If someone has a bacterial infection, there’s a bunch of icky bacteria (not the good kind that helps us with our health!) hanging out in their body making them sick. As bacteria make copies of themselves rapidly, they can quickly evolve survival mechanisms as well. When we take antibiotics, we hope to kill off the harmful bacteria. As the bacteria want to survive, they try to evolve to become resistant to the antibiotics.

To better understand antibiotic resistance, let’s get into how antibiotics work. Antibiotics may target a part of the bacteria like their cell wall or certain organs. The crafty bacteria can block the antibiotics from getting into their cell, change the organ so the antibiotic can’t attack it, or find a way to function without that organ altogether. Furthermore, bacteria can share genes that help each other resist antibiotics. Do you see how this can spell trouble for a patient?

If a patient stops taking their antibiotics too soon, they won’t kill off all the bacteria. Therefore, the bacteria that have been evolving keep evolving into scary superbugs, or antibiotic resistant bacteria. This makes it very difficult to treat the patient. Two prominent examples of superbugs are methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter (MDR-A). MRSA generally causes skin infections or even lung infections. In a nursing home or hospital, it can wreak more severe damage like a bloodstream infection. MRSA is resistant to methicillin, but can be treated with certain antibiotics. A healthcare professional may drain a skin infection to get the bacteria out. MDR-A infections may cause pneumonia, or infections in the bloodstream or urinary tract. Both of these infections sound highly unpleasant, don’t they? The main message here is: if you take antibiotics, follow your doctor’s advice!

To answer this question, let’s first recognize that your heart is made up of muscle. But it’s a different type of muscle than the kind in your legs and arms, which are called skeletal muscles. The heart is an organ made of cardiac muscle, and this type is only found in the heart. With this information in mind, let’s look at three of the reasons why your heart never tires out.

1. Sufficient blood supply

You probably already knew that the heart is responsible for pumping blood to the rest of the body, but it’s important to keep in mind that the heart itself benefits from this blood too! Blood serves as a medium by which nutrients and oxygen can be delivered to the tissues in the rest of your body, so being at the center of the circulatory system means that the heart always has access to these things.

Nutrients are important for the health and maintenance of heart cells (called cardiocytes), while oxygen is what actually enables the heart to pump because oxygen is involved in a process that results in the production of energy in the form of ATP, which fuels the heart. Oxygen is a requirement for cardiocytes, whereas skeletal muscles can still function even without oxygen—in that case, skeletal muscle cells produce a substance called lactic acid (skeletal muscle only, not cardiac muscle!), which explains that burning sensation in your legs after your jog and why you feel so tired in those muscles.

2. Heart cells have excellent energy supply

Cardiocytes contain twice the amount of mitochondria compared to skeletal muscle cells. About one-third of the cardiocyte’s volume is attributed to mitochondria! As you’ve probably heard before, mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell, and that is because they are the site of energy production. Cardiocytes most commonly use fatty acids as the substance that they obtain energy from. These fatty acids are taken out of the bloodstream and broken down in mitochondria. With such a high density of mitochondria (and with the heart having easy access to nutrients in the blood), cardiocytes have excellent energy supply to keep them pumping.

3. Pacemaker cells enable the heart to keep pumping

What are pacemaker cells? They are a specialized group of cells in the heart that are responsible for initiating contractions (i.e. heartbeats; pumping) in the heart. Pacemaker cells spontaneously send out regulated, consistent electrical signals (called action potentials) that travel through the heart and tell it to contract.

So, one last reason why the heart never tires is because it has numerous pacemaker cells that control the heart’s automaticity, and it is meant to be this way simply because of the heart’s function. This essentially means that the heart is under involuntary control to continuously pump.

The next time you go for a jog, just remember that the only reason you sit down to rest is only for the sake of your skeletal muscles and never cardiac muscle—your heart. And that’s not a bad thing at all; exercise benefits your heart by helping it to become more efficient at what it does.

The Sun is the center of our solar system. Everything in the solar system revolves around it. The Sun is a giant ball of gas that gives off light. There are billions of giant balls of gas that also give off light all across the universe. We call these stars, which are the twinkly lights you see at night. The Sun is much brighter than the twinkly stars at night because it is so much closer than the next star. The Sun is 93 million miles away, but the next closest star is in the next galaxy over. That’s so far away that we don’t even measure it in miles, but in lightyears. Because the Sun is so close, we can actually feel it’s heat. I can get so hot sometimes that you can fry an egg just from the heat of the Sun.
The first planet in our solar system, which is closest to the Sun, is Mercury. Mercury is the smallest planet in our solar system. Because it’s so close to the Sun it also gets super-hot. We also count time weirdly on Mercury. A year on Mercury is only 88 days, unlike Earth where it is 365 days. Mercury doesn’t have any atmosphere, so it doesn’t have any weather. There is no rain or snow or wind on Mercury. This might be why there are so many craters on Mercury. Normally rocks that fall towards a planet would get burnt up in the atmosphere, but Mercury doesn’t have an atmosphere so rocks crash land on the surface, creating these giant craters.

The next planet in our Solar system is Venus. Venus is slightly larger than Mercury and smaller than Earth. Although Venus isn’t as close as Mercury to the Sun, Venus is hotter than Mercury. Venus is the hottest planet in our solar system. This is because Venus has a thick atmosphere which keeps all the heat from the Sun in. The atmosphere is so thick that walking through it would be like walking through honey. Venus is also the closest planet to Earth. This is why some people can see Venus in the night sky. It’s also very easy to see Venus at night sometimes because Venus is very bright. Venus is not a star, so it doesn’t make its own light, but its thick atmosphere reflects a lot of sunlight, making it look like it’s shining.
The Third planet in our solar system is Earth. As far we know, all life lives on Earth. We haven’t discovered any animals or plants or even aliens on other planets, so we think Earth is only home life has. It took a long time for life to find a home on Earth. Originally Earth was an extremely hot planet with no atmosphere like Mercury is today. Life couldn’t live on a planet like that. Over millions of years, Earth cooled down to temperatures we are used to, and the oceans began to form, and oxygen was made. All of these are important for life to live, and there aren’t a lot of planets that have all of these in the right amount. Earth does, and about 3 billion years ago, the first life on Earth appeared, and over time evolved into all the life we see today. As we explore our solar system and other galaxies, maybe we will find life somewhere else.
Mars is the fourth planet in our solar system. We sometimes call Mars the red planet because it looks red when we look at it through our telescopes. Mars looks red because its surface is full of iron which has a red look. There are no seas on Mars but there is ice on its north and south poles. It’s really cold there. Mars is the most explored planet in the solar system after Earth. We sent robots called rovers there to drive and look around Mars. These rovers are looking for water underground and to see if there are any signs of life there. In the future we might be able to go to Mars. It takes six months to go from Earth to Mars. Once there, we will have to live in giant domes because there is no oxygen on the surface. The gravity on Mars is much less than on Earth, so if you ever live on Mars, you would be able to jump much higher than you can on Earth.

The fifth planet in our solar system is Jupiter. Jupiter is the biggest planet in our solar system. You could fit 1300 Earths into Jupiter. It’s that big. Jupiter is called a gas giant because most of the planet is made out of gas. You have to go really deep into Jupiter to find its core. A core of a planet is its center which is usually made out of metal. Jupiter’s core is as big as Earth, and all around it is the giant ball of gas. These gases sometimes become clouds and have interesting shapes. All across Jupiter, there are giant strips which are made out of these gas clouds. There is also a giant spot on Jupiter’s surface. This spot is called the Great Red Spot and is a giant storm that has been going on for hundreds of years. Jupiter has rings around it, but they are not as big or as pretty as the rings of other planets in the solar system.
Saturn is the sixth planet in our solar system and is very similar to Jupiter. It’s one of the bigger planets in the solar system. You could fit about 700 Earths into Saturn. Saturn is also a gas giant with a small rocky core. Saturn is smaller than Jupiter, but it has bigger and prettier rings around it than Jupiter does. Saturn’s rings are made out of millions of pieces of rock and ice. The smallest pieces are as small as a golf ball, and the largest one’s are a half a mile wide. Saturn also has 18 moons. Saturn’s biggest moon is called Titan. Titan is the second largest moon in the solar system. What makes Titan really cool is that it’s covered in ice and oil and has ice volcanoes which shoot out water and ice instead of lava.

The next planet in our solar system is Uranus. When you look at Uranus through a telescope you see a blueish-green planet. Uranus is covered in a stinky gas which makes its atmosphere this color. Uranus also has rings around it, but they aren’t as pretty as Saturn’s. Uranus is also an ice giant. Because Uranus is so far away from the Sun almost all the water on the surface of Uranus turned into ice. As you get closer to the core of Uranus the ice gets hotter and becomes water, and sometimes it becomes so hot that it becomes a special superheated liquid which would normally turn into gas. Unlike what we have on Earth, Uranus’ poles are warmer than the rest of the planet. This is because Uranus is tilted on its side, so more sunlight goes there. Summer at the south pole on Uranus lasts 42 years.

Neptune is the eighth planet in our solar system. Neptune is so far away that we can’t ever see it in the night sky without a telescope. Like Uranus, Neptune is an ice giant, but it also has a lot of water on its surface. Neptune also gets very windy and has a lot of storms on its surface. These storms change how Neptune looks when you look through a telescope. Neptune also has rings around it, but since they are so small, they are very hard to see unless you have a special telescope. Neptune has seven moons. Neptune’s largest is called Triton. Triton is one of the coldest places ever recorded. The temperature there is just 98° F away from the lowest possible temperature in the entire Universe.

Up until a couple of years ago there used to be a ninth planet in our solar system. This planet used to be called Pluto. Pluto didn’t disappear. It’s still out there, but we no longer call it a planet. This is because we decided that planets need to be a certain size and Pluto is too small. Pluto is a lot smaller than a lot of things in our solar system, like some asteroids, which are giant rocks that float around in space. We didn’t want to have all the asteroids be planets. We would have way too many planets in the solar system if we did, so we decided that Pluto isn’t a planet anymore. One of the interesting things about Pluto is that sometimes it gets closer to the Sun than Neptune does, so scientists have a hard time saying that Pluto is the furthest thing in our Solar system.

L. Even though I attempted to control for mass, there was an even advantage for the slim candle with less mass around the wick. This uncontrolled confounding variable most likely impacted my results. If the candles were more similar and yet still different shapes, the results could have been different. Further experiments that better control for mass will have to be done to determine shapes influence on burn time.

My goal in writing this article is to give students some easy, fun activities and resources so that when they reach this topic in their science class, they can already be little masters on the topic and hopefully score a 100% on their class assessments and maybe even help other kids in class that aren’t understanding the topic. My hope is that they can share everything they have already learned about clouds with their classmates. This entire article/lesson on clouds and every handout was created by me and thought out to teach children in a fun easy way to learn the necessary skills to meet the actual requirements of the NGSS standard learning objectives within this topic. Included below are three hand-outs: “A Cloud Vocabulary Sheet,” “Daily Cloud Journal” as well as the “Answer Key to the

Different Types of Clouds.” They can all be printed out very easily for your child to use.
Here is the “Cloud Journal” designed to use all 3 pages a day so you can draw and describe one different cloud type per page and begin to recognize different clouds in the sky. The “Cloud Vocabulary List” and the “Answer Key of the Different Cloud Types” are so you know what they’re called and can begin to differentiate the many types of clouds up in the sky that there are. All worksheets are of my own creation. You have my permission to print, copy and use these pages as much as you want.

Cloud Vocabulary Sheet
1. Cumulus - The fluffy ones, the most “cloud like” cloud.
2. Altocumulus - Cumulus that has gotten some altitude thus altocumulus.
3. Cumulonimbus - The tall tower. Everything nimbus has rain.
4. Stratus - Cloud as long as the street.
5. Nimbo-stratus - Rainy stratus.
6. Alto-stratus - Stratus that has gotten some altitude this altostratus.
7. Strato-cumulus - Fluffy cumulus long as the street.
8. Cirrus - They are stretchy like your face would be if you would eaten a lemon (citrus).
9. Cirrocumulus - Fluffy little cumulus clouds – formation reminds of citrus peel.
10. Cirrostratus - Stretchy-like clouds that are long in length and not clumped together.

Daily Cloud Observation Journal

1. CLOUD FORMATION #1
A.) In the space below draw a picture of the cloud formation that you observed.
B.) In the space provided label which type of cloud formation it is.
C.) On the space provided in your own words, describe what makes the cloud that type of formation.

2.) CLOUD FORMATION #2
D.) In the space below draw a picture of the cloud formation that you observed.
E.) In the space provided label which type of cloud formation it is.
F.) On the space provided in your own words, describe what makes the cloud that type of formation.

3.) CLOUD FORMATION #3
G.) In the space below draw a picture of the cloud formation that you observed
H.) On the line provided label which type of cloud formation it is.
I.) On the space provided in your own words, describe what makes the cloud that type of formation.

Introduction:

Welcome to our article! Today, we will be discussing a fascinating topic that

has caught the attention of astronomers and physicists around the world -

UHZ1, an Overmassive Black Hole Galaxy. This recent discovery challenges

our current understanding of galaxy formation and has opened up new

avenues for research and exploration in the field of astrophysics. In this

article, we will delve deeper into this topic and explore what this discovery

means for our understanding of the universe.

What are OBGs?:

Now you must be wondering: What are Overmassive Black Hole Galaxies?

For starters, these are galaxies that have heavy black hole seeds that are

significantly larger than what is typically expected for a galaxy at a certain

size[1][2]. It is believed that these colossal objects might have been created

through the direct collapse of gas clouds, leading to the formation of heavy

initial black hole seeds[3][4]. This process differs from the formation of black

holes in other galaxies, where they seem to originate from the remnants of

massive stars, known as stellar-mass black holes.

Basic features of UHZ1:

Recent findings indicate that the black hole found in UHZ1 is believed to be

the oldest one discovered so far, estimated to be over 13 billion years old.

Additionally, it's one of the most distant black holes from our planet, located

approximately 13.2 billion light-years away[4]. What makes this black hole

fascinating is that it has been labeled as a quasar as well[5][6], which implies

that it's in a state of active growth. These objects are so bright that they can

be spotted billions of light-years away. The discovery of a quasar in such an

ancient black hole provides valuable insights into the early universe and

galaxy formation.

Formation:

UHZ1 formed during the Dark Ages, a mere 470 million years after the Big

Bang [6]. It seems that the black hole in UHZ1 formed from a recent merger

event, meaning that it formed from two black holes merging to form one

gigantic black hole[5]. At the start, there existed a pair of black holes, one

heavy, and the other light. These were both direct-collapse black holes

(DCBHs), black holes formed as a result of the collapse of unusually dense

and large regions of gas[7]. These black holes then got bigger after nearly

500 million years, becoming Transient Overmassive Black Holes[5]. These

black holes then merged to form the black hole of UHZ1 which we now see

today.

Size and mass:

The size of UHZ1 is astounding. It is 10 times bigger than the black hole at

the center of our own Milky Way galaxy[6]. This makes it one of the largest

black holes ever discovered. The mass of this black hole is believed to be

anywhere from 10% to 100% the mass of all the stars in its galaxy[6], making

it a true cosmic beast. This wide range is due to the difficulty in accurately

measuring the mass of a black hole, especially one that is so distant and

ancient. The mass of a black hole can be inferred from its effects on

surrounding matter, but this method is not always precise. Therefore,

scientists often provide a range of possible values for the mass of a black

hole. In this case, the range is quite large, indicating that the black hole is

extremely massive, but the exact mass is still uncertain. Further observations

and studies may help narrow down this range in the future.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the discovery of UHZl is a significant milestone in the field of

astronomy. It not only confirms the existence of supermassive black holes at

the dawn of the universe and OBGs but also provides a valuable tool for

studying the early universe. As we continue to explore the cosmos, who

knows what other cosmic beasts await discovery? The study of these ancient

black holes could lead to new insights into the nature of the universe and our

place in it. The discovery of UHZl is just the beginning, and the future of

black hole research looks promising.

Bibliography:

[1] R. L. published, "Astronomers find 1st evidence of heavy black hole

seeds in the early universe," Space.com, Aug. 18, 2023.

https://www.space.com/astronomers-find-first-evidence-of-heavy-black-hole-

seeds-early-universe

[2] S. Farrell, "An 'overmassive' black hole that breaks all the rules – so

what?," The Conversation, Dec. 04, 2012.

https://theconversation.com/an-overmassive-black-hole-that-breaks-all-the-ru

les-so-what-11144

[3] P. A. system, "Astronomers find 1st evidence of heavy black hole seeds in

the early universe," Pegasus Aerospace, Aug. 18, 2023.

https://www.pegasusaerospace.org/post/astronomers-find-1st-evidence-of-hea

vy-black-hole-seeds-in-the-early-universe

[4] "UHZ1," Wikipedia, Dec. 27, 2023. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UHZ1

[5] P. Natarajan, F. Pacucci, A. Ricarte, A. Bogdan, A. D. Goulding, and N.

Cappelluti, "First Detection of an Over-Massive Black Hole Galaxy UHZ1:

Evidence for Heavy Black Hole Seed Formation from Direct Collapse,"

arXiv.org, Nov. 03, 2023. https://arxiv.org/abs/2308.02654

[6] M. Dunn, "Oldest black hole discovered dating back to 470 million years

after the Big Bang," phys.org.

https://phys.org/news/2023-11-oldest-black-hole-dating-million.html

[7] "Direct collapse black hole," Wikipedia, Dec. 03, 2023.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_collapse_black_hole

The center of our galaxy harbors a colossal black hole known as Sagittarius A*. Recent research has shed light on the fascinating properties of this supermassive black hole, revealing its rapid spin and its profound impact on the fabric of space-time. In this comprehensive analysis, we will explore the findings of the study, conducted by a team of physicists using innovative methods. By understanding the behavior of black holes, we gain insights into the origins of these cosmic behemoths and their influence on the structure of our universe.

The Significance of Sagittarius A*'s Spin

Sagittarius A* is located approximately 26,000 light-years away from Earth at the center of our galaxy. Using NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, scientists have been able to determine its rotational speed through a method called the outflow method. This method involves analyzing radio waves and X-ray emissions within the accretion disk surrounding the black hole. Lead researcher Ruth Daly, a physics professor at Penn State University, explains that the spin of Sagittarius A* induces the Lense-Thirring effect, which drags space-time along its rotation. This effect results in the reshaping of space-time in the vicinity of the black hole. Daly compares the asymmetrical shape of the space-time to that of a football.

Quantifying Sagittarius A*'s Spin

To understand the spin of black holes, scientists assign a value between 0 and 1, with 0 indicating no spin and 1 representing maximum spin. The spin value of Sagittarius A* was previously uncertain but has now been determined to be between 0.84 and 0.96. This range of spin values indicates that Sagittarius A* rotates rapidly, although not at the maximum rate. Comparatively, another black hole called M87, located in the Virgo galaxy cluster, spins at the maximum value of 1. However, due to its larger size, Sagittarius A completes rotations more quickly than M87*. Understanding the mass and spin of black holes provides valuable insights into their formation and evolution.

The Role of Spin in Galaxy Formation

The study of Sagittarius A*'s spin is not merely a matter of astronomical curiosity; it has significant implications for our understanding of galaxy formation and evolution. By measuring the properties of the black hole at the center of our galaxy, astronomers can gain insights into the history and structure of our own Milky Way.

Dejan Stojkovic, a cosmology professor at the University at Buffalo, explains that the spin rate of Sagittarius A* suggests that a significant portion of its mass originated from accretion. Accretion refers to the process of matter being drawn into the black hole's gravitational pull. By studying the properties of Sagittarius A*, scientists can test theories and even infer the existence of intriguing objects like wormholes.

The Journey of Discovery

The research conducted on Sagittarius A* represents a significant milestone in our understanding of supermassive black holes. Ruth Daly, the lead researcher, has been dedicated to studying black hole spins for many years. In a 2019 study, she explored over 750 supermassive black holes, demonstrating the importance of spin in shaping these cosmic phenomena. The outflow method developed by Daly and her team has proven to be a powerful tool in quantifying the spin of black holes. By analyzing radio waves and X-ray emissions from the accretion disk, scientists can unravel the mysteries of these celestial objects.

Conclusion

The study of Sagittarius A*'s rapid spin and its influence on space-time offers valuable insights into the behavior of black holes. Through innovative methods and the use of advanced observatories, scientists have been able to determine the rotational speed of this supermassive black hole. Understanding the properties of black holes, such as their mass and spin, is crucial for comprehending their formation, evolution, and their impact on the structure of our universe. As further research is conducted and more data is gathered, scientists will continue to deepen their understanding of Sagittarius A* and other supermassive black holes. The discoveries made in this field contribute to our knowledge of the cosmos and provide fascinating avenues for exploration in the future.

Disclaimer: This article is based on research conducted by various scientists and researchers. The views expressed here are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of any particular organization.

To measure the sustainability of a population within a specific environment or ecosystem first the ecologist and other scientists must determine or figure out the size of the population they’re studying. Populations size also known as density is measured by the following these steps: First the ecologist, scientists, students, or whomever is doing the study must agree on and determine a measurable fixed time frame. For example, a 10-year period from the year 2010 – 2020. Next, add the number of the individuals born during that time to number of individuals that died during that same time. Next, add together the number of individuals that entered the community during that time with the number of individuals that left the community throughout the same timeline. Combining or adding these two totals or sums of the two smaller equations equals how dense the population is aka a populations density. The government does this in the United States every 10 in a census. Officials in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and five U.S. territories go house to house counting people and asking questions such as if anyone has died or moved away. Major factors that limit any population’s size are split into two categories, density-dependent and density-independent.

Density-dependent factors change with the number of individuals within a population that equals the populations size while density-independent factors are not influenced by the size of the population. Examples of density-dependent factors are competition for resources such as food, water, and living space. As the size of the population increases, food, water, and space all decrease causing the rate at which that population will grow to slow down. Density-dependent factors can be negative, limiting growth within a population or can be positive, contributing to the successful growth of a population. Density-dependent factors help to balance populations in their ecosystem keeping the size continuous to ensure there are enough resources for survival. If a population is too small, reproduction and birth rates will increase. However, as the population increases it will continue to increase until resources begin to thin out again and then the increasing stops and the population numbers stabilize.

Competition for resources can either contribute to a population’s decline or increase in density. For example, when there are more than enough resources available and no one is competing for food or space to live, more individuals might migrate into that population whereas when resources become scarce, individuals might kill each other over food and water, or some can even die from starvation or unhealthy living conditions. Which will lead to a decrease in the population’s density. It’s very similar to the checks and balance system of our government but with ecosystems including humans, animals, plants, and other populations in nature. Density-independent factors are mostly negative and contribute to limiting the growth of a population. Examples of these are floods, droughts, earthquakes, forest fires, and even pollution. They also include any natural or chemical phenomena such as acidity levels in the oceans changing and the effects of burning fossil fuels.

In the human population as opposed to other populations found in nature and other
ecosystems, our density is what will or will not sustain our lives on earth, and we largely contribute to the earth’s sustainability of us. Our density-dependent factors and our density-independent factors are much more closely related than in other populations. The temperature of the globe one might argue is an independent factor however, by burning excessive fossil fuels, not recycling, and adding pollution to the oceans constantly, we have a huge impact on those otherwise independent factors. As well as our dependent factors such as available natural resources, we also play a major roll in. We can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels, refine our drinking water and find more sound farming and food cultivating practices. Again, showing that humans have more control over the environment than other species, but we also destroy our own environment unlike any other species on earth.

You might be wondering, what is the point? Are we all doomed to run out of resources and be stuck on a planet that can no longer sustain human beings? No. Of course not. But it is a major reason why Ecology and STEM are such an important topics and future career options for everyone. The world and every living thing in it need you to do your part, not just recycling and cleaning up thrash from the beaches and waterways which are great to do, good habits to form and activities all of us should continue but also for as you to consider as you start to become an adult. YOU are the future, the scientific minds that will come together, collaborate with one another, think of new ideas and create innovative solutions to achieve the long-term sustainability of our mother-planet Earth for everyone.

Astronomers have estimated that planet 55 Cancri e has a radius double the size of Earth’s radius (3959 miles) and that it is 8 times more massive than Earth, and because of this it is also been dubbed “Super-Earth”! After studying the planet is composed of atleast 1/3 of carbon, which is the core component of diamonds. They further revealed that its surface is mostly made up of graphite, underneath a thick layer of diamond. The diamond layer is over a deep layer of silicon-based minerals with molten core of iron.

The diamond composition on this planet is equivalent to 3 times the mass of the Earth! Researchers at Yale University estimated that this planet is estimated to value about a whopping $26.9 nonillion (30 zeros after 26.9). To get some human perspective to this number, the world’s GDP according to the World Bank is only about 142 Trillion (source: Statista 2019) USD, which has only 12 zeros.

This means that all the transactions made does not depend on central banking authority, instead it depends on the users of the database. For example, if someone creates a new currency called an X currency, how can you trust that person to not give them a million amount of currency X. To avoid these problems, all transactions are made transparent, meaning that all users have the same copy of all the transactions. Thus, it becomes harder for people to hack or steal because they could cross-reference with each other and could easily locate who has altered the block or transaction, and that person becomes the suspect. Hence, blockchain was first created for administering cryptocurrency, specifically for bitcoin. However, the use of blockchain is not only limited for cryptocurrency, as a matter of fact, a variety of companies have utilized blockchain in their business.

The key idea of blockchain is to be able to track and locate things easily; each block is given a timestamp and transactions are made transparent. Some companies including Pfizer, Unilever, Siemens, IBM, and a host of others have utilized this technology by incorporating it into their system. For example, Unilever have been running trials to implement this into their financials, allowing them to easily track payment between consumers and other buyers. Furthermore, blockchain can also be used in healthcare, specifically to store patients information and their medical record so that it is more secure since it is encrypted and can only be accessed by specific individuals. These are only some of its applications, and you will see its implementation in a lot of things in the near future. Who knows what the future holds. Only time will tell.

Linear search scans each element sequentially until the computer identifies the intended element or searches the entire data set. Linear search’s disadvantage is the time complexity. Because linear search scans each element starting from the beginning, it is highly inefficient. The graph for linear search would model y = n.

Meanwhile, binary search finds elements by starting at the midpoint of the data set for each comparison. Like linear search, binary search repeats until the computer finds the intended element or examines the entire data set. The graph for binary search models y = log(n). However, a prerequisite for binary search is that the data set must be in order. Depending on the situation, this could mean alphabetical order, numerical order, or generally some order. This prerequisite is often demanding, hence linear search may be a better alternative.

Efficiency, the number of steps needed to complete an algorithm, is used to measure linear and binary search. Binary search is more efficient for sorted data sets, especially with large data sets. Therefore, to determine which search algorithm is better, the situation needs to be closely examined as both options have advantages and disadvantages. 

The average search times graphed for both linear and binary search.

Source: code.org

Lactose permease brings the lactose molecule into the cell in the same direction as the proton gradient. From there, beta-galactosidase breaks apart the lactose into two molecules- the glucose and galactose. Transacetylase takes out any dangerous by-products left over after the metabolic process. Who would have thought a microorganism could carry out such interesting cellular activities?

The mechanism of action (MOA) of soaps is to lyse the cell by integrating surfactant molecules into the microbe’s cell membrane. The cell membrane contains a selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer that consists of polar heads and nonpolar tails. Surfactant molecules possess the same amphipathic mechanism of polar heads and nonpolar tails; these insert themselves into the cell membrane by making it think that it is a phospholipid. However, these surfactant molecules disrupt its mosaic model by lowering surface tension and preventing selective permeability. Any soap can do this no matter its price; as long as it has surfactant properties, it can act as a disinfectant. Often, soaps are said to contain germicidal properties that kill microbes but these types of soaps cause microbes to become more resistant which prevent its elimination.

The function of the cell wall is to prevent osmolysis of the cell; antimicrobials targeting the cell wall will cause it to become more fragile and lyse. The cell membrane contains a selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer by which antimicrobials target to lose its integrity because surfactant molecules integrate themselves into the cell membrane which disrupts the flow by lowering its surface tension. Agents like detergents, or soaps work in this mechanism of action (MOA). Protein and nucleic acid synthesis is important for processes of the cell such as replication, transcription, translation, and peptide bond formation; any agent targeting the synthesis of protein and nucleic acid will prevent the processes mentioned. Finally, the structure of a protein is important for its function because anything that disrupts its natural state will cause denaturation, change in shape, and blockage of active sites which disrupts its function.