composting what? why? how?

Types of Deep Soil Preparation

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Types of Deep Soil Preparation

The double-dig is the principal way one prepares a
GROW BIOINTENSIVE bed until good structure is
established. Afterwards, one will depend on surface
cultivating the top 2 to 4 inches. Another way to keep
cultivating the top 2 to 4 inches. Another way to keep
soil loose between double-digging is to single-dig
(loosening the top 12 inches with the spading fork). We
recommend doing so between crops in the same growing
year.

General Double-Digging Procedure—Each year
before the main crop until good soil structure is
established
Spread a layer of compost over the entire area to be dug.
After marking the bed, place the digging board on the
bed, leaving approximately 24 inches from the end of
the bed for the +rst trench. Remove 7 +ve-gallon buckets
of soil from the upper level of the +rst trench (assuming
a 5-foot-wide growing bed; see illustration on this page).
Be sure to dig trenches across the width of the bed. This
will give you 3 buckets of soil to make compost (these
will eventually be returned to the growing beds in the
form of cured compost), 1 bucket of soil to make flat soil
to grow seedlings, and the remaining 3 buckets are
returned to the bed after it is dug.

The Initial Double-Dig Process: Step-by-Step

1. Spread a layer of compost over the entire area to be dug. (Compost is added after
the double dig and bed shaping for Basic Ongoing Double Digs

2. Using a spade, remove the soil from a trench 1 foot deep and 1 foot wide across the
width of the bed and put the soil into buckets or a wheelbarrow for use in making
compost and flat soil. If the bed is 5 feet wide, the soil will fill 7 five-gallon buckets.
(The trench is being dug across the width of the bed.)

3a. Loosen the soil an additional 12 inches with a spading fork by digging the tool in
to its full depth and then pushing the tool handle downward so the fork tines will
lever through the soil, loosening and aerating it. (See following illustrations for
loosening compacted soil.)
3b(i). FOR COMPACTED SOIL: While standing in the trench, loosen the soil an
additional 12 inches with a spading fork by digging in the tool to its full depth and
lifting out a tight soil section on the fork pan.
3b(ii). Then, by moving your arms upward in a small jerk, the soil will break apart as it
falls downward, hits the fork tines, and falls into the hole below.
Now, standing in the trench or on the digging board
above the trench, dig down another 12 inches (or as
deep as possible) with a spading fork, a few inches at a
time if the soil is heavy or tight. Leave the fork as deep
as it has penetrated, and loosen the subsoil by pushing
the fork handle down and levering the tines through the
soil. If the soil is not loose enough for this process, lift
the chunk of soil out of the trench on the fork tines.
Then throw it slightly and gently upward, and allow it to
fall back on the tines so it will break apart some. If this
does not work, use the points of the fork tines to break
the soil apart. Work from one end of the trench to the
other in this manner.
Next, move back the digging board (approximately the
12-inch width of the next trench). Dig another trench
behind the +rst one, moving each spadeful of the top 12
inches of soil forward into the +rst trench. When digging,
make as few motions and use as little muscle as possible
in this process. This will conserve your energy and
involve less work. In fact, as you dig the soil, you will
discover you can use an Aikido-like economy of motion
and energy in which you are virtually just shifting your
balance and weight rather than digging. Sometimes you
will have to work over a trench a second or third time to
remove all the soil and obtain the proper trench size.
Repeat the subsoil loosening process in the second
trench.

4. Dig out the upper part of a second trench 1 foot deep and 1 foot wide. Move each
spadeful of soil forward (into the first trench), mixing the soil layers as little as
possible.
Dig a third trench, and so on, until the entire bed has
been double-dug. It helps to level the soil with a rake
every 3 to 4 trenches during the digging process. If you
do not, you may end up with a very deep trench at the
end of the bed. Then you will have to move a large
amount of soil from one end of the bed to the other to
amount of soil from one end of the bed to the other to
even it out when you are ready to be +nished. This
action also causes a disproportionate misplacing of
topsoil into the subsoil area.
When you are sliding the soil forward from one trench
into another, notice a couple of things. If you spread
compost on the bed before beginning, note that some of
the layer slides 3 to 6 inches down into the trench,
creating a small mound of soil or landslide. This
approximates the way nature adds leaves, &ower bodies,
and other decaying vegetation to the top of the soil,
where they break down and their essences percolate in
the soil.
Always make sure that the upper layer of soil (the top
12 inches) is not turned over during the double-dig. Most
of the microbiotic life lives in the upper 6 inches of the
soil. Also, the natural layering of the soil that is caused
by rainfall and leaching, leaf litter, temperature, gravi0ty,
and other natural forces is less disturbed when the soil is
not generally mixed, even though the soil is loosened up
and distributed somewhat. Aim for a balance between
nature’s natural strati+cation and the loosened
landsliding soil. (As a goal, strive not to mix the soil
layers. Even though some mixing will occur, it is
important to avoid excessive disruption of the soil
layers.)
When you are through double-digging, the aerated
surplus soil in the bed will be enough to +ll the +nal
trench at the end of the bed. You may also add some of
trench at the end of the bed. You may also add some of
the buckets from the +rst trench. If you add compost that
you have made with soil, that will also contribute soil to
the bed.
Take buckets of surplus soil to the soil bin pile.
Level and shape the bed. Sprinkle on compost and any
soil amendments as recommended by your soil test over
the surface of the bed. These may include organic
nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, calcium and trace mineral
fertilizers. (For more detail, see this page.) Include any
pH modi+ers (such as special leaf or pine needle
compost to make the soil less alkaline, or lime to make
the soil less acid) as indicated by your soil test. Sift in
compost and fertilizers and pH modi+ers only 2 to 4
inches deep with a spading fork. After sifting them in, do
no further raking to avoid disturbing the even
distribution of fertilizers and compost.
Considerations for Initial Dig with Very Poor Soils
You may choose to add compost at di)erent points for
the initial double-dig and when working with a soil with
very low amounts of organic matter. Instead of applying
compost only after the double-dig, consider spreading a
½-inch layer over the bed before double-digging and/or
a ½-inch layer during the dig by incorporating it
thoroughly into the 12-inch-deep trench.

Laying Out Your Beds

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Laying Out Your Beds

Carefully choose a place for your raised beds that has
access to water and sunlight—preferably 7 to 11 hours of
direct sunlight each day.

To begin, mark out a bed 3 to 5 feet wide and at least
3 feet long. A 3 foot by 3 foot space assures a minimum
mini-climate. Most people prefer beds to be 5, 10 or 20
feet long, as it makes calculating easier.
The maximum length should be determined by ease of
work.
Consider your source of compost. Ideally, you will
have compost that you have prepared available as you
begin to prepare your beds. However, many decide to
purchase compost or aged manure to begin. For this
initial application of organic matter, one may consider
aged manure. While compost is preferable, if one
chooses aged manure, assure that it is two-year-old steer
or cow manure, or two-year-old horse manure that
originally contained a lot of sawdust, or two-month-old
horse or chicken manure not containing much sawdust.
The best time to double-dig the soil is in early
The best time to double-dig the soil is in early
morning or evening in spring or autumn. The air
temperature is cooler at these times so less soil organic
matter is lost in the process. Dig only when the soil is
evenly moist. It is easier and also better for the soil.
Digging a hard, dry soil breaks down the structure, and it
is di,cult to penetrate. Wet soil is heavy and easily
compacted. Compaction destroys friable structure and
minimizes aeration. These conditions kill microbiotic
life. Correct soil moisture can be determined by a simple
hand test. Soil is too dry for digging when it is loose and
will not hold its shape after being squeezed in the palm
of your hand (in cases of sands or loams) or when it
cannot be penetrated by a spade (in the case of clays).
Soil is too wet when it sticks to the spade as you dig.
The goal of double-digging is to loosen the soil to a
depth of 24 inches below the surface. The +rst year, you
may only be able to reach 15 to 18 inches with
reasonable e)ort. Be satis+ed with this result. Do not
injure yourself or your tools. More important than
reaching 24 inches in the +rst years is improvement over
the course of time. Nature, the loosened soil, worms, and
plant roots will further loosen the soil with each crop, so
digging will be easier each year and the depth will
increase over time. Be patient in this soil-building
process. It takes 5 to 10 years to build up a good soil
(and one’s skills). Actually, this is very rapid. Nature
usually requires a period of 3,000 years or more to build
the 6-inch layer of farmable soil needed to grow a good
the 6-inch layer of farmable soil needed to grow a good
crop of food.
After the soil has been initially prepared, you will +nd
that the GROW BIOINTENSIVE method requires less
work per unit of food produced than the gardening
technique you presently use. The Irish call this the “lazy
bed” method of raising food.

Choosing a composting method

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Choose an approach that best suits your reasons for making compost, the location of the compost site and

the amount of specialized equipment you have available to produce compost (the Figure). Where you

are located is important from environmental impact and potential nuisance perspectives. For example,

composters located in rural areas need to be concerned that composting activities don't adversely

affect surface and ground waters, but they usually are less concerned about neighbor complaints related to

odors, noise and dust. Composting sites located in rural-urban and urban areas often are forced to use

high technology options to minimize nuisance complaints.

The decisions about technology options and management intensity can be viewed as a continuum (the Figure). If you are new to composting and want to make compost exclusively for your own use, you might

start out at the low to intermediate scale. Later if you decide to make a saleable product or expand your site,

you might decide that you can justify the costs of higher technologies and more intensive management.

“Low technology” composting Low technology options usually go hand-in-hand with

minimal management. Examples include static, passively aerated piles where you would use dry and

large-particle size feedstocks to give the compost pile sufficient porosity. Use of a bucket loader to turn piles

infrequently (every two weeks) would also be considered a low-technology option for on-farm

composting. These options make the most sense for individuals in rural areas making compost largely for

their own use.

“Intermediate” technology options Intermediate technology - moderate management intensity includes turned windrow composting using non-specialized equipment. The most common example is building and turning piles using a manure spreader. These windrows would likely be turned once per week during the active phase of composting and then monthly during the curing phase. The passively aerated windrow system (PAWS) would also be considered an intermediate technology option because the composter will need some kind of equipment to premix feedstocks and will need to purchase perforated pipe for placement underneath

the compost pile. Management of the PAWS system is intensive in the pile establishment phase, but minimal

thereafter. Both of these intermediate technology options are suited to rural or rural-urban fringe

locations. Composts produced using these methods would be best suited to internal use, unless the

composter can demonstrate product consistency over time.

“High technology” composting High technology options usually include specialized composting equipment: tractor-pulled or self-propelled windrow turners, forced aeration systems with perforated pipes and blowers and enclosed (or in-vessel) systems. These require serious financial and labor commitments. Use of these technologies are justified when the composter intends to make a saleable product and when the compost site is located either on the rural-urban boundary or within an urban setting. Management intensity of these systems is usually high. For turned windrow systems, windrows are usually turned 2-3x/week during the active phase of composting (minimum of 1x/week) and then 1-2x/ month during curing. For the forced-aerated and enclosed technologies, you will need to monitor the equipment to make sure that air

flow and moisture are optimized to produce the desired temperature range.

Easy way to make compost

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When is the compost finished?

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There is no fixed time to produce finished compost. Duration depends on feedstocks, composting method
used and management. It can take as little as three months and as long as two years. Compost is considered finished when the raw feedstocks are no longer actively decomposing and are biologically and
chemically stable. Some practitioners refer to finished compost as stable; refering to the state of biological
activity. Maturity is usually defined as the degree of humification (conversion of organic compounds to
humic substances, which are most resistant to microbial breakdown). It is easier to measure compost
stability than maturity, so most composters measure temperature or compost respiration (oxygen
consumption). When the temperature at the center of the pile returns to near-ambient levels and oxygen
concentrations in the middle of the pile remain greater than 10-15% for several days, compost is considered
stable or finished. These measurements should betaken when the compost pile has at least 50% moisture
content by weight.It is important to learn how to assess the maturity or stability of the compost because stability will affect many of the chemical and biological properties of the compost, and ultimately how the compost can be used.“Stability indices” and maturity/stability testing are available from compost research and education organizations (see Resources). Immature or biologically unstable composts can be used on farms as a soil amendment ONLY IF applied several months prior to planting. Immature composts can also be used in site remediation, and as land fill covers.

The Role of Composting

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As it will be described in other chapters, composting has been used for many years
throughout the world in the stabilization of organic residues. Initially, in the management
of municipal solid waste (MSW), the emphasis was on composting the organic fraction
of MSW; sewage sludge (biosolids) was regarded principally as a source of nitrogen and
phosphorous, and to a lesser extent of potassium for enriching the organic matter and
thus promoting the compost process (Rodale, 1943; Truman, 1949; Golueke, 1950, 1953,
1972, 1977).

The ﬁrst medium- and large-scale processes were designed to treat the entire municipal
solid waste stream. It is possible that the designs of the facilities were appropriate at that
time since the major constituents of the MSW were of biological origin. Unfortunately,
the designs of the treatment facilities were not modiﬁed as the characteristics of the waste
changed in primarily industrialized countries. The characteristics of the waste along with
other factors led to the closure of several facilities in North America and in Western
Europe.
The second half of the 1970s witnessed a drastic shift in the emphasis of composting.
Facilities were designed to treat a number of substrates ranging from manures to the

organic fraction of MSW to biosolids. In the USA, the shift was largely a response to
a desperate need for a means of treating biosolids other than by way of incineration or
landﬁll. Composting seemed to meet the need, especially since biosolids treatment had
been considerably advanced, particularly with respect to dewatering. In the new setting,
biosolids were dewatered to a concentration of total solids at which composting became
feasible provided that a bulking agent was used. Although not particularly troublesome
at ﬁrst, this stipulation eventually became a ﬁnancial handicap. With the worsening of
the ﬁnancial viability came a renewed interest in the possibility of composting refuse. It
is not surprising that the possibility of bypassing the requirement for bulking by using
the organic fraction of refuse as a bulking agent gained attention (Golueke, 1977; Cal
Recovery Systems, 1983; Goldstein, 1987).
Legislative mandates, recycling goals, protection of the water and soil resources, and
other objectives set forth by national, state, and local governments provided the impetus
for waste managers to look for alternatives to reduce the amounts of waste disposed
on the land. Given the quantities and characteristics of the wastes generated by urban
areas (i.e., relatively large quantities of organic matter), biological treatment, in particular
composting, provides a sound, cost-effective, and efﬁcient process.
As it will be explained in future chapters, composting offers a large number of advant-
ages and few disadvantages for treating organic residues. Composting can be carried out at
different levels of technology and at different scales (from backyard to central facilities).
Furthermore, the compost product can be put to use in a great number of applications in
various geographical areas throughout the world.

Know your soil

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The soil in our gardens is a mixture of
mineral particles derived from rock
weathering over millennia, air, water,
decomposed organic matter and living
organisms. Though all soils are based on the
same basic ingredients, they vary widely
because of differences in the way the
ingredients are combined.

Soils may vary in the size of their particles
(texture), the way the particles stick together
(structure), and the amount of space between
the particles (porosity). They can be roughly
grouped into three main types: sand, clay and
loam. All soils are a mixture of characteristics
and even within your garden you will have
differing mixtures in various places.
Soil texture can range from coarse sand or
even gravel at one extreme to pottery-quality
clay on the other, with silt coming in the
middle. Soils can be waterlogged or freedraining,
have a hard crust or clay pan, have
too few or too many of some minerals, be rich
in organic matter and nutrients or deficient,
be alkaline or acidic, and even be saline.
To ensure our plants thrive and our
gardening practices constantly nurture and
replenish the soil instead of slowly degrading
it, every gardener needs to know some simple
soil science.

Texture
Soil texture refers to the size of the soil
particles and is determined by the type of
parent rock from which it originated.
Sandy soils are made up of coarse particles
with a lot of air between them. Both wet and
dry sand feels gritty between the fingers. Such
soils allow water and nutrients to dissipate
very quickly.
Clay soils are made up of very fine particles
with not much air between them. The
particles cling together and can retain water
too well, resulting in waterlogging. Nutrients
can be tightly bound to the fine particles, to
the extent that they might be unavailable to
FABULOUS 56 FOOD FROM EVERY SMALL GARDEN
plants. Clay is hard when dry, and greasy,
rubbery or sticky when wet.
Silt is finer than sand and coarser than clay
and may feel powdery when dry. Wet silt may
feel slightly sticky or plastic; this is because of
a film of clay adhering to the silt particles.
Loamy soil has a good balance of sand, silt
and clay and adequate humus content from
decomposed organic matter. Loam is usually
considered to be the best type of soil for
gardening, but there are myriad gradations
and varying amounts of organic matter, air
and water. Clay loam might have too many
fine particles and still become waterlogged,
whereas sandy loam could have enough of the
larger particles to remain too porous.

Gardening Without Irrigation VII (Increasing Soil Fertility Saves Water)

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Increasing Soil Fertility Saves Water

Does crop growth equal water use? Most people would say this statement seems likely to be true.

Actually, faster−growing crops use much less soil moisture than slower−growing ones. As early as 1882 it was determined that less water is required to produce a pound of plant material when soil is fertilized than when it is not fertilized. One experiment required 1,100 pounds of water to grow 1 pound of dry matter on infertile soil, but only 575 pounds of water to produce a pound of dry matter on rich land. Perhaps the single most important thing a water−wise gardener can do is to increase the fertility of the soil, especially the subsoil.

Poor plant nutrition increases the water cost of every pound of dry matter produced._Using foliar fertilizers requires a little caution and forethought. Spinach, beet, and chard leaves seem particularly sensitive to foliars (and even to organic insecticides) and may be damaged by even half−strength applications. And the cabbage family coats its leaf surfaces with a waxy, moisture−retentive sealant that makes sprays bead up and run off rather than stick and be absorbed. Mixing foliar feed solutions with a little spreader/sticker, Safer's Soap, or, if bugs are also a problem, with a liquid organic insecticide like Red Arrow(pyrethrum−rotenone mix), eliminates surface tension and allows the fertilizer to have an effect on brassicas.

Sadly, in terms of nutrient balance, the poorest foliar sprays are organic. That's because it is nearly impossible to get significant quantities of phosphorus or calcium into solution using any combination of fish emulsion and seaweed or liquid kelp. The most useful possible organic foliar is 1/2 to 1 tablespoon each of fish emulsion and liquid seaweed concentrate per gallon of water.

Foliar spraying and fertigation are two occasions when I am comfortable supplementing my organic fertilizers with water−soluble chemical fertilizers. The best and most expensive brand is Rapid−Gro. Less costly concoctions such as Peters 20−20−20 or the other "Grows," don't provide as complete trace mineral support or use as many sources of nutrition. One thing fertilizer makers find expensive to accomplish is concocting a mixture of soluble nutrients that also contains calcium, a vital plant food. If you dissolve calcium nitrate into a solution containing other soluble plant nutrients, many of them will precipitate out because few calcium compounds are soluble. Even Rapid−Gro doesn't attempt to supply calcium. Recently I've discovered better−quality hydroponic nutrient solutions that do use chemicals that provide soluble calcium. These also make excellent foliar sprays. Brands of hydroponic nutrient solutions seem to appear and vanish rapidly. I've had great luck with Dyna−Gro 7−9−5. All these chemicals are mixed at about 1 tablespoon per gallon.

Gardening Without Irrigation VI (Fertilizing, Fertigating and Foliar Spraying)

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Fertilizing, Fertigating and Foliar Spraying

In our heavily leached region almost no soil is naturally rich, while fertilizers, manures, and potent compostsmainly improve the topsoil. But the water−wise gardener must get nutrition down deep, where the soil stays damp through the summer.

If plants with enough remaining elbow room stop growing in summer and begin to appear gnarly, it is just as likely due to lack of nutrition as lack of water. Several things can be done to limit or prevent midsummer stunting. First, before sowing or transplanting large species like tomato, squash or big brassicas, dig out a small pit about 12 inches deep and below that blend in a handful or two of organic fertilizer. Then fill the hole back in. This double−digging process places concentrated fertility mixed 18 to 24 inches below the seeds or seedlings.

Foliar feeding is another water−wise technique that keeps plants growing through the summer. Soluble nutrients sprayed on plant leaves are rapidly taken into the vascular system. Unfortunately, dilute nutrient solutions that won't burn leaves only provoke a strong growth response for 3 to 5 days. Optimally, foliar nutrition must be applied weekly or even more frequently. To efficiently spray a garden larger than a few hundred square feet, I suggest buying an industrial−grade, 3−gallon backpack sprayer with a side−handle pump. Approximate cost as of this writing was $80. The store that sells it (probably a farm supply store) will
also support you with a complete assortment of inexpensive nozzles that can vary the rate of emission and the spray pattern. High−quality equipment like this outlasts many, many cheaper and smaller sprayers designed for the consumer market, and replacement parts are also available. Keep in mind that consumer merchandise
is designed to be consumed; stuff made for farming is built to last.

Gardening Without Irrigation V (Windbreaks)

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Windbreaks

Plants transpire more moisture when the sun shines, when temperatures are high, and when the wind blows; it is just like drying laundry. Windbreaks also help the garden grow in winter by increasing temperature. Many other garden books discuss windbreaks, and I conclude that I have a better use for the small amount of words my publisher allows me than to repeat this data; Binda Colebrook's [i]Winter Gardening in the Maritime Northwest[i] (Sasquatch Books, 1989) is especially good on this topic.

Gardening Without Irrigation IV (Mulching)

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Mulching

Gardening under a permanent thick mulch of crude organic matter is recommended by Ruth Stout (see the listing for her book in More Reading) and her disciples as a surefire way to drought−proof gardens while eliminating virtually any need for tillage, weeding, and fertilizing. I have attempted the method in both Southern California and western Oregon with disastrous results in both locations. What follows in this section is addressed to gardeners who have already read glowing reports about mulching.

Permanent mulching with vegetation actually does not reduce summertime moisture loss any better than mulching with dry soil, sometimes called "dust mulching." True, while the surface layer stays moist, water will steadily be wicked up by capillarity and be evaporated from the soil's surface. If frequent light sprinkling
keeps the surface perpetually moist, subsoil moisture loss can occur all summer, so unmulched soil could eventually become desiccated many feet deep. However,capillary movement only happens when soil is damp. Once even a thin layer of soil has become quite dry it almost completely prevents any further movement. West of the Cascades, this happens all by itself in late spring. One hot, sunny day follows another, and soon the earth's surface seems parched.

Unfortunately, by the time a dusty layer forms, quite a bit of soil water may have risen from the depths and been lost. The gardener can significantly reduce spring moisture loss by frequently hoeing weeds until the top inch or two of earth is dry and powdery. This effort will probably be necessary in any case, because weeds
will germinate prolifically until the surface layer is sufficiently desiccated. On the off chance it should rain hard during summer, it is very wise to again hoe a few times to rapidly restore the dust mulch. If hand cultivation seems very hard work, I suggest you learn to sharpen your hoe.

A mulch of dry hay, grass clippings, leaves, and the like will also retard rapid surface evaporation. Gardeners think mulching prevents moisture loss better than bare earth because under mulch the soil stays damp right to the surface. However, dig down 4 to 6 inches under a dust mulch and the earth is just as damp as under hay. And, soil moisture studies have proved that overall moisture loss using vegetation mulch slightly exceeds loss under a dust mulch.

West of the Cascades, the question of which method is superior is a bit complex, with pros and cons on both sides. Without a long winter freeze to set populations back, permanent thick mulch quickly breeds so many slugs, earwhigs, and sowbugs that it cannot be maintained for more than one year before vegetable gardening
becomes very difficult. Laying down a fairly thin mulch in June after the soil has warmed up well, raking up what remains of the mulch early the next spring, and composting it prevents destructive insect population levels from developing while simultaneously reducing surface compaction by winter rains and beneficially enhancing the survival and multiplication of earthworms. But a thin mulch also enhances the summer germination of weed seeds without being thick enough to suppress their emergence. And any mulch, even a thin one, makes hoeing virtually impossible, while hand weeding through mulch is tedious.

Mulch has some unqualified pluses in hotter climates. Most of the organic matter in soil and consequentlymost of the available nitrogen is found in the surface few inches. Levels of other mineral nutrients are usually two or three times as high in the topsoil as well. However, if the surface few inches of soil becomes completely desiccated, no root activity will occur there and the plants are forced to feed deeper, in soil far less fertile. Keeping the topsoil damp does greatly improve the growth of some shallow−feeding species such as lettuce and radishes. But with our climate's cool nights, most vegetables need the soil as warm as possible, and the cooling effect of mulch can be as much a hindrance as a help. I've tried mulching quite a few species while dry gardening and found little or no improvement in plant growth with most of them. Probably, the enhancement of nutrition compensates for the harm from lowering soil temperature. Fertigation is better all around.

Gardening Without Irrigation III(Keeping the Subsoil Open with Green Manuring)

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Keeping the Subsoil Open with Green Manuring

When roots decay, fresh organic matter and large, long−lasting passageways can be left deep in the soil, allowing easier air movement and facilitating entry of other roots. But no cover crop that I am aware of will effectively penetrate firm plowpan or other resistant physical obstacles. Such a barrier forces all plants to root
almost exclusively in the topsoil. However, once the subsoil has been mechanically fractured the first time, and if recompaction is avoided by shunning heavy tractors and other machinery, green manure crops can maintain the openness of the subsoil.

To accomplish this, correct green manure species selection is essential. Lawn grasses tend to be shallow rooting, while most regionally adapted pasture grasses can reach down about 3 feet at best. However, orchard grass (called coltsfoot in English farming books) will grow down 4 or more feet while leaving a massive
amount of decaying organic matter in the subsoil after the sod is tilled in. Sweet clover, a biennial legume that sprouts one spring then winters over to bloom the next summer, may go down 8 feet. Red clover, a perennial species, may thickly invade the top 5 feet. Other useful subsoil busters include densely sown
Umbelliferae such as carrots, parsley, and parsnip. The chicory family also makes very large and penetrating taproots.

Though seed for wild chicory is hard to obtain, cheap varieties of endive
(a semicivilized relative) are easily available. And several pounds of your own excellent parsley or parsnip seed can be easily produced by letting about 10 row feet of overwintering roots form seed. Orchard grass and red clover can be had quite
inexpensively at many farm supply stores. Sweet clover is not currently grown by our region's farmers and so can only be found by mail from Johnny's Selected Seeds (see Chapter 5 for their address). Poppy seed used for cooking will often sprout. Sown densely in October, it forms a thick carpet of frilly spring greens
underlaid with countless massive taproots that decompose very rapidly if the plants are tilled in in April before flower stalks begin to appear. Beware if using poppies as a green manure crop: be sure to till them in early to avoid trouble with the DEA or other authorities.

For country gardeners, the best rotations include several years of perennial grass−legume−herb mixtures to maintain the openness of the subsoil followed by a few years of vegetables and then back (see Newman Turner's book in more reading). I plan my own garden this way. In October, after a few inches of rain has
softened the earth, I spread 50 pounds of agricultural lime per 1,000 square feet and break the thick pasture sod covering next year's garden plot by shallow rotary tilling. Early the next spring I broadcast a concoction I call "complete organic fertilizer" (see _Growing Vegetables West of the Cascades_ or the _Territorial Seed
Company Catalog_), till again after the soil dries down a bit, and then use a spading fork to open the subsoil before making a seedbed. The first time around, I had to break the century−old plowpan forking compacted earth a foot deep is a lot of work. In subsequent rotations it is much much easier.

For a couple of years, vegetables will grow vigorously on this new ground supported only with a completeorganic fertilizer. But vegetable gardening makes humus levels decline rapidly. So every few years I start a new garden on another plot and replant the old garden to green manures. I never remove vegetation during
the long rebuilding under green manures, but merely mow it once or twice a year and allow the organic matter content of the soil to redevelop. If there ever were a place where chemical fertilizers might be appropriate around a garden, it would be to affordably enhance the growth of biomass during green manuring.

Were I a serious city vegetable gardener, I'd consider growing vegetables in the front yard for a few years and then switching to the back yard. Having lots of space, as I do now, I keep three or four garden plots available,one in vegetables and the others restoring their organic matter content under grass.

Gardening Without Irrigation I I(Using Humus to Increase Soil Moisture)

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Using Humus to Increase Soil Moisture

Maintaining topsoil humus content in the 4 to 5 percent range is vital to plant health, vital to growing more nutritious food, and essential to bringing the soil into that state of easy workability and cooperation known as good tilth. Humus is a spongy substance capable of holding several times more available moisture than clay.
There are also new synthetic, long−lasting soil amendments that hold and release even more moisture than humus. Garden books frequently recommend tilling in extraordinarily large amounts of organic matter to increase a soil's water−holding capacity in the top few inches.

Humus can improve many aspects of soil but will not reduce a garden's overall need for irrigation, because it is simply not practical to maintain sufficient humus deeply enough. Rotary tilling only blends amendments into the top 6 or 7 inches of soil. Rigorous double digging by actually trenching out 12 inches and then spading up the next foot theoretically allows one to mix in significant amounts of organic matter to nearly 24 inches. But plants can use water from far deeper than that. Let's realistically consider how much soil moisture reserves might be increased by double digging and incorporating large quantities of organic matter.
A healthy topsoil organic matter level in our climate is about 4 percent. This rapidly declines to less than 0.5 percent in the subsoil. Suppose inches−thick layers of compost were spread and, by double digging, the organic matter content of a very sandy soil were amended to 10 percent down to 2 feet. If that soil contained
little clay, its water−holding ability in the top 2 feet could be doubled. Referring to the chart "Available Moisture" in Chapter 2, we see that sandy soil can release up to 1 inch of water per foot. By dint of massive amendment we might add 1 inch of available moisture per foot of soil to the reserve. That's 2 extra inches of water, enough to increase the time an ordinary garden can last between heavy irrigations by a week or 10 days.
If the soil in question were a silty clay, it would naturally make 2 1/2 inches available per foot. A massive humus amendment would increase that to 3 1/2 inches in the top foot or two, relatively not as much benefit as in sandy soil. And I seriously doubt that many gardeners would be willing to thoroughly double dig to an
honest 24 inches. Trying to maintain organic matter levels above 10 percent is an almost self−defeating process. The higher the humus level gets, the more rapidly organic matter tends to decay. Finding or making enough well−finished compost to cover the garden several inches deep (what it takes to lift humus levels to 10 percent) is enough of a job. Double digging just as much more into the second foot is even more effort. But having to repeat that chore every year or two becomes downright discouraging. No, either your soil naturally holds enough
moisture to permit dry gardening, or it doesn't.

Gardening Without Irrigation I (Spotting a Likely Site)

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Spotting a Likely Site

Observing the condition of wild plants can reveal a good site to garden without much irrigation. Where Himalaya or Evergreen blackberries grow 2 feet tall and produce small, dull−tasting fruit, there is not much available soil moisture. Where they grow 6 feet tall and the berries are sweet and good sized, there is deep,open soil. When the berry vines are 8 or more feet tall and the fruits are especially huge, usually there is bothdeep, loose soil and a higher than usual amount of fertility. Other native vegetation can also reveal a lot about soil moisture reserves. For years I wondered at the short leaders and sad appearance of Douglas fir in the vicinity of Yelm, Washington. Were they due to extreme soil infertility? Then I learned that conifer trees respond more to summertime soil moisture than to fertility. I obtained a soil survey of Thurston County and discovered that much of that area was very sandy with gravelly subsoil. Eureka!

The Soil Conservation Service (SCS), a U.S. Government agency, has probably put a soil auger into your very land or a plot close by. Its tests have been correlated and mapped; the soils underlying the maritime Northwest have been named and categorized by texture, depth, and ability to provide available moisture. The maps are precise and detailed enough to approximately locate a city or suburban lot. In 1987, when I was in the market for a new homestead, I first went to my county SCS office, mapped out locations where the soil was suitable, and then went hunting. Most counties have their own office.

AN OVERVIEW OF TECHNIQUES FOR MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

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AN OVERVIEW OF TECHNIQUES
FOR MUSHROOM CULTIVATION
Techniques for cultivating mushrooms, whatever the species, follow the same basic pattern.
Whereas two species may differ in temperature requirements, pH preferences or the substrate
on which they grow, the steps leading to fruiting are essentially the same. They can be summarized as follows:
1. Preparation and pouring of agar media into petri dishes.
2. Germination of spores and isolation of pure mushroom mycelium.
3. Expansion of mycelial mass on agar media.
4. Preparation of grain media.
5. Inoculation of grain media with pure mycelium grown on agar media.
6. Incubation of inoculated grain media (spawn).
7. A. Laying out grain spawn onto trays,
or
B. Inoculation of grain spawn into bulk substrates.
8. Casing—covering of substrate with a moist mixture of peat and other materials.
9. Initiation—lowering temperature, increasing humidity to 95%, increasing air circulation,
decreasing carbon dioxide and/or introducing light.
10. Cropping—maintaining temperature, lowering humidity to 85-92%, maintaining air circulation,carbon dioxide and/or light levels.
With many species moderate crops can be produced on cased grain cultures. Or,
the cultivator can go one step further and inoculate compost, straw or wood. In either case, the fruiting of mushrooms requires a high humidity environment that can be readily controlled. Without proper moisture, mushrooms don't grow.In the subsequent chapters standard methods for germinating spores are discussed, followed by Techniques for growing mycelium on agar, producing grain and/or bran "spawn", preparing composted and non-composted substrates, spawn running, casing and pinhead formation. With this last step the methods for fruiting various species diverge and techniques specific to each mushroom are individually outlined. A trouble-shooting guide helps cultivators identify and solve problems that are commonly encountered. This is followed by a thorough analysis of the contaminants and pests of mushroom culture and a chapter explaining the nature of mushroom genetics. In all, the book is a system of knowledge that integrates the various techniques developed by commercial growers worldwide and makes the cultivation of mushrooms at home a practical endeavor.

A Fukuoka Inspired Permaculture Garden composting

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Conditions of composting

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Conditions of composting

The important parameters of composting are temperature, pH, moisture content, and oxygentransfer, which is regulated by aeration, free airspace, and agitation. The main properties offeed materials include C/N ratio, ratio size, rigidity, and nutrient and lignin compost.

Carbon and nitrogen are the two most important elements in the composting process, as one or the other is normally a limiting factor [18]. Carbon serves primarily as an energy source for
microorganisms, while a small fraction of the carbon is incorporated in their cells. Nitrogen is critical for microbial population growth, as it is a constituent of protein which forms over 50% of dry bacterial cell mass. If nitrogen is limiting, microbial populations will remain small and it will take longer to decompose the available carbon. Excess nitrogen, beyond the microbial requirements, is often lost from the system as ammonia gas or other mobile nitrogen and can cause odours or other environmental problems. While the typically recommended C:N ratios for composting municipal solid waste (MSW) are 25:1 to 40:1 by weight, these ratios may
need to be altered to compensate for varying degrees of biological availability. Moisture management requires a balance between these two functions: microbial activity and oxygen supply [18]. Moisture is essential to the decomposition process, as most of the decom-position occurs in thin liquid films on the surfaces of particles. Excess moisture will fill many of the pores between particles with water, limiting oxygen transport. A minimum moisture content of 50 to 55% is usually recommended for high rate composting of MSW. The heat and airflow generated during composting evaporate significant amounts of water and tend to dry the material out. During the active composting phase, additional water usually needs to be added to
prevent premature drying and incomplete stabilization. MSW compost mixtures usually start at about 52% moisture and dry to about 37% moisture prior to final screening and marketing. Oxygen and temperature fluctuate in response to microbial activity, which consumes oxygen and generates heat [18]. Oxygen and temperature are linked by a common mechanism of control: aeration. Aeration both resupplies oxygen as it is depleted and carries away excess94 Compostable Polymer Materials heat. Inadequate oxygen levels lead to the growth of anaerobic microorganisms which can produce odorous compounds. Oxygen concentrations in the large pores must normally be at least
12–14% (ideally 16–17%) to allow adequate diffusion into large particles and water filled pores. Most MSW composting systems used a forced aeration system with blowers and distribution pipes to supply oxygen during the initial phases of active composting. Temperatures of 45 to 59oC provide the highest rate of decomposition, with temperatures above 59oC reducing the rate of decomposition due to a reduction in microbial diversity [18]. Since temperatures in excess of 55oC for several days are usually required for pathogen control,the ideal temperature operating range is relatively narrow. Composting systems attempt to control temperatures to a narrow range near 55 to 60oC in order to compromise between reaction rate, pathogen reduction, and odour generation. To maintain these temperature ranges, heat gains
from microbial activity need to be balanced against heat losses, which occur primarily through evaporation of moisture and heating the aeration rate. Temperature, like oxygen supply, is usually managed by an aeration system: the same air which supplies oxygen can carry away excess heat.

How to make compost

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The Indore Method "reloaded"

2011-01-20T10:31:00.000-08:00

The Indore Method

The Indore process consists of a systematic use of traditional
procedures. When Howard first put the system into practice, he used
only animal manures, brush, leaves, straw or hay, and sprinklings of
chalk or earth. The material was piled in alternating layers to make a
5-foot-high stack, or it was placed in a pit 2 or 3 feet deep. The original
procedure was to use a layer of brush as a base and to heap green or
dry vegetable material over it in a 6-inch layer, followed by a 2-inch
layer of manure and a sprinkling of soil. The order of layers was
repeated until the desired height of 5 feet was reached.
The general proportions were, by volume, 3 to 4 parts of vegetable
matter to 1 part of animal manure. Sir Albert advised spreading limestone
or chalk between layers along with earth. In his work with village
or large farm-scale projects, he suggested 5-foot-high piles, measuring
10 by 5 feet, or windrows of any practical length, 10 feet wide.
Later in the history of the Indore method, composting with night
soil (mixed human urine and feces), garbage, and sewage sludge was
done. These materials were layered with high-carbon organic material
such as straw, leaves, animal litter, and municipal trash.
The piles were turned, usually after 6 weeks, and again after 12
weeks. Two turnings were the general practice, but the exact timing of
these turnings varied. Occasionally, additional turnings were given to

In the Indore method, a layer of brush forms the base of the pile. It is
followed by a layer of green or dry vegetable matter, then a layer of
manure and a sprinkling of soil. The layers are repeated until the pile
is 5 feet high.
control flies, though the more common practice was to cover the pile
with a 2-inch layer of compacted soil when flies or odors were a
problem. The liquor draining from the composting mass was, in some
variations of the early Indore process, recirculated to moisten the pile.
Harold B. Gotaas, in Composting: Sanitary Disposal and Reclamation
of Organic Wastes, suggests that the early Indore process stacks were
aerobic for a short period after piling and after each turn, but anaerobic
otherwise.
The chief advantage to the Indore method as originally practiced
is that it can be practiced on a fairly large scale without the need for
either mechanization or a great amount of labor. According to Dr.
Golueke, although many successful large-scale modified Indore composting
efforts use windrows, composting of garden and kitchen waste
by the Indore method is done best in bins or pits.

Types of Typical Compost Structures part I

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Compost Tumbler

The Compost Tumbler usually has a drum type unit placed between vertical uprights,
and you manually turn the tumbler or drum.
· Advantages:Very easy to mix and turn compost materials
· Compost is very well aerated
· Excludes rodents
· Easy to move (mobile)
Disadvantages:
· The Compost Tumbler can be expensive`
· You lose contact with your native soil for microorganisms and earthworms
exchange

what else can you use?

2010-06-15T09:15:00.000-07:00

what else can you use?
The principal goal of composting is to recycle organic matter on the spot, without the awful waste of energy involved in moving it around the countryfirst. Therefore, imported materials should not be added routinely to the compost heap. On the other hand, if there are local sources of composting ingredients that are available cheaply, or perhaps even free, it would be foolish to ignore them. If your organic waste goes to a local composting scheme, it will be composted at a high temperature under controlled conditions. The resulting compost will be a clean, safe, weed-free material that can be bought and used straightaway in the garden. However, in common with other commercial soil conditioners that are based on recycled garden or forestry waste, it tends to be slightly alkaline, so is not suitable for use around rhododendrons or other acid-loving plants. Strawy stable manure can go straight on the garden, while chicken manure is high in nutrients and makes an excellent compost activator. Pigeon manure, often available even in the centre of big cities, is similar. Many other sources of organic matter are useful if available locally, including bracken, sawdust, seaweed, spent hop waste and mushroom compost, and straw. All these can go straight on the garden as a mulch and will help to improve the soil structure. Bear in mind, however, that in terms of nutrient content and other properties, these materials are very different.Points to ponder

• mushroom compost is alkaline
• dead bracken, sawdust, and straw contain virtually
no nutrients
• material from farms may have had pesticides used on them:
always check and, if it has, compost it well before putting
it on the garden
• landowners are often happy for you to collect bracken,
but always ask first
• collect only loose seaweed washed up by the tide – do not,
whatever you do, remove live seaweed from rocks
Sorting your stuff
The lists opposite are a reminder of most of the sorts of things that you might want to compost, divided into (1) soft, nitrogen-rich,(2) moderately nitrogen-rich, and (3) tough, carbon-rich material. Bearing in mind the ideal C:N ratio of 30 for composting, a heap made entirely of rich stuff will have too much nitrogen and one entirely of tough stuff will have too little, so always try to mix the two.Ingredients: (from left) old cut flowers (rich stuff), young
hedge clippings (middling stuff), and straw (tough stuff).55 Rich stuff weeds, coffee
grounds, comfrey, feathers, general kitchen waste, hair, lawn mowings, nettles, old cut flowers, pigeon manure, pond weed, poultry manure (raw or pelleted), seaweed, pure wool or silk
clothing (shredded), soft, green garden waste, urine. Middling stuff Brassica and other
fibrous, green stems, citrus skins, cotton rags, eggshells(rich in calcium), soiled bedding from hamsters, rabbits,guinea pigs (not dog or cat litter), spent hop waste, tea bags, used potting compost, vacuum cleanings (but not if you have synthetic carpets), waste from distilling, well-rotted cow/ horse/pig/sheep manure, wool shoddy, young hedge clippings and soft prunings. Tough stuff Bracken, cardboard,corn cobs (crushed), hay or straw, leaves of broad-leaved trees and shrubs, leaves of conifers, nutshells, paper, sawdust, tough hedge clippings, waxed paper, wood ash (rich inpotash), wood shavings, woody prunings.

Selecting your Compost Structure

2010-06-15T08:57:00.000-07:00

Selecting your Compost Structure

Selecting your compost structure is NOT as important as you would think. What is
important is that you create compost.
Compost needs seven main requirements in place for proper decomposition. Those
factors are compost size, air, moisture, fragment size, dry matter, green matter, and
heat. Initially though, you need to make sure that your structure provides minimum
compost size. A compost structure or pile that is too small will not create hot enough
heat for proper organic matter decomposition.
Preference and practicality will be the real reasons for the structure you select. If you
don't have a lot of room in your garden, you may want to use a tumbler or
commercial compost bin. With more room, you have more options, like a compost
pile or a wirebased
compost bin.
Minimum Size of Compost
Your compost structure (or compost pile) must be at a minimum of seven cubic feet
to provide enough heat, air, and moisture for adequate decomposition. Your
"finished" compost should also provide enough compost for your garden to make
your efforts worthwhile.
What's Seven Cubic Feet?
It's easy for me to tell you that the minimum size of your compost pile should be
seven cubic feet, but what does that mean?
· Seven cubic feet is (simple approximates):Two feet wide by two feet deep by
two feet high
· .5 meter wide by .5 meter feet deep by .5 meter high
· 55 gallons
· 208 liters
· 11 5gallon
buckets
· Two full large wheelbarrows

Classic composting

2010-06-13T15:23:00.000-07:00

Classic composting
The traditional advice for constructing a
classic compost heap is quite simple. First,
collect together a mixture of soft, nitrogenrich
waste and tougher, carbon-rich material.
Shred any tree and shrub prunings.
Second, start filling your compost bin with layers of different
materials, adding a spadeful of compost or soil now and then – the
right micro-organisms will colonize your heap eventually anyway,
but there’s no harm in giving them a helping hand. Carry on until
your heap measures at least one cubic metre (1 cu.yd), or more if
possible. If the heap seems dry, water it. Cover it with the bin lid
or a piece of old carpet.
Your heap should soon start to get hot. When it starts to
cool, turn it and it will heat up again. When it starts to cool
again, turn it for a third time, and leave until done.
Sounds simple, doesn’t it? Unfortunately, it’s this stately
home approach that caused generations of gardeners to abandon
the whole idea of making compost. In fact, this
apparently simple advice is
riddled with weasel words
that gloss over real difficulties.

“Turn your heap when it starts to cool down.”

Modern gardeners are busy people, with their compost heap
somewhere near the bottom of their list of priorities. Turning a
large compost heap is hard work, and doing it twice sounds like
adding insult to injury. There’s also the anxiety of whether you’ve
got the timing right. Is it cooling down yet? Have I left it too long?
“Collect together at least a cubic metre of waste.”
Pardon?
How often does the owner of a modern, small garden have a
cubic metre (cu. yd) of waste at one time? Pause at this point and
try to visualize a cubic metre of garden waste (go and get a tape
measure if necessary).
“Well then,” goes the advice, “gather the materials over a
period of time.”
OK, but where do you store this stuff while you are waiting
to collect enough? An even more interesting question is how you
stop the green waste from starting to compost before it goes on
the compost heap. Keep it in the fridge maybe?
Something else the books never mention.
As described, composting is clearly a batch
process, like putting a load in the
washing machine. A full load of
compost material is assembled and,
after a time, finished compost results.

Selecting your Compost Location

2010-06-12T03:37:00.000-07:00

Selecting your Compost Location

Selecting your compost location for proper composting is important. Garden
prunings, leaves, and weeds if left alone in a pile will decompose, but with
composting, you want to speed this decomposition.
Choose Convenience
Above all, choose a location that is easy to get to and convenient. Most of your trips
to your compost will be from your kitchen (food scraps), so the compost location
should be as close as practically possible. It should be placed as not be in the way of
family and pet traffic.
Caution – Do not place your compost near areas where animals are able to defecate,
because feces harbor pathogens that are harmful to humans.
The Area Should Be Level with Good Drainage
Your location should be on a level area with good soil drainage. Soils with poor
drainage will slowdown
the compost decomposition. It’s not always possible, but
areas with filtered shade are preferred. Also, avoid windy locations (or protect it from
the wind). Windy areas can dry out and decrease the compost pile’s temperature.
Learn to Camouflage your
Compost Location
There are zillion different ways to
create a compost pile (bin or box,
etc.), but it’s a good idea to take a
military approach to it and use
camouflage. You can camouflage
using tall flowers, manageable
shrubs, a fence or a vine covered
trellis. Be creative when you
integrate your compost into your
garden.
Compost Locations to Avoid
· Under trees – Locate your
compost under trees with
caution, because after heavy rains and the tree’s shade, the compost may dry
out too slow. The trees roots may send roots into the bottom of the compost
searching for nutrients and water.
· Against permanent wooden structures – Compost will rot any wood in contact
with it. It’s fine to use wood for the compost pile or to fence it in, as long as
you know that you may need to replace it every three to four years.
· Under house eves or against the house – If the compost is place under roof
eves, the compost may not get enough rainfall or it may get to wet due to
excessive rain runoff.
Try to place your compost at least 20 feet away from
the house.
· In sight of your neighbors – If you live in a densely populated housing area,
be respectful of your neighbors. You may think that your compost is a
beautiful thing, but if it’s in plain site of your neighbors, they may not
appreciate it. Try to keep the compost out of site.

How to Compost : Learn Organic Garden Composting Online : Choosing a Com...

2010-06-06T06:11:00.000-07:00