Daily Psychology

Phases of Conflicts

2010-10-24T15:34:00.000+05:00

Prelude to Conflict: Variables that make conflict possible between those involved
Triggering Event: A particular event, such as criticism which creates the conflict
Initiation Phase: Occurs when at least one person makes it known to the other that a conflict exists
Differentiation Phase: Parties raise the conflict issues and pursue reasons for the varying positions
Integration stage / Resolution: Parties acknowledge common grounds and explore possibilities to move towards a solution

Types of Conflicts

2010-10-24T15:32:00.000+05:00

A conceptual conflict can escalate into a verbal exchange and/or result in fighting. Conflict can exist at a variety of levels of analysis:

community conflict
diplomatic conflict
economic conflict
emotional conflict
environmental resources conflict
external conflict
group conflict
ideological conflict
international conflict
interpersonal conflict
intersocietal conflict
intellectual conflict
intrastate conflict (for example: civil wars, election campaigns)
intrapersonal conflict (though this usually just gets delegated out to psychology)
organizational conflict
intra-societal conflict
military conflict
religious-based conflict (for example: Center For Reduction of Religious-Based Conflict).
workplace conflict
data conflict
relationship conflict
racial conflict

Conflicts in these levels may appear "nested" in conflicts residing at larger levels of analysis. For example, conflict within a work team may play out the dynamics of a broader conflict in the organization as a whole. (See Marie Dugan's article on Nested Conflict. John Paul Lederach has also written on this.) Theorists have claimed that parties can conceptualize responses to conflict according to a two-dimensional scheme; concern for one's own outcomes and concern for the outcomes of the other party. This scheme leads to the following hypotheses:

High concern for both one's own and the other party's outcomes leads to attempts to find mutually beneficial solutions.
High concern for one's own outcomes only leads to attempts to "win" the conflict.
High concern for the other party's outcomes only leads to allowing the other to "win" the conflict.
No concern for either side's outcomes leads to attempts to avoid the conflict.

Often a group finds itself in conflict over facts, goals, methods or values. It is critical that it properly identify the type of conflict it is experiencing if it hopes to manage the conflict through to resolution. For example, a group will often treat an assumption as a fact.

The more difficult type of conflict is when values are the root cause. It is more likely that a conflict over facts, or assumptions, will be

personality conflict
value differences
goal differences
methodological differences
substandard performance
lack of cooperation
differences regarding authority
differences regarding responsibility
competition over resources
non-compliance with rules (LO)

A definition of a conflict can be the subject of legal action has three invariants^[1] :

legal
technical
emotional

What is Conflict

2010-10-24T15:30:00.000+05:00

Conflict is actual or perceived opposition of needs, values and interests. A conflict can be internal (within oneself) to individuals. Conflict as a concept can help explain many aspects of social life such as social disagreement, conflicts of interests, and fights between individuals, groups, or organizations. In political terms, "conflict" can refer to wars, revolutions or other struggles, which may involve the use of force as in the term armed conflict. Without proper social arrangement or resolution, conflicts in social settings can result in stress or tensions among stakeholders. When an interpersonal conflict does occur, its effect is often broader than two individuals involved, and can affect many associate individuals and relationships, in more or less adverse, and sometimes even way.

Conflict as taught for graduate and professional work in conflict resolution (which can be win-win, where both parties get what they want, win-lose where one party gets what they want, or lose-lose where both parties don't get what they want) commonly has the definition: "when two or more parties, with perceived incompatible goals, seek to undermine each other's goal-seeking capability".

A clash of interests, values, actions or directions often sparks a conflict. Conflicts refer to the existence of that clash. Psychologically, a conflict exists when the reduction of one motivating stimulus involves an increase in another, so that a new adjustment is demanded. The word is applicable from the instant that the clash occurs. Even when we say that there is a potential conflict we are implying that there is already a conflict of direction even though a clash may not yet have occurred.

Mental Manipulation by HAARP

2010-08-27T16:04:00.002+05:00

Related research by Begich and Manning uncovered bizarre schemes. For example, U.S. Air Force documents revealed that a system had been developed for manipulating and disrupting human mental processes through pulsed radio-frequency radiation (the stuff of HAARP) over large geographical areas.

The most telling material about this technology came from writings of Zbigniew Brzezinski (former National Security Advisor to President Carter) and J.F. MacDonald (Science Advisor to President Johnson and a Professor of Geophysics at UCLA), as they wrote about use of power-beaming transmitters for geophysical and environmental warfare. The documents showed how these effects might be caused, and the negative effects on human health and thinking.

The mental-disruption possibilities for HAARP are the most disturbing. More than 40 pages of the book, with dozens of footnotes, chronicle the work of Harvard professors, military planners and scientists as they plan and test this use of the electromagnetic technology. For example, one of the papers describing this use was from the International Red Cross in Geneva. It even gave the frequency ranges where these effects could occur the same ranges which HAARP is capable of broadcasting.

The following statement was made more than 25 years ago in a book which Brzezinski wrote while a professor at Columbia University:

"Political strategists are tempted to exploit research on the brain and human behavior. Geophysicist Gordon J. F. MacDonald specialist in problems of warfare says accurately timed, artificially excited electronic strokes 'could lead to a pattern of oscillations that produce relatively high power levels over certain regions of the Earth. . . . In this way, one could develop a system that would seriously impair the brain performance of very large populations in selected regions over an extended period. . . .' No matter how deeply disturbing the thought of using the environment to manipulate behavior for national advantages, to some the technology permitting such use will very probably develop within the next few decades."

In 1966, MacDonald was a member of the President's Science Advisory Committee and later a member of the President's Council on Environmental Quality. He published papers on the use of environmental-control technologies for military purposes. The most profound comment he made as a geophysicist was:

"The key to geophysical warfare is the identification of environmental instabilities to which the addition of a small amount of energy would release vastly greater amounts of energy."

While yesterday's geophysicists predicted today's advances, are HAARP program managers delivering on the vision? The geophysicists recognized that adding energy to the environmental soup could have large effects. However, humankind has already added substantial amounts of electromagnetic energy into our environment without understanding what might constitute critical mass. The book by Begich and Manning raises questions. Have these additions been without effect, or is there a cumulative amount beyond which irreparable damage can be done? Is HAARP another step in a journey from which we cannot turn back? Are we about to embark on another energy experiment which unleashes another set of demons from Pandora's box?

As early as 1970, Zbigniew Brzezinski predicted a "more controlled and directed society" would gradually appear, linked to technology. This society would be dominated by an elite group which impresses voters by allegedly superior scientific know-how. Angels Don't Play This HAARP further quotes Brzezinski:

"Unhindered by the restraints of traditional liberal values, this elite would not hesitate to achieve its political ends by using the latest modern techniques for influencing public behavior and keeping society under close surveillance and control. Technical and scientific momentum would then feed on the situation it exploits."

His forecasts proved accurate. Today, a number of new tools for the "elite" are emerging, and the temptation to use them increases steadily. The policies to permit the tools to be used are already in place. How could the United States be changed, bit by bit, into the predicted, highly controlled technosociety? Among the "stepping stones" Brzezinski expected were persisting social crises and use of the mass media to gain the public's confidence.

In another document prepared by the government, the U.S. Air Force claims:

"The potential applications of artificial electromagnetic fields are wide-ranging and can be used in many military or quasi military situations. . . . Some of these potential uses include dealing with terrorist groups, crowd control, controlling breaches of security at military installations, and antipersonnel techniques in tactical warfare. In all of these cases the EM (electromagnetic) systems would be used to produce mild to severe physiological disruption or perceptual distortion or disorientation. In addition, the ability of individuals to function could be degraded to such a point that they would be combat-ineffective. Another advantage of electromagnetic systems is that they can provide coverage over large areas with a single system. They are silent, and countermeasures to them may be difficult to develop. . . . One last area where electromagnetic radiation may prove of some value is in enhancing abilities of individuals for anomalous phenomena."

Do these comments point to uses already somewhat developed? The author of the government report refers to an earlier Air Force document about the uses of radio-frequency radiation in combat situations. (Here Begich and Manning note that HAARP is the most versatile and the largest radio-frequency transmitter in the world.)

The United States Congressional Record deals with the use of HAARP for penetrating the Earth with signals bounced off the ionosphere. These signals are used to look inside the planet to a depth of many kilometers in order to locate underground munitions, minerals and tunnels. For 1996, the U.S. Senate has set aside $15 million to develop this ability alone: Earth-penetration tomography.

The problem is that the frequency needed for Earth-penetrating radiations is within the frequency range most cited for disruption of human mental functions. It may also have profound effects on migration patterns of fish and wild animals which rely on an undisturbed energy field to find their routes.

As if electromagnetic pulses in the sky and mental disruption were not enough, Eastlund bragged that the superpowerful ionospheric heater could control weather.

Begich and Manning brought to light government documents indicating that the military has weather-control technology. When HAARP is eventually built to its full-power level, it could create weather effects over entire hemispheres. If one government experiments with the world's weather patterns, what is done in one place will impact everyone else on the planet. Angels Don't Play This HAARP explains a principle behind some of Nikola Tesla's inventions resonance which affects planetary systems.

Referred to HAARP-high frequency vandalism –Visit the site - http://www.conspiracyarchive.com/NWO/HAARP.htm

Intelligence Test

2010-06-13T11:40:00.000+05:00

Intelligence test

IQ tests are designed to give approximately this Gaussian distribution. Colors delineate one standard deviation. But the true frequency of low and high IQs is greater than that given by the Gaussian curve.

An intelligence quotient or IQ is a score derived from a set of standardized tests of intelligence. Intelligence tests come in many forms. Most tests yield both an overall score and individual subtest scores. IQ has been shown to correlate with a number of variables including job performance and socioeconomic advancement, health, longevity, and functional literacy. However, IQ tests have engendered much controversy and it is important to note that they do not measure all meanings of "intelligence."
The definition of intelligence has been, and continues to be, subject to debate. Some claim a unitary attribute, often called "general intelligence" or g, which can be measured using standard tests, and which correlates with a person's abilities on a wide range of tasks and contexts. Others have argued that there are multiple "intelligences," with different people displaying differing levels of each type.
Additionally, great controversies have arisen regarding the question of whether this "intelligence," whatever it is that IQ tests measure, is inherited, and if so whether some groups are more intelligent than others. Of particular concern has been the claim that some races are superior, leading justification to racist expectations and behavior. Despite research and theories from numerous scholars our understanding of intelligence is still limited. Perhaps, since researchers use only their own human intellect to discover the secrets of human intellectual abilities such limitations are to be expected. Viewing ourselves as members of one large human family, each with our own abilities and talents the use of which provide joy to ourselves and to others, allows us to have a deeper appreciation of what "intelligence" means.

History

In 1905, the French psychologist Alfred Binet published the first modern test of intelligence. His principal goal was to identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum. Along with his collaborator Theodore Simon, Binet published revisions of his Binet-Simon intelligence scale in 1908 and 1911, the last appearing just before his untimely death. In 1912, the abbreviation of "intelligence quotient" or IQ, a translation of the German Intelligenz-quotient, was coined by the German psychologist William Stern.
A further refinement of the Binet-Simon scale was published in 1916 by Lewis M. Terman, from Stanford University, who incorporated Stern's proposal that an individual's intelligence level be measured as an intelligence quotient (IQ). Terman's test, which he named the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale formed the basis for one of the modern intelligence tests still commonly used today.
Originally, since it was designed for use with children, IQ was calculated as a ratio with the formula
For example, a 10-year-old who scored as high as the average 13-year-old would have an IQ of 130 (100*13/10).
In 1939 David Wechsler published the first intelligence test explicitly designed for an adult population, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, or WAIS. Since publication of the WAIS, Wechsler extended his scale downward to create the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, or WISC. The Wechsler scales contained separate subscores for verbal and performance IQ, thus being less dependent on overall verbal ability than early versions of the Stanford-Binet scale, and was the first intelligence scale to base scores on a standardized normal distribution rather than an age-based quotient. Since the publication of the WAIS, almost all intelligence scales have adopted the normal distribution method of scoring.
The use of the normal distribution scoring method makes the term "intelligence quotient" an inaccurate description of the intelligence measurement, but "IQ" is colloquially still used describe all of the intelligence scales currently in use.

IQ testing

Structure

IQ tests come in many forms. Some tests use a single type of item or question, while others use several different subtests. Those with subtests yield both an overall score and individual subtest scores.
A typical IQ test requires the test subject to solve a number of problems in a set time under supervision. Most IQ tests include items from various domains, such as short-term memory, verbal knowledge, spatial visualization, and perceptual speed. Some tests have a total time limit, others have a time limit for each group of problems, and there are a few untimed, unsupervised tests, typically geared to measuring high intelligence.

Scoring

IQ tests are standardized using a representative sample of the population. The tests are calibrated in such a way in order to yield a normal distribution, or "bell curve." Each IQ test, however, is designed and valid only for a certain IQ range. Because so few people score in the extreme ranges, IQ tests usually cannot accurately measure very low and very high IQs.

IQ and general intelligence factor

Main article: Intelligence

Modern IQ tests produce scores for different areas (such as language fluency, three-dimensional thinking, and so forth), with the summary score calculated from subtest scores. The average score, according to the bell curve, is 100.
Mathematical analysis of individuals' scores on the subtests of a single IQ test or the scores from a variety of different IQ tests (Stanford-Binet, WISC-R, Raven's Progressive Matrices, Cattell Culture Fair III, Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test, Primary Test of Nonverbal Intelligence, and others) find that they can be described mathematically as measuring a single common factor and various factors that are specific to each test. This kind of factor analysis has led to the theory that underlying these disparate cognitive tasks is a single factor, termed the general intelligence factor (or g), that corresponds with the common-sense concept of intelligence.^[1] In the normal population, g and IQ are roughly 90 percent correlated and are often used interchangeably.
However, not all researchers agree that g can be treated as a single factor. For example, Charles Spearman, who originally developed the theory of g, made a distinction between "eductive" and "reproductive" mental abilities. Raymond Cattell identified "fluid" and "crystallized" intelligence (abbreviated Gf and Gc, respectively) as factors of "general intelligence." Cattell conceived of Gf and Gc as separate though correlated mental abilities which together comprise g, or "general intelligence." He defined fluid intelligence as the ability to find meaning in confusion and solve new problems, whereas crystallized intelligence is defined as the ability to utilize previously acquired knowledge and experience:
It is apparent that one of these powers ... has the 'fluid' quality of being directable to almost any problem. By contrast, the other is invested in particular areas of crystallized skills which can be upset individually without affecting the others.^[2]
Many IQ tests attempt to measure both varieties, with the overall IQ score based on a combination of these two scales. The Cattell Culture Fair IQ test, the Raven Progressive Matrices, and the performance subscale of the WAIS are measures of Gf. Vocabulary tests and the verbal subscale of the WAIS are considered good measures of Gc.

Positive correlations with IQ

While the study of IQ is sometimes treated as an end unto itself, the original purpose of IQ tests was validity, that is, the degree to which IQ correlates with outcomes such as job performance, social pathologies, or academic achievement. Validity is the correlation between score (in this case cognitive ability, as measured, typically, by a paper-and-pencil test) and outcome (in this case job performance, as measured by a range of factors including supervisor ratings, promotions, training success, and tenure). Different IQ tests differ in their validity for various outcomes.
General intelligence has been shown to play an important role in many valued life outcomes. In addition to academic success, IQ correlates to some degree with job performance, socioeconomic advancement (level of education, occupation, and income), and "social pathology" (adult criminality, poverty, unemployment, dependence on welfare, children outside of marriage). Recent work has demonstrated links between general intelligence and health, longevity, and functional literacy. Correlations between g and life outcomes are pervasive, though IQ does not correlate with subjective self-reports of happiness. IQ and g correlate highly with school performance and job performance, less so with occupational prestige, moderately with income, and to a small degree with law-abiding behavior. IQ does not explain the inheritance of economic status and wealth. An additional complication is that an individual's IQ score may or may not be stable over the course of the individual's lifetime.^[3]

School performance

Children with high scores on tests of intelligence tend to learn more of what is taught in school than their lower-scoring peers. However, successful school learning depends on many personal characteristics other than intelligence, such as memory, persistence, interest in school, and willingness to study.
Individual scores on college admission-related tests such as the MCAT, GRE, and LSAT are correlated with scores on tests of intelligence. This is partly due to intelligence test scores predicting years of education. To a smaller extent, they also predict occupational status, and income. This may be connected to the fact that many higher status and higher paid occupations can only be entered through professional schools which base part of their admissions on test scores.

Job performance

IQ tests or IQ scores may be used as part of the hiring process for new personnel, based on the understanding that:
For hiring employees without previous experience in the job the most valid predictor of future performance is general mental ability.^[4]
However, the validity of this measure depends on the type of job and varies across different studies.^[5] For example, IQ is related to the "academic tasks" (auditory and linguistic measures, memory tasks, academic achievement levels) and much less related to tasks where even precise hand work ("motor functions") are required.^[6]
The American Psychological Association's 1995 report Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns states that other individual characteristics such as interpersonal skills, aspects of personality, and so forth, are probably of equal or greater importance in predicting job performance. However, at this point, we do not have equally reliable instruments for measuring them.^[3]

Income

Studies have shown a correlation between IQ and income. Charles Murray, coauthor of The Bell Curve, found that IQ has a substantial effect on income independently of family background.^[7]. However, the exact nature of the relationship is disputed.
The American Psychological Association's report stated that IQ scores account for about one-fourth of the social status variance and one-sixth of the income variance. Statistical controls for parental SES eliminate about a quarter of this predictive power. They concluded that psychometric intelligence appears as only one of a great many factors that influence social outcomes.^[3] Some have suggested that non-IQ factors such as inherited wealth, race, and schooling are more important in determining income than IQ.^[8]
Another view is that the relationship between IQ and income is not linear. One reason why some studies claim that IQ only accounts for a sixth of the variation in income is because many studies are based on young adults (many of whom have not yet completed their education).

Heritability

The respective roles of genes and environmental factors (nature vs. nurture) in determining IQ have been the focus of much controversy. The degree to which genetic variation contributes to observed variation in a trait is measured by a statistic called heritability. Twin and adoption studies are commonly used to determine the heritability of a trait.
Initially, heritability was studied primarily in children. Such studies found the heritability of IQ to be approximately 0.5; that is, half of the variation in IQ among the children studied was due to variation in their genes. The remaining half was thus due to environmental variation and measurement error. Studies with adults, however, have shown a higher heritability of IQ. The American Psychological Association's 1995 task force on "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" concluded that within the white population the heritability of IQ is "around .75."^[3]
Active genotype-environment correlation, also called the "nature of nurture," is observed for IQ. This phenomenon is measured similarly to heritability; but instead of measuring variation in IQ due to genes, variation in environment due to genes is determined. Results of such studies suggest that the way human beings craft their environment is due in part to genetic influences.

Environment

Environmental factors play a large role in determining IQ in certain situations. Malnutrition correlates with lower IQ, suggesting that proper nutrition in childhood is critical for cognitive development. Other research indicates environmental factors such as prenatal exposure to toxins, the duration of breastfeeding, and micronutrient deficiency may affect IQ.

Genetics

It is reasonable to expect that genetic influences on traits like IQ should become less important as one gains experience with age. Surprisingly, the opposite occurs. Heritability measures in infancy are as low as 20 percent, around 40 percent in middle childhood, and as high as 80 percent in adulthood.^[9]

Group differences

Among the most controversial issues related to the study of intelligence is the observation that intelligence measures such as IQ scores vary between populations. While there is little scholarly debate about the existence of some of these differences, the reasons remain highly controversial within academia and in the public sphere.

Gender and IQ

Gender and intelligence research investigates differences in the distributions of cognitive skills between men and women. Early work by Cyril Burt^[10] and Lewis Terman^[11] had found no sex differences in IQ using earlier versions of the tests. When the Stanford-Binet test was revised in the 1940s, preliminary tests yielded a higher average IQ for women; the test was consequently adjusted to give identical averages for men and women.^[12]
The picture here is complex. Populations of men and women have been found to differ on average in how well they perform on some of these skill tests, although they do equally well on other tests. For example, women tend to score higher on certain verbal and memory tests, whereas men tend to score higher on spatial tests, particularly mental spatial rotations. While these results are relatively uncontroversial, the question of whether men and women differ on average in g is a matter of debate. Most studies unambiguously find that men as a population are more varied than women in g (they have a higher variance and therefore there are more men than women at the extremes of ability).

Comparing Groups

The average scores of young men and women in mathematics, for example, will be close, but there will be more men than women in the very low scores and in the very high scores. Thus, in the diagram, the red bell curve would represent women, compared to the green curve for men.^[13]
Evidence against differences in overall average IQ scores between men and women has come from several very large and representative studies.^[14] However, these studies still found that the scores of men showed greater variance than the scores of women, and that men and women have some differences in average scores on tests of particular abilities, which tend to balance out in overall IQ scores.

Race and IQ

Theories about the possibility of a relationship between race and intelligence have been the subject of speculation and debate since the sixteenth century.^[15][16]
The modern controversy surrounding intelligence and race focuses on the results of IQ studies conducted during the second half of the twentieth century in the United States, Western Europe, and other industrialized nations. Most of the research is based on IQ testing of blacks and whites in the United States, and much of the current debate centers around which environmental factors may influence IQ scores the most, and whether or not there are genetic differences between races that play a significant role in creating the gap, this last question being the most controversial in the debate.
Those who argue that racial differences in IQ scores can be explained by environmental factors point to a variety of factors that have been shown to influence IQ in children, including: education level, richness of the early home environment, the existence of caste-like minorities, socio-economic factors, culture, pidgin language barriers, quality of education, health, racism, lack of positive role-models, exposure to violence, sociobiological differences and stereotype threat. However, there is significant debate about exactly how such environmental factors play their role in creating the gap and the interrelationships between these factors.
Modern theories and research on race and intelligence are often grounded in two controversial assumptions:

that the social categories of race and ethnicity are concordant with genetic categories, such as biogeographic ancestry, and
that intelligence is quantitatively measurable by modern tests and is dominated by a unitary "general intelligence factor."

While the general intelligence factor is an accepted and widespread view of ability, still some theorists regard it as misleading.^[17] There are a wide range of human abilities, including many that seem to have intellectual components which are outside the domain of standard psychometric tests.^[3]
The more controversial part of the debate is whether group IQ differences are caused in part by genetic differences. Hereditarianism hypothesizes that a genetic contribution to intelligence includes genes linked to brain anatomy or physiology that vary by race. The conclusion of some researchers that racial groups in the US vary in average IQ scores in part because of genetic differences between races has led to heated academic debates that have spilled over into the public sphere, drawing a great deal of media attention and criticism.
Observations about race and intelligence also have important applications for critics of the media portrayal of race. Stereotypes in media such as literature, music, film, and television can reinforce racial stereotypes and may influence the perceived opportunities for success in academics for minority students.^[18][19]

Different views on IQ

Intelligence is a concept that has long interested scholars, since it is fundamental to what differentiates human beings from lower animals. From the originator of the IQ test, Alfred Binet, to contemporary psychologists, there has been considerable debate and controversy about the very idea of a psychometric approach to measuring intelligence. There are various reasons for this, ranging from the problem of standardization, the nature and structure of the test(s), to whether intelligence is actually quantifiable in any meaningful way. However, the greatest controversy over the use of tests of intelligence occurred when results were interpreted as ranking individuals, or groups of individuals, on a unidimensional scale with those achieving high scores regarded as superior to those with lower scores. Still, in some studies, IQ has been found to correlate with job performance, socioeconomic advancement, and other outcomes. Thus, despite continued criticism of the test, uses are still found for IQ.

Binet

Alfred Binet did not believe that IQ test scales were qualified to measure intelligence. He neither invented the term "intelligence quotient" nor supported its numerical expression:
The scale, properly speaking, does not permit the measure of intelligence, because intellectual qualities are not superposable, and therefore cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured.^[20]
Binet had designed the Binet-Simon intelligence scale in order to identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum. He argued that with proper remedial education programs, most students regardless of background could catch up and perform quite well in school. He did not believe that intelligence was a measurable fixed entity.
Binet cautioned:
Some recent thinkers seem to have given their moral support to these deplorable verdicts by affirming that an individual's intelligence is a fixed quantity, a quantity that cannot be increased. We must protest and react against this brutal pessimism; we must try to demonstrate that it is founded on nothing.^[21]

The Mismeasure of Man

Some scientists dispute psychometrics entirely. In The Mismeasure of Man Stephen Jay Gould argued that intelligence tests were based on faulty assumptions and showed their history of being used as the basis for scientific racism.^[21]
In his books, he criticized the concept of IQ, including a historical discussion of how the IQ tests were created and a technical discussion of why g is simply a mathematical artifact. Later editions of the book included criticism of The Bell Curve.
Gould did not dispute the stability of test scores, nor the fact that they predict certain forms of achievement. He did argue, however, that to base a concept of intelligence on these test scores alone is to ignore many important aspects of mental ability.

The view of the American Psychological Association

In response to the controversy surrounding Murray and Herrnstein's The Bell Curve, the American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs established a task force in 1995 to write a consensus statement on the state of intelligence research which could be used by all sides as a basis for discussion.
The task force concluded that IQ scores do have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirmed the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They agreed that individual (but specifically not population) differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics. They agreed that there are no significant differences between the average IQ scores of males and females. They reported that there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence, except in cases of severe malnutrition.
The task force agreed that large differences do exist between the average IQ scores of populations of different races, and that these differences cannot be attributed to biases in test construction. They suggested that explanations based on social status and cultural differences are possible, and that environmental factors have raised mean test scores in many populations. They noted that there is not much direct evidence on racial disparities, but what little there is fails to support the genetic hypothesis. Responses to the report included several criticisms that the evidence for partly-genetic explanations had not been adequately examined.
In their report, the representatives of the association regretted that IQ-related works are frequently written with a view to their political consequences: "Research findings were often assessed not so much on their merits or their scientific standing as on their supposed political implications."^[3]

Intelligence

2010-06-13T11:34:00.001+05:00

Intelligence

Intelligence is an umbrella term used to describe a property of the mind that encompasses many related abilities, such as the capacities to reason, to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend ideas, to use language, and to learn. There are several ways to define intelligence. In some cases, intelligence may include traits such as creativity, personality, character, knowledge, or wisdom. However there is no agreement on which traits define the phenomenon of intelligence agreed upon by a majority across the various concerned disciplines.
Theories of intelligence can be divided into those based on a unilinear construct of general intelligence and those based on multiple intelligences. Francis Galton, influenced by his cousin Charles Darwin, was the first to advance a theory of general intelligence. For Galton, intelligence was a real faculty with a biological basis that could be studied by measuring reaction times to certain cognitive tasks. Galton's research on measuring the head size of British scientists and ordinary citizens led to the conclusion that head size had no relationship with the person's intelligence.
Alfred Binet and the French school of intelligence believed that intelligence was an average of numerous dissimilar abilities, rather than a unitary entity with specific identifiable properties. The Stanford-Binet intelligence test has been used by both theorists of general intelligence and multiple intelligence.

Definitions

Intelligence comes from the Latin verb intelligere, which means "to understand". By this rationale, intelligence (as understanding) is arguably different from being "smart" (able to adapt to one's environment). At least two major "consensus" definitions of intelligence have been proposed. First, from Intelligence: Known and Unknowns, a report of a task force convened by the American Psychological Association in 1995:

Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person’s intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen somewhat different definitions.

A second definition of intelligence comes from "Mainstream Science on Intelligence", which was signed by 52 intelligence researchers in 1994:

A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.

Another simple and efficient definition is: the ability to apply knowledge in order to perform better in an environment.
Researchers in the fields of psychology and learning have also defined human intelligence:

Researcher	Quotation
Alfred Binet	Judgment, otherwise called good sense, practical sense, initiative, the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances...auto-critique.
David Wechsler	The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.
Cyril Burt	Innate general cognitive ability
Howard Gardner	To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of problem solving—enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product—and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems—and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.^[7]
Linda Gottfredson	The ability to deal with cognitive complexity^[8]
Sternberg & Salter	Goal-directed adaptive behavior^[9]
Reuven Feuerstein	The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as “the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation.” ^[10]

A mathematical definition of "intelligence" (using notions from computer science) was put forward by Marcus Hutter in his book Universal Artificial Intelligence (Springer 2005), which was further developed by Legg and Hutter ^[11], and with strong similarities to other previous works in the late nineties devising intelligence tests using notions from computer science ^[12] ^[13]. Essentially the same idea as Hutter's, but coming at it from a different angle and with different terminology, was put forward independently by Warren D. Smith in 2006 (see ^[14]). Mathematical definitions have, as one advantage, that they could be applied to nonhuman intelligences and in the absence of human testers. The Hutter/Smith picture has a number of interesting consequences such as the theorem that "universal" intelligences exist which can emulate any other (Smith calls this a "UACI" and human minds are speculated to be based on the same principles of operation as UACIs); that there are ways of creating quantitative "intelligence tests" which should enable serving as an objective gauge of progress in artificial intelligence.
Theoretical and academic definitions of intelligence may not be as useful in clinical and therapeutic applications. For example, the clinical situation presented by those with borderline intellectual and adaptive functioning requires comprehensive analysis of all diagnostic, testing, educational placement, and psychosocial factors. This has been addressed in both the 8th (2005) and 9th (2009) editions of Kaplan & Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry by Yale child psychiatrist Frank John Ninivaggi. MD.

Theories of intelligence

A popular theory of intelligence is based on psychometrics testing or intelligence quotient (IQ) tests^{[citation needed]}. However, dissatisfaction with traditional IQ tests has led to the development of a number of alternative theories, all of which suggest that intelligence is the result of a number of independent abilities that uniquely contribute to human performance.

Psychometric approach

Main articles: Intelligence quotient, General intelligence factor, and Psychometrics

Despite the variety of concepts of intelligence, the approach to understanding intelligence with the most supporters and published research over the longest period of time is based on psychometrics testing. Such intelligence quotient (IQ) tests include the Stanford-Binet, Raven's Progressive Matrices, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children.
Charles Spearman is generally credited with discovering general intelligence, which he reported in his 1904 American Journal of Psychology article titled "General Intelligence," Objectively Determined and Measured.^[15][16][17] Based on the results of a series of studies collected in Hampshire, England, Spearman concluded that there was a common function (or group of functions) across intellectual activities including what he called intelligence (i.e., school rank, which Spearman thought of as “present efficiency” in school courses; the difference between school rank and age, which was conceptualized as “native capacity;” teacher ratings; and peer ratings provided by the two oldest students, which was termed “common sense”) and sensory discriminations (i.e., discrimination of pitch, brightness, and weight). This common function became known as “g” or general intelligence.
To objectively determine and measure general intelligence, Spearman invented the first technique of factor analysis (the method of Tetrad Differences) as a mathematical proof of the Two-Factor Theory.^[15][16][18] The factor analytic results indicated that every variable measured a common function to varying degrees, which led Spearman to develop the somewhat misleadingly named Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence.^[15][18][19] The Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence holds that every test can be divided into a “g” factor and an “s” factor. The g-factor measures the “general” factor or common function among ability tests. The s-factor measures the “specific” factor unique to a particular ability test. Based on a more modern interpretation of his work, Spearman’s g factor represents the fact that any set of cognitive ability tests, no matter how different, tend to all correlate positively.
L. L. Thurstone extended and generalized Spearman’s method of factor analysis into what is called the Centroid method and which became the basis for modern factor analysis.^[19][20] Thustone demonstrated that Spearman’s one common factor method (Spearman’s method yielded only a single factor) was a special case of his multiple factor analysis. Thurstone’s research lead him to propose a model of intelligence that included seven orthogonal (unrelated) factors (i.e., verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed and reasoning) referred to as the Primary Mental Abilities.^[19][21]
In a critical review of the adult testing literature, Raymond B. Cattell found that a considerable percentage of intelligence tests that purported to measure adult intellectual functioning had all of the trappings of using college students in their development.^[22] To account for differences between children/adolescents and adults, which past theory did not address, Cattell proposed two types of cognitive abilities in a revision of Spearman’s concept of general intelligence. Fluid intelligence (Gf) was hypothesized as the ability to discriminate and perceive relations (e.g., analogical and syllogistic reasoning), and crystallized intelligence (Gc) was hypothesized as the ability to discriminate relations that had been established originally through Gf, but no longer required the identification of the relation (commonly assessed using information or vocabulary tests). In addition, fluid intelligence was hypothesized to increase until adolescence and then to slowly decline, and crystallized intelligence increases gradually and stays relatively stable across most of adulthood until it declines in late adulthood.
With his student John L. Horn, Cattell indicated that Gf and Gc were only two among several factors manifest in intelligence tests scores under the umbrella of what became known as Gf/Gc Theory.^[23] General visualization (Gv; visual acuity, depth perception), general fluency (F, facility in recalling words), general speediness (Gs; performance on speeded, simple tasks) were among several cognitive ability factors added to Gf/Gc Theory.
J. P. Guilford sought to more fully explore the scope of the adult intellect by providing the concept of intelligence with a strong, comprehensive theoretical backing.^[24][25] The Structure-of-Intellect model (SI model) was designed as a cross classification system with intersections in the model providing the basis for abilities similar to Mendeleev’s periodic table in chemistry. The three-dimensional cube—shaped model includes five content categories (the way in which information is presented on a test; visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, and behavioral), six operation categories (what is done on a test; evaluation, convergent production, divergent production, memory retention, memory recording, and cognition), and six product categories (the form in which information is processed on a test; units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications). The intersection of three categories provides a frame of reference for generating one or more new hypothetical factors of intelligence.
John B. Carroll re-analyzed 461 datasets in the single most comprehensive study of cognitive abilities.^[17][26] This analysis led him to propose the Three Stratum Theory, which is a hierarchical model of intellectual functioning. The stratums represent three different levels of generality over the domain of cognitive abilities. At the bottom is the first stratum, which is represented by narrow abilities that are highly specialized (e.g., induction, spelling ability). The second stratum is represented by broad abilities that include moderate specializations in various domains. Carroll identified eight second-stratum factors: fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, general memory and learning, broad visual perception, broad auditory perception, broad retrieval ability, broad cognitive speediness, and processing speed (reaction time decision speed). Carroll has noted the similarity of his second stratum abilities and the Gf/Gc factors, although the Three-Stratum Theory does not incorporate the developmental trajectories associated with Gf/Gc Theory. Carroll accepted Spearman’s concept of general intelligence, for the most part, as a representation of the uppermost third stratum.
More recently, an amalgamation the Gf-Gc theory of Cattell and Horn with Carroll's Three-Stratum theory has led to the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities.^[27] CHC researchers have produced numerous studies that have influenced diagnostic issues and test development.^[28]
Intelligence, as measured by IQ and other aptitude tests, is widely used in educational, business, and military settings due to its efficacy in predicting behavior. g is highly correlated with many important social outcomes - individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced, have a child out of marriage, be incarcerated, and need long term welfare support, while individuals with high IQs are associated with more years of education, higher status jobs and higher income.^[29] Intelligence is significantly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes, and g is the single best predictor of successful job performance.^[30]

Controversies

IQ tests were originally designed to identify mentally "defective" children.^[31] The inventors of the IQ did not necessarily believe they were measuring fixed intelligence.^{[citation needed]} Despite this, critics argue that intelligence tests have been used to support nativistic theories which view intelligence as a qualitative object with a relatively fixed quantity.^[32]
Critics of the psychometrics point out that intelligence is often more complex and broader in conception than what is measured by IQ tests. Furthermore, skeptics argue that even though tests of mental abilities are correlated, people still have unique strengths and weaknesses in specific areas. Consequently they argue that psychometric theorists over-emphasize g, despite the fact that g was defined so as to encompass all inter-correlated capabilities and skills.
Researchers in the field of human intelligence have encountered a considerable amount of public concern and criticism — much more than scientists in other areas normally receive. A number of critics have challenged the relevance of psychometric intelligence in the context of everyday life. There have also been controversies over genetic factors in intelligence, particularly questions regarding the relationship between race and intelligence and sex and intelligence.^[33] Another controversy in the field is how to interpret the increases in test scores that have occurred over time, the so-called Flynn effect.
Stephen Jay Gould was one of the most vocal critics of intelligence testing. In his book The Mismeasure of Man Gould argued that intelligence could not be quantified to a single numerical entity. He also challenged the hereditarian viewpoint on intelligence. Many of Gould's criticisms were aimed at Arthur Jensen, who responded that his work had been misrepresented.^[34] Gould also investigated the methods of nineteenth century craniometry. Jenson stated that drawing conclusions from early intelligence research is like condemning the auto industry by criticizing the performance of the Model T.

Multiple intelligences

Main article: Theory of multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences is based on studies not only of normal children and adults but also by studies of gifted individuals (including so-called "savants"), of persons who have suffered brain damage, of experts and virtuosos, and of individuals from diverse cultures. This led Gardner to break intelligence down into at least eight different components: logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal in 1983 and naturalist intelligences added in 1999 he argues that psychometric tests address only linguistic and logical plus some aspects of spatial intelligence; other forms have been entirely ignored. Moreover, the paper-and-pencil format of most tests rules out many kinds of intelligent performance that matter in everyday life, such as social intelligence.^[35]
Most theories of multiple intelligences are relatively recent in origin, though Louis Thurstone proposed a theory of multiple "primary abilities" in the early 20th Century. Further research is required into the reliability and validity of Gardner's multiple intelligences.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Main article: triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg proposed the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence to provide a more comprehensive description of intellectual competence than traditional differential or cognitive theories of human ability.^[36] The Triarchic Theory describes three fundamental aspects of intelligence. Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is expressed. Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted with a challenge that is nearly, but not entirely, novel or when an individual is engaged in automatizing the performance of a task. Practical intelligence is bound in a sociocultural milieu and involves adaptation to, selection of, and shaping of the environment to maximize fit in the context. The Triarchic Theory does not argue against the validity of a general intelligence factor; instead, the theory posits that general intelligence is part of analytic intelligence, and only by considering all three aspects of intelligence can the full range of intellectual functioning be fully understood.
More recently, the Triarchic Theory has been updated and renamed the Theory of Successful Intelligence by Sternberg.^[37][38] Intelligence is defined as an individual’s assessment of success in life by the individual’s own (idiographic) standards and within the individual’s sociocultural context. Success is achieved by using combinations of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence. The three aspects of intelligence are referred to as processing skills. The processing skills are applied to the pursuit of success through what were the three elements of practical intelligence: adapting to, shaping of, and selecting of one’s environments. The mechanisms that employ the processing skills to achieve success include utilizing one’s strengths and compensating or correcting for one’s weaknesses.
Sternberg’s theories and research on intelligence remain contentious within the scientific community.^{[39][40][41][42]}

Emotional intelligence

Main article: emotional intelligence

Daniel Goleman and several other researchers have developed the concept of emotional intelligence and claim it is at least as "important" as more traditional sorts of intelligence. These theories grew from observations of human development and of brain injury victims who demonstrate an acute loss of a particular cognitive function — e.g. the ability to think numerically, or the ability to understand written language — without showing any loss in other cognitive areas.

PASS Theory

PASS theory has been offered as an alternative to general intelligence, and is based on a description of neuropsychological processes.^[43][44][45] These authors suggested that a unidimensional model with just intelligence fails to assist researchers and clinicians who study learning disabilities, disorders of attention, mental retardation, and interventions designed for special populations who face those challenges. The PASS model covers four kinds of competencies that are associated with areas of the brain. (1) The planning processes involve decision making, problem solving, and performing activities and requires goal setting and self-monitoring. (2) The attention/arousal component involves selectively attending to a particular stimulus, ignoring distractions, and maintaining vigilance. (3) Simultaneous processing involves the integration of stimuli into a group and requires the observation of relationships. (4) Successive processing involves the integration of stimuli into serial order. The planning and attention/arousal components comes from structures located in the frontal lobe, and the simultaneous and successive processes come from structures located in the posterior region of the cortex.

Empirical evidence

IQ proponents have claimed that IQ's predictive validity has been demonstrated, for example in predicting non-academic outcomes such as job performance (see IQ), and that the various multiple intelligence theories have little or no such support. Meanwhile, it has been claimed that the relevance and existence of multiple intelligences have not been borne out when tested. A set of ability tests that do not correlate together would support the claim that multiple intelligences are independent of each other.^{[citation needed]}

Evolution of intelligence

Main article: Hominid intelligence

Our hominid and human ancestors evolved large and complex brains exhibiting an ever-increasing intelligence through a long and mostly unknown evolutionary process. This process was either driven by the direct adaptive benefits of intelligence^[46], or − alternatively − driven by its indirect benefits within the context of sexual selection as a reliable signal of genetic resistance against pathogens.^[47]

Factors affecting intelligence

Intelligence is an ill-defined, difficult to quantify concept. Accordingly, the IQ tests used to measure intelligence provide only approximations of the posited 'real' intelligence. In addition, a number of theoretically unrelated properties are known to correlate with IQ such as race, gender and height but since correlation does not imply causation the true relationship between these factors is uncertain. Factors affecting IQ may be divided into biological and environmental.

Biological

Main article: Heritability of IQ

Evidence suggests that genetic variation has a significant impact on IQ, accounting for three fourths in adults. Despite the high heritability of IQ, few genes have been found to have a substantial effect on IQ, suggesting that IQ is the product of interaction between multiple genes.
Other biological factors correlating with IQ include ratio of brain weight to body weight and the volume and location of gray matter tissue in the brain.
Because intelligence appears to be at least partly dependent on brain structure and the genes shaping brain development, it has been proposed that genetic engineering could be used to enhance the intelligence of animals, a process sometimes called biological uplift in science fiction. Experiments on mice have demonstrated superior ability in learning and memory in various behavioural tasks.^[48]

Environmental

Main article: Environment and intelligence

Evidence suggests that family environmental factors may have an effect upon childhood IQ, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. On the other hand, by late adolescence this correlation disappears, such that adoptive siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers.^[49] Moreover, adoption studies indicate that, by adulthood, adoptive siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers, while twins and full siblings show an IQ correlation.
Consequently, in the context of the nature versus nurture debate, the "nature" component appears to be much more important than the "nurture" component in explaining IQ variance in the general population.
There are indications that, in middle age, intelligence is influenced by life style choices (e.g., long working hours^[50]).
Cultural factors also play a role in intelligence. For example, on a sorting task to measure intelligence, Westerners tend to take a taxonomic approach while the Kpelle people take a more functional approach. For example, instead of grouping food and tools into separate categories, a Kpelle participant stated "the knife goes with the orange because it cuts it"^[51]

Ethical issues

Main articles: Transhumanism, Eugenics, Neuroethics, and Intelligence and public policy

Since intelligence is susceptible to modification through the manipulation of environment, the ability to influence intelligence raises ethical issues. Transhumanist theorists study the possibilities and consequences of developing and using techniques to enhance human abilities and aptitudes, and ameliorate what it regards as undesirable and unnecessary aspects of the human condition; eugenics is a social philosophy which advocates the improvement of human hereditary traits through various forms of intervention.^[52] The perception of eugenics has varied throughout history, from a social responsibility required of society, to an immoral, racist stance.
Neuroethics considers the ethical, legal and social implications of neuroscience, and deals with issues such as difference between treating a human neurological disease and enhancing the human brain, and how wealth impacts access to neurotechnology. Neuroethical issues interact with the ethics of human genetic engineering.

Other species

This section requires expansion.

Main article: Animal cognition

Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as mathematical and language abilities. Some challenges in this area are defining intelligence so that it means the same thing across species (eg. comparing intelligence between literate humans and illiterate animals), and then operationalizing a measure that accurately compares mental ability across different species and contexts.
Wolfgang Köhler's pioneering research on the intelligence of apes is a classic example of research in this area. Stanley Coren's book, The Intelligence of Dogs^{[unreliable source?]} is a notable popular book on the topic.^[53] Nonhuman animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include chimpanzees, bonobos (notably the language-using Kanzi) and other great apes, dolphins, elephants and to some extent parrots and ravens. Controversy exists over the extent to which these judgments of intelligence are accurate.^{[citation needed]}
Cephalopod intelligence also provides important comparative study. Cephalopods appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their nervous systems differ radically from those of most other notably intelligent life-forms (mammals and birds).

Artificial intelligence

Main article: Artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence (or AI) is both the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which aims to create it, through "the study and design of intelligent agents"^[54] or "rational agents", where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success.^[55] General intelligence or strong AI has not yet been achieved and is a long-term goal of AI research.
Among the traits that researchers hope machines will exhibit are reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.^[54][55]

Intell

Personality Disorders

2010-01-26T21:26:00.000+05:00

Personality disorders, formerly referred to as character disorders, are a class of personality types and behaviors that the American Psychiatric Association (APA) defines as "an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the culture of the individual who exhibits it". Personality disorders are noted on Axis II of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, or DSM-IV-TR (fourth edition, text revision) of the American Psychiatric Association.

Personality disorders are also defined by the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10), which is published by the World Health Organization. Personality disorders are categorized in ICD-10 Chapter V: Mental and behavioural disorders, specifically under Mental and behavioral disorders: 28F60-F69.29 Disorders of adult personality and behavior.

These behavioral patterns in personality disorders are typically are associated with severe disturbances in the behavioral tendencies of an individual, usually involving several areas of the personality, and are nearly always associated with considerable personal and social disruption. Additionally, personality disorders are inflexible and pervasive across many situations, due in large part to the fact that such behavior is ego-syntonic (i.e. the patterns are consistent with the ego integrity of the individual) and are, therefore, perceived to be appropriate by that individual.

The onset of these patterns of behavior can typically be traced back to late adolescence and the beginning of adulthood and, in rarer instances, childhood. It is therefore unlikely that a diagnosis of personality disorder will be appropriate before the age of 16 or 17 years. General diagnostic guidelines applying to all personality disorders are presented below; supplementary descriptions are provided with each of the subtypes.

Diagnosis of personality disorders can be very subjective; however, inflexible and pervasive behavioral patterns often cause serious personal and social difficulties, as well as a general functional impairment. Rigid and ongoing patterns of feeling, thinking and behavior are said to be caused by underlying belief systems and these systems are referred to as fixed fantasies or "dysfunctional schemata"

Personality disorder definitions (DSM-IV-TR Axis II)

General diagnostic criteria

According to DSM-IV-TR (see page 689)[4], the diagnosis of a personality disorder must satisfy the following general criteria, in addition to the specific criteria listed under the specific personality disorder under consideration.

A. An enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior deviating markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture. This pattern is manifested in two (or more) of the following areas:

1. cognition (perception and interpretation of self, others and events)

2. affect (the range, intensity, lability and appropriateness of emotional response)

3. interpersonal functioning

4. impulse control

B. The enduring pattern is inflexible and pervasive across a broad range of personal and social situations.

C. The enduring pattern leads to clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning.

D. The pattern is stable and of long duration and its onset can be traced back at least to adolescence or early adulthood.

E. The enduring pattern is not better accounted for as a manifestation or consequence of another mental disorder.

F. The enduring pattern is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition (e.g., head trauma).

Personality disorder definitions (ICD-10 (F60-F69))

General diagnostic criteria

According to ICD-10, the diagnosis of a personality disorder must satisfy the following general criteria, in addition to the specific criteria listed under the specific personality disorder under consideration:

1. There is evidence that the individual's characteristic and enduring patterns of inner experience and behaviour as a whole deviate markedly from the culturally expected and accepted range (or "norm"). Such deviation must be manifest in more than one of the following areas:

1. cognition (i.e., ways of perceiving and interpreting things, people, and events; forming attitudes and images of self and others);

2. affectivity (range, intensity, and appropriateness of emotional arousal and response);

3. control over impulses and gratification of needs;

4. manner of relating to others and of handling interpersonal situations.

2. The deviation must manifest itself pervasively as behaviour that is inflexible, maladaptive, or otherwise dysfunctional across a broad range of personal and social situations (i.e., not being limited to one specific "triggering" stimulus or situation).

3. There is personal distress, or adverse impact on the social environment, or both, clearly attributable to the behaviour referred to in criterion 2.

4. There must be evidence that the deviation is stable and of long duration, having its onset in late childhood or adolescence.

5. The deviation cannot be explained as a manifestation or consequence of other adult mental disorders, although episodic or chronic conditions from sections F00-F59 or F70-F79 of this classification may coexist with, or be superimposed upon, the deviation.

6. Organic brain disease, injury, or dysfunction must be excluded as the possible cause of the deviation. (If an organic causation is demonstrable, category F07.- should be used.)

list of Personality disorder

* Specific personality disorders

o Paranoid personality disorder

o Schizoid personality disorder

o Dissocial personality disorder

o Emotionally unstable personality disorder

o Histrionic personality disorder

o Anankastic personality disorder

o Anxious (avoidant) personality disorder

o Dependent personality disorder

o Other specific personality disorders

+ Narcissistic personality disorder

+ Passive-aggressive personality disorder

o Personality disorder, unspecified

* Mixed and other personality disorders

Classification of personality disorders

The DSM-IV lists ten personality disorders, grouped into three clusters in Axis II. The DSM also contains a category for behavioral patterns that do not match these ten disorders, but nevertheless exhibit characteristics of a personality disorder. This category is labeled Personality disorder not otherwise specified.

[edit] Cluster A (odd or eccentric disorders)

* Paranoid personality disorder (DSM-IV code 301.0): characterized by irrational suspicions and mistrust of others.

* Schizoid personality disorder (DSM-IV code 301.20): lack of interest in social relationships, seeing no point in sharing time with others, misanthropy, introspection.

* Schizotypal personality disorder (DSM-IV code 301.22): characterized by odd behavior or thinking.

Cluster B (dramatic, emotional or erratic disorders)

* Antisocial personality disorder (DSM-IV code 301.7): a pervasive disregard for the law and the rights of others.

* Borderline personality disorder (DSM-IV code 301.83): extreme "black and white" thinking, instability in relationships, self-image, identity and behavior.

* Histrionic personality disorder (DSM-IV code 301.50): pervasive attention-seeking behavior including inappropriate sexual seductiveness and shallow or exaggerated emotions.

* Narcissistic personality disorder (DSM-IV code 301.81): a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and a lack of empathy.

Cluster C (anxious or fearful disorders)

* Avoidant personality disorder (DSM-IV code 301.82): social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation and avoidance of social interaction.

* Dependent personality disorder (DSM-IV code 301.6): pervasive psychological dependence on other people.

* Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (not the same as obsessive-compulsive disorder) (DSM-IV code 301.4): characterized by rigid conformity to rules, moral codes and excessive orderliness.

Appendix B: Criteria Sets and Axes Provided for Further Study

Appendix B contains the following disorders[5]. They are still widely considered amongst psychiatrists as being valid disorders, for example by Theodore Millon.[6]

* Depressive personality disorder - is a pervasive pattern of depressive cognitions and behaviors beginning by early adulthood.

* Passive-aggressive personality disorder (negativististic personality disorder) - is a pattern of negative attitudes and passive resistance in interpersonal situations.

Deleted from DSM-IV

The following disorders are still considered to be valid disorders by Millon.[6] They were in DSM-III-R but were deleted from DSM-IV. Both appeared in an appendix entitled “Proposed diagnostic categories needing further study”,[7] and so did not have any concrete diagnostic criteria.

* Sadistic personality disorder - is a pervasive pattern of cruel, demeaning and aggressive behavior.

* Self-defeating personality disorder (masochistic personality disorder) - is characterised by behaviour consequently undermining the person's pleasure and goals.

Cluster Studies

A study of almost 600 male college students, averaging almost 30 years of age and who were not drawn from a clinical sample, examined the relationship between childhood experiences of sexual and physical abuse and presently reported personality disorder symptoms. Childhood abuse histories were found to be definitively associated with greater levels of symptomatology. Severity of abuse was found to be statistically significant, but clinically negligible, in symptomatology variance spread over Cluster A, B and C scales.

Child abuse and neglect consistently evidence themselves as antecedent risks to the development of personality disorders in adulthood.[citation needed] In this particular study, efforts were taken to match retrospective reports of abuse with a clinical population that had demonstrated psychopathology from childhood to adulthood who were later found to have experienced abuse and neglect.

The sexually abused group demonstrated the most consistently elevated patterns of psychopathology. Officially verified physical abuse showed an extremely strong role in the development of antisocial and impulsive behavior. On the other hand, cases of abuse of the neglectful type that created childhood pathology were found to be subject to partial remission in adulthood.[9]

Personality disorders and its executives

In 2005, psychologists Belinda Board and Katarina Fritzon at the University of Surrey, UK, interviewed and gave personality tests to high-level British executives and compared their profiles with those of criminal psychiatric patients at Broadmoor Hospital in the UK. They found that three out of eleven personality disorders were actually more common in executives than in the disturbed criminals, they were:

* Histrionic personality disorder: including superficial charm, insincerity, egocentricity and manipulation

* Narcissistic personality disorder: including grandiosity, self-focused lack of empathy for others, exploitativeness and independence.

* Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: including perfectionism, excessive devotion to work, rigidity, stubbornness and dictatorial tendencies.[10]

Personality

2010-01-26T21:10:00.000+05:00

Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations . The word "personality" originates from the Latin persona, which means mask. Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was not used as a plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but rather was a convention employed to represent or typify that character.

The pioneering American psychologist, Gordon Allport (1937) described two major ways to study personality, the nomothetic and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-actualization, or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual.

The study of personality has a rich and varied history in psychology, with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional (trait) perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist and social learning perspective. There is no consensus on the definition of "personality" in psychology. Most researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective and often take an eclectic approach. Some research is empirically driven such as the "Big 5" personality model whereas other research emphasizes theory development such as psychodynamics. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing. In psychological education and training, the study of the nature of personality and its psychological development is usually reviewed as a prerequisite to courses in abnormal or clinical psychology.

Many of the ideas developed by historical and modern personality theorists stem from the basic philosophical assumptions they hold. The study of personality is not a purely empirical discipline, as it brings in elements of art, science, and philosophy to draw general conclusions. The following five categories are some of the most fundamental philosophical assumptions on which theorists disagree:

1. Freedom versus Determinism

This is the debate over whether we have control over our own behavior and understand the motives behind it (Freedom), or if our behavior is causally determined by forces beyond our control (Determinism). Determinism has been considered unconscious, environmental, or biological by various theories.

2. Heredity versus Environment

Main article: Nature versus nurture

Personality is thought to be determined largely by genetics and biology, by environment and experiences, or by some combination resulting thereof. There is evidence for all possibilities. Contemporary research suggests that most personality traits are based on the joint influence of genetics and environment.

3. Uniqueness versus Universality

The argument over whether we are all unique individuals (Uniqueness) or if humans are basically similar in their nature (Universality). Gordon Allport, Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers were all advocates of the uniqueness of individuals. Behaviorists and cognitive theorists, in contrast, emphasized the importance of universal principles such as reinforcement and self-efficacy.

4. Active versus Reactive

Do we primarily act through our own initiative (Active), or react to outside stimuli (Reactive)? Behavioral theorists typically believe that humans are passively shaped by their environments, whereas humanistic and cognitive theorists believe that humans are more active.

5. Optimistic versus Pessimistic

Personality theories differ on whether people can change their personalities (Optimism), or if they are doomed to remain the same throughout their lives (Pessimism). Theories that place a great deal of emphasis on learning are often, but not always, more optimistic than theories that do not emphasize learning.

Personality theories

Critics of personality theory claim personality is "plastic" across time, places, moods, and situations. Changes in personality may indeed result from diet (or lack thereof), medical effects, significant events, or learning. However, most personality theories emphasize stability over fluctuation.

[edit] Trait theories

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association, personality traits are "enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts." Theorists generally assume a) traits are relatively stable over time, b) traits differ among individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing while others are reserved), and c) traits influence behavior.

The most common models of traits incorporate three to five broad dimensions or factors. The least controversial dimension, observed as far back as the ancient Greeks, is simply extraversion and introversion (outgoing and physical-stimulation-oriented vs. quiet and physical-stimulation-averse).

Gordon Allport delineated different kinds of traits, which he also called dispositions. Central traits are basic to an individual's personality, while secondary traits are more peripheral. Common traits are those recognized within a culture and thus may vary from culture to culture. Cardinal traits are those by which an individual may be strongly recognized.

Raymond Cattell's research propagated a two-tiered personality structure with sixteen "primary factors" (16 Personality Factors) and five "secondary factors."

Hans Eysenck believed just three traits—extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism—were sufficient to describe human personality. Differences between Cattell and Eysenck emerged due to preferences for different forms of factor analysis, with Cattell using oblique, Eysenck orthogonal, rotation to analyse the factors that emerged when personality questionnaires were subjected to statistical analysis. Today, the Big Five factors have the weight of a considerable amount of empirical research behind them, building on the work of Cattell and others.

Lewis Goldberg proposed a five-dimension personality model, nicknamed the "Big Five":

1. Openness to Experience: the tendency to be imaginative, independent, and interested in variety vs. practical, conforming, and interested in routine.

2. Conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized, careful, and disciplined vs. disorganized, careless, and impulsive.

3. Extraversion: the tendency to be sociable, fun-loving, and affectionate vs. retiring, somber, and reserved.

4. Agreeableness: the tendency to be softhearted, trusting, and helpful vs. ruthless, suspicious, and uncooperative.

5. Neuroticism: the tendency to be calm, secure, and self-satisfied vs. anxious, insecure, and self-pitying [4]

The Big Five contain important dimensions of personality. However, some personality researchers argue that this list of major traits is not exhaustive. Some support has been found for two additional factors: excellent/ordinary and evil/decent. However, no definitive conclusions have been established.

* John L. Holland's RIASEC vocational model, commonly referred to as the Holland Codes, stipulates that six personality traits lead people to choose their career paths. In this circumplex model, the six types are represented as a hexagon, with adjacent types more closely related than those more distant. The model is widely used in vocational counseling.

Trait models have been criticized as being purely descriptive and offering little explanation of the underlying causes of personality. Eysenck's theory, however, does propose biological mechanisms as driving traits, and modern behavior genetics researchers have shown a clear genetic substrate to them. Another potential weakness of trait theories is that they lead people to accept oversimplified classifications, or worse offer advice, based on a superficial analysis of their personality. Finally, trait models often underestimate the effect of specific situations on people's behavior. It is important to remember that traits are statistical generalizations that do not always correspond to an individual's behavior.

ANXIETY DISORDERS

2009-11-14T13:00:00.003+05:00

Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several different forms of abnormal and pathological fears and anxieties which only came under the aegis of psychiatry at the very end of the 19th century. Current psychiatric diagnostic criteria recognize a wide variety of anxiety disorders. Recent surveys have found that as many as 18% of Americans may be affected by one or more of them.

DIAGNOSIS
Anxiety disorders are often debilitating chronic conditions, which can be present from an early age or begin suddenly after a triggering event. They are prone to flare up at times of high stress and are frequently accompanied by physiological symptoms such as headache, sweating, muscle spasms, palpitations, and hypertension, which in some cases lead to fatigue or even exhaustion.
Although in casual discourse the words anxiety and fear are often used interchangeably, in clinical usage, they have distinct meanings.
Anxiety is defined as an unpleasant emotional state for which the cause is either not readily identified or perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable, whereas fear is an emotional and physiological response to a recognized external threat. The term anxiety disorder, however, includes fears as well as anxieties. Indeed, phobias (fears which are "persistent or irrational") constitute the majority of anxiety disorder cases.
Anxiety disorders are often co-morbid with other mental disorders, particularly clinical depression, which may occur in as many as 60% of people with anxiety disorders. The fact that there is considerable overlap between symptoms of anxiety and depression, and that the same environmental triggers can provoke symptoms in either condition, may help to explain this high rate of co-morbidity.
Studies have also indicated that anxiety disorders are more likely among those with family history of anxiety disorders, especially certain types.
Sexual dysfunction also often accompanies anxiety disorders, although it is difficult to determine whether anxiety causes the sexual dysfunction, or whether they arise from a common cause. The most common manifestations in individuals with anxiety disorder are avoidance of intercourse, premature ejaculation or erectile dysfunction among men and pain during intercourse among women. Sexual dysfunction is particularly common among people affected by panic disorder (who may fear that a panic attack will occur during sexual arousal) and posttraumatic stress disorder.

CAUSES AND CONTRIBUTING FACTORS

1. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Clinical and animal studies suggest a correlation between anxiety disorders and difficulty in maintaining balance. A possible mechanism is malfunction in the parabrachial nucleus, a brain structure that, among other functions, coordinates signals from the amygdala with input concerning balance. The amygdala is involved in the emotion of fear.
Especially the basolateral amygdala has been implicated in anxiety generation. A relationship between anxiety and dendritic arborization of the amygdaloidal neurons is well known. SK2 potassium channels mediate inhibitory influence on action potentials and reduce arborization. By over expressing SK2 in the basolateral amygdala, anxiety was reduced and stress-induced corticosterone secretion at a systemic level decreased in an animal model. Mutations in related SK3 are suspected to be a possible underlying cause for several neurological disorders, including anxiety.
Additionally, low levels of GABA, a neurotransmitter that reduces activity in the central nervous system, contribute to anxiety. A number of anxiolytics achieve their effect by modulating the GABA receptors.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, the drugs most commonly used to treat depression, are also frequently considered as a first line treatment for anxiety disorders. A recent study using functional brain imaging techniques suggests that the effects of SSRIs in alleviating anxiety may result from a direct action on GABA neurons rather than as a secondary consequence of mood improvement.
2. SUBSTANCE INDUCTION FACTORS
Severe anxiety and depression are commonly induced by sustained alcohol abuse which in most cases abates with prolonged abstinence. Even moderate, sustained alcohol use may increase anxiety and depression levels in some individuals. Caffeine, alcohol and benzodiazepines can worsen or cause anxiety and panic attacks. It has been estimated that approximately half of patients attending mental health services for conditions including anxiety disorders have problems caused by long-term use of alcohol or benzodiazepines. Though anxiety may pre-exist the dependence, dependence acts to sustain the anxiety disorders and often progressively makes them worse. Many people who are addicted to alcohol or prescribed benzodiazepines decide to quit using those drugs when it is explained to them they have a choice between ongoing ill mental health or quitting and recovering from their symptoms. A person who is suffering the toxic effects of alcohol or benzodiazepines will not benefit from other therapies or medications since they do not address the root cause of the symptoms. Symptoms may temporarily worsen however, during alcohol withdrawal or benzodiazepine withdrawal.
Intoxication from stimulants is likely to be associated with repetitive panic attacks.
There is evidence that chronic exposure to organic solvents in the work environment can be associated with anxiety disorders. Painting, varnishing and carpet laying are some of the jobs in which significant exposure to organic solvents may occur.
Later in life, anxiety disorder can arise in response to life stresses such as financial worries or chronic physical illness. Somewhere between 4% and 10% of older adults are diagnosed with anxiety disorder, a figure which is probably an underestimate due to the tendency of adults to minimize psychiatric problems or to focus on their physical manifestations. Anxiety is also common among older people who have dementia. On the other hand, anxiety disorder is sometimes misdiagnosed among older adults when doctors misinterpret symptoms of a physical ailment (for instance, racing heartbeat due to cardiac arrhythmia) as signs of anxiety.

TYPES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS

1. GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER
Generalized anxiety disorder is a common chronic disorder characterized by long-lasting anxiety that is not focused on any one object or situation. Those suffering from generalized anxiety experience non-specific persistent fear and worry and become overly concerned with everyday matters. Generalized anxiety disorder is the most common anxiety disorder to affect older adults.
2. PANIC DISORDER
In panic disorder, a person suffers from brief attacks of intense terror and apprehension, often marked by trembling, shaking, confusion, dizziness, nausea, difficulty breathing. These panic attacks, defined by the APA as fear or discomfort that abruptly arises and peaks in less than ten minutes, can last for several hours and can be triggered by stress, fear, or even exercise; although the specific cause is not always apparent.
In addition to recurrent unexpected panic attacks, a diagnosis of panic disorder also requires that said attacks have chronic consequences: either worry over the attacks' potential implications, persistent fear of future attacks, or significant changes in behavior related to the attacks. Accordingly, those suffering from panic disorder experience symptoms even outside of specific panic episodes. Often, normal changes in heartbeat are noticed by a panic sufferer, leading them to think something is wrong with their heart or they are about to have another panic attack. In some cases, a heightened awareness (hypervigilance) of body functioning occurs during panic attacks, wherein any perceived physiological change is interpreted as a possible life threatening illness (i.e. extreme hypochondriasis).
3. PHOBIAS
The single largest category of anxiety disorders are that of Phobia, which includes all cases in which fear and anxiety is triggered by a specific stimulus or situation. Sufferers typically anticipate terrifying consequences from encountering the object of their fear, which can be anything from an animal to a location to a bodily fluid.

4. AGORAPHOBIA
Agoraphobia is the specific anxiety about being in a place or situation where escape is difficult or embarrassing. Agoraphobia is strongly linked with panic disorder and is often precipitated by the fear of having a panic attack. A common manifestation involves needing to be in constant view of a door or other escape route. In addition to the fears themselves, the term agoraphobia is often used to refer to avoidance behaviors that sufferers often develop. For example, following a panic attack while driving, someone suffering from agoraphobia may develop anxiety over driving and will therefore avoid driving in the future. These avoidance behaviors can often have serious consequences; in severe cases, one can even be confined to one's home.
5. SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER
Social anxiety disorder (also known as social phobia) describes an intense fear of negative public scrutiny or of public embarrassment or humiliation. This fear can be specific to particular social situations (such as public speaking) or, more typically, is experienced in most (or all) social interactions. Social anxiety often manifests specific physical symptoms, including blushing, sweating, and difficulty speaking. Like with all phobic disorders, those suffering from social anxiety will attempt to avoid the source of their anxiety; in the case of social anxiety this is particularly problematic, and in severe cases can lead to complete social isolation.
6. OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER
Obsessive compulsive disorder is a type of anxiety disorder primarily characterized by repetitive obsessions (distressing, persistent, and intrusive thoughts or images) and compulsions (urges to perform specific acts or rituals). The OCD thought pattern may be likened to superstitions insofar as it involves a belief in a causative relationship where, in reality, one does not exist. Often the process is entirely illogical; for example, the compulsion of walking in a certain pattern may be employed to alleviate the obsession of impending harm. And in many cases, the compulsion is entirely inexplicable, simply an urge to complete a ritual triggered by nervousness.
In a minority of cases, sufferers of OCD may only experience obsessions, with no overt compulsions; a much smaller number of sufferers experience only compulsions.
7. POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER
Post-traumatic stress disorder or PTSD is an anxiety disorder which results from a traumatic experience. Post-traumatic stress can result from an extreme situation, such as combat, rape, hostage situations, or even serious accident. It can also result from long term (chronic) exposure to a severe stressor, for example soldiers who endure individual battles but cannot cope with continuous combat. Common symptoms include flashbacks, avoidant behaviors, and depression.
8. SEPARATION ANXIETY
Separation anxiety disorder is the feeling of excessive and inappropriate levels of anxiety over being separated from a person or place. Separation anxiety itself is a normal part of development in babies or children, and it is only when this feeling is excessive or inappropriate that it can be considered a disorder. Separation anxiety disorder affects roughly 7% of adults and 4% of children, but the childhood cases tend to be more severe, in some instances even a brief separation can produce panic.

TREATMENT
Options of treatment of anxiety disorders include;
1. Psychotherapy, especially cognitive behavioral therapy
2. Pharmaceutical therapy.
Education, reassurance and some form of cognitive-behavioral therapy should almost always be used in treatment.

PHARMACEUTICAL THERAPY
When medication is indicated SSRIs, such as fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft), paroxetine (Paxil) and escitalopram (Lexapro) are generally recommended as first line agents. SNRIs such as venlafaxine (Effexor) are also effective. Benzodiazepines; such as alprazolam (Xanax), clonazepam (Klonopin) and diazepam (Valium) are also sometimes indicated for short-term or PRN use. They are usually considered as a second line treatment due to disadvantages such as cognitive impairment and due to their risks of dependence and withdrawal problems. Other medications commonly prescribed for anxiety disorders include GABA analogues such as gabapentin (Neurontin) or pregabalin (Lyrica), MAOIs such as phenelzine (Nardil) or tranylcypromine (Parnate), as well as the novel antidepressant mirtazapine (Remeron). TCAs such as imipramine, as well as atypical antipsychotics such as quetiapine, and piperazines such as hydroxyzine are also occasionally prescribed.
These medications need to be used with extreme care among older adults, who are more likely to suffer side effects because of coexisting physical disorders. Adherence problems are more likely among elderly patients, who may have difficulty understanding, seeing, or remembering instructions.
Treatment controversy arises because while some studies indicate that a combination of medication and psychotherapy can be more effective than either one alone; others suggest pharmacological interventions are largely palliative, and can actually interfere with the mechanisms of successful therapy. Meta-analysis indicates that psychotherapeutic interventions have superior long-term efficacy when compared to pharmacotherapy. However, the right treatment may depend on the individual patient's genetics and environmental factors.
OTHER TREATMENTS
Regular aerobic exercise, improving sleep hygiene and reducing caffeine are often useful in treating anxiety.

MOOD DISORDERS

2009-10-30T18:02:00.002+06:00

INCIDENCE RATE OF MOOD DISORDERS
Each year, almost 44 million Americans experience a mental disorder. In fact, mental illnesses are among the most common conditions affecting health today.

CAUSE OF MOOD DISORDER
Researchers believe most serious mental illnesses are caused by complex imbalances in the brain's chemical activity. They also believe environmental factors can play a part in triggering, or cushioning against, the onset of mental illness.

COMMON MOOD DISORDERS
Two of the most common mood disorders are depression and bipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive illness.

a. BIPOLAR DISORDER

Description:
Extreme mood swings punctuated by periods of generally even-keeled behavior characterize this disorder. Bipolar disorder tends to run in families. This disorder typically begins in the mid-twenties and continues throughout life. Without treatment, people who have bipolar disorder often go through devastating life events such as marital breakups, job loss, substance abuse, and suicide.

Symptoms:
Mania-expansive or irritable mood, inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep; increased energy; racing thoughts; feelings of invulnerability; poor judgment; heightened sex drive; and denial that anything is wrong. Depression-feelings of hopelessness, guilt, worthlessness, or melancholy; fatigue; loss of appetite for food or sex; sleep disturbances, thoughts of death or suicide; and suicide attempts. Mania and depression may vary in both duration and degree of intensity.

Formal Diagnosis:
Although scientific evidence indicates bipolar disorder is caused by chemical imbalances in the brain, no lab test exists to diagnose the disorder. In fact, this mental illness often goes unrecognized by the person who has it, relatives, friends, or even physicians. The first step of diagnosis is to receive a complete medical evaluation to rule out any other mental or physical disorders. Anyone who has this mental illness should be under the care of a psychiatrist skilled in the diagnosis and treatment of bipolar disorder.

Treatment:
Eighty to ninety percent of people who have bipolar disorder can be treated effectively with medication and psychotherapy. Self-help groups can offer emotional support and assistance in recognizing signs of relapse to avert a full-blown episode of bipolar disorder. The most commonly prescribed medications to treat bipolar disorder are three mood stabilizers: lithium carbonate, carbamazepine, and valproate.

b. DEPRESSION

Description:
When a person's feelings of sadness persist beyond a few weeks, he or she may have depression. According to the National Institute for Mental Health, three to four million men are affected by depression; it affects twice as many women. Researchers do not know the exact mechanisms that trigger depression. Two neurotransmitters-natural substances that allow brain cells to communicate with one another-are implicated in depression: serotonin and norepinephrine.

Symptoms:
Changes in appetite and sleeping patterns; feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness, and inappropriate guilt; loss of interest or pleasure in formerly important activities; fatigue; inability to concentrate; overwhelming sadness; disturbed thinking; physical symptoms such as headaches or stomachaches; and suicidal thoughts or behaviors.

Formal Diagnosis:
Four or more of the previous symptoms have been present continually, or most of the time, for more than 2 weeks. The term clinical depression merely means the episode of depression is serious enough to require treatment. Major depression is marked by far more severe symptoms, such as literally being unable to drag oneself out of bed. Another form of depression, known as seasonal affective disorder, is associated with seasonal changes in the amount of available daylight.

Treatment:
Some types of cognitive/behavioral therapy and interpersonal therapy may be as effective as medications for some people who have depression. Special bright light helps many people who have seasonal affective disorder.

Three major types of medication are used to treat depression: tricyclics; the newer selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO inhibitors). Electroconvulsive therapy uses small amounts of electricity applied to the scalp to affect neurotransmitters in the brain. Usually referred to as ECT, this highly controversial and potentially life-saving technique is considered only when other therapies have failed, when a person is seriously medically ill and/or unable to take medication, or when a person is very likely to commit suicide. Substantial improvements in the equipment, dosing guidelines and anesthesia have significantly reduced the possibility of side effects.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

2009-10-26T11:52:00.006+06:00

Developmental psychology is also known as "Human developmental" It is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that occur in human beings over the course of the life span. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence and adult development, aging, and the entire life span.

Stages of Development

• The parental development of human being is viewed in three separate stages:

Germinal
Embryonic
Fetal

• Infancy

• Toddler

• Early Childhood

• Childhood

• Adolescence

• Early Adulthood

• Middle Age

• Old Age

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT:

In this, psychologists examine how individual develops social and emotional competencies. For example, they study how children form friendships, how they understand and deal with emotions and how identity develops.

CONCEPT OF NATURE AND NURTURE IN THE DEVELOPMENT:

A significant question in developmental psychology is the relationship b/w innate and environmental influence in regard to any particular aspect of development. This is often regarded as Nature versus Nurture. This is often referred to as "nature vs. nurture" or nativism vs. empiricism. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism's genes. An empiricist perspective would argue that those processes are acquired in interaction with the environment.

DEVELOPMENTAL MECHANISMS:

Developmental psychology is not only concerned with describing the characteristics of psychological change over a time period, but also seeks to explain the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Psychologists have attempted to understand these factors by using models. Developmental models are sometimes computational, however they really do not need to be. A model must simply account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in context of the changes in the brain that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of the development. Computational accounts of development often use either symbolic, connectionist (neural network), or dynamical systems models to explain the mechanisms of development.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

It is primarily concerned with the ways in which infants and children acquire, develop, and use innate mental capabilities such as problem solving, memory, and language. Most important of cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of perceptual and motor skills. Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to adulthood and that there is an end point or goal. Other accounts, such as that of Lev Vygotsky, have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the developmental process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex for such structure and finality. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously, thus development should be analyzed, instead of treated as a product to be obtained.

Modern cognitive development has largely moved away from Piagetian stage theories, and is influenced by accounts of domain-specific information processing, which posit that development is guided by innate evolutionarily specified and content-specific information processing mechanisms.

CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

2009-10-22T19:03:00.004+06:00

Child psychology involves looking at the issues, stages and various influences that children experience throughout their development into functioning adults.

STAGES OF CHILDHOOD:

Infancy:

Stage of infancy lasts from birth until approximately the age of two years. During infancy, a great deal of initial learning occurs. This learning is provided through environmental cues, such as parents’ behavior.

Childhood:

During a child’s early years (2-6) they under go a great deal of mental and social development. As well as a child learns about aggression and pro-social behavior. Parenting is most important at this stage of development.

Middle Childhood:

During middle childhood, friendships and peer relations become very important, as children begin to spend a significant time with them. This requires an increased attention to social rules and an increased ability to consider others’ point of view. Social status becomes important.

Adolescence:

12 to 18 years time period is particularly hard time for children. They are experiencing all kinds of new changes in their bodies and feelings.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

2009-10-22T18:41:00.003+06:00

The branch of psychology that studies individuals in the social context is called social psychology. In other words, it is the study of how and why people think, feel, and do the things they do depending upon the situation they are in.

ASPECTS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Social psychology basically includes two types of phenomena.

Intra-Personal Aspect
Inter-Personal Aspect

INTRA-PERSONAL PHENOMENA

Attitude:

The study of attitudes is a core topic in social psychology. In social psychology, attitudes are defined as learned, global evaluations of a person, object, place, or issue that influence thought and action.

Persuasion:

Persuasion is an active method of influence that attempts to guide people toward the adoption of an attitude, idea or behavior by rational or emotive means. Persuasions rely on appeals rather than strong pressure.

Social cognition:

It is a growing area of social psychology that studies how people perceive, think about, and remember information about others.

INTER-PERSONAL PHENOMENA

Social influence:

Social influence refers to the way people affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of others.

Relations with others:

Social psychologists are interested in the question of why people sometimes act in a pro-social way (helping, liking, or loving others), but at other times act in an antisocial way (hostility, aggression, or prejudice against others).

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

2009-10-22T18:19:00.003+06:00

The branch of psychology that deals with the study of mental and nervous disorders. Abnormal psychology involves the investigation of abnormal behavior in order to describe, foretell, explain, and remedize the abnormal patterns of functioning.

By examining the abnormal mind the psychologists have not only been able to cure mental and nervous abnormalities but also been able to understand the normal mind better. The subject matter of Abnormal Psychology is subdivided into three categories.

a. Mental hygiene

b. Psychopathology

c. Psychotherapy

MENTAL HYGIENE

Mental hygiene deals with the prevention of mental illness and preserves mental health. It helps us to avoid mental distress but also sets standards to check a healthy mind.

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY:

It deals with the investigation of various mental and nervous disorders from which an individual can suffer. Investigation of criminals has shown that many individuals involved in the crimes were not at sea to do so but actually there was something wrong with minds or mind sets. Say for example, some people steal, that’s not because they are really into it or they need to do it but they can’t help avoid it. Such people suffer a disease called Kleptomania and it is quite useless to punish them.

Many Criminals, though not actually mad, were found feeble-minded. That’s why they are of very low intelligence level. Especially, in the case of delinquent young, they indulge themselves in petty thefts or runs away from home or school.

PSYCHOTHERAPY:

It aims to increase the individual's sense of well-being and reduce their subjective sense of discomfort. Psychotherapists employ a range of techniques based on experiential relationship building, dialogue, communication and behavior change and that are designed to improve the mental health.

ETIOLOGY

Genetics
Biological factors
Psychological factors
Socio-cultural factors
Systemic factors

GENETICS:

Investigated through family studies, mainly of monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins, often in the context of adoption.

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS:

Investigates effects of hormones, neurotransmitters and neuron damage in mental illness for example Alzheimer's disease (neuronal degeneration

PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS:

Abnormal Behaviors, and involving classical and operant conditioning.

SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS:

Effects of urban/rural dwelling, gender and minority status on state of mind.

RECENT CONCEPTS OF ABNORMALITY

• Psychometric abnormality - when a certain behavior/characteristic differs from the population's normal dispersion

• Deviant behavior - this is not always a sign of mental illness, as mental illness can occur without deviant behavior, and such behavior may occur in the absence of mental illness.

• Statistical abnormality - when a certain behavior/characteristic is relevant to a low percentage of the population.

TREATMENT

Psychotherapy

Pharmacotherapy

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

2009-10-21T22:20:00.003+06:00

The branch of psychology concerned with the study of normal grown up of human beings. It is also called Normal Human Adult Psychology. It deals with the general characteristics of mind and body such as learning, motivation, emotions and intelligence.

§ MOTIVATION: the set of reasons that determines to engage in a particular behavior. The term is generally used for human motivation but, theoretically, it can be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well.

§ LEARNING: Acquiring new knowledge, skills, behaviors, values, preferences or developing understanding and may also involve synthesizing different types of information. Following are types of Learning:

a. SIMPLE OR NON-ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING

This type of learning has following components:

Habituation: It is non-associative learning in which there is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of a stimulus.

Sensitization: It is non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus.

b. ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING:

Operant conditioning: It is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior.

Imprinting: It is the term used in psychology and ethology to describe any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior.

§ EMOTIONS: A mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings, thoughts, and behavior. It is often associated with mood, temperament, personality, and disposition. Following theories are worth considering in understanding:

Somatic theory: Somatic theory of emotion claims that bodily responses rather than judgments are essential to emotions.

Neurobiological theory: The neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain.

§ INTELLIGENCE: A property of the mind that encompasses many related abilities, such as the capacities to reason, to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend ideas, to use language, and to learn.

PSYCHOLOGY:

2009-10-21T21:49:00.001+06:00

Psychology is an applied and academic discipline that involves the scientific and rational study of mental and behavioral functions of humans or animals in particular or living beings in general.

In words of different psychologists, psychology is the science of mind, soul, conscious vs. unconscious, pattern of attitudes and behaviors.

Psychology is a "Greek" word. Psych- means "mind, soul & spirit" while suffix -ology means "the study of". So, the word Psychology means "the study of mind, soul & spirit".

“The systematic study of normal and abnormal, individual and social / collective experiences and actions of a human or an animal”.

“The branch of science that deals with mental processes, behavioral characteristics, emotions, clever tactical actions & arguments used to manipulate or influence others”.

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY:

2009-10-21T21:45:00.001+06:00

The discipline of psychology is a sea of information and knowledge. As far as the branches of Human psychology are concerned the most important can be enlisted as follows.

1. General psychology.

2. Abnormal psychology.

3. Child psychology.

4. Social psychology.

5. Clinical psychology.

6. Development psychology.

7. Cognitive psychology, Etc.

Daily Psychology

Phases of Conflicts

Types of Conflicts

What is Conflict

Mental Manipulation by HAARP

Intelligence Test

Intelligence test

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IQ testing

Structure

Scoring

IQ and general intelligence factor

Positive correlations with IQ

School performance

Job performance

Income

Heritability

Environment

Genetics

Group differences

Gender and IQ

Race and IQ

Different views on IQ

Binet

The Mismeasure of Man

The view of the American Psychological Association

Intelligence

Intelligence

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Theories of intelligence

Psychometric approach

Controversies

Multiple intelligences

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Emotional intelligence

PASS Theory

Empirical evidence

Evolution of intelligence

Factors affecting intelligence

Biological

Environmental

Ethical issues

Other species

Artificial intelligence

Personality Disorders

Personality

ANXIETY DISORDERS

MOOD DISORDERS

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

PSYCHOLOGY:

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY:

History

Definitions