Computer Information Technology

AMD Hard Disk

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 09:31:00 +0000

AMD Campaigning Yukon as Intel Atom Alternative
Tom's Hardware Guide, CA - 12 hours ago
AMD is now urging OEMs to think outside the Intel box. AMD is campaigning to PC makers to consider using its Yukon platform before turning straight to ...

TheTechLounge
AMD Overclocking Guide
TheTechLounge, TX - 12 hours ago
In today’s guide, we will focus specifically on how to overclock current AMD processors to maximize the available headroom given your cooling solution of ...

IT Examiner
AMD vertically challenged by other foundries
IT Examiner, India - 23 hours ago
By Mike Magee @ Monday, February 23, 2009 9:28 AM Chip firm AMD’s approval of a plan to spin off its semiconductor division as The Foundry Company puts it ...
AMD`s Foundry Plan to Generate Competition Pressure on Existing ... The Taiwan Economic News
- AMD e Advanced Technology Investmeant ... Comunicati-Stampa.net (Comunicati Stampa)
BUY OR SELL-Are chip foundries a bargain after sell-off? Yahoo
all 5 news articles »

AMD Procesor

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 09:26:00 +0000

« View all web results for AMD

Telegraph.co.uk
B vitamins, folic acid may cut risk of vision loss
CTV.ca, Canada - 12 hours ago
Certain factors are known to increase the risk of developing AMD, including obesity, smoking and a family history of the irreversible condition. ...
Vitamins, Folic Acid Reduce AMD Risk in Women MedPage Today
Vitamins may prevent eye disease in the elderly, research finds Telegraph.co.uk
Vitamins may help reduce risk of age-related vision loss, trial ... CBC.ca
Newswise (press release) - WebMD
all 154 news articles »
Flash mem giant Spansion slashes 35 per cent of staff
Register, UK - 3 hours ago
A joint venture of AMD and Fujitsu, Spansion makes so-called NOR flash memory, a less-popular competitor to NAND flash. The company is the third largest ...
Spansion cuts hundreds of jobs in Austin Austin American-Statesman
Spansion announces a 35% reduction in workforce - Update RTT News
Chip firm Spansion to cut about 3000 jobs MarketWatch
Reuters - The Associated Press
all 142 news articles »

Inquirer
AMD Unveils 'Istanbul' Six-Shooter Opteron
Tom's Hardware Guide, CA - 7 hours ago
AMD has shown off its first working demonstration of its counter punch to Intel, a six-core Opteron processor code-named “Istanbul”. ...
AMD Demos Six-Core Server Microprocessors. X-bit Labs
AMD shows off six-core Istanbul Inquirer
AMD demos six-core Istanbuls Fudzilla
TopNews - ITvoir
all 6 news articles »

Ars Technica
Turn Your AMD Phenom 2 Three Core CPU into a Quad Core CPU
Tech Fragments, Birmingham - 12 hours ago
Apparently customers that own an AMD Phenom II processor can turn the 3 cores into 4 cores, or make it a quad core without any hardware modifications. ...
AMD's Phenon II X3's fourth core is unlocked Fudzilla
AMD 2009 performance preview: taking Phenom II to 4.2GHz Ars Technica
RE: HyperThreading OS News
TweakTown - OS News
all 8 news articles »

Intel RAM

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 09:25:00 +0000

ntel Inside, Intel Systems Division, and Intel Architecture Labs

During this period, Intel undertook two major supporting programs that helped guarantee their processor's success. The first is widely-known: the 1990 "Intel Inside" marketing and branding campaign. This campaign established Intel, which had been a component supplier little-known outside the PC industry, as a household name. The second program is little-known: Intel's Systems Group began, in the early 1990s, manufacturing PC "motherboards", the main board component of a personal computer, and the one into which the processor (CPU) and memory (RAM) chips are plugged. Shortly after, Intel began manufacturing fully-configured "white box" systems for the dozens of PC clone companies that rapidly sprang up. At its peak in the mid-1990s, Intel manufactured over 15% of all PCs, making it the third-largest supplier at the time. By manufacturing leading-edge PC motherboards systems, Intel enabled smaller manufacturers to compete with larger manufacturers, accelerating the adoption of the newest microprocessors and system architecture, including the PCI bus, USB and other innovations. This led to more rapid adoption of each of its new processors in turn.[citation needed]

During the 1990s, Intel's Architecture Lab (IAL) was responsible for many of the hardware innovations of the personal computer, including the PCI Bus, the PCI Express (PCIe) bus, the Universal Serial Bus (USB), Bluetooth wireless interconnect, and the now-dominant architecture for multiprocessor servers. IAL's software efforts met with a more mixed fate; its video and graphics software was important in the development of software digital video, but later its efforts were largely overshadowed by competition from Microsoft. The competition between Intel and Microsoft was revealed in testimony by IAL Vice-President Steven McGeady at the Microsoft antitrust trial.

Another factor contributing to rapid adoption of Intel's processors during this period were the successive release of Microsoft Windows operating systems, each requiring significantly greater processor resources. The releases of Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows 2000 provided impetus for successive generations of hardware.

Random Acess Memory

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 09:23:00 +0000

From DRAM to microprocessors

In 1983, at the dawn of the personal computer era, Intel's profits came under increased pressure from Japanese memory-chip manufacturers, and then-President Andy Grove drove the company into a focus on microprocessors. Grove described this transition in the book Only the Paranoid Survive. A key element of his plan was the notion, then considered radical, of becoming the single source for successors to the popular 8086 microprocessor.

Until then, manufacture of complex integrated circuits was not reliable enough for customers to depend on a single supplier, but Grove began producing processors in three geographically distinct factories, and ceased licensing the chip designs to competitors such as Zilog and AMD. When the PC industry boomed in the late 1980s and 1990s, Intel was one of the primary beneficiaries.

[edit] Intel, x86 processors, and the IBM PC
The integrated circuit from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip.

Despite the ultimate importance of the microprocessor, the 4004 and its successors the 8008 and the 8080 were never major revenue contributors at Intel. As the next processor, the 8086 (and its variant the 8088) was completed in 1978, Intel embarked on a major marketing and sales campaign for that chip nicknamed "Operation Crush", and intended to win as many customers for the processor as possible. One design win was the newly-created IBM PC division, though the importance of this was not fully realized at the time.

IBM introduced its personal computer in 1981, and it was rapidly successful. In 1982, Intel created the 80286 microprocessor, which, two years later, was used in the IBM PC/AT. Compaq, the first IBM PC "clone" manufacturer, produced a desktop system based on the faster 80286 processor in 1985 and in 1986 quickly followed with the first 80386-based system, beating IBM and establishing a competitive market for PC-compatible systems and setting up Intel as a key component supplier.

In 1975 the company had started a project to develop a highly-advanced 32-bit microprocessor, finally released in 1981 as the Intel iAPX 432. The project was too ambitious and the processor was never able to meet its performance objectives, and it failed in the marketplace. Intel extended the x86 architecture to 32 bits instead.[14][15]

Hard Disk of Intel

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 09:22:00 +0000

Intel" redirects here. For other uses, see Intel (disambiguation).
Intel Corporation Intel Corporation logo
Type Public (NASDAQ: INTC, SEHK: 4335)
Founded 1968 1
Headquarters Santa Clara, California (incorporated in Delaware)
United States
Key people Paul S. Otellini, CEO
Craig Barrett, Chairman
Sean M. Maloney (EVP; General Manager, Sales and Marketing Group, and Chief Sales and Marketing Officer)
Industry Semiconductors
Products Microprocessors
Flash memory
Motherboard Chipsets
Network Interface Card
Bluetooth Chipsets
Revenue ▼ $37.6 billion USD (2008)[1]
Operating income ▲ $9.0 billion USD (2008)
Net income ▼ $5.3 billion USD (2008)
Employees 83,900 (2008)[1]
Website intel.com
1Incorporated in California in 1968, reincorporated in Delaware in 1989.[2]

Intel Corporation (NASDAQ: INTC; SEHK: 4335) is the world's largest semiconductor company and the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal computers. Intel was founded on July 18, 1968 as Integrated Electronics Corporation and based in Santa Clara, California, USA, Intel also makes motherboard chipsets, network cards and ICs, flash memory, graphic chips, embedded processors, and other devices related to communications and computing. Founded by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, and widely associated with the executive leadership and vision of Andrew Grove, Intel combines advanced chip design capability with a leading-edge manufacturing capability. Originally known primarily to engineers and technologists, Intel's successful "Intel Inside" advertising campaign of the 1990s made it and its Pentium processor household names.

Intel was an early developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips, and this represented the majority of its business until the early 1980s. While Intel created the first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, it was not until the success of the personal computer (PC) that this became their primary business. During the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the PC industry. During this period Intel became the dominant supplier of microprocessors for PCs, and was known for aggressive and sometimes controversial tactics in defense of its market position, as well as a struggle with Microsoft for control over the direction of the PC industry.[3][4] The 2007 rankings of the world's 100 most powerful brands published by Millward Brown Optimor showed the company's brand value falling 10 places – from number 15 to number 25.[5]

In addition to its work in semiconductors, Intel has begun research in electrical transmission and generation.[6][7

Mother Board of Intel

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 09:21:00 +0000

Motherboards

Assemble an optimized platform tailored to your unique needs with Intel® Desktop Boards or accelerate your server with motherboard technology that features new levels of fast, reliable performance.
Desktop boards

* All Intel® Desktop Boards
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* Intel® Desktop Boards Essential Series
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Mobile boards

* All Intel® Mobile Boards

Server boards

* All Intel® Server Boards
* Intel® Qualified Server Boards

Resources, technologies, and solutions

* Intel® High Definition Audio
* Intel® Virtualization Technology (Intel® VT)

Intel Processor Pentuium 4

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 09:21:00 +0000

Processor technology
Intel® Centrino® 2 with vPro™ technology

Empower IT with the best mobile technology for business with security and manageability built right into the chip.

* Learn more

Intel® Centrino® with vPro™ technology

Maximize productivity with security on the chip for business PCs.

* Learn more

Intel® Centrino® 2 processor technology

Get amazing mobile performance, expanded wireless, and extended battery life on the go.

* Learn more

Intel® Centrino® processor technology

Intel's trusted notebook technology provides a great mobile computing experience.

* Learn more

Intel® Core™2 processor with vPro™ technology

Discover proactive security, built-in manageability, and energy-efficient performance in desktop PCs optimized for business.

* Learn more

Find products

* Processors
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* See all products
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Intel Processor

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 09:19:00 +0000

Products

Intel's leading-edge notebook and desktop products range from processors to processor technologies that are designed to work together to deliver a great computing experience—for home, business, and on the go. Discover your next great technology experience with Intel inside.

Hard Disk

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 09:17:00 +0000

Advanced Micro Devices was founded on May 1, 1969, by a group of former executives from Fairchild Semiconductor, including Jerry Sanders, III, Ed Turney, John Carey, Sven Simonsen, Jack Gifford and three members from Gifford's team, Frank Botte, Jim Giles, and Larry Stenger. The company began as a producer of logic chips, then entered the RAM chip business in 1975. That same year, it introduced a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080 microprocessor. During this period, AMD also designed and produced a series of bit-slice processor elements (Am2900, Am29116, Am293xx) which were used in various minicomputer designs.

During this time, AMD attempted to embrace the perceived shift towards RISC with their own AMD 29K processor, and they attempted to diversify into graphics and audio devices as well as EPROM memory. It had some success in the mid-80s with the AMD7910 and AMD7911 "World Chip" FSK modem, one of the first multistandard devices that covered both Bell and CCITT tones at up to 1200 baud half duplex or 300/300 full duplex. While the AMD 29K survived as an embedded processor and AMD spinoff Spansion continues to make industry leading flash memory, AMD was not as successful with its other endeavors. AMD decided to switch gears and concentrate solely on Intel-compatible microprocessors and flash memory. This put them in direct competition with Intel for x86 compatible processors and their flash memory secondary markets.

Mother Board

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 09:15:00 +0000

Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD) (NYSE: AMD) is an American multinational semiconductor company based in Sunnyvale, California, that develops computer processors and related technologies for commercial and consumer markets. Its main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors and graphics processors for servers, workstations and personal computers, and processor technologies for handheld devices, digital television, automobiles, game consoles, and other embedded systems applications.

AMD is the second-largest global supplier of microprocessors based on the x86 architecture after Intel Corporation, and the third-largest supplier of graphics processing units. It also owns 21 percent of Spansion, a supplier of non-volatile flash memory. In 2007, AMD ranked eleventh among semiconductor manufacturers in terms of revenue.[1]

Processor

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 09:15:00 +0000

Product Information

Compare AMD Processor, Chipset and Graphics Card specifications.

Where to buy AMD-powered systems

Get help choosing the right AMD-powered system that meets your needs.

Upgrade your video card

What’s new: AMD Business Class solutions offer the features and price points that meet the needs of business computer buyers, from multinational enterprises to small businesses. Discover how AMD Business Class delivers exceptional business value.

Desktop Processors Notebook Processors

* AMD Phenom™
Experience the phenomenal using the AMD Phenom™ processors. Get amazing speed with quad-core and triple-core performance.
* AMD Athlon™
Award winning processors with exceptional performance to meet your digital demands.
* AMD Sempron™
Redefine everyday computing with built-in security and solid performance.
* ATI Home/Office Products
Enhance personal productivity and home entertainment with multi-purpose 2D and 3D solutions.
* ATI Gamer Products
Immerse yourself in cinematic 3D action with Radeon™ products optimized for game play.
* ATI Multimedia Products
Edit videos, watch and record live TV with All-in-Wonder™ entertainment products.

* AMD Turion™ Mobile Processor
Exceptional visual performance and power-efficient mobility
* AMD Athlon™ for Notebook PCs
Affordable dual-core performance with true multi-tasking for today’s mainstream notebook PCs
* AMD Sempron™ for Notebook PCs
Solid performance on home applications that you need and use most
* ATI Notebook Products
Enjoy stunning visual quality and long-lasting battery life.

Computer parts

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Tue, 24 Feb 2009 09:12:00 +0000

Find a Driver


	Support For


	Radeon (PC/Mac) All-in-Wonder®/TV Wonder™ Mobility (Laptop/Notebook) FirePro™ FireGL™ FireMV™ Motherboard

Please select your operating system, product family and the product and then select GO.

For Utilities, Drivers & Updates for AMD Processors please click here.

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Wireless networks (WLAN, WWAN)

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:43:00 +0000

A wireless network is basically the same as a LAN or a WAN but there are no wires between hosts and servers. The data is transferred over sets of radio transceivers. These types of networks are beneficial when it is too costly or inconvenient to run the necessary cables. For more information, see Wireless LAN and Wireless wide area network. The media access protocols for LANs come from the IEEE.

The most common IEEE 802.11 WLANs cover, depending on antennas, ranges from hundreds of meters to a few kilometers. For larger areas, either communications satellites of various types, cellular radio, or wireless local loop (IEEE 802.16) all have advantages and disadvantages. Depending on the type of mobility needed, the relevant standards may come from the IETF or the ITU.

Wide area network (WAN)

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:39:00 +0000

A wide area network is a network where a wide variety of resources are deployed across a large domestic area or internationally. An example of this is a multinational business that uses a WAN to interconnect their offices in different countries. The largest and best example of a WAN is the Internet, which is a network comprised of many smaller networks. The Internet is considered the largest network in the world.^[6]. The PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) also is an extremely large network that is converging to use Internet technologies, although not necessarily through the public Internet.

A Wide Area Network involves communication through the use of a wide range of different technologies. These technologies include Point-to-Point WANs such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) and High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC), Frame Relay, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and Sonet (Synchronous Optical Network). The difference between the WAN technologies is based on the switching capabilities they perform and the speed at which sending and receiving bits of information (data) occur.

For more information on WANs, see Frame Relay, ATM and Sonet.

Local area network (LAN)

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:37:00 +0000

A local area network is a network that spans a relatively small space and provides services to a small number of people. Depending on the number of people that use a Local Area Network, a peer-to-peer or client-server method of networking may be used. A peer-to-peer network is where each client shares their resources with other workstations in the network. Examples of peer-to-peer networks are: Small office networks where resource use is minimal and a home network. A client-server network is where every client is connected to the server and each other. Client-server networks use servers in different capacities. These can be classified into two types: Single-service servers, where the server performs one task such as file server, print server, etc.; while other servers can not only perform in the capacity of file servers and print servers, but they also conduct calculations and use these to provide information to clients (Web/Intranet Server). Computers are linked via Ethernet Cable, can be joined either directly (one computer to another), or via a network hub that allows multiple connections.

Historically, LANs have featured much higher speeds than WANs. This is not necessarily the case when the WAN technology appears as Metro Ethernet, implemented over optical transmission systems.

Networking methods

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:35:00 +0000

Networking is a complex part of computing that makes up most of the IT Industry. Without networks, almost all communication in the world would cease to happen. It is because of networking that telephones, televisions, the internet, etc. work.

One way to categorize computer networks is by their geographic scope, although many real-world networks interconnect Local Area Networks (LAN) via Wide Area Networks (WAN)and wireless networks[WWAN]. These three (broad) types are:

Computer networking

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:34:00 +0000

Computer networking is the engineering discipline concerned with communication between computer systems or devices. Networking, routers, routing protocols, and networking over the public Internet have their specifications defined in documents called RFCs.^[1] Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of telecommunications, computer science, information technology and/or computer engineering. Computer networks rely heavily upon the theoretical and practical application of these scientific and engineering disciplines.

A computer network is any set of computers or devices connected to each other with the ability to exchange data.^[2] Examples of networks are:

local area network (LAN), which is usually a small network constrained to a small geographic area.
wide area network (WAN) that is usually a larger network that covers a large geographic area.
wireless LANs and WANs (WLAN & WWAN) is the wireless equivalent of the LAN and WAN

All networks are interconnected to allow communication with a variety of different kinds of media, including twisted-pair copper wire cable, coaxial cable, optical fiber, and various wireless technologies.^[3] The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g. via Bluetooth) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet^[4]).

Ethics and rights for software users

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:32:00 +0000

Being a new part of society, the idea of what rights users of software should have is not very developed. Some, such as the free software community, believe that software users should be free to modify and redistribute the software they use. They argue that these rights are necessary so that each individual can control their computer, and so that everyone can cooperate, if they choose, to work together as a community and control the direction that software progresses in. Others believe that software authors should have the power to say what rights the user will get.

Operation

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:31:00 +0000

Computer software has to be "loaded" into the computer's storage (such as a hard drive, memory, or RAM). Once the software has loaded, the computer is able to execute the software. This involves passing instructions from the application software, through the system software, to the hardware which ultimately receives the instruction as machine code. Each instruction causes the computer to carry out an operation -- moving data, carrying out a computation, or altering the control flow of instructions.

Data movement is typically from one place in memory to another. Sometimes it involves moving data between memory and registers which enable high-speed data access in the CPU. Moving data, especially large amounts of it, can be costly. So, this is sometimes avoided by using "pointers" to data instead. Computations include simple operations such as incrementing the value of a variable data element. More complex computations may involve many operations and data elements together.

Instructions may be performed sequentially, conditionally, or iteratively. Sequential instructions are those operations that are performed one after another. Conditional instructions are performed such that different sets of instructions execute depending on the value(s) of some data. In some languages this is known as an "if" statement. Iterative instructions are performed repetitively and may depend on some data value. This is sometimes called a "loop." Often, one instruction may "call" another set of instructions that are defined in some other program or module. When more than one computer processor is used, instructions may be executed simultaneously.

A simple example of the way software operates is what happens when a user selects an entry such as "Copy" from a menu. In this case, a conditional instruction is executed to copy text from data in a 'document' area residing in memory, perhaps to an intermediate storage area known as a 'clipboard' data area. If a different menu entry such as "Paste" is chosen, the software may execute the instructions to copy the text from the clipboard data area to a specific location in the same or another document in memory.

Depending on the application, even the example above could become complicated. The field of software engineering endeavors to manage the complexity of how software operates. This is especially true for software that operates in the context of a large or powerful computer system.

Currently, almost the only limitations on the use of computer software in applications is the ingenuity of the designer/programmer. Consequently, large areas of activities (such as playing grand master level chess) formerly assumed to be incapable of software simulation are now routinely programmed. The only area that has so far proved reasonably secure from software simulation is the realm of human art— especially, pleasing music and literature.^{[citation needed]}

Kinds of software by operation: computer program as executable, source code or script, configuration.

Operation

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:31:00 +0000

Kinds of software by operation: computer program as executable, source code or script, configuration.

Three layers

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:30:00 +0000

See also: Software architecture

Users often see things differently than programmers. People who use modern general purpose computers (as opposed to embedded systems, analog computers, supercomputers, etc.) usually see three layers of software performing a variety of tasks: platform, application, and user software.

Platform software: Platform includes the firmware, device drivers, an operating system, and typically a graphical user interface which, in total, allow a user to interact with the computer and its peripherals (associated equipment). Platform software often comes bundled with the computer. On a PC you will usually have the ability to change the platform software.

Application software: Application software or Applications are what most people think of when they think of software. Typical examples include office suites and video games. Application software is often purchased separately from computer hardware. Sometimes applications are bundled with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run as independent applications. Applications are almost always independent programs from the operating system, though they are often tailored for specific platforms. Most users think of compilers, databases, and other "system software" as applications.

User-written software: User software tailors systems to meet the users specific needs. User software include spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, and scripts for graphics and animations. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. Depending on how competently the user-written software has been integrated into purchased application packages, many users may not be aware of the distinction between the purchased packages, and what has been added by fellow co-workers.

Program and library

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:29:00 +0000

A program may not be sufficiently complete for execution by a computer. In particular, it may require additional software from a software library in order to be complete. Such a library may include software components used by stand-alone programs, but which cannot work on their own. Thus, programs may include standard routines that are common to many programs, extracted from these libraries. Libraries may also include 'stand-alone' programs which are activated by some computer event and/or perform some function (e.g., of computer 'housekeeping') but do not return data to their calling program. Libraries may be called by one to many other programs; programs may call zero to many other programs.

Types

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:28:00 +0000

Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes: system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred.

System software helps run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes operating systems, device drivers, diagnostic tools, servers, windowing systems, utilities and more. The purpose of systems software is to insulate the applications programmer as much as possible from the details of the particular computer complex being used, especially memory and other hardware features, and such as accessory devices as communications, printers, readers, displays, keyboards, etc.

Relationship to computer hardware

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:27:00 +0000

Main article: Computer hardware

Computer software is so called to distinguish it from computer hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and devices required to store and execute (or run) the software. At the lowest level, software consists of a machine language specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions which change the state of the computer from its preceding state. Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code. Software may also be written in an assembly language, essentially, a mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language must be assembled into object code via an assembler.

The term "software" was first used in this sense by John W. Tukey in 1958.^[3] In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all computer programs. The theory that is the basis for most modern software was first proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem.^[4]

Computer software

noreply@blogger.com (Ibrahim) — Fri, 11 Jul 2008 10:25:00 +0000

omputer software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer system.^[1] The term includes application software such as word processors which perform productive tasks for users, system software such as operating systems, which interface with hardware to provide the necessary services for application software, and middleware which controls and co-ordinates distributed systems.

"Software" is sometimes used in a broader context to mean anything which is not hardware but which is used with hardware, such as film, tapes and records.^[2]