientes de ese sexo.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\chi^2_{\mathrm{sexo}}=\frac{(n_{D}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}}+\frac{(n_{r}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}},\qquad gl=2-1=1\]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Sexo&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{D}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{r}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(\chi^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Valor p&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Machos&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.00&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1.0000&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Hembras&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;31&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;29&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.07&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.7963&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;




&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En machos, χ² = 0.00 (p = 1.0000), por tanto no rechazamos H₀; en hembras, χ² = 0.07 (p = 0.7963), por tanto no rechazamos H₀, con α = 0.05 y χ² crítico = 3.84.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/6875109098172957476/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-20.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/6875109098172957476'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/6875109098172957476'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-20.html' title='Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 20'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4465910371602944838.post-5360370305962391402</id><published>2026-11-09T13:19:00.000-05:00</published><updated>2026-11-10T19:45:21.080-05:00</updated><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ejercicios resueltos"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Genética"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Ligamiento dominante al X"/><category scheme="http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#" term="Álgebra"/><title type='text'>Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 19</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; p=&quot;&quot; style=&quot;column-count: 2; text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/ejercicios-resueltos-ligamiento-al-sexo-algebra.html&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Mas
ejercicios&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(239, 249, 235);&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;García-García, Ejemplo 19.&lt;/b&gt; En un modelo didáctico de ratones, una mancha clara en la oreja es dominante y está ligada al X. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo materno:&lt;/b&gt; heterocigota, con la mancha. &lt;b&gt;Genotipo paterno:&lt;/b&gt; hemicigoto para la variante no asociada con la mancha, sin ella. Entre 240 crías, se observaron 59 machos con mancha y 61 sin ella, y 61 hembras con mancha y 59 sin ella. Calcula los valores esperados por sexo, grafica y realiza las pruebas de chi cuadrado.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Plantear
la ley de la dominancia en una tabla&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En este caso la distinción entre rasgo y código fenotipo se
diluyen.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent3&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(132, 226, 144); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Carácter&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Rasgo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Fenotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #47D459 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(71, 212, 89) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #47D459 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Genotipo&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext; border-left: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Mancha clara&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;en la oreja&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino con la mancha clara en la oreja&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^A\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Femenino sin la mancha clara en la oreja&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a X^a\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;height: 24.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino con la mancha clara en la oreja&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) rgb(132, 226, 144) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 24.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^A Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Masculino sin la mancha clara en la oreja&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: double windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(132, 226, 144) windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #84E290 1.0pt; border-style: none solid double none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: double windowtext 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #84E290 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent3; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(X^a Y\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Cruce&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos maternos son \(X^A\) y \(X^a\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los gametos paternos son \(X^a\) y \(Y\), con probabilidad de \(\frac{1}{2}\) cada uno.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Los cigotos resultan del producto de los gametos. Cada combinación tiene probabilidad \(\frac{1}{2}\times\frac{1}{2}=\frac{1}{4}\).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\left(X^A+X^a\right)\left(X^a+Y\right)=X^AX^a+X^AY+X^aX^a+X^aY\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Calculamos las probabilidades usando el &lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-calculo-de-la-probabilidad.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Teorema de la probabilidad&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;], &lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{P_i=\frac{n_i}{n}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Calculamos
las probabilidades usando la &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-equivalencias-entre-numeros.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Equivalencias
entre números decimales y fracciones racionales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ P(D\unicode{x2642}) = P(D\unicode{x2640}) =
P(r\unicode{x2642}) = P(r\unicode{x2640}) =\frac{1}{4}=0.25=25.0\%\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el código fenotípico y el fenotipo concreto son lo
mismo en este caso, no necesitamos traducir la respuesta.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Conclusión
en texto&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Se espera que el:&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras con la mancha clara en la oreja.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean hembras sin la mancha clara en la oreja.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos con la mancha clara en la oreja.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;25 % de las crías sean machos sin la mancha clara en la oreja.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
al tamaño de la muestra&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el Teorema
&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/4465910371602944838/2940973246924217403&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;Estandarización
de las frecuencias teóricas según el tamaño de la muestra&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;\[ n_{oi}=p_i \cdot n_o\]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;El enunciado indica que el tamaño de la muestra es 240.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n_o=240\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white;&quot;&gt;Y reemplazamos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[n(D\unicode{x2642})=n(D\unicode{x2640})=n(r\unicode{x2642})=n(r\unicode{x2640})=0.25\times 240=60\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;Gráfica&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En 240 crías se observaron 59 machos con la mancha clara en la oreja y 61 sin el rasgo; entre las hembras, 61 con la mancha clara en la oreja y 59 sin el rasgo.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Grid1LightAccent6&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(i\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; border-color: rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(141, 216, 115) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid #8DD873 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 153; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;59&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;61&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;61&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;59&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Tot&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;240&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(179, 229, 161) rgb(179, 229, 161) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-bottom-themetint: 102; mso-border-left-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-left-themetint: 102; mso-border-right-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-right-themetint: 102; mso-border-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-themetint: 102; mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: accent6; mso-border-top-themetint: 102; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;240&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:100%;max-width:560px;margin:7px auto 12px;padding:12px 8px 8px;box-sizing:border-box;background:#fff;border:1px solid #dedede;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:12px;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:10px;&quot;&gt;Frecuencias observadas y esperadas por fenotipo&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:196px;display:flex;align-items:stretch;justify-content:space-around;padding:3px 0 0;border-bottom:1px solid #888;box-sizing:border-box;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:124px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;59&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;59&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:127px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;60&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:129px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;61&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;61&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:127px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;60&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;D♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:129px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;61&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;61&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:127px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;60&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♂&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;flex:1;min-width:0;flex-direction:column;justify-content:flex-end;align-items:stretch;height:100%;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;gap:3px;flex:1;align-items:flex-end;justify-content:center;padding:0 2px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:124px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#156082 0px,#156082 5px,#276f90 5px,#276f90 7px);border:1px solid #156082;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;59&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;59&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:127px;flex:1;min-width:0;max-width:32px;position:relative;background:repeating-linear-gradient(0deg,#e97132 0px,#e97132 5px,#f08747 5px,#f08747 7px);border:1px solid #e97132;box-sizing:border-box;&quot; title=&quot;60&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;position:absolute;bottom:100%;left:0;right:0;font-size:10px;color:#252525;text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:22px;line-height:22px;font-size:12px;white-space:nowrap;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;r♀&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:flex;justify-content:center;gap:16px;margin:8px 0 1px;font-size:11px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#156082;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Experimentales&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:11px;height:11px;background:#e97132;vertical-align:middle;margin-right:4px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;Esperados&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La gráfica muestra frecuencias experimentales cercanas a las esperadas; el contraste de chi cuadrado permite comprobar el ajuste.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 13.5pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Pearson
manual&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis nula \(H_0\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Hipótesis alternativa \(H_1\):&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La descendencia no sigue la proporción teórica 1:1:1:1 para \(D\unicode{x2642}\), \(D\unicode{x2640}\), \(r\unicode{x2642}\) y \(r\unicode{x2640}\).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Usaremos el teorema
de la &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/teorema-prueba-de-chi-cuadrado-de.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Prueba
de chi cuadrado de Pearson&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\boxed{\chi^2=\sum_{i=1}^{k}\left(\frac{(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2}{n_{oi}}\right)}\]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que la fórmula
es compleja, la descompondremos en cuadrado de la diferencia.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[(\Delta n_i)^2=(n_{ei}-n_{oi})^2\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Fracción del cuadrado de la diferencia con respecto a la cantidad teórica
esperada.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[f_i=\frac{(\Delta
n_i)^2}{ n_{oi}}\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES&quot;&gt;Chi cuadrado calculada, cómo función de las fracciones anteriores.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[ \chi^2=\Sigma
f_i\]&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;(i)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\((\Delta n_i)^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\(&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt; &lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;f_i \)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;59&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.01667&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;61&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.01667&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;61&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.01667&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;59&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;1&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.01667&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;\( \chi^2\) a dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.07&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12pt;&quot;&gt;gl = número de categorías (i) – 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&#39;font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-font-family: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: ES-CO; mso-font-kerning: 0pt; mso-ligatures: none;&#39;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;3.00&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Buscamos el valor
teórico de chi cuadrado en &lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;[&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/10/tabla-valores-criticos-de-chi-cuadrado.html&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; color: blue; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;&quot;&gt;Valores
críticos de chi cuadrado de Pearson para un nivel de significación alfa de 0.05&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;background: white; line-height: 115%;&quot;&gt;]
que corresponde a 7.81 &lt;b&gt;con dos decimales de exactitud&lt;/b&gt;.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el chi cuadrado calculado 0.07 es menor que el valor crítico 7.81, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula; no se detectan diferencias significativas con el modelo 1:1:1:1.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado de Excel&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Asumiendo que
tenemos la tabla de Excel.&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoTable15Plain1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border-color: currentcolor; border-image: none; border-style: none; border-width: medium; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 5;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;A&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;B&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;C&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-left: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 1; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;D&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;1&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;(i)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{ei}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;\(n_{oi}\)&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Valor p contraste&lt;/b&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;2&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;59&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;3&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(D\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;61&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 4;&quot;&gt;4&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2642}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;61&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(191, 191, 191); mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 68;&quot;&gt;5&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(r\unicode{x2640}\)&lt;b&gt;&lt;o:p&gt;&lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;59&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;60&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(242, 242, 242); border-bottom: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor rgb(191, 191, 191) rgb(191, 191, 191) currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid #BFBFBF 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; mso-background-themecolor: background1; mso-background-themeshade: 242; mso-border-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: background1; mso-border-bottom-themeshade: 191; mso-border-left-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-left-themecolor: background1; mso-border-left-themeshade: 191; mso-border-right-themecolor: background1; mso-border-right-themeshade: 191; mso-border-themecolor: background1; mso-border-themeshade: 191; mso-border-top-alt: solid #BFBFBF .5pt; mso-border-top-themecolor: background1; mso-border-top-themeshade: 191; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-yfti-cnfc: 64;&quot;&gt;&lt;o:p&gt; &lt;/o:p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;La función (=PRUEBA.CHI(B2:B5;C2:C5)) devuelve 0.9955 como valor p de contraste, y lo comparamos contra el valor p de exclusión 0.05.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Dado que el valor p de contraste 0.9955 es mayor que el nivel de exclusión 0.05, no rechazamos la hipótesis nula; no se detectan diferencias estadísticamente significativas.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); mso-background-themecolor: accent6; mso-background-themetint: 51;&quot;&gt;Prueba chi cuadrado por sexo (1 grado de libertad)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;Para cada sexo comparamos dos categorías equiprobables, con valores esperados iguales a la mitad de los descendientes de ese sexo.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;\[\chi^2_{\mathrm{sexo}}=\frac{(n_{D}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}}+\frac{(n_{r}-n_{o})^2}{n_{o}},\qquad gl=2-1=1\]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormalTable&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 0cm 0cm 0cm; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;width:100%;max-width:100%;table-layout:fixed;break-inside:avoid-column;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tbody&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Sexo&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{D}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(n_{r}\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;\(\chi^2\)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.5pt; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-top: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Valor p&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Machos&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;59&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;61&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.03&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.8551&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background: rgb(217, 242, 208); border-top: none; border: 1pt solid rgb(179, 229, 161); mso-border-top-alt: solid #B3E5A1 1.0pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Hembras&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;61&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;59&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.03&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-color: currentcolor windowtext windowtext currentcolor; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-style: none solid solid none; border-top: none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt;overflow-wrap:anywhere;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot; style=&quot;line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: right;&quot;&gt;0.8551&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;




&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;En machos, χ² = 0.03 (p = 0.8551), por tanto no rechazamos H₀; en hembras, χ² = 0.03 (p = 0.8551), por tanto no rechazamos H₀, con α = 0.05 y χ² crítico = 3.84.&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p class=&quot;MsoNormal&quot;&gt;&lt;span lang=&quot;ES-MX&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/feeds/5360370305962391402/comments/default' title='Enviar comentarios'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-19.html#comment-form' title='0 comentarios'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/5360370305962391402'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/4465910371602944838/posts/default/5360370305962391402'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.com/2026/11/Garcia-Garcia-monohibridos-ligamiento-x-dominante-algebra-19.html' title='Ejercicios resueltos de ligamiento al cromosoma x-dominante 19'/><author><name>Jose Luis</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/16146993713703443202</uri><email>noreply@blogger.com</email><gd:image rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail' width='18' height='32' src='//blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDuBIkvRcVJdGZmJ0lbMLHPypPgIT8a0WEjNbY_9ldHC4TFSSroDOnbVrK_Gmxj6NwBeSVLvpuUyYXZfIV22X0Mt4qCo8L1wHpTneHSxFIgogEOHM0meZempl3OWhXHQ/s220/Avatar.png'/></author><thr:total>0</thr:total></entry></feed>