Montreal Underground city and Over ground city – Double Decker City

Montreal is the Second largest city in Canada and the largest city in the province of Quebec. The name Montreal has been taken from Mont-Royal which is the triple peaked hill located in the heart of the city.

Underground Metro Station

Montreal is also the world’s largest underground complex in the world. It is also known as the indoor city. Montreal is the network of interconnected complexes underground. But entire city is not underground. There are certain parts which are overground. Since Montreal has both overground city complex as well as underground city complex, it is popularly known as “Double Decker City” or “Two Cities in One”. The interconnections between different complexes that are underground has been achieved through the construction of tunnels. The tunnels are technically and architecturally sound. They have conditioned air and good lighting to create comfortable environment and make it aesthetically pleasing.

Some tunnels are narrow which serve as a wide passage for the people to pass whereas there are some large tunnels which are wide enough and bear shops on either sides of the tunnel.

Underground City

The various complexes connected through tunnels include shopping malls, apartment buildings, hotels, condominiums, banks, offices, museums, universities, seven metro stations, two commuter train stations, a regional bus terminal and the Bell Centre amphitheatre and arena.

Access to the underground city has been designed for easy accessibility by the people. This has been achieved by providing around 120 exterior access points to the underground city. Each access point is an entry point to one of 60 residential or commercial complexes comprising 3.6 km2 (1.4 sq mi) of floor space, including 80% of all office space and 35% of all commercial space in downtown Montreal.

Underground tunnel connecting various complexes in the underground city

Since the climate in Canada in winter does not permit easy movement in the city overground, they have developed the entire concept of Underground city so that the people can move around comfortably irrespective of the kind of climate. It is estimated that over 500,000 people use the underground city in winter everyday.

Between 1984 and 1992, the underground city expanded, with the construction of three major linked shopping centres in the Peel and McGill metro station areas: Cours Mont-Royal, Place Montréal-Trust, and the Promenades Cathedral.

Development of the Montreal’s Underground City

Mega-projects added to the size throughout the 1990s, including Le 1000 De La Gauchetière which is the tallest building in Montreal, Le 1250 René-Lévesque, and the Montreal World Trade Centre. These trade centres have a connection to the underground city as a selling point for their office space which is why they have a secondary commercial sector.

McGill Metro station

Also, the construction of a tunnel between Eaton Centre and Place Ville-Marie consolidated the two central halves of the underground city. The construction of the Bell (originally Molson) Centre connected Lucien-L’Allier metro station to the underground city, as well as replacing Windsor Station with the new Gare Lucien-L’Allier commuter train station.

Finally, in 2003, the complete redevelopment of the Quartier international de Montreal consolidated several segments of the central underground city with continuous pedestrian corridors.

Various development projects that were proposed for the over ground Montreal City have been interconnected with the Underground city of Montreal.

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The plate girders are used to carry the loads beyond the capacity of universal beams. They consist of plates and angles riveted together. Plates and angles form an I-section. They are used in building construction and also in bridges. Plate girders are economically used for spans upto 30m. In common, section used for plate girders are shown in figure.

Figure (A)

Simple Plate Girder

It shows the simplest form of plate girder.

Figure (B) &(C)

In case, the simple section cannot take the load. Sufficient flange material, additional plates are riveted to outstanding legs of angles as shown in (B) & (C).

When number of cover plates become excess then the section of plate girder is modified.

Sometimes in building construction, the depth of the girder is limited to provide necessary head room.

Limitations of the headroom require the depth of girder much less than the economical depth. It becomes necessary to provide large web areas to resist shear forces.

In such cases, sections shown in figure E & F are used in which two or more webs are provided. These are called “Box Girders”.

Elements of Plate Girder

• A vertical plate of the plate girder is termed as web plate.

Plate Girder

• The angles connected at the top and bottom of web plate are known as flange angles.

• The horizontal plates connected with the flange angles are known as flange plates or cover plates.

Depth of Plate Girder

• The depth between the outer surfaces of the flanges is termed as overall depth(do) or depth of the plate girder.

• In general, depth of the plate girder is kept 1/10^th to 1/12^th of the span. The distance between C.G of compression flange or C.G. of tension flange is known as effective depth of plate girder (de).

• The distance between vertical legs of flange angles at the top and at the bottom is known as clear depth of plate girder (d).

• When the depth of plate girder is less than 750mm, then such girders are known as ‘Shallow Plate Girders’.

• When the depth of plate girder is more than 750mm, then such girders are known as ‘Deep Plate Girders’.

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Steel Partitions

Steel Sheets are specially formed steel panels that  provide continuous reinforcement for monolithic, high strength, fire-resistant plaster finish applications. This type of partition provides a cost-saving alternative to reinforced concrete or Cement concrete blocks partitions. These thin, high-strength walls also easily accommodate electrical conduit and plumbing pipes.

Steel and Aluminium partitions are durable and very easy to install. Since they do not rust or rot like iron or wood, they have long durability. They are lustrous and give high quality appearance. They are aesthetically pleasing as well as easy to maintain and clean. And most importantly, economical in construction. They are generally seen to be used in the public toilets, in shopping malls, cinema complexes etc. They are recommended for areas of high humidity

Where are Steel and Aluminium Partitions used?

1. Security walls in jails, prisons and correctional centers.
2. Walls for vaults and counter areas at banking facilities and currency exchanges.
3. Special storage rooms at high-end retailers, such as furriers and jewelers that store large, valuable items.
4. Secured storage areas for items such as computer data records and financial records.
5. Secured storage areas in residential homes.
6. Steel Sheets are available in various sizes. Sheets can be overlapped and welded or screwed together, forming a continuous steel grid to fit needed room size. This minimizes scrap. Wall thicknesses can be adapted readily to meet design needs.
7. High strength for continued security
8. Lightweight for quick installation
9. Galvanized to resist corrosion
10. Can be screwed or welded
11. Sheets can overlap for continuous steel grid fit

Aluminium Partition Walls

Aluminum partition walls consist of aluminum frames which are mounted with either glass panes or particle board fittings to create partitions in business establishments. They are a very versatile design option and enhance the look of any interior space.

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Osmania Arts College, Hyderabad

Osmania Arts College is located in the city of Hyderabad, India. It lies in the campus of Osmania University. This structure has come to be known as the epitome of unity between Hindus and Muslims. This great structures portrays Indo-sarcenic Architecture that is the fusion of Islamic and Hindu Architecture is clearly seen.

Osmania Arts College, Hyderabad, India

This building dominates the entire University Campus. It serves as a heritage structure for the state of Andhra Pradesh. It was constructed in the year 1918 by the Seventh Nizam of Hyderabad Nawab Mir Osman Ali Khan. This structure though resembles a palace was originally constructed and designed as college. It is the third oldest higher learning institution established in the erstwhile princely state of Hyderabad.

Design Concept

Cent percent emphasis is given on the symmetrical planning of the structure. The college building is symmetrical in plan and also in elevation in all respects. Beautiful pointed arched have been adopted from the Islamic Architecture originated from Persia and the ornamentation at the top of the structure has been taken from the Hindu Architectural style.

Renovations done to the Structure

There have not been any renovations done to the structure from the past 25-30 years. The structures stands rigid and well maintained. Stone construction technique has been adopted for the strength efficiency of the structure. The stone was locally available in the state which made the transportation easier and more economical to construct.

Check this article for better and clear understanding of the Repair and Maintenance of the Buildings.

Guide to Repair and Maintenance of Old Buildings

Osmania Arts College, India

Interiors of the Structure

The interiors of the Osmania Arts College is really amazing and impressive. The interiors are very much like any Palace would have been. Double height is given in the centre of the building forming an atrium kind of a space. Marble flooring has been used for the flooring of the building.

Landscaping around the building

The Landscaping around the building is very beautiful and eye-catchy. They have created huge gardens around the structure to give it a magnificent look and provide for a grand and royal entrance. There are a series of Palm trees planted along the main entrance path. There is a longitudinal fountain placed exactly passing through the central axis of the building.

Landscaped Gardens

As we discussed earlier about the symmetrical aspects of the building, the surrounding landscaping has also been designed in a symmetrical fashion.

There has been no construction allowed around this structure so that the beauty of this magnificent structure is maintained.

There are various Heritage sites in the country of India and Hyderabad is one of the golden cities for the Heritage buildings and the historical Importance of the city itself.

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Hollow Block Partitions

Partitions are used to create distinct and specific spaces for specific purposes usually used in a residential construction which are generally residential homes.

Hollow Blocks

Hollow Block Partitions are made up of different materials. The usually used materials for making hollow clay blocks are:

1. Clay or Terracotta Hollow Blocks
2. Fly ash Hollow Blocks
3. Cement Concrete Hollow Blocks

Hollow Blocks of Clay or Terracotta

Hollow Blocks that are made using Terracotta or burnt clay are called Terracotta Hollow Blocks. Terracotta is a good insulator of heat and sound. Hollowness of the blocks adds to the advantage that Terracotta provides.

Terracotta Hollow Blocks

They are also fire resistant. The cavities in a Hollow Block should not exceed 25% of the total mass. They are light in weight, rigid and economical in construction. For the ease of construction , the hollow blocks are provided with grooves on top, bottom and the sides of the blocks. The grooves provides rigid joints and serves as a key to plaster.

The bonding material used for the bonding of Hollow Blocks.

Terracotta blocks

Sizes

The standard size of a Hollow Blocks is as follows:

The hollow blocks are 30 cm long, 20cm high and 5 to 15cm wide

Hollow Interlocking Cement Reinforced Blocks

A new concept of the creation of Interlocking Hollow blocks was introduced. The interlocking hollow blocks helped in excellent and rigid bonding between the blocks. These blocks are designed in such a way that there are holes for grouting purpose.

Grouting will add strength and help in proper and stable bonding in between the blocks. For adding more of structural strength to the partition walls, steel rods are passed through into the holes of the blocks where stands a steel rod at the critical locations (Corners, ends, near openings, etc,). Horizontal reinforcements are also cast in blocks with a U shape.

The advantage of these interlocking blocks over the normal Hollow Blocks is that they offer keys which interlock in the other blocks.

Thus these walls offer more resistance to shear and buildings would be even stronger. They would better resist earthquakes and without major damages.

Substitute for hollow block partition

Fly ash-lime-phosphogypsum (FaL-G) hollow blocks are one of the best substitutes for conventional burnt clay hollow bricks or concrete hollow blocks in construction industry. FaL-G hollow blocks are light in weight and being hollow, impart thermal insulation to the buildings. Fly ash-lime-phosphogypsum is also being used for making  cement.

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New Trends in the choice of Color schemes

The new trends in Furniture design has brought a concept of new choice of color schemes depending on the type of ambiance to be created. Along with maintaining the aesthetic aspect, new materials and new lighting techniques have also come up.

Two trend streams emerge; one following the ‘international’ look of pale sophistication, with beiges, creams and white, offset by stark black. A parallel stream throws into focus the bright new color palette with the nouveau chic fuschia, lime green, aubergine and aqua.

Trendy furniture Design

The trade and architect community notice a bifurcation in usage with designers selecting the former for more elegant, more ‘serious’ spaces such as offices, or for general use spaces such as lounge areas in hotels, while residential spaces, use color to project the personality of the owners. The bright colours give a happy office look. Finance and Insurance offices are serious and very professional offices can have lighter colors that add richness to the space whereas other offices could use shades of yellow and light brown.

Import Material market in India

Imports are far more widespread both in their existence and in their provenance. While the Indian imports account was opened with Chinese imports that were at a low price quality point, imports now stem from all across Far East. This includes Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, China, Indonesia and Hong Kong for the office furniture and for the lower end of residential and contract furniture.. A very significant proportion of furniture, lighting and bath products and accessories is sourced from European countries such as Italy, Germany and Spain, at higher price and value propositions.

New Colour Combinations and Trendy Furniture Design

The influence of the Italian Lifestyle product manufacturers has been a key influencer in the move away from low value propositions to higher value products. Today’s furniture designs are most dependent in Italian furniture design as it has loads of demand in the market.

The design industry in India is competing in the international design market. Even the Indian interiors are competing at international standards as there is much more variety of material of international quality to work with the locally available.

Despite the great demand for the imported stuff in the Indian markets, the markets are still largely dominated by India-made products at all price value configurations.

Architects and Designers are suggesting their clients to select traditional materials that are available locally so that it will require lesser capital and the look and elegance and style will be extraordinary and amazing!

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New changing Trends in the Materials and Furniture Design

With increasing awareness among people about eco friendly products and green homes, people are orienting themselves towards using eco friendly products and use materials that are readily available in nature and less energy intensive.

Interior Design

Use of Fabric in a different way

There has been a huge revolution in fabric with people becoming more experimental. The trend is towards natural fibres such as cotton, linen and silk as well as to incorporating design, particularly graphic design into the fabric.

Concerns on health and safety have led to the manufacture of fire-retardant fabric and the pace of 21st century life has new demands like stain-retardant or spill-retardant features for fabric.

Materials such as Damask, silk, cotton, linen, weaves, textures, Graphic printing, Ancient ethnic prints, florals etc.

Use of Leather

Members of the trade that is the manufacturers, distributors and retailers have differing views on the use and popularity of leather furniture. Upper income groups really enjoy using leather and in very popular demand among upper income demographic but not really popular among middle class segment.

Trendy use of Leather

Leather is particularly used by designers furniture for the lounge space, especially in banks and senior manager’s cabin etc. Faux Leather has become quite popular in the market for its convenience and trendy style whereas the pure leather is the only for the upper segment which has high maintenance and does not look as trendy and stylish as the faux leather.

Appearance and materials that matter

Metallics, shine and shimmer and reflecting surfaces are the look of the moment with furniture finished with metallic polish, reflective surfaces and mirrors as key signature elements. The new changing trends emphasize on the contemporary style but are moving away from the building materials such as clinical glass, leather and steel to more texture.

Aesthetics and use of new materials

There has also been new interest rising among people in Baroque fixtures, bold design and an element of shine and sparkle in almost all product design. Grandeur is fashionable and so is a return to luxury in living.

Materials that are being used give a distressed finish. Materials such as shiny copper, chrome, gunmetal, steel and aluminium. Wall paper and smoked glass is used to create textures.

Lighting Techniques

The product design has had a great impact due to development in technology. The influence of technology on product design is more visible than in the lighting sector. Since, the majority of people are going green and eco-friendly, use of low energy, low footprint and eco friendly lighting is catching up with the upper market. A high awareness of products and new lighting techniques is caused an increased demand for the trained designers and architects.

New lighting equipment emphasizes on Low energy consumption/power savers. LED, CFL, Yellow Light, Crystal lights, Embedded lighting, decorative glass lighting etc. have become very popular these days.

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Changing trends in the choice of Building materials

Nowadays, people are gaining more knowledge about eco-friendly lifestyle. They are realizing that eco-friendly materials are much better and safer as compared to the synthetic and energy intensive materials. Though use of synthetic materials give a very stylish and trendy look to the place, they are not eco-friendly. The trend is definitely away from the older classical looks, associated with bygone grandeur and towards more contemporary styling. Fabric is more textured and interesting, with graphics, florals and interesting weaves and patterns to the fore.

Fabric used as a material for covering the furniture

The palette is lighter and brighter than before, in keeping with the move away from the traditonal to the contemporary, also following what is seen as international, stylish and sophisticated. Instead of saying ‘the look has changed’, I would rather say the look and feel of traditional interiors has evolved. New design languages generated by new materials and new uses of existing materials have resulted in a truly matured genre of beautiful and amazing interiors.

New Trendy but traditional Furniture design

In an apparent shift away from the over-upholstered look of the 20th century, most respondents said that upholstery was restricted to sofas. For the rest, there was a strong tendency towards mixed media furniture, like various material combinations are being used for aesthetics and style… For example, Woods and metals, metals and glass, woods and glass.

“Commercialism has increased with the invention of new building materials. The beauty of interiors is sustained only if the Architect or the interior designer chooses the right materials, the right combination for the specific type of furniture”. This basically means that the attractive and appealing piece of furniture design depends on the combination of materials complementing each other.

Traditional Furniture design

With the increasing number of various building materials introduced into the market and the effect of uplooking market, people are bending towards elegance, minimalism and comfort. Materials like silk fabric, brushed cotton, pure linen are now being preferred to artificial stuff. Modern fiber and synthetic materials are being used to the minimum.

There is a huge demand for leather. But since people are going eco-friendly, they are going for ‘faux leather’. People are keeping the base colour of their furniture neutral and making use of bright colors like red, blue, yellow etc and making a spectacular design statement.

Here’s an interesting article on Exterior Architecture Vs Interior Design. Check it out.

Since we choose different materials for different purposes for achieving aesthetic appeal, we should keep in mind how the interior of a place should reflect and interconnect the exterior feel of the space.

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The fact that India was very much on the periphery of global crisis was clear from the participant responses. Despite the apparent slowdown in the building construction sector, most respondents felt this had not affected either spending patterns or business, in the upper demographic to any significant extent. However, this is qualified by their noticing a degree of caution creeping into the overall spend, especially among the middle income demographics.

Hallmark Express Towers, Hyderabad, India

“The furniture market seems to be very promising in coming years and we expect 30% year on year growth in the furniture market. There is much awareness and Western designs are much liked by Indians who are keen to buy readymade furniture which they can change easily with the fashion.

The responses differed by segment with dealers and retailers noticing a change in purchase patterns, while architects said there was no visible difference in the spend. Builders felt that clients opted for fewer extras such as wooden flooring or appliances with the apartment, but the sales were not affected by more than 10 to 15%.

Some builders who has embraced the fully loaded apartment concept completely, modified their offering to include a choice of not just different styles of fit out and furniture with their flats, but has added the option of a ‘bare’ flat to this.

Of course, the rich have different rules… As we all suspected, the wealthy march to the beat of their own exclusive drummer! While the slowdown in the markets has affected the purchasing patterns of the middle and lower demographics to an extent, the rich have bashed on regardless, cashing in on the deals offered both by builders and retailers. Some builders catering to upper end of the market say that their clientele have been eager to avail the lowered rates and have been buying apartments at an increased rates.

Not everyone has stopped spending. While people may have become subtle in the display of their wealth, they are still spending on their private spaces.

People are spending their money very cautiously are taking a longer time to decide on purchase decisions. Construction Industry is a very flexible industry. Construction is never going to stop however hard the recession might be. Because, the population is increasing and the new need for new homes is also increasing along with which the construction sector is always booming!!

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To say that bath spaces have changes would be an understatement. The enormous sophistication in the range of bath products and the change in the way people look at the space, has attracted several international players into the Indian markets, witha slew of technologically advanced and designed products.

New concept of Modern Bathrooms

The new trendy bathroom designs are making use of lot of wood furniture into the bathroom. Various companies are into the race for designing the furniture specifically for the application area and is resistant to both water and humidity.

Wood surfaces act as a link between the bathroom as a space and its diverse range of elements. When fitted with panelling, drawers or shelves, washbasin, bathtubs and shower trays become items of furniture in their own right. These elements can also be complemented by wall cabinets with valuable storage space, bathrooms are currently in a period of transition.

New Concept of Modern Bathrooms

Today people expect more from them then the traditional showering or cleaning their teeth. The bathroom is becoming a living room space.

And the winner is ….. Technology. “In the fast paced urban living of today, when technology and gizmos are a way of life, homes have become compact and multi-functional and the transition of spaces uncomplicated. A typical living room would combine an entertainment console which could pull out into a dining table, doubling as an office desk.”

New Concept of Modern Bathrooms

At the end of the trend analysis, the last man standing is technology and the ways in which it is used to create both product and ambiance, generating the look of the 21st century. New realities have engendered the need for new solutions and technology has made them happen.

From ergonomic seating solutions to offices, to massage chairs to fire retardant materials and low emission wood conglomerates, and an entire gamut of lighting products technology has helped change the way interiors look all over the world.

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Independence Hall is a national landmark in United States. It is located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on the Chestnut street between 5th and 6th Streets. It achieved its importance primarily because this was the location where American Declaration of Independence (4th July, 1776)was signed and United States Constitution was debated and brought into force. It was further listed under the category of World Heritage Sites in 1979.

Independence Hall, Philadelphia (in 2005)

Construction of Independence Hall

Independence was constructed in Georgian Style which was prevalent and in practice in most of the English speaking countries between 1720 to 1840.

The hall was designed by two architects namely Edmund Woolley and Andrew Hamilton and its design was executed by Woolley. Red brick was used majorly for the construction of facades and this building was popularly known as “Red Brick Building”. It is 41m in height.

There are two smaller buildings adjoining the Independence Hall namely Old City Hall to the east and Congress Hall to the west. The block of these three buildings is famously known as “Independence Square”.

U.S. $100 bill as well as the bicentennial Kennedy half dollar have a picture of Independence Hall pictured on its back.

Liberty Bell

The bell tower spire of Independence Hall holds a “Centennial Bell that was created for the United States Centennial Exposition” in 1876. The Liberty Bell developed a distinctive crack and is now in display across the street in the Liberty Bell Centre. Queen Elizabeth II presented a gift of a replica of Bicentennial Bell to the American people in the year 1976.

Liberty Bell Tower of Independence Hall, Philadelphia

Significant Events in the History of America

Tomas Masaryk proclaimed independence of Czechoslovakia on the steps of Independence on October 26, 1918. Independence Hall is an historic landmark of the world.

The renovation and restoration of the Independence Hall was done in 1948. The building’s entire interior was restored to its original appearance to maintain its uniqueness and originality. Independence Hall is also a part of Independence National Historic Park which comprises of a landscaped area of four city blocks, as well as outlying sites that included Independence Square.

Independence Hall, Philadelphia (1858-63)

A product of extensive documentary research and archaeology by the federal government, the restoration of Independence Hall and other buildings in the park set standards for other historic preservation and stimulated rejuvenation of old Philadelphia.

On 4th July 1962, President John F. Kennedy addressed here. Independence Hall has been used as staging ground for protests because of its evident symbolic history.

Independence Hall and Liberty bell are now protected in secure zone and not exposed to pedestrian traffic. A seven feet high security fence is laid all round the Independence Hall.

Here are some very interesting pictures of Independence Hall

Independence Hall Exterior and Interior Pics

The uniqueness in its Architectural Style still influences millions of Architects and Designers worldwide. Creation of such beautiful and magnificent structures has come to a drastic end.

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An underground city is a network of tunnels that connects various buildings below the street level. These may include office blocks, metro stations, underground shopping malls.

Montreal's Underground City Network

Underground structures or networks are usually found in countries with cold climate. For example, the temperature in Canada in winter is -10 degree Celsius. The climate in Canada does not permit free movement over ground. That is the reason for the development of underground cities. Montreal’s RESO is the world’s largest Underground city in Canada. It is popularly known as “Double Decker City“.

Underground cities usually have entrances through public spaces. The underground structure rises over ground and provides for a proper entrance to the underground structure.

Tenjin underground City, Japan

There are some underground tunnels that have an opening on the ground which slowly leads the traffic to the underground city.

Underground cities are similar in nature to skyway systems and may include some buildings linked by skyways or above ground corridors rather than underground. The purpose of construction of skyways or underground cities is the same which is protection from weather.

(Skyways are known as catwalks, sky bridge etc. A skyway is an enclosed bridge connecting the two buildings. The purpose of construction of skyways is mainly to protect the pedestrians from weather.

Skyways are usually seen in business buildings and therefore not common in public spaces. Skyways usually connect the two buildings on the first few floors above ground, they could be higher too. Petronas Towers is an excellent example of a skyway. This skyways being higher is referred to as Sky bridge.

Petronas Towers - skybridge

The skyways are seen to occur in University campuses connecting more than one block.

The world’s largest skyway network – Calgary, Alberta’s “+15 Walkway” system – has a total length of 16 km (10 miles). However, the system is discontinuous, and it does not connect every downtown building. The largest continuous network of skyways – the Minneapolis Skyway System – spans 8 miles (13 km) connecting 69 blocks in downtown Minneapolis.)

Montreal’s Reso is the world’s largest underground city network used by millions of people. Toronto’s Path is the world’s underground shopping complex which has 371,600 square metres of retail space.

Japan has individually smaller networks but are the most extensive networks. It has a total of 76 underground shopping streets totalling over 900,000 square metres of floor space in 1996, with many expansions since then.

Many countries round the world have developed the concept of an Underground City. Some of the countries which have underground cities are:

1. Argentina
2. Australia
3. Canada
4. Chile
5. China
6. Finland
7. France
8. Germany
9. Greece
10. Hong Kong
11. India
12. Iran
13. Italy
14. Japan
15. Mexico
16. Pakistan
17. Russia
18. Singapore
19. Spain
20. Switzerland
21. Taiwan
22. Thailand
23. Turkey
24. Ukraine
25. United Kingdom
26. United States

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Jack Arch Roof

Jack arch Roof construction can be done in brick or concrete. The arch of the Jack arch roof is either made of brick or of concrete. The arch is supported on the lower flange of mild steel joists (RSJs).  The rolled steel joists are supported at their ends on the walls or on the longitudinal girders. They are spaced at a distance of 1m to 1.5m centre to centre.

Jack arch Roof - Detailed Section

The rise of the arch is kept equal to 1/12th of the span. Layer of concrete is then poured over the roof to straighten the roof. The  concrete layer thickness over the crown of the arch is not less than 15cm.

Due to the super-imposed load on the arch, tension develops at the ends of the arch. Steel tie rods are placed at the ends of an arch with a suitable spacing of 1.8m to 2.4m.

In this article, we are going to study the causes for leakages in a Jack Arch Roof and remedy to solve the problem of leakage.

The two main causes of Jack-arch roof leakage are:

1. Poor quality of cement
2. Inappropriate grade of sand

Repair of the roof

The Jack Arch roof leakage problem has to be fixed and should be so done so as to avoid future recurring water leakage problem. This can be achieved by waterproofing the roof.

Here are the four simple steps to repairing and waterproofing the Jack Arch Roof:

Step one:

The old cement mortar and tiles are to be removed so that the new cement mortar settles and becomes firm over the rough roof surface.

Step two:

After scraping of the cement mortar, fresh cement mortar is laid and left to dry.

Step three:

After the drying of cement mortar, waterproofing is done to avoid any kind of further leakage. Waterproofing material is mixed in a drum of water and splashed over the cement mortar layer. We must make sure that every corner of the roof is to be covered with this waterproofing material.

Step four:

After the process of waterproofing, tiling is done with the help of a suitable adhesive.

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Lighting Techniques

Lighting enhances the ambiance of the place. It is the deliberate application to achieve some pleasing aesthetic effect. Lighting techniques differ from purpose to purpose. For example, for lighting up of the Dining Room, the kind of lighting technique and lighting fixtures used are different from that used in lighting up Water bodies such fountains, artificial lakes etc. because each one of these places creates a whole different feel of the space.

Pendant Lighting | Direct Lighting in a Restaurant

In this article, we will discuss Direct Lighting Techniques and the lighting fixtures that are used specifically for Direct Lighting System.

Here are some of the other lighting methods apart from Direct Lighting:

1. Direct Lighting
2. Semi-Direct Lighting
3. Indirect Lighting
4. Concealed Lighting
5. Semi-concealed Lighting

Dining Lighting makes use of Concealed Lighting, Semi-concealed Lighting, Direct and Indirect Lighting System.

Task Lighting makes use of Direct Lighting system.

Underwater Lighting makes use of Diffused Lighting system.

Spot Lighting is complete different system of Lighting but since it has focussed illumination, it can fall under the category of Direct Lighting.

Direct Lighting

Direct lighting is nothing but an fixture on ceiling and casting light downwards used in offices, homes.etc. It is also known as Down Lighting. Direct lighting come in a wide variety of styles from iron to Zinc Alloy and with the lamp from LED to halogen. Direct lighting is usually mounted on the ceiling to provide uniform lighting.

Methods of Installation of Direct Lighting

• Fixed to the wall

Lighting fixture fixed to the wall

• Fixed in the ceiling(in hollow block)

Lighting fixture fixed in the ceiling

Hollow opening ceiling direct lighting

Hollow opening ceiling direct lighting technique give a dramatic effect to the environment. It appears to have lighting flashing from a hole in the ceiling which makes it look like a broad floodlight (for a bigger hole) or a narrow spotlight (for a smaller hole).

Direct lighting fixtures are divided into parts:

• The trim
• The housing

Direct Light fixture

The trim

The trim is the visible portion of the light. It is the insert that is seen when looking up into the fixture, and also includes the thin lining around the edge of the light.

The housing

The housing is the fixture itself that is installed inside the ceiling and contains the lamp holder.

Various Direct Lighting Fixtures

Fluoroscent Lights

Fluoroscent lights are low energy consuming ceiling lights. They have captured a large market because of its quality of energy efficiency.

Fluoroscent lights

Flush Fitting Ceiling Lights

Flush fitting ceiling lights give good aesthetic appeal. These lights are used when unnecessary projections in the ceiling are to be avoided. They give interesting contemporary look. Nowadays, various shapes and colours are available in Flush fitting ceiling lights. We can give a funky ceiling lighting for your living room, kitchen or bathroom.

Flush Ceiling lights

Low voltage down lights

Low voltage down lights are used when there is a need for distinctive crisp light.provide distinctive crisp light. The downlights are available in various shapes and they come in white or satin nickel finishes.

Low Voltage Downlights

Spotlights

240v mains voltage spotlights give that white, crisp halogen light. available in a number of configurations from a single fixed spotlight, to twin adjustable spotlights that can be used as an up light / down light combination.

Spotlights

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Ceramic Tiles

Ceramic materials are an inorganic, non-metallic solid. They are prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling. Ceramic materials have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous. Because of its crystalline nature, ceramic tiles have a tendency to crack when put under pressure.

Ceramic tiles

A ceramic material is an inorganic crystalline oxide which is solid and inert and hence does not react with any chemicals. Since Ceramic is chemically inert, it can withstand chemical erosion that occurs due to other materials in the surroundings that react with acidic substances. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and tension.

In this article, we are going to discuss the method of fixing Ceramic Tiles over Large Floor Spans and the method of replacement of tiles.

Fixing of ceramic tiles in a Large Hall

Fixing of ceramic tiles in a Large Hall

• A grid is made in the large hall. The grid should not exceed 8’x10’.

• 6mm groove is made in between each box of the grid so that when the tiles expand, they don’t result in breaking.

Reasons for the breaking or cracking of  ceramic tiles

• The adhesive used for ceramic tiles is cement mortar. When the mortar mix in not made in the correct proportion, the ceramic tiles result in popping up.

• Ceramic tiles are delicate. If excessive load is kept over them, they result in cracking.

• If ceramic tiles are laid continuously over large spans without any grooves between them, then they result in popping up and breaking, since ceramic tiles have the ability to expand.

Replacing the broken ceramic tiles

There are three important steps to be followed for the replacement of the broken ceramic tile:

Step one:

While removing the broken ceramic tile, we should take care so that the tiles around the tile to be removed are not damaged. Cut the tile from the inside of its edges so that other tiles don’t get chipped off. Then take a chisel and hammer and slowly chisel out the the edges of the broken tile from the floor.

Chipped Ceramic tile that is to be removed is circled

Method of removal of the broken Ceramic Tile

Step two:

Scrape out the old adhesive that is cement mortar from the floor.

Step three

Lay fresh cement mortar (1:6) to a layer of thickness 10mm and then lay ceramic tiles in a fashion as discussed in the article above.

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Semi-Direct Lighting Design

Semi-Direct Lighting is the kind of lighting provided from a source without reflection from other surfaces.

In daylighting, this means that the light has travelled on a straight path from the sun to the point of interest.

In electrical lighting it usually describes an installation of ceiling mounted or suspended luminaires with mostly downward light distribution characteristics.

Semi-direct Lighting Techniques

Types of Lighting

One of the primary functions of a luminaire is to direct the light to where it is needed. The light distribution produced by luminaires is characterized by the Illuminating Engineering Society as follows:

• Direct Lighting ( 90 to 100 percent of the light is directed downward for maximum use.

• Indirect Lighting( 90 to 100 percent of the light is directed to the ceilings and upper walls and is reflected to all parts of a room.

• Semi-Direct Lighting( 60 to 90 percent of the light is directed downward with the remainder directed upward.

• Semi-indirect Lighting ( 60 to 90 percent of the light is directed upward with the remainder directed downward.

• Highlighting Lighting( the beam projection distance and focusing ability characterize this luminaire)

• Concealed Lighting

• Task Lighting

• Underwater Lighting

• Spot Lighting

Semi Direct Lighting

A glass reflector directs 60 to 90 percent of the light toward the work area, and 10 to 40 percent toward the sides and top of the globe.

Lamp giving Semi-Direct Light

They usually consist of a lamp(s) enclosed in a prismatic or opalescent glass.

This arrangement conceals the light source, diffuses the light and reduces glare.

Luminosity

The lighting distribution that is characteristic of a given luminaire is described using the candela distribution.

Luminosity

The relative proportion of the luminous intensity that is distributed upwards and downwards determines the lighting pattern.

If 60-90% of the luminous intensity is projected downwards then it is called semi direct lighting.

How it is used?

• Since semi direct lighting requires diffusion of light to cut down glare, the light source needs to be enclosed in prismatic or opalescent glass.

• The glass enclosure can also have cuts or opening on top to reflect 10-40% of the light on to the ceiling.

• Proper utilization depends on ceiling reflection. Light colored ceilings are preferred because they direct the diffused light back downwards.

• Use of dark colored ceilings makes the light source stand out increasing the glare and causing discomfort.

Where is Semi-Direct Lighting system installed?

• Semi direct lighting is good for stairways, corridors, and storage areas.

• Semi direct lighting is used in commercial spaces like shopping malls and restaurants because they cut down glare and soften the ambience.

• Semi direct lighting is used in places where strong light is not required eg. Semi direct lighting cannot be used in offices where light has to be focused on work tables.

Advantages of Semi-Direct Lighting System

• Very energy effective lighting.

• Display of three dimensional objects. For example : sculptures

• Well suited for zonal or accent lighting.

• Can create a vivid environment with attractive light and shadow patterns eg. on wall surfaces.

• The shadows produced by semi direct lighting are diffused and do not cause discomfort.

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Cape Town Stadium, South Africa

• The Cape Town Stadium is a stadium is a world class stadium. It is located in Cape Town, South Africa.

• This Stadium has been specially constructed for the FIFA World Cup 2010. Another stadium existed on the same site called “The Green Point Stadium” which has been demolished for the construction of the new stadium.

Cape Town Stadium, South Africa

• Its an honour to be hosting the FIFA World Cup Matches 2010. There are other two stadiums in South Africa that are also hosting couple World Cup Matches namely;

Moses Mabhida Soccer Stadium, Durban, South Africa
Johannesburg City Stadium, South Africa

• Since the stadium on that site has been known as Green Point Stadium for a long time, so this name is also used frequently in during World Cup media coverage.

• It has a capacity to accommodate 69,070 people during the World Cup.

• The stadium is connected to the waterfront by a new road connection, Granger Bay Boulevard, and is surrounded by a 60 hectare urban park.

Why was Green Point Stadium Demolished?

• The Green Point Stadium had a seating capacity of 18,000 people. After partially demolishing the stadium, it replaces a portion of the Metropolitan Golf Club site which has now been realigned.

• Since the seating capacity is insufficient for a when hosting FIFA World Cup Matches, construction of a larger stadium was proposed.

Demolished Green Point Stadium, South Africa

• Green Point Stadium was a multi-purpose Stadium mainly used for football matches, and was the home ground of Santos Football Club and Ajax Cape Town at different points. It also hosted music concerts including Michael Jackson, U2, Metallica, Paul Simon, Robbie Williams, the Coca Cola Colab Massive Mix and the 2003 46664 Concert for the benefit of AIDS victims.

Design of Cape Town Stadium (Green Point Stadium)

• The Construction of the Cape Town Stadium, located on the Green Point Common began in March 2007. In 33 months, joint contractors Murray & Roberts and WBHO completed the project at a cost of R4.4billion – or approximately US$600million. The project architects were an association between GMP Architects of Germany and two local firms, Louis Karol and Associates and Point Architects.

• The stadium is pretty huge and has 750 rooms and 3,000 doors. About 2,500 construction workers were employed in the building of the stadium and 1,200 artisans received training from the contractors. The completion of the construction of the Stadium was the top priority because of the FIFA World Cup Matches in 2010.

• The Exterior facade of the Stadium has a special noise reducing cladding. The Green Point Common, on which the stadium was built, was originally much larger than what now remains, and included most of the land between the sea and Signal Hill, stretching from the city centre towards Sea Point. The Project was completed in December 2009.

Panoramic View of Cape Town Stadium

• The Stadium is a fifteen-story structure which has features such as curved walls clad in a translucent fabric mesh made from woven fibreglass coated with Teflon, The filigree skin changes its appearance with the movement of the sun, appearing blue at noon, rose in the late afternoon and red at sunset. On stormy days, it can appear silver, grey or even pewter.

• The Stadium Design Concept is incredible and has inspired Architects round the Globe.

• The interesting part of this design is that the internal design cooperates with the external facade Design. This concept of Interrelating the Interior Functionality with the Exterior Appearance of the Complex has been lost but Architects have tried to revive the lost concept and bring it into reality.

• The stadium also features 360 internal lamps, which lend a transparent gleaming appearance to the outer filigree skin, revealing its interior when switched on.

Possible Use of the Stadium after the World Cup 2010

• The Stadium will be operated such that it remains a sustainable multi-purpose venue after the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The consortium, called Business Venture Investments 1317, will be expected to be involved in the management of the stadium from January 2009 onwards.

• The seating arrangement of the Stadium is incredibly flexible. After the World Cup is over, the stadium capacity will be reduced to 55,000, enabling it to cater for all types of sports, including rugby, as well as music concerts and other major events. The stadium will feature corporate hospitality suites, medical, training, conferencing and banqueting facilities.

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• The Moses Mabhida Stadium is a stadium is a world class stadium. It is located in Durban, South Africa, named after Moses Mabhida, a former General Secretary of the South African Communist Party.

• The Moses Mabhida Stadium in Durban will host one of the semi-finals of the FIFA World Cup 2010.

Moses Mabhida Durban Stadium, South Africa

• It has a capacity to accommodate 70,000 people during the World Cup but generally it can accommodate only 54,000 people. For this reason, special seating arrangements are done to increase the seating to 70,000 during the World Cup.

• It includes an adjoining indoor arena, football museum, sports institute, and a transmodal transport station.

Design of the Durban Stadium

• This stadium stands on the grounds of the Kings Park Soccer Stadium, in the Durban sports precinct in the suburb of Stamford Hill.

• The design of the stadium is incredibly flexible. The stadium design allows the reduction or increment in the seating capacity as per the events carried on at the Stadium.

Durban Stadium - Under Construction

• For FIFA World Cup 2010, the seating capacity has been increased to 70,00o whereas for minor events it is reduced to 54,000 and for Olympics it is increased to 80,000.

• There are 150 Hospitality suites with 7,500 seats meant for the VIPs.

Dimensions of the Stadium are as follows:

Concept of the Stadium Design

Arch Design Concept of Durban Stadium

Design of the Roof of the Stadium

Moses Mabhida Stadium is exceptionally large. The Engineers and Architects have tried to cover the seating of the entire stadium but have succeeded in covering about 88% of the seats. Since it is a large span structure, the Steel Trussed Roof has been incorporated in the design. The roof consists of a 46,000 square metres, Teflon-coated, glass-fibre membrane which will produce a translucent glow when the stadium is lit. These are attached to the arch by 17,000m of 95mm diameter steel cables.

Design of the Bowl

To support this mega structure, 1,750 columns and 216 raking beams have been used as the main support. Around the field, 900m of retaining walls stretches 8m high. A total of 1,780 pre-cast concrete seating panels creates the bowl form. There will be over 80,000 The floor space inside the stadium structure is around 80,000 square metres.

Interior Design of Durban Stadium

Design of the Facade of the Durban Stadium

Over 100 columns surround the stadium. The height of the columns varies around the stadium, but the highest is 46m. In total 15,000m² of façade will surround the stadium. A total of 550 aluminum fins will fit between the main columns. Perforated metal sheeting will be placed between the aluminum fins, where required.

The Design Concept, the roof structure, Bowl Design and the Design of the Facade of the Stadium have been discussed in detail. Understanding these four points will give us a major about Moses Mabhida Stadium, Durban Design.

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Ohio Stadium is the centre for the Buckeyes football team at The Ohio State University. It is popularly known as The Shoe, The Horseshoe or The House that Harley Built. The Ohio stadium is located in Columbus, Ohio, United States.

Ohio Stadium, Columbus, United States

This stadium has gained quite a lot of historical importance. Its name was added to the National Register of Historic Places by the National Park Service on March 22, 1974.

• It has a capacity of accommodating 102,329, people. It is the third largest stadium in the NCAA and the sixth largest non-racing stadium in the world.

• It is also the largest stadium in Ohio, Columbus, United States.

• Ohio Stadium is also used for organizing concerts. Famous plays that of U2, The Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd & Metallica have also been played at Ohio Stadium.

Lighting at the Stadium

The stadium lacks the provision of field lights which causes quite a lot of inconvenience when night events take place. For lighting purpose, special arrangements are made.

Ohio Stadium Night matches

This was done for major events in 2005 game against Texas and the 2006 nationally televised game with Michigan.

Opening of the Stadium

• The first game in the stadium was against Ohio Wesleyan University on October 7, 1922, and brought a crowd of around 25,000. More than half the stadium was empty.

• It got people concerned about the success of the new stadium but the concern was short-lived. In the stadium’s formal dedication against Michigan on October 21, which the Wolverines won, the concern was put to rest. The crowd was announced at the game to be 72,000, but no one is really sure how many people made it into the stadium.

• This attendance mark was broken in a game against Michigan in 1925 when 90,411 came out to support the Buckeyes; this is also the last time standing-room-only tickets were sold for a game.

Renovations done at the Stadium

• The initial seating capacity of the stadium was 72,000. With time, minor changes had to be made. The seating capacity of the stadium was raised to 90,000. Heavy renovation was carried out from 1999 to 2000.
• The stadium was heavily renovated from 1999 to 2000. The press block was replaced and additional seating arrangement was installed above the existing upper deck, and 81 luxury suites and 2,500 club seats were added.

Ohio Stadium Daytime Matches

• The south end zone scoreboard was also replaced by a 90ft. x 30ft. SACO Smartvision video board that is able to show replays, highlights, animations, graphics and statistical information. Additionally, a smaller version of the south end scoreboard was added to the north end and a new LED ribbon board that runs end-zone to end-zone was added to the balcony prior to the 2009 season.

• A new stadium named Jesse Owens Memorial Stadium specifically for tracks by the university nearby, thus the track at Ohio Stadium was no longer needed. The track was removed and the field of play was lowered by 14.5 feet to add additional seating closer to the field.

• The temporary bleachers in the south end zone were replaced with permanent seating. However, the south end of the stadium remains partially open, thus allowing the stadium to maintain its notable Horseshoe configuration.

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Scope and Importance of Structural Engineering

Structural Engineering deals with the mechanism of the structural system that is it deals with structural analysis and structural design. The structural engineering plays an important and necessary part in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, naval engineering, aeronautical engineering and in all the specialized phases of engineering. Structural Engineers are like puzzle masters.

Millennium Dome

It not just deals with the various different fields of engineering but is also interrelated with Architectural Design. Understanding the Interrelationship of Structural Engineering and Architectural Design is very essential for an engineer and an Architect…

We have already discussed “Art of Structural Engineering” in our previous articles….

People are usually curious to know what Structural Engineering is like. What is the work of a Structural Engineer??? What are Steel Structures?

Structural Designing is basically split into two main steps:

1. Structural Analysis
2. Structural Design

Structural Analysis

Lets first discuss about Structural Analysis. Here we will discuss what is to be done when analysing the structure before or after its construction… Basically, we will discuss how a Structure is to be analysed in terms of its structural components.

• The structural analysis deals with the development of suitable arrangement of structural elements for the structures to support the external loads or the various critical combinations of the loads which are likely to act on the structure.

• The analysis also deals with the determination of internal forces in the various members. State of stress and critical combination of the stresses at various points which include the nature, magnitude and the direction of these stresses and the external reactions due to the worst possible combinations of the load.

• The external reactions are transmitted to the foundations. The methods of structural analysis and the principles involved in them remain independent of the materials used for all types of structures, whether the structures are built of plastic, aluminium, timber, reinforced concrete or steel.

Structural Design

• After we are done with the structural analysis, our next step would be selection of appropriate materials to be used for construction.

• The structural design deals with the selection of proper material, proper sizes, proportions and shape of each member and its connecting details.

• The materials selected should be economical and safe. They satisfy all the stress requirements and imposed by the most severe combination of the loads to which the structure is required to transmit or resist including its self-weight.

• After the selection of materials, we head towards making our final Structural Drawings. They are called “finished drawings”.

• The finished design drawings with all pertinent or controlling dimensions for all the members, parts and connections are made. The finished design drawings are necessary for fabrication and construction.

• The structural design in a limited sense also deals with the design of the various parts or members of a structure. The structural design is governed with the standard specifications.

• The handbooks are used as working tools in structural design. When the structural steel is used as the material for the structure, the structural design is known as “Design of Steel Structures”.

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