Diagnostic X-Ray Machine PET CT scanner

Dental x-ray Machine

2011-06-04T21:27:00.000+05:00

Dental X-rays are pictures of the teeth, bones, and soft tissues around them to help find problems with the teeth, mouth, and jaw. X-ray pictures can show cavities, hidden dental structures (such as wisdom teeth), and bone loss that cannot be seen during a visual examination. Dental X-rays may also be done as follow-up after dental treatments.

The following types of dental X-rays are commonly used. The X-ray machine use small amounts of radiation.

Bitewing X-rays show the upper and lower back teeth and how the teeth touch each other in a single view. These X-rays are used to check for decay between the teeth and to show how well the upper and lower teeth line up. They also show bone loss when severe gum disease or a dental infection is present.

Periapical X-rays show the entire tooth, from the exposed crown to the end of the root and the bones that support the tooth. These X-rays are used to find dental problems below the gum line or in the jaw, such as impacted teeth, abscesses, cysts, tumors, and bone changes linked to some diseases.

Occlusal X-rays show the roof or floor of the mouth and are used to find extra teeth, teeth that have not yet broken through the gums, jaw fractures, a cleft in the roof of the mouth (cleft palate), cysts, abscesses, or growths. Occlusal X-rays may also be used to find a foreign object.

Panoramic X-rays show a broad view of the jaws, teeth, sinuses, nasal area, and temporomandibular (jaw) joints. These X-rays do not find cavities. These X-rays do show problems such as impacted teeth, bone abnormalities, cysts, solid growths (tumors), infections, and fractures.

Digital X-ray is a new method being used in some dental offices. A small sensor unit sends pictures to a computer to be recorded and saved.

A full-mouth series of periapical X-rays (about 14 to 21 X-ray films) are most often done during a person's first visit to the dentist. Bitewing X-rays are used during checkups to look for tooth decay. Panoramic X-rays may be used occasionally. Dental X-rays are scheduled when you need them based on your age, risk for disease, and signs of disease.
Many of us have been to the dentist recently enough to remember how uncomfortable it is to get dental x-rays taken. Biting down on a sharp piece of x-ray film, while the dentist triggered the x-ray machine from behind a lead shield, used to be an unavoidable part of dental care. However, new technologies have developed which can eliminate this type of discomfort, as well as providing better-quality images. Dental digital x-rays are a product of these technological advances. With these, the x-ray film is replaced with an electronic sensor which emits a small amount of x-rays into the part of the mouth it is pointed at, and relays information back to a computer screen, where both dentist and patient can clearly see how the patient's teeth are doing.

There are numerous advantages of dental digital x-rays, as opposed to traditional dental x-rays. First of all, anything that reduces the discomfort experienced in the dental chair is welcomed, and these newer x-rays do just that. Also, there is no need to wait for the x-ray film to be developed before it can be viewed, meaning the checkup as a whole takes less time. The image brought up on the computer screen is also clearer, in part because the sensor used to make dental digital x-rays is much more sensitive than x-ray film. Because it is more sensitive, the patient's x-ray exposure can also be dramatically reduced.

Many dental patients have said that with dental digital x-rays, it is easier to understand the course of treatment, if any, which the dentist wishes to take. This is because they are able to see the image enlarged on a screen in front of them, rather than trying to interpret a small piece of film held up to a light box. The cost of getting dental digital x-rays taken is usually comparable to that of traditional x-rays, so many dental insurance companies cover their cost.

One of the most significant features of dental digital x-rays is that, with the proper additional software, dentists can use a technique known as subtractive radiography. This means that new x-ray images can be compared with older ones from the same patient. This comparison is performed digitally, by the computer, meaning that it will sometimes catch differences that would escape detection in a visual comparison. The patient is the one who benefits most from this, because potential problems can often be seen and caught earlier by this method than they would have been otherwise.
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X-Ray Machine High Frequency

2011-06-04T21:23:00.000+05:00

Perlong Medical Equipment Co. Ltd, has many of medical equipment product. Perlong Group, headquartered in Beijing. The Perlong company was considered as the largest medical equipment manufacturer and supplier in China include Clinical Laboratory Equipment, Surgical Equipment, X-ray Machine, and Medical Consumables.

Especially for the X-Ray machine, they has released High Frequency mobile X-Ray Machine. There are two mobile X-ray machine which known as great performance, X-Ray machine PLX101D and X-Ray machine PLX112.

X-Ray machine PLX101D
These is high frequency mobile X-ray equipment (100mA) with power output : 5.0KW. The PLX101D futures by a system Wire/Wireless control to operation method. The X-Ray machine's tube using Fixed anode. When you purchase this X-Ray machine you will get an extra battery.

X-Ray machine PLX112
The X-Ray machine PLX112 was known as high frequency Mobile Surgical X-ray equipment with a high-quality knockdown X-ray generator to reduce radiation, For the medical team it's become importance reason to choose this product.

The X-Ray machine PLX112 using automatic fluoroscopy system, by setting the Tube to the Voltage:40kV～110kV. Special performance of this x-ray machine is future by High Frequency Fixed anode X-ray tube with 2 foci:Large focus: 1.5mm, small focus: 0.6mm, Inverter Frequency: 40KHz and Thermal capacity: 30KJ (40HU).
The X-Ray machine provided by Clinical Video system with high performance (7 images storage volume), and two 14〞high-resolution monitors. This X-Ray machine appear on Image Intensifier made by TOSHIBA.

It is X-Ray machine with a small and beautiful appearance, and easy to operate. For the better result, this product has an automatically track fluoroscopy to make the image brightness and clearness optimum.
Dental x-ray
Dental radiographs, commonly referred to as X-ray films, or informally, X-rays, are pictures of the teeth, bones, and surrounding soft tissues to screen for and help identify problems with the teeth, mouth, and jaw. X-ray pictures taken by X-ray machine can show cavities, cancerous or benign masses, hidden dental structures (such as wisdom teeth), and bone loss that cannot be seen during a visual examination. Dental X-rays may also be done as follow-up after dental treatments.

A radiographic image is formed by a controlled burst of X-ray radiation which penetrates oral structures at different levels, depending on varying anatomical densities, before striking the film or sensor. Teeth appear lighter because less radiation penetrates them to reach the film. Dental caries, tooth decay, infections and other changes in the bone density, and the periodontal ligament, appear darker because X-rays readily penetrate these less dense structures. Dental restorations (fillings, crowns) may appear lighter or darker, depending on the density of the material

The dosage of X-ray radiation received by a dental patient is typically small, equivalent to a few days' worth of background radiation environmental radiation exposure, or similar to the dose received during a cross-country airplane flight. Incidental exposure is further reduced by the use of a lead shield, lead apron, sometimes with a lead thyroid collar. Technician exposure is reduced by stepping out of the room, or behind adequate shielding material, when the X-ray source is activated.

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Basic X-Ray Circuit

2010-09-12T20:10:00.000+05:00

•X-ray machine circuits comprise three main components:

1. A circuit for heating the filament.
2. A circuit for applying a large potential difference (high voltage) between cathode and anode to accelerate electrons.
3. A timing device to control the length of exposure.

High-voltage circuit – provides x-ray tube accelerating potential.This circuit produces a large potential difference between cathode and anode to accelerate electrons produced at the filament to high velocities. High tension transformers convert high Amp and low kV to mA and high kV.

Filament circuit – provides filament current.The tungsten filament at the cathode is the source of electrons used to produce x-rays. The number of electrons produced at the tungsten filament is dependent upon the temperature of the filament.A tungsten filament needs to be heated to at least 2200°C to emit useful numbers of electrons. Electrons are produced by thermionic emission. When a metal is heated its atoms absorb energy which allows some electrons to move a small distance from the surface of the metal.

Voltages can be increased or decreased using “step-up” or “step-down” transformers.Mains electricity is 240 V and has to be modified to produce a high voltage across the x-ray tube head and low voltage to heat the filament. Wire coils wound around iron rings.Coils create a magnetic field within the ring

Current and voltages (V) on opposite sides (primary and secondary) of the ring are proportional to the number of “turns” (N):

VP / VS = NP / NS

Stepwise and continuous voltage adjustments can be made with autotransformers and rheostats

Voltage Rectification :-

Alternating current is used to energize x-ray tubes ,X-ray tubes are designed to operate at a polarity where the anode is positive.

Rectifiers permit current flow in only one direction.X-Ray generators provide the tube current at the required voltage for x-ray production.In a "perfect" case this would be a constant voltage, however transformers require alternating voltages to work so some means of producing a constant voltage across the x-ray tube from the rising and falling voltage produced by the high tension transformer is required.Rectifiers placed in series in HV circuit provide half-wave rectification The ripple causes corresponding but relatively higher variations in the X-ray output. It is an unwanted phenomenon in the X-ray production due to the lengthening of the exposure time and the reduction in the average kV.
Rectifiers can be arranged in a “diamond” arrangement to provide full-wave rectification – conduction during both halves of alternating (AC) voltage.Commercial electric power, the line voltage, is usually produced and delivered as three phase alternating current. The period of each single phase may be 50 or 60 Hz. The period of a 50 Hz AC has a duration of 1/50 s, or 20 ms. The three phase X ray generator transforms and rectifies this AC into a high-voltage direct current (DC) with either six or twelve forward pulses per 20 ms period. As compared to the 100% ripple factor of single-phase generators, three-phase generators dramatically reduces voltage ripple (13–25% for 3-phase 6-pulse, 3–10% for 3-phase 12-pulse).

X-ray Production/Clinical Radiation Generators

2010-09-12T19:59:00.000+05:00

Production of X Rays

X-rays are produced in xray tube, the xray tube have several components which are here discussed with some detail.

The X-Ray Tube Components

1. Glass tube – It maintains vacuum necessary to minimize electron interactions outside of the target area in the xray tube. The vacuum condition in xray tube is necessary for the travel of electrons from hot filament to the anode. otherwise if air is present in the xray tube then these electrons can collide with the atoms of air in xray tube, and a very small number of electrons would reach the target. Thus we could not have xrays in the results, thus i can say that xray tube must have vacuum inside to produce xrays.

2. Cathode – It contains filament and focusing cup. Electrons are produced by heating the filament which is cathode terminal of xray tube, when all conditions are fulfilled and electrons are emitted from the hot filament or cathode of the x-ray tune then these electrons can travel in every direction, or in random direction, as result we may have a broad beam of electrons in x-ray tube. This is not desired, thus we have another important component in the x-ray tube near cathode called focusing cup. The focusing cup is some time very close to the cathode and thats why it is treated as the part of the cathode in x-ray tube. But here i want to tell my students that it is an other component from cathode and should be treated separately from cathode of the x-ray tube. The function of focusing cup in x-ray tube is to converge the electron beam towards anode.

3. Anode – It contains x-ray target. The electrons beam strikes the anode of the xray tube. As a result xrays are produced from here.When we apply a voltage to this anode, we place a high positive charge on it. This high positive charge acts much like a magnet, only it is attracting free electrons. The positive charge will possess a strong attractive force to the negative charge of the electrons that are boiling off of the filament. This attractive force pulls the electrons towards the anode at high speeds. By increasing the voltage applied to the anode we can increase the speed of the electrons.By placing some sort of matter between the electrons (filament) and the positive charge (anode) we meet our need. Also, the anode itself can be used as the target. In high voltage X-ray generators a special target material (Tungsten) is usually embedded into the anode. This gives the electrons a suitable material to interact with and produce x-rays. When the electron hits the target material, several things can happen. The electron can be absorbed by an atom and its energy transferred to the atom, the energy of the electron can cause another electron to be knocked out of its energy shell, or the electron may just slightly interact with other atomic particles. Radiation will be produced in all of these cases, but the energy of the radiation will be different.

X-ray Developing

2010-09-12T19:13:00.000+05:00

There’s automatic and Ret(?) technique (manual).
The sequence of developing film at 70 degrees (most common):

1. Unwrap the film
2. Develop (5 min)
3. Rinse
4. Fix (10 min)
5. Wash (20 min)
6. Dry
Automatic developer time is a total of 7 minutes, manual developing is almost an hour.
If we don’t wash the film after fixing it sort of looks yellowish. Why do we use high speed film? Reduce patient exposure. There are a lot of films out there Ultraspeed D speed (slow), E speed (not so slow), F speed Insight (fastest). F speed film is the same speed as digital radiography sensors to reduce patient exposure.
X-ray Taking Techniques

2 techniques to take x-ray film: Paralleling angle technique and bisecting angle technique.
If the films are not parallel they get distorted.
Sometimes other things that cause slight distortion is, edge gradient, or the fuzziness of the film, called: penumbra (umbrella in French – actually, no, the word for umbrella in French is parapluie).
Free hand technique (bisection of the angle technique).

because of anatomical landmarks you can’t hold the film parallel to the tooth (especially in the maxilla because of the arch). All free hand techniques are inaccurate. We use paralleling technique for good geometric accuracy.

Panoramic X-rays

Panoramic x-rays are accurate within the focal trough (oriented three dimensional zone of focus) of the particular machine.
The focal trough is less than an inch, if the patient’s head is elliptical instead of round, or the person has a small head, it will distort the image – must postion the patient properly.
Panoramic x-rays are a screening tool only.

Radiology and X-ray Physics

2010-09-12T19:09:00.000+05:00

X-ray History

X-ray was developed by Wilhelm Roentgen in 1895 in Wurtzberg Germany.
First dentist to use X-rays was Dr. Edmund Kells

X-ray Physics

In the x-ray tube we have an anode and cathode. To create electrons, heat the anode, boil off the electrons, using a step down transformer.
We concentrate the electrons with a molybdenum focusing cup.
To move the electrons we create an electron potential difference, using a step up transformer (going from 110V to 65,000+ kilovolts). This increases the KVP. The higher the KVP the more energy the photon is going to receive.
To create a photon we move the electrons from the anode to the cathode and 99.8% of them are going to turn into heat and .2% become photons.
A photon is a bundle of energy.
We call the transformation from electron to photon: Bremsstrahlung (or break energy).
Review: So we have the X-ray tube made of glass, in the X-ray tube we have an anode and cathode and molybdenum focusing cup, and a vacuum. In the vacuum we create the electron potential difference, and the photons come out through the window.
All of the photons coming out of the window are parallel with each other.
The x-rays are long and short wavelength energy (can use the short because it has more penetrating power).
We get rid of the long wavelength with filtration: either aluminum (added filtration) or the glass tube itself (inherent filtration).
Inside the X-ray tube the coil is made of tungsten because of its high melting point (1500 C).
X-rays come out of the tube and then travel in a straight line until it has an interaction with whatever 32 times.
Electromagnetic ray length is measured in angstroms (smallest measurable denominator of the meter).
Every tissue in our body has a different Z number (atomic number). In order to have a good picture you must follow the following rules:

1. Source of the X-ray needs to be as small as possible (comes out from a dot)
2. Source to object distance is as long as practical
3. Object to film distance is as short as practical
4. Object and film must be parallel with each other
5. Central beam and object and film should be producing a 90 degree angle in all (any) directions.
X-ray film

X-ray film is housed in an emulsion which contains silver halide/bromide/iodide/chloride etc.
The silver bromide crystal has the capability of having an area of exit being exposed, called a sensitivity spec. It creates from the central crystal a latent crystal which could be developed later on.
We have lead inside the x-ray film so we don’t get scattered radiation.
We use high speed film to reduce patient exposure.
Ultraspeed D speed (slow), E speed (not so slow), F speed Insight (fastest). F speed film is the same speed as digital radiography sensors to reduce patient exposure.

Focusing Cup of Xrays Tube

2010-09-01T19:30:00.000+05:00

Focusing Cup in X-rays Tube OR Focus Cup in X-ray Tube head Or Wehnelt electrode:-

It is the device surrounding the cathode filament in an X-ray tube. This is actually a third electrode in the tube, called a Wehnelt electrode, and is used to hold together the stream of electrons which are accelerated towards the anode. If this electrode were not present, the electrons would hit the anode over a very large area. The focusing is achieved by keeping the focusing cup at the same, or sometimes slightly higher, negative potential as the cathode filament. Electron focusing means comprising a plurality of conductive members insulatingly supported in fixed positional relationship with one another adjacent the filament and having longitudinal and transverse portions with respect to the filament for defining in the path of the electron beam an elongated aperture having a length less than the length of the filament, one of the conductive members being a cathode focussing cup having an elongated opening wherein the filament is insulatingly disposed in the cup to direct the electron beam through the opening and other conductive members of the focussing means comprising a pair of spaced conductive strips insulatingly supported within the cup adjacent respective end portions of the filament;

A focusing cup is used to concentrate the stream of electrons to a small area of the target called the focal spot. The focal spot size is an important factor in the system's ability to produce a sharp image. Much of the energy applied to the tube is transformed into heat at the focal spot of the anode. As mentioned above, the anode target is commonly made from tungsten, which has a high melting point in addition to a high atomic number. However, cooling of the anode by active or passive means is necessary. Water or oil recirculating systems are often used to cool tubes.
The purpose of the focusing cup is to focus the x-ray beam so that the x-ray beam is focused on a smaller area of the target. The focusing cup is negatively charged because the charge of an electron is also negative, this helps keep the electrons focused inside the focusing cup.
Another important consideration is the focal spot size of the tube since this factors into the geometric unsharpness of the image produced. Generally, the smaller the spot size the better. But as the electron stream is focused to a smaller area, the power of the tube must be reduced to prevent overheating at the tube anode.
Bremsstrahlung radiation results when an electron passes near the nucleus of an atom. The close passage of the electron to the nucleus causes the electron to change its course thus losing much of its energy in the process. In the world of quantum particles, energy is always exchanged in discreet particles of light known as photons. The loss of energy by the electron as it is deflected by the heavy nuclei in the anode target produces a very high energy photon of light called an x-ray. The dental x-ray tube produces Bremsstrahlung radiation.

This is an animated illustration vedio which describes the role of the focusing cup in an X-Ray tube. The animation shows the trajectories of the electrons emitted by the filament both without and with the focusing cup. The focusing cup is held at a negative potential relative to the filament, so that area of impact of the electrons on the anode is a smaller area, creating a smaller spot size on anode. The smaller spot size creates a more point like source for the emitted electrons which in turn provides better quality imaging in diagnostic X-Rays.

Portable Xray Machines

2010-09-01T16:52:00.000+05:00

MinXray High Frequency Portable Medical X-ray Machine :-

MinXray is a high frequency portable medical x-ray unit. MinXray offer the highest power-to-weight ratios available from any manufacturer. These models of portable movable xrays machines are designed for use in nursing homes, private homes, correctional facilities, military field clinics, hospitals, or anywhere an x-ray machine must be brought to a patient. MinXray's high frequency x-ray units and their companion stands provide the most easily transportable, user-friendly systems available for general purpose offsite medical diagnostic radiography.

The MinXray portable high frequency x-ray machines are ready to do x-rays of any patients at any location either his/ her home or in the hospital, on the bed or in the xray room. Where ever the patient is, its xrays can be brought to investigate about his/ her disease.

As we know that due to change in technology, use of high frequency in the voltages, now the high voltages can be produced by using light weight transformers. In past the high voltages were produced in very bilky transformers due to the use of such bulky transformers the x-rays machines were also bulky.

But now in this era the use of such bulky transformer for xrays machine is meanless. Now people are more interested in portable compact and easy to move xray machine. For such a compact and durable portable xrays machines the high frequency transformer are best way to use. In future it is expected that some new technology will come and size and weight may also become more reduced.

Rugged, dependable MinXray equipment is capable of all routine radiographic views you would expect from a portable unit. Detailed images of chest, abdomen, skull, spine and extremities are easily obtained with short exposure times on ambulatory and non-ambulatory patients.
source: http://www.minxray.com/Medical.html
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Digitally Reconstructed Radiographs

2010-08-18T20:51:00.001+05:00

Digitally Reconstructed Radiographs:
One of the key challenges when attacking the 2D-3D registration problem is the need for an appropriate way to compare input images that are of di erent dimensionalities. The most common approach is to simulate one of the modalities given the other dataset and an estimate about their relative spatial relationship, so that the images can be compared in the same space. Then the transformation estimate can be updated to maximize an alignment score according to some similarity measure.
Reconstructing the 3D volume from 2D images is one alternative, but it requires numerous projection acquisitions and large computation time. It is more feasible to simulate 2D images from the 3D volume. Most existing applications follow this approach.

Ray-Casting

Simulated projection images, that are to model the production of X-ray acquisitions from volumetric CT are called Digitally Reconstructed Radiographs (DRRs). These images are traditionally formed by implementing the so-called ray-casting algorithm which we briefly summarize. Rays are rst constructed between points of the imaging plane and the imaging source. Then the individual intensity values of the DRR images are computed by summing up the attenuation coeficients associated with each volume element (voxel) along a particular ray.

The speed limitations of the ray-casting algorithm are partly due to the size of the volumetric datasets. As DRR-creation is a signi cant component of the registration application, several research studies have concentrated on de ning more practical methods for their computation.
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Computed Tomography (CT) and 3D image modalities

2010-08-18T19:47:00.001+05:00

Computed Tomography (CT) and 3D image modalities
Im medical science there are two type of Image processing.
1. 2D image modalities
2. 3D image modalities

Among the 3D image modalities, Computed Tomography (CT) has been most widely considered for the registration task. Computed Tomography CT images are created by assimilating multiple X-ray acquisitions. The X-ray machine rotates around the patient's body and at pre-specied angles shoots X-ray beams through the imaged object. This way multiple images are taken at different angles of the patient body. The orgin under examination is exposed with x-rays beam from different sides and ant the other side image is taken.
Hounsfield number:

The reconstructed images represent the absorption rate due to the intervening tissues called the Hounsfield number.

On the other end, the imaging plate records the absorption rate of different tissue types which quantities are referred to as Hounsfield numbers. The tomographic data acquisition is conventionally modeled by the Radon Transform and reconstructed according to the Filtered Backprojection algorithm. Distortion problems are usually not of major concern in case of this modality. x ray machine,x ray source,x ray tube diagram,fallopian tube x ray,coolidge x ray tube,iae x ray tube,toshiba x ray tube,parts x ray tube,X-ray Tubes XRF XRD NDT,Manufacturer of X-ray tubes for XRF,XRD and NDT applications

Departments of Nuclear Medicine

2010-08-08T13:17:00.001+05:00

1. G.B Saha, Fundamental of Nuclear Pharmacy, 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag New York Inc, 175 Fifth Avenue New York USA, 1984

2. Benjamin Taragin, BONE SCAN ,M. D., Department of Radiology, Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center, New York, NY. Review Provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. 11/7/2002
URL= http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003833.htm

3. Kevin J. Donohoe, Manuel L. Brown, B. David Collier, Procedure Guideline for Bone Scintigraphy, Society Of Nuclear Medicine,
URL=http://interactive.snm.org/index.cfm?PageID=1110&RPID=813&FileID=1335

4. Vika Müller, Jörn Steinhagen, Maike de Wit, Karl H. Bohuslavizki, Bone Scintigraphy in Clinical Routine, Departments of Nuclear Medicine, 2Orthopedic Surgery and 3Hematology and Oncology,
University Hospital Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
URL= www.onko-i.si/radiolog/013501/muller.pdf

5. Lawrence Saperstein, M.D., Department of Radiology, Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center, New York, NY UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND MEDICINE 22 South Greene Street
Baltimore, MD 21201
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health physicist at an accelerator facility.

2010-08-04T14:45:00.000+05:00

You are a health physicist at an accelerator facility. You base your radiation safety recommendations on National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) Report No. 51, Radiation Protection Design Guidelines for 0.1-100 MeV Particle Accelerator Facilities.
GIVEN:
Electron beam energy 100 MeV
Density of air (NTP) 0.001205 g cm–3
Chamber dimensions 6 m  8 m  2.5 m
Collision mass stopping power for 10-MeV electrons in air 1.98 MeV cm2 g–1
Distance traversed in air by electron beam 2 m
Ozone production in electron-beam facilities:
where
CO3 is the ozone concentration in ppm,
Scoll is the collision stopping power of electrons in air in keV cm–1,
I is the electron beam current in mA,
 is the distance traversed in air by the electron beam in cm,
t is the irradiation time in s, and
V is the volume of the irradiation chamber in liters.
where
Bx is the shielding transmission ratio,
H.m is the maximum permissible dose equivalent rate in mrem h–1,†
d is the distance between the source and the reference point in m,
D.0 is the absorbed dose index rate in rad m2 min–1,†
T is the area occupancy factor, and
1.67  10–5 is a constant that depends on the units being used.
The definitions for H.m and D.0 were mistakenly switched on the original examination.
From Appendix E-1, NCRP Report No. 51:
D.0I–1 = 4.7  104 rads m2 mA–1 min–1 (forward direction)
From Appendix E-8, NCRP Report No. 51:
Broad-Beam Transmission through Concrete
of X-rays Produced by 0.5-176 MeV Electrons
Slab thickness (cm) Transmission
100 2.2  10–3
75 1.0  10–2
50 4.7  10–2
25 1.7  10–2

A. You are inspecting the accelerator facility before it begins its initial operation. According to NCRP Report No. 51, what is an interlock and where should interlocks be installed?
B. Upon inspection of the beam dump, you find that the depth of the cavity is greater than the diameter of the aperture. Is this acceptable? Describe why or why not.
C. List four kinds of radiation produced as a consequence of an interaction between a particle beam and the material it strikes in an accelerator. Describe the method of production of each. Number your responses. Only the first four responses will be graded.
D. A scattering experiment produces an X-ray beam using a 1-cm diameter, 10-MeV electron beam incident on a thick W target. The experimenter will be behind a 75-cm thick concrete shield at a point in the controlled area that is on the beam-line and 10 m from the target. The dose rate is limited to 2.5 mrem h–1 at the experimenter’s location. Calculate the peak current value for the beam. Show all work.
E. Using information given above and a beam current of 0.05 mA, calculate the concentration (ppm) of O3 in the irradiation chamber following 2 h of continuous operation. Assume a ventilation rate of 2 m3 min–1 and an O3 molecule mean life of 50 min. Show all work.

chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes

2010-08-04T14:42:00.000+05:00

Dose response curves for chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes exposed to 60Co gamma rays and to fission spectrum neutrons are given in the figure below.

D absorbed dose in grays
For neutrons: Number of chromosome aberrations per cell = 0.60 D
For gammas: Number of chromosome aberrations per cell = 0.0157 D + 0.05 D2

A. What is the primary mode of interaction for the following radiations in tissue?
1. Fast neutrons.
2. Thermal neutrons.
3. 60Co gamma rays.
B. What property of the neutrons and gammas accounts for the difference in shape of the two curves above?
C. What is the RBE for neutrons for an effect of 0.5 chromosome aberrations per cell?
D. What is the maximum value of the RBE for chromosome aberrations for neutrons based on the information provided above?
E. What value should be used for the quality factor Q for neutrons with unspecified energies? Provide the basis (source) for your answer.

concentration of 137Cs in milk samples

2010-08-04T14:38:00.000+05:00

You are a health physicist at a radiochemical laboratory. You have determined the concentration of 137Cs in milk samples using a proportional counter and chemical processing. Assume a normal distribution for variation of background in the counter.

137Cs concentration in the raw milk sample 40 pCi L–1
Sample volume 0.5 L
Sample count time 60 min
Background count time 60 min
Background count rate 28 cpm
Background count rate standard deviation (bkg) 4 cpm
Lower limit of detection (LD) 4.66 bkg
Counter efficiency 35%
Chemical recovery 90%

A. You determine that the relative standard deviation in the gross count rate is 12 percent. What are the net count rate and its standard deviation? Show all work and state assumptions.

B. Evaluate the suitability of the counting system for achieving LD = 5 pCi L–1. Show all work.

C. How does the variation in background for the proportional counter compare with that expected if the only source of variability was the probabilistic nature of radioactive decay? State two factors that could contribute to the difference. Number your responses. Only the first two responses will be graded.

D. While preparing the next sample you notice that the background count rate has decreased to 12 cpm.

1. Explain why this is or is not a significant change.
2. State two possible reasons for the change. Number your responses. Only the first two responses will be graded.

air sample counting system

2010-08-04T14:35:00.000+05:00

You are using an air-sample counting system at your facility to measure 239Pu in air.
Counting system specifications:
Detector type Silicon surface barrier
Electronics Single-channel analyzer
Window 5.2 MeV
Source-to-detector distance 5 cm
Detector active diameter 3 cm
Measurement results:
Background Sample
Counts 750 3210 (gross)
Counting time (s) 1800 600
From ICRP Pub 38, Radionuclide Transformations, Pergamon Press, New York, 1983

A. Assume an air sample yielded the given measurement results. Calculate the 239Pu activity on the sample and its associated standard deviation. Assume an absolute efficiency of 35 percent for this part only.

B. What is the relationship between intrinsic and absolute efficiency?

C. Now assume a 0.4-mCi 239Pu point source yielded the given measurement results. Calculate the intrinsic efficiency of the detector. A good, substantiated approximation is acceptable. State any assumptions you make.

D. The vacuum system in the detector has failed. What is the maximum allowable sample-to-detector distance? You may use rules-of-thumb. Show all work.

E. What other operating parameter must be adjusted in order to operate the instrument properly at atmospheric pressure?

Lead shielding

2010-08-04T14:22:00.000+05:00

You are studying the interactions of 137Cs gamma photons entering a Pb slab in a normal direction. Assume that the distance between successive interactions is equal to the mean free path.

Photon energy : 300 ,400 ,500, 662
(keV) Compton interaction atomic attenuation coefficient
(10–24 cm2 atom–1) 27.77,25.22,23.21,20.68
Photoelectric interaction atomic attenuation coefficient
(10–24 cm2 atom–1) 100.5,48.33,27.93,14.59
Average energy transferred (keV)191,247,298,376
Average energy absorbed (keV) 185,239,286,360
Pb atomic weight 207.2 g mole–1
Pb density 11.36 g cm–3

A. What is the average distance below the surface at which the photon experiences its first interaction with a Pb atom? Show all work.

B. If the first interaction is a Compton interaction and results in the average energy transfer, what is the approximate probability that the next interaction will be a photoelectric interaction? Show all work.

C. If the Compton scatter angle following an interaction is 41 degree, what is the energy of the scattered photon and of the Compton electron? Show all work.

D. Interactions between the photons and the Pb slab results in a transfer of energy to electrons. Less than 100 percent of the transferred energy is absorbed in the Pb slab. Describe the process most responsible for the “lost” energy.

radiochemical laboratory

2010-08-04T14:17:00.000+05:00

You are the RSO for a radiochemical laboratory. An individual performs the following two experiments during a single calendar year. The first experiment is completed during an 80-h period and uses 14C in the form of a stable radio-labeled protein. The material is continuously released to the air of the laboratory resulting in an average airborne concentration of 2.0 x 10–6 mCi mL–1.

The second experiment is performed in a separate room. The individual uses a sealed 93Tc source that has an activity at the beginning of the experiment of 70.0 mCi. The source is on a laboratory bench that keeps the worker 2 m from the source. These are the worker’s only occupational exposures to radioactive material during the calendar year.

93Tc half-life = 2.75 h
93Tc specific gamma-ray constant = 6.11 x 10–7 rem m2 (mCi h)–1

A. If the annual internal dose is administratively restricted to one-tenth of the annual occupational limit, what would be the maximum average airborne concentration to which the individual could be exposed?

B. What would be the committed effective dose equivalent to the individual performing the experiment due to the exposure to airborne radioactive material?

C. If the second experiment takes 8 h to complete, what is the unshielded deep dose equivalent to the individual? You must account for 93Tc decay during the 8-h period. Show all calculations.

D. Calculate the total effective dose equivalent to the individual after completion of both experiments (or explain how to calculate it).

proton accelerator facility

2010-08-04T14:14:00.000+05:00

You are the health physicist in a proton accelerator facility and wish to determine the proton beam intensity (number of protons per beam pulse) using a carbon activation technique. You expose a carbon disk to a proton beam with a cross sectional area less than the area of the disk (that is, the entire proton beam impinges on the disk).

• The carbon disk has a thickness of 0.2 cm.
• The 12C atom density is 9.3  1022 atoms cm–3.
• The cross section for 12C(p,pn)11C is 25 mb.
• 11C is a pure positron emitter (100%) with a half-life of 20.4 min.
• The efficiency of the NaI gamma spectrometer counting system is 0.15 counts for every disintegration of 11C in the graphite disk.

A. The carbon disk is counted using a NaI spectrometer in the laboratory for 30 min. The total number of counts is 2300. What is the 11C activity in the disk at the beginning of the counting period? Show all work.

B. The transfer time from the accelerator to the counting room is 10 min. For this part only, assume that the activity in the disk at the beginning of the counting period is 2000 dpm. What is the activity at the end of the irradiation period? Show all work.

C. The proton beam is operated at 4 pulses per min. The disk is exposed in the beam for 40 min. For this part only, assume that the 11C activity in the disk at the end of the irradiation time is 5000 dpm. Calculate the number of protons per pulse. Show all work.

Differential Effects of X-Rays

2010-07-30T13:42:00.000+05:00

Differential Effects of X-Rays and High-Energy 56Fe Ions on Human
Kyle Kurpinski, Ph.D., Deok-Jin Jang, Ph.D.†, Sanchita Bhattacharya, M.S.†, Bjorn Rydberg, Ph.D.†, Julia Chu, B.S., Joanna So, B.S., Andy Wyrobek, Ph.D.†, Song Li, Ph.D.,Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Purpose

Stem cells hold great potential for regenerative medicine, but they have also been implicated in cancer and aging. How different kinds of ionizing radiation affect stem cell biology remains unexplored. This study was designed to compare the biological effects of X-rays and of high–linear energy transfer (LET) 56Fe ions on human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC).
Methods and Materials
A multi-functional comparison was carried out to investigate the differential effects of X-rays and 56Fe ions on hMSC. The end points included modulation of key markers such as p53, cell cycle progression, osteogenic differentiation, and pathway and networks through transcriptomic profiling and bioinformatics analysis.

Results
X-rays and 56Fe ions differentially inhibited the cell cycle progression of hMSC in a p53-dependent manner without impairing their in vitro osteogenic differentiation process. Pathway and network analyses revealed that cytoskeleton and receptor signaling were uniquely enriched for low-dose (0.1 Gy) X-rays. In contrast, DNA/RNA metabolism and cell cycle regulation were enriched for high-dose (1 Gy) X-rays and 56Fe ions, with more significant effects from 56Fe ions. Specifically, DNA replication, DNA strand elongation, and DNA binding/transferase activity were perturbed more severely by 1 Gy 56Fe ions than by 1 Gy X-rays, consistent with the significant G2/M arrest for the former while not for the latter.

Conclusions
56Fe ions exert more significant effects on hMSC than X-rays. Since hMSC are the progenitors of osteoblasts in vivo, this study provides new mechanistic understandings of the relative health risks associated with low- and high-dose X-rays and high-LET space radiation.

Kyle Kurpinski, Ph.D., Deok-Jin Jang, Ph.D.†, Sanchita Bhattacharya, M.S.†, Bjorn Rydberg, Ph.D.†, Julia Chu, B.S., Joanna So, B.S., Andy Wyrobek, Ph.D.†, Song Li, Ph.D.,

Source:http://www.redjournal.org/article/S0360-3016(08)03527-X/abstract#back-cor1

History of X-rays

2010-07-30T13:30:00.000+05:00

History of X-rays:
Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895. Within the year, physicians were using X-rays for diagnosis and as a new way of gathering evidence to protect themselves against malpractice suits. Almost immediately--during 1895-96--it also became clear that X-rays could cause serious medical problems. Some physicians received burns that wouldn't heal, requiring amputation of their fingers. Others developed fatal cancers. Radiation treatment for benign (non-cancerous) diseases became a medical craze that lasted for over 40 years. Large groups of people were needlessly irradiated for such minor problems as ringworm and acne. Many women had their ovaries irradiated as a treatment for depression. Such uses of X-rays would today be viewed as quackery, but many of them were accepted medical practice into the 1950s.

Physicians weren't the only ones enthusiastic about X-ray therapies. If you get a large enough dose of X-rays, your hair falls out--so, beauty shops installed X-ray equipment to remove their customers' unwanted facial and body hair. Roentgen's discovery of X-rays in 1895 led directly to Henri Becquerel's discovery of the radioactivity of uranium in 1896, and then to the discovery of radium by Marie Curie and her husband Pierre in 1898--for which Becquerel and the Curies were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in 1903 (twenty years later, Madame Curie died of acute lymphoblastic leukemia). Soon, along with X-rays, physicians were prescribing radioactive radium. Radium treatments were prescribed for heart trouble, impotence, ulcers, depression, arthritis, cancer, high blood pressure, blindness, tuberculosis, and other ailments. Soon radioactive toothpaste, then radioactive skin cream, was being marketed.

In Germany, chocolate bars containing radium were sold as a "rejuvenator." In the U.S.A., hundreds of thousands of people began drinking bottled water laced with radium as a general elixir known popularly as "liquid sunshine." As recently as 1952, Life magazine wrote about the beneficial effects of inhaling radioactive radon gas in deep mines. Numerous studies now indicate that the only demonstrable health effect of radon gas is lung cancer. Thus, the medical world and popular culture together embraced X-rays (and other radioactive emanations) as miraculous remedies, gifts to humanity from the foremost geniuses of an inventive age.
It is incomprehensible that any competent, unbiased doctor could take the position that routine medical/dental, pre-employment, immigration, and now airport x-rays, do not pose a menace to all living cells through which they pass, leaving behind a painful and costly trail of destruction. At the dentist and doctor’s office, seeing as it is they who stand safely behind a lead wall, it will be you, not them who may develop cancer from the x-ray beam they are about to shoot through your body. Therefore, the final decision on whether the benefits outweigh the risks, rightfully belongs with you, today’s innocent patient, turned tomorrow’s potential cancer victim.

Ask your doctor if s/he can produce even a single study which proves that radiation when combined with the hundreds of other known carcinogens spilling into our air, water, and food is in fact safe? He couldn’t even produce a study which took so many variables into account. Why on earth should only “medical doctors” be permitted air time to express opinions on public health matters which impact the health and liberty of literally every single citizen in the nation?

There is a huge gulf between the term permissible and the word safe. So called risk/benefit assessments which attempt to balance “health effects” against “economic benefits” are too often structured to focus on risks and benefits to society (read governments and big business) as opposed to families or individuals (people).

A ten year old boy exposed to a full mouth dental x-ray exam has a one-in-600 chance of developing cancer in later life. Just one full body CT scan exposes a person to “...about the same dose of radiation as if you had been standing a mile and a half away from the atom bomb exploded at Hiroshima. Even a single x-ray increases a 3-month-old’s chances of developing cancer in later life by 10 times.
History of X-rays,Law of Unintended Consequences ,open-air explosions of nuclear bombs ,Nevada test site,Radioactive fallout ,inheritable mutations,International Committee for Radiation Protection ICRP
Read Full story:
http://tuberose.com/X-rays.html

The simple X-ray Machine

2010-07-30T13:22:00.000+05:00

An Inexpensive X-ray Machine
Summary:
From an old radio tube, some copper wire, and other inexpensive materials — total cost: roughly $20 — you can construct an X-ray machine that will make good pictures through an inch of wood. SAFETY MEASURES THAT YOU MUST OBSERVE. Notes on Röntgen's invention. Highlights of X-ray theory.
Harry Simons of 118 Windsor Street, Kearny, N.J., is a lonely amateur scientist. “For 23 years,” he writes, “I have been dabbling in the X-ray portion of the electromagnetic spectrum without once coming across a fellow amateur. Thousands of enthusiasts can be found in the region of radio waves, of light and of gamma rays. But none of them come to play in my back yard. If the prospect of exploring fresh electromagnetic territory sounds interesting to any of these amateurs, I can promise good hunting in the 10-8-centimeter region — and for a total investment of less than $20.”

As a lure Simons offers the collection of radiographs reproduced 225, 226, 227 and 228. He takes special pride in the one which shows screws embedded in an inch-thick block of wood. This shot resulted from his first experiment with X-rays and illustrates what can happen when a fellow with a sharp eye follows a happy hunch.

During a rainy weekend back in 1933 Simons was fiddling with an Oudin coil. This almost forgotten gadget, a close relative of the Tesla coil, can step up low voltages 1,000 times or more. High voltage generated in this way has an advantage for the amateur experimenter in that it is relatively harmless. In the course of stepping up the voltage the Oudin coil also increases the frequency of the current, so that it tends to flow through the skin and away from vital organs such as the heart.

“My original Oudin coil,” Simons recalls, “was part of an ultraviolet lamp with which I tested mineral specimens for fluorescence. For no particular reason I decided to replace the evacuated quartz bulb, which produced the ultraviolet rays, with an old radio tube of the 01 type. The glass envelope of these tubes is coated inside with a silvery film of evaporated magnesium — the so-called “getter” which helps clear the tube of stray gas during the evacuation process and absorbs any that may be liberated by the glass walls or metal parts after the seal-off. I simply held the 01 in my hand and touched its prongs to the high-voltage terminal of the coil.” Instead of filling with a lavender glow, like the quartz bulb, the inside of the tube remained dark but the glass in contact with the magnesium lighted with a pale greenish fluorescence that reminded me of the glow emitted by old style X-ray tubes of the gas type. Was the radio tube producing X-rays?

read full story of this website
http://www.noah.org/science/x-ray/stong/

Development of units used for radiation doses and exposures

2010-02-19T12:47:00.000+05:00

1895 Roentgen discovers ionizing radiation.
1900 American Roentgen Ray Society (ARRS) founded.
1915 British Roentgen Society adopts X-ray protection resolution; believed to be
the first organized step toward radiation protection.
1920 ARRS establishes standing committee for radiation protection.
1921 British X-Ray and Radium Protection Committee presents its first radiation
protection rules.
1922 ARRS adopts British rules.
1922 American Registry of X-Ray Technicians founded.
1925 Mutscheller’s “tolerance dose” for X rays.
1925 First International Congress of Radiology, London, establishes ICRU.
1928 ICRP established under auspices of the Second International Congress of
Radiology, Stockholm.
1928 ICRU adopts the roentgen as unit of exposure.
1929 Advisory Committee on X-Ray and Radium Protection (ACXRP) formed in
United States (forerunner of NCRP).
1931 The roentgen adopted as unit of X radiation.
1931 ACXRP publishes recommendations (National Bureau of Standards Handbook
15).
1934 ICRP recommends daily tolerance dose.
1941 ACXRP recommends first permissible body burden, for radium.
1942 Manhattan District begins to develop atomic bomb; beginning of health
physics as a profession.
1946 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission created.
1946 NCRP formed as outgrowth of ACXRP.
1947 U.S. National Academy of Sciences establishes Atomic Bomb Casualty
Commission (ABCC) to initiate long-term studies of A-bomb survivors in
Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
1949 NCRP publishes recommendations and introduces risk/benefit concept.
1952 Radiation Research Society formed.
1953 ICRU introduces concept of absorbed dose.
1955 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR) established.
1956 Health Physics Society founded.
1956 International Atomic Energy Agency organized under United Nations.
1957 NCRP introduces age proration for occupational doses and recommends
nonoccupational exposure limits.
1957 U.S. Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy begins series of
hearings on radiation hazards, beginning with “The Nature of Radioactive
Fallout and Its Effects on Man.”
10 1 About Atomic Physics and Radiation
1958 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
publishes study of exposure sources and biological hazards (first UNSCEAR
Report).
1958 Society of Nuclear Medicine formed.
1959 ICRP recommends limitation of genetically significant dose to population.
1960 U.S. Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy holds hearings on
“Radiation Protection Criteria and Standards: Their Basis and Use.”
1960 American Association of Physicists in Medicine formed.
1960 American Board of Health Physics begins certification of health physicists.
1964 International Radiation Protection Association (IRPA) formed.
1964 Act of Congress incorporates NCRP.
1969 Radiation in space. Man lands on moon.
1974 U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) established.
1974 ICRP Publication 23, “Report of Task Group on Reference Man.”
1975 ABCC replaced by binational Radiation Effects Research Foundation
(RERF) to continue studies of Japanese survivors.
1977 ICRP Publication 26, “Recommendations of the ICRP.”
1977 U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) created.
1978 ICRP Publication 30, “Limits for Intakes of Radionuclides by Workers.”
1978 ICRP adopts “effective dose equivalent” terminology.
1986 Dosimetry System 1986 (DS86) developed by RERF for A-bomb survivors.
1986 Growing public concern over radon. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
publishes pamphlet, “A Citizen’s Guide to Radon.”
1987 NCRP Report No. 91, “Recommendations on Limits for Exposure to Ionizing
Radiation.”
1988 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation,
“Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation.” Report to the General
Assembly.
1988 U.S. National Academy of Sciences BEIR IV Report, “Health Risks of Radon
and Other Internally Deposited Alpha Emitters—BEIR IV.”
1990 U.S. National Academy of Sciences BEIR V Report, “Health Effects of Exposure
to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation—BEIR V.”
1991 International Atomic Energy Agency report on health effects from the April
1986 Chernobyl accident.
1991 10 CFR Part 20, NRC.
1991 ICRP Publication 60, “1990 Recommendations of the International Commission
on Radiological Protection.”
1993 10 CFR Part 835, DOE.
1993 NCRP Report No. 115, “Risk Estimates for Radiation Protection.”
1993 NCRP Report No. 116, “Limitation of Exposure to Ionizing Radiation.”
1994 Protocols developed for joint U.S., Ukraine, Belarus 20-y study of thyroid
disease in 85,000 children exposed to radioiodine following Chernobyl accident
in 1986.
1994 ICRP Publication 66, “Human Respiratory TractModel for Radiological Protection.”
1.5 Sources and Levels of Radiation Exposure 11
2000 UNSCEAR 2000 Report on sources of radiation exposure, radiationassociated
cancer, and the Chernobyl accident.
2003 Dosimetry System 2002 (DS02) formally approved.
2005 ICRP proposes system of radiological protection consisting of dose constraints
and dose limits, complimented by optimization.
2007 Final decision expected. ICRP 2007 Recommendations.

Parts of a Portable x-ray machines

2010-01-29T21:10:00.004+05:00

COLUMN of a Portable x-ray machines

Shell in column of a Portable x-ray machines

Inner wear strips in column of a Portable x-ray machines

Carriage in column of a Portable x-ray machines

Carriage wear strips in column of a Portable x-ray machines

Carriage bearings in column of a Portable x-ray machines

Counter weight and Counter weight bearings

Upper / lower braking

Main and safety cable tensions

Détente plates

Bearing packing

Apron hanger

Collimator alignment

Sid tape

Column light

Cross hair window

Face plate Release

handles

Column handle

Column cable

Column knobs

Inner, center, outer covers Wear strips

Tracking chain

gear Locking plunger

Latch holder

Yolk Détente bearings

Compression washers

Inner brake cable

Proper assembly Covers

HV Cables

Alignment of collimator Rotor cable

Tracking serial numbers

End caps

Frame Power supply CPU board

Drive boards MA & KV board

Rotor board Cord reel

Latch assembly Hand switch

TRANSFORMER :Connectors Oils Gasket

Drive motor, Drive wheels Mounting brackets,

Drive belts Proper grounding Column support (tub)

Front bumper Switches

Corner bumper pads

batteries Casters Belt tension springs

Specifications of C-Arm Image Intensifier T.V System

2010-01-29T21:00:00.002+05:00

Specifications of C-Arm Image Intensifier T.V System are as follows:

Focus Screen Distance: 900 mm
Clearance: 800 mm
Vertical Movement of C: 400 mm
Horizontal Movement: 200 mm
Panning: 25 degree
C-Arm Rotation: 360 degree
Arc Orbital Movement: 90 + 25 (115)
Digital Display of mA, KV,
Steering Handle for movement
Foot & Touch Button switching provided
Timer set reset for safety of X-Ray tube
Image Rotation & Image sifting Provided
Tube Head: Stationary Anode X-ray Tube;
Dual Focus; Small 0.6 x 0.6 mm;
Large 1.5 X1.5 mm;
KV: 40 to 100 KV (1KVP step);
mA (Flouro)0.1 to 3 mA
Image Intensifier – 6” single field
CCD Camera: High resolution
Monitors: Two high resolution monitors with rotation facility to one or both.
Power Requirement: 230 v Single Phase 50HZ, 15 Amp.
Two position exposure with precision electronic timer Comprises of overload protection for tube having timing variation from 0.02 to 5 sec at 23 steps.