<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en-GB">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
<meta http-equiv="Referrer-Policy" content="origin, strict-origin-when-cross-origin">
<link rel="profile" href="http://gmpg.org/xfn/11">
<link rel="pingback" href="http://physicsworld.com/xmlrpc.php">

<link rel="preconnect" href="https://use.typekit.net" crossorigin />
<link rel="preload" href="https://cdn-cookieyes.com/client_data/32a66075cd31d8fea8d5fadf/script.js" as="script" />
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://www.googletagmanager.com" crossorigin />
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.ampproject.org" crossorigin />
<link rel="preconnect" href="https://in.hotjar.com" crossorigin />

<meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge" >
<!-- webkit FranklinGothicURW start -->
<script src="//use.typekit.net/mfv1unu.js"></script>
<script>try{Typekit.load({ async: true, active: function() { jQuery('body').addClass('typekit'); } });}catch(e){}</script>
<!-- webkit FranklinGothicURW end -->

<link href="http://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/css/font-awesome.min.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />

<!-- Google Tag Manager -->
<script>(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':
new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],
j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src=
'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);
})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-TQRT9K38');</script>
<!-- End Google Tag Manager -->

<meta name='robots' content='index, follow, max-image-preview:large, max-snippet:-1, max-video-preview:-1' />
	<style>img:is([sizes="auto" i], [sizes^="auto," i]) { contain-intrinsic-size: 3000px 1500px }</style>
	
	<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v24.3 - https://yoast.com/wordpress/plugins/seo/ -->
	<title>Blog Archives &#8211; Physics World</title>
	<link rel="canonical" href="https://physicsworld.com/a/lego-interferometer-aims-to-put-quantum-science-in-the-spotlight/" />
	<link rel="next" href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/page/2/" />
	<meta property="og:locale" content="en_GB" />
	<meta property="og:type" content="article" />
	<meta property="og:title" content="Blog Archives &#8211; Physics World" />
	<meta property="og:url" content="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" />
	<meta property="og:site_name" content="Physics World" />
	<meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" />
	<meta name="twitter:site" content="@PhysicsWorld" />
	<script type="application/ld+json" class="yoast-schema-graph">{"@context":"https://schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"CollectionPage","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/","url":"https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/","name":"Blog Archives &#8211; Physics World","isPartOf":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#website"},"primaryImageOfPage":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/#primaryimage"},"image":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/#primaryimage"},"thumbnailUrl":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer.jpg","breadcrumb":{"@id":"https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/#breadcrumb"},"inLanguage":"en-GB"},{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-GB","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/#primaryimage","url":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer.jpg","contentUrl":"https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer.jpg","width":1653,"height":1102,"caption":"Building blocks: University of Nottingham researchers have developed a fully functional LEGO interferometer kit (courtesy: University of Nottingham)"},{"@type":"BreadcrumbList","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/#breadcrumb","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Home","item":"https://physicsworld.com/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Blog"}]},{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://physicsworld.com/#website","url":"https://physicsworld.com/","name":"Physics World","description":"","potentialAction":[{"@type":"SearchAction","target":{"@type":"EntryPoint","urlTemplate":"https://physicsworld.com/?s={search_term_string}"},"query-input":{"@type":"PropertyValueSpecification","valueRequired":true,"valueName":"search_term_string"}}],"inLanguage":"en-GB"}]}</script>
	<!-- / Yoast SEO plugin. -->


<meta name="oas:article-type" content="blog" /><link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//physicsworld.com' />
<link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//cdn.jsdelivr.net' />
<link rel='dns-prefetch' href='//players.brightcove.net' />
<link rel='stylesheet' id='wp-block-library-css' href='http://physicsworld.com/wp-includes/css/dist/block-library/style.min.css?ver=6.7.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
<style id='safe-svg-svg-icon-style-inline-css' type='text/css'>
.safe-svg-cover{text-align:center}.safe-svg-cover .safe-svg-inside{display:inline-block;max-width:100%}.safe-svg-cover svg{height:100%;max-height:100%;max-width:100%;width:100%}

</style>
<style id='powerpress-player-block-style-inline-css' type='text/css'>


</style>
<style id='classic-theme-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'>
/*! This file is auto-generated */
.wp-block-button__link{color:#fff;background-color:#32373c;border-radius:9999px;box-shadow:none;text-decoration:none;padding:calc(.667em + 2px) calc(1.333em + 2px);font-size:1.125em}.wp-block-file__button{background:#32373c;color:#fff;text-decoration:none}
</style>
<style id='global-styles-inline-css' type='text/css'>
:root{--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--square: 1;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--4-3: 4/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-4: 3/4;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--3-2: 3/2;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--2-3: 2/3;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--16-9: 16/9;--wp--preset--aspect-ratio--9-16: 9/16;--wp--preset--color--black: #000000;--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray: #abb8c3;--wp--preset--color--white: #ffffff;--wp--preset--color--pale-pink: #f78da7;--wp--preset--color--vivid-red: #cf2e2e;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange: #ff6900;--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber: #fcb900;--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan: #7bdcb5;--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan: #00d084;--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue: #8ed1fc;--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue: #0693e3;--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple: #9b51e0;--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(6,147,227,1) 0%,rgb(155,81,224) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(122,220,180) 0%,rgb(0,208,130) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(252,185,0,1) 0%,rgba(255,105,0,1) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red: linear-gradient(135deg,rgba(255,105,0,1) 0%,rgb(207,46,46) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(238,238,238) 0%,rgb(169,184,195) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(74,234,220) 0%,rgb(151,120,209) 20%,rgb(207,42,186) 40%,rgb(238,44,130) 60%,rgb(251,105,98) 80%,rgb(254,248,76) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,206,236) 0%,rgb(152,150,240) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(254,205,165) 0%,rgb(254,45,45) 50%,rgb(107,0,62) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,203,112) 0%,rgb(199,81,192) 50%,rgb(65,88,208) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(255,245,203) 0%,rgb(182,227,212) 50%,rgb(51,167,181) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(202,248,128) 0%,rgb(113,206,126) 100%);--wp--preset--gradient--midnight: linear-gradient(135deg,rgb(2,3,129) 0%,rgb(40,116,252) 100%);--wp--preset--font-size--small: 13px;--wp--preset--font-size--medium: 20px;--wp--preset--font-size--large: 36px;--wp--preset--font-size--x-large: 42px;--wp--preset--spacing--20: 0.44rem;--wp--preset--spacing--30: 0.67rem;--wp--preset--spacing--40: 1rem;--wp--preset--spacing--50: 1.5rem;--wp--preset--spacing--60: 2.25rem;--wp--preset--spacing--70: 3.38rem;--wp--preset--spacing--80: 5.06rem;--wp--preset--shadow--natural: 6px 6px 9px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--deep: 12px 12px 50px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4);--wp--preset--shadow--sharp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2);--wp--preset--shadow--outlined: 6px 6px 0px -3px rgba(255, 255, 255, 1), 6px 6px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);--wp--preset--shadow--crisp: 6px 6px 0px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1);}:where(.is-layout-flex){gap: 0.5em;}:where(.is-layout-grid){gap: 0.5em;}body .is-layout-flex{display: flex;}.is-layout-flex{flex-wrap: wrap;align-items: center;}.is-layout-flex > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}body .is-layout-grid{display: grid;}.is-layout-grid > :is(*, div){margin: 0;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;}.has-black-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-color{color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-background-color{background-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-black-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--black) !important;}.has-cyan-bluish-gray-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-white-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--white) !important;}.has-pale-pink-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-pink) !important;}.has-vivid-red-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-red) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--luminous-vivid-amber) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--light-green-cyan) !important;}.has-vivid-green-cyan-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-pale-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--pale-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-cyan-blue) !important;}.has-vivid-purple-border-color{border-color: var(--wp--preset--color--vivid-purple) !important;}.has-vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--vivid-cyan-blue-to-vivid-purple) !important;}.has-light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--light-green-cyan-to-vivid-green-cyan) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-amber-to-luminous-vivid-orange) !important;}.has-luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-vivid-orange-to-vivid-red) !important;}.has-very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--very-light-gray-to-cyan-bluish-gray) !important;}.has-cool-to-warm-spectrum-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--cool-to-warm-spectrum) !important;}.has-blush-light-purple-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-light-purple) !important;}.has-blush-bordeaux-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--blush-bordeaux) !important;}.has-luminous-dusk-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--luminous-dusk) !important;}.has-pale-ocean-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--pale-ocean) !important;}.has-electric-grass-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--electric-grass) !important;}.has-midnight-gradient-background{background: var(--wp--preset--gradient--midnight) !important;}.has-small-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--small) !important;}.has-medium-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--medium) !important;}.has-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--large) !important;}.has-x-large-font-size{font-size: var(--wp--preset--font-size--x-large) !important;}
:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-flex){gap: 1.25em;}:where(.wp-block-post-template.is-layout-grid){gap: 1.25em;}
:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-flex){gap: 2em;}:where(.wp-block-columns.is-layout-grid){gap: 2em;}
:root :where(.wp-block-pullquote){font-size: 1.5em;line-height: 1.6;}
</style>
<link rel='stylesheet' id='nine3-style-css' href='http://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/dist/css/main.1fa9a2d311a264afd5a12e9e5bbcf4cf.css?ver=6.7.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
<link rel='stylesheet' id='brightcove-pip-css-css' href='https://players.brightcove.net/videojs-pip/1/videojs-pip.css?ver=2.8.7' type='text/css' media='all' />
<link rel='stylesheet' id='brightcove-playlist-css' href='http://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/brightcove-video-connect/assets/css/brightcove_playlist.min.css?ver=2.8.7' type='text/css' media='all' />
<script src="http://physicsworld.com/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery.min.js?ver=3.7.1" id="jquery-core-js"></script>
<script src="http://physicsworld.com/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery-migrate.min.js?ver=3.4.1" id="jquery-migrate-js"></script>
<script id="real3d-flipbook-forntend-js-extra">
var rootFolder = ["http:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/real3d-flipbook\/"];
</script>
<script src="http://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/real3d-flipbook/js/frontend.js?ver=3.61" id="real3d-flipbook-forntend-js"></script>
<link rel="https://api.w.org/" href="https://physicsworld.com/wp-json/" /><link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" title="RSD" href="https://physicsworld.com/xmlrpc.php?rsd" />
<script id="dzsap-main-settings" type="application/json">{"dzsap_site_url":"http:\/\/physicsworld.com\/","pluginurl":"http:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/dzs-zoomsounds\/audioplayer\/","dzsap_curr_user":0,"version":"6.50","ajax_url":"https:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","action_received_time_total":"send_total_time"}</script>            <script type="text/javascript"><!--
                                function powerpress_pinw(pinw_url){window.open(pinw_url, 'PowerPressPlayer','toolbar=0,status=0,resizable=1,width=460,height=320');	return false;}
                //-->

                // tabnab protection
                window.addEventListener('load', function () {
                    // make all links have rel="noopener noreferrer"
                    document.querySelectorAll('a[target="_blank"]').forEach(link => {
                        link.setAttribute('rel', 'noopener noreferrer');
                    });
                });
            </script>
            <!-- Stream WordPress user activity plugin v4.1.0 -->
<script type="text/javascript" src="//physicsworld.com/?wordfence_syncAttackData=1744004069.3" async></script>      <meta name="onesignal" content="wordpress-plugin"/>
            <script>

      window.OneSignal = window.OneSignal || [];

      OneSignal.push( function() {
        OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_UPDATER_PATH = "OneSignalSDKUpdaterWorker.js.php";
                      OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_PATH = "OneSignalSDKWorker.js.php";
                      OneSignal.SERVICE_WORKER_PARAM = { scope: "/" };
        OneSignal.setDefaultNotificationUrl("http://physicsworld.com");
        var oneSignal_options = {};
        window._oneSignalInitOptions = oneSignal_options;

        oneSignal_options['wordpress'] = true;
oneSignal_options['appId'] = '7322d010-59eb-4b97-8b58-47d4ecec27f1';
oneSignal_options['allowLocalhostAsSecureOrigin'] = true;
oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification'] = { };
oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification']['title'] = "Physics World";
oneSignal_options['welcomeNotification']['message'] = "";
oneSignal_options['path'] = "https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/onesignal-free-web-push-notifications/sdk_files/";
oneSignal_options['promptOptions'] = { };
oneSignal_options['notifyButton'] = { };
oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['enable'] = true;
oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['position'] = 'bottom-right';
oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['theme'] = 'default';
oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['size'] = 'medium';
oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['showCredit'] = true;
oneSignal_options['notifyButton']['text'] = {};
                OneSignal.init(window._oneSignalInitOptions);
                OneSignal.showSlidedownPrompt();      });

      function documentInitOneSignal() {
        var oneSignal_elements = document.getElementsByClassName("OneSignal-prompt");

        var oneSignalLinkClickHandler = function(event) { OneSignal.push(['registerForPushNotifications']); event.preventDefault(); };        for(var i = 0; i < oneSignal_elements.length; i++)
          oneSignal_elements[i].addEventListener('click', oneSignalLinkClickHandler, false);
      }

      if (document.readyState === 'complete') {
           documentInitOneSignal();
      }
      else {
           window.addEventListener("load", function(event){
               documentInitOneSignal();
          });
      }
    </script>

<!-- Hotjar Tracking Code for physicsworld.com -->
<script>
	(function(h,o,t,j,a,r){
	h.hj=h.hj||function(){(h.hj.q=h.hj.q||[]).push(arguments)};
	h._hjSettings={hjid:788234,hjsv:6};
	a=o.getElementsByTagName('head')[0];
	r=o.createElement('script');r.async=1;
	r.src=t+h._hjSettings.hjid+j+h._hjSettings.hjsv;
	a.appendChild(r);
	})(window,document,'https://static.hotjar.com/c/hotjar-','.js?sv=');

	/* Hotjar user attributes */
	window.hj( 'identify', null, {
		Language: window.navigator.language,
	});
</script>

<script async src="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net/tag/js/gpt.js"></script>
<script>
	"use strict";
	
	/**
	 * Returns the OpenGraph type of this page (as set by Yoast)
	 *
	 * Cannot use `getMetaContent` for this as it uses the "property" attribute
	 * instead of the expected "name".
	 *
	 * @return {string} OpenGraph type
	 */
function getOgType() {
		let og_type = document.querySelector('meta[property="og:type"]');
		return ( og_type && og_type.content ? og_type.content : '' );
}

	/**
	 * Returns the content attribute of the named <meta> tag
	 *
	 * @param {string} name - Meta name
	 * @return {string}				Meta content
	 */
	function getMetaContent( name ) {
		let element = document.querySelector('meta[name="' + name + '"]');
		return element ? element.content : '';
	}

	/**
	 * Defines a GA slot only if the slot actually exists
	 *
	 * @param {string} ref			 			- Slot reference
	 * @param {Array} dimensions 			- Target dimensions
	 * @param {string} slot_id 	 			- Element ID
	 * @param {PubAdsService} service - Service to bind to
	 */
	function defineIfSlot(ref, dimensions, slot_id, service) {
			const element = document.getElementById(slot_id);

			// No ad slot
			if (!element) return;

			return googletag.defineSlot(ref, dimensions, slot_id).addService(service);
	}

	window.googletag = ( window.googletag || { cmd: [] } );

	googletag.cmd.push( function() {

		const pubads = googletag.pubads();

		// Conditionally define slots only if the element actually exists
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_r2_ap', 	[300, 250], 'div-gpt-ad-1567436410454-0', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_m_ap', 	[[300,250]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-1', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x01_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-2', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x02_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-3', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x03_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-4', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x04_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-5', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x05_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-6', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x06_gs', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-7', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_r_ap', 	[300, 250], 'div-gpt-ad-1563268425067-0', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_r1_ap', 	[[300,250]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-11', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x10_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-12', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x11_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-13', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x12_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-14', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x13_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-15', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x14_ss', [160, 60], 'div-gpt-ad-1563269243507-0', pubads);
		defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_x15_ss', [[160,60]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-17', pubads);

		const leaderboard = googletag.sizeMapping()
		.addSize([970, 0], [[970, 90], [728, 90]])	// Larger screen ads
		.addSize([768, 0], [[728, 90]]) 						// Smaller (laptop) screen ads
		.addSize([0, 0], 	[[300, 250], [320, 50]])	// Mobile screen ads
		.build();

		// Homepage & listing ads
		const t_1 = defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_t_hp',  [[970,90],[728,90],[729,90],[300,250],[320,50]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-18', pubads);
		const t_2 = defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_t1_hp', [[970,90],[728,90],[729,90],[300,250],[320,50]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-19', pubads);
		const t_3 = defineIfSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_t2_hp', [[970,90],[728,90],[729,90],[300,250],[320,50]], 'div-gpt-ad-3759129-20', pubads);

		// Only map if they actually exist
		t_1 && t_1.defineSizeMapping(leaderboard);
		t_2 && t_2.defineSizeMapping(leaderboard);
		t_3 && t_3.defineSizeMapping(leaderboard);

			// Search results
		
		const headerSize = googletag.sizeMapping()
		.addSize([970, 0], [[970, 90]])
		.addSize([0, 0], 	 [[320, 50]])
		.build()

		// Header ad (always appears)
		googletag.defineSlot('/21821800277/pw/pw_h_sw', [[970,90], [320, 50]], 'div-gpt-ad-5400963-20').defineSizeMapping(headerSize).addService(pubads);

		// Only apply targeting if values exist
		const article_og = getOgType();

		if ( article_og ) {
			pubads.setTargeting( "articleTag", article_og );
		}

		const article_type = getMetaContent( "oas:article-type" );

		if ( article_type ) {
			pubads.setTargeting( "articleType", article_type );
		}

		const article_category = getMetaContent( "oas:category" );

		if ( article_category ) {
			pubads.setTargeting( "category", article_category );
		}

		const article_sub = getMetaContent( "oas:sub-category" );

		if ( article_sub ) {
			pubads.setTargeting( "subCategory", article_sub );
		}

		
		
		
		// Add class to body if ads are visible
		pubads.addEventListener( "impressionViewable", function () {
			document.body.classList.add("has-ads");
		});

		pubads.enableSingleRequest();
		pubads.collapseEmptyDivs();

		// Start!
		googletag.enableServices();
	});
</script>

<!-- <style>
  div.advert::after {
    content:'Advertisement';
    display:block;
    text-align: left;
    font-size:12px;
    color: #9B9B9B;
  }
</style> -->


</head>
<body class="archive tax-article-type term-blog term-113 not-logged-in">

    <a class="sr-only" href="#main-content">Skip to main content</a>
	
		<!-- Google Tag Manager (noscript) -->
	<noscript aria-hidden="true">
		<iframe 
			src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-TQRT9K38"
			height="0"
			width="0"
			style="display:none;visibility:hidden" >
		</iframe>
	</noscript>
	<!-- End Google Tag Manager (noscript) -->


<header class="physics-world-nav">

				<span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true">
			<div id='div-gpt-ad-5400963-20' class="advert">  <!-- remove class advert__fallback 14/03/24 as requested by Alison -->
  			<script>
				window.addEventListener("load", () => {
    				googletag.cmd.push(() => { 
						googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-5400963-20'); 
					});
				})
  			</script>
			</div>
		</span>

		
<div class="top-bar">
		<div class="top-bar__left">
				
						<a href="https://ioppublishing.org/" class="top-bar__logo" target="_blank" rel="noopener">
								<img src="http://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/img/iop-publishing-logo-white.png" width="198" height="31" alt="" />
								<span class="sr-only">IOP Publishing site</span>
						</a>

						</div>

		<button class="top-bar__menu--mobile">
			Menu
		</button>

		<div class="top-bar__right">
				<div class="top-bar__user">
												<ul class="top-bar__links">
									<li><button  class="sign-in-btn"><span class="top-bar__icon"></span>Sign in</button></li>
									<li><button  class="register-btn">Register</button></li>
							</ul>
									</div>
		</div>
</div>


		<div class="physics-world-nav__wrapper">

				<div class="physics-world-nav__left">
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com" class="physics-world-nav__logo">
								<span class="sr-only">Back to homepage</span>
																		<img src="http://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/img/svg/pw-logo-red.svg" alt="IOP Physics World logo" width="217" height="40" />
														</a>
				</div>

				<div class="physics-world-nav__right">
						<nav class="nav-items__wrapper">
								<button class="physics-world-nav__dropdown">Topics</button>
								<div class="topic-dropdown" aria-expanded="false">

	<div class="wrapper">
		<div class="topic-content-container">
			<div><img width="798" height="449" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-1024x576.jpg" class="attachment-large size-large" alt="" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-211x119.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-317x178.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-768x432.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-711x400.jpg 711w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-732x412.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-720x405.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-635x357.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-350x197.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-257x145.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-300x169.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights-128x72.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/KR-centred-abstract-torus-of-lights.jpg 1200w" sizes="(max-width: 798px) 100vw, 798px" /><h2>Browse articles by topic</h2></div>			<ul class="topic-dropdown__list">
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/astronomy-space/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Astronomy_and_space_164193.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Astronomy and space</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/atomic-molecular/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Atomic_and_molecular__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Atomic and molecular</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/biophysics-bioengineering/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Biophysics_and_bioengineering__05958E-1.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Biophysics and bioengineering</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/condensed-matter/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Condensed_matter__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Condensed matter</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/culture-history-society/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Culture.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Culture, history and society</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/environment-energy/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Environment_and_energy__85AD21-1.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Environment and energy</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/instrumentation-measurement/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Instrumentation_and_measurement__9D9D9C.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Instrumentation and measurement</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/materials/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Materials__0085C8.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Materials</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/mathematics-computation/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Mathematics_and_computation__EC660F.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Mathematics and computation</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/medical-physics/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Medical_physics__05958.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Medical physics</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/optics-photonics/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Optics_and_photonics__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Optics and photonics</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/particle-nuclear/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Particle_and_nuclear__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Particle and nuclear</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/people/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/People-icon-purple.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">People</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/quantum/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Quantum__774E92.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Quantum</span>
						</a>
					</li>
									<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/scientific-enterprise/">
							<span class="topic-dropdown__icon" style="background-color:;">
								<img src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Enterprise-cogs.svg" alt="" loading="lazy" />
							</span>
							<span class="topic-dropdown__title">Scientific enterprise</span>
						</a>
					</li>
							</ul>

		</div>

	</div>

	<!-- <button class="topic-dropdown__view-more">
		<span>View more</span>
	</button> -->

</div>
								<div class='primary-nav'><ul class='menu'><li class='menu-item-has-children'><button class='menu-item-button' aria-expanded='false'>Latest content</button><ul class='sub-menu'><li class='menu-item__featured-content'><div><img width="798" height="394" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-1024x506.jpg" class="attachment-large size-large" alt="" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-1024x506.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-211x104.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-317x157.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-768x380.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-809x400.jpg 809w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-732x362.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-720x356.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-635x314.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-350x173.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-257x127.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-300x148.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-160x79.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB-128x63.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/big-data-concept-2055335264-shutterstock_greenbutterfly-WEB.jpg 1200w" sizes="(max-width: 798px) 100vw, 798px" /><h2>Browse articles by content type</h2></div></li><li><h2>Short reads</h2><ul class='sub-menu'><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/research-updates/'>Research updates</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/news/'>News</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/'>Blog</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/innovation-showcases/'>Innovation showcases</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/events/'>Events</a></li></ul></li><li><h2>Long reads</h2><ul class='sub-menu'><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/features/'>Features</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/opinion-reviews/'>Opinion and reviews</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/interviews/'>Interviews</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/analysis/'>Analysis</a></li></ul></li><li><h2>Multimedia</h2><ul class='sub-menu'><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/audio/'>Podcasts</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/videos/'>Video</a></li><li><a href='https://physicsworld.com/l/webinars/'>Webinars</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li class=''><a href='https://physicsworld.com/p/magazine/archive/'>Magazine</a></li><li class=''><a href='https://physicsworld.com/p/physics-world-live/'>Physics World Live</a></li></ul></div>								<a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com" target="_blank" class="nav__link-img link-img--pw-jobs">
									<span class='screen-reader-text'>IOP Physics World Jobs logo</span>
									<svg width="121" height="18" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g clip-path="url(#a)"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M84.433 9.612V7.308c0-.324-.105-.792-.281-1.08-.352-.864-1.02-1.44-1.97-1.44-1.971 0-2.183 2.52-2.183 4.032 0 1.584.176 4.176 2.288 4.176.492 0 .915-.144 1.302-.468.844-.72.844-1.836.844-2.916Zm1.478 4.428h-1.337V12.6c-.598 1.116-1.443 1.656-2.71 1.656-2.815 0-3.554-2.88-3.554-5.256 0-2.34.775-5.508 3.59-5.508 1.196 0 2.006.504 2.533 1.62V.9h1.478v13.14Z" fill="#9460A4"/><path d="M8.879 8.783c0-2.124-.563-5.22-3.237-5.22-1.197 0-1.725.72-2.288 1.692V3.707H.75V17.53h2.78v-4.248c.528.613 1.091.937 1.936.937 2.815-.037 3.413-3.133 3.413-5.436Zm-2.92-.072c0 .755.034 2.34-.388 2.987-.211.36-.457.468-.88.468-1.302 0-1.196-1.296-1.196-2.268v-2.52c0-.864.211-1.907 1.267-1.907 1.302 0 1.196 2.196 1.196 3.095v.144ZM17.29 14.04V7.164c0-1.908-.211-3.672-2.534-3.672-1.126 0-1.83.324-2.463 1.296V.9H9.478v13.14h2.815V7.488c0-.936.105-1.728 1.196-1.728 1.056 0 .986.792.986 1.692v6.588h2.815ZM25.207 3.709H22.78l-1.302 6.3-1.372-6.3H17.29l2.885 10.152c-.317 1.116-.492 1.476-1.654 1.476a5.65 5.65 0 0 1-.81-.072v2.268c.423.108.81.18 1.197.18 2.288 0 2.71-1.62 3.273-3.492l3.026-10.512ZM32.387 10.872c0-2.016-1.408-2.592-2.992-3.168-.316-.108-.95-.324-1.267-.54-.281-.216-.422-.468-.422-.864 0-.54.352-.9.88-.9.88 0 1.232.648 1.478 1.404l2.006-.612c-.458-1.764-1.654-2.7-3.414-2.7-1.935 0-3.59 1.188-3.59 3.276 0 1.944 1.409 2.7 3.027 3.24.352.108.88.288 1.197.504.317.216.422.468.422.864 0 .684-.528.936-1.09.936-.986 0-1.408-.612-1.62-1.548l-2.217.36c.317 2.196 1.69 3.06 3.801 3.06 2.006.072 3.8-1.08 3.8-3.312ZM35.8 3.709h-2.816v10.332H35.8V3.709ZM35.8.9h-2.816v1.908H35.8V.9ZM44.527 10.188l-2.64-.18c-.035.792-.175 1.908-1.16 1.908-1.373 0-1.338-2.232-1.338-3.168 0-.972.035-3.096 1.408-3.096.95 0 1.055 1.224 1.09 1.944l2.64-.108c-.106-1.224-.211-2.052-1.091-2.952-.774-.792-1.654-1.044-2.71-1.044-3.132 0-4.187 2.52-4.187 5.364 0 2.772.914 5.4 4.047 5.4 2.568 0 3.66-1.584 3.94-4.068ZM52.34 10.872c0-2.016-1.408-2.592-2.992-3.168-.316-.108-.95-.324-1.267-.54-.281-.216-.422-.468-.422-.864 0-.54.352-.9.88-.9.88 0 1.231.648 1.478 1.404l2.006-.612c-.458-1.764-1.654-2.7-3.414-2.7-1.935 0-3.59 1.188-3.59 3.276 0 1.944 1.408 2.7 3.027 3.24.352.108.88.288 1.197.504.316.216.422.468.422.864 0 .684-.528.936-1.09.936-.986 0-1.409-.612-1.62-1.548l-2.217.36c.317 2.196 1.69 3.06 3.8 3.06 2.007.072 3.802-1.08 3.802-3.312Z" class="svg-fill-colour"/><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M63.002 3.709h-1.231l-1.83 7.848-1.865-7.848h-1.091l-1.69 7.74-1.759-7.74h-1.478l2.499 10.332h1.372l1.619-7.272 1.724 7.272h1.267l2.463-10.332ZM70.568 9c0-2.664-.739-5.58-3.87-5.58-3.062 0-3.872 2.844-3.872 5.472 0 2.628.81 5.436 3.836 5.436 3.027 0 3.906-2.7 3.906-5.328Zm-1.654-.108c0 1.476-.21 4.14-2.217 4.14-2.005 0-2.217-2.664-2.217-4.176s.247-4.14 2.217-4.14c2.006 0 2.217 2.664 2.217 4.176ZM75.495 5.184V3.456c-.106-.036-.211-.036-.352-.036-.563 0-1.055.288-1.443.612-.598.54-.809 1.08-1.09 1.836v-2.16h-1.338V14.04h1.513V8.712c0-1.584.458-3.564 2.358-3.564.07 0 .246 0 .352.036Z" fill="#9460A4"/><path d="M77.712.9h-1.513v13.14h1.513V.9Z" fill="#9460A4"/><path d="M89.395.9h-.352v15.948h.352V.9ZM92.844 16.848c-.422 0-.774-.072-1.161-.18v-1.26c.351.108.668.18 1.02.18 1.161 0 1.161-.828 1.161-1.764V3.924h1.478v9c.036 1.944 0 3.924-2.498 3.924ZM93.829 2.7V.9h1.619v1.8h-1.619ZM100.339 14.545c-3.026 0-3.836-2.808-3.836-5.436s.81-5.472 3.871-5.472c3.132 0 3.871 2.88 3.871 5.58-.035 2.592-.915 5.328-3.906 5.328Zm0-9.612c-1.97 0-2.217 2.628-2.217 4.14 0 1.512.211 4.176 2.217 4.176 1.971 0 2.217-2.664 2.217-4.14 0-1.512-.211-4.176-2.217-4.176ZM108.926 14.473c-1.372 0-1.935-.432-2.569-1.656-.14.468-.246.972-.387 1.44h-.774V.29h1.478v5.004c.633-1.008 1.337-1.584 2.569-1.584 2.815 0 3.519 2.988 3.519 5.328 0 2.628-.809 5.436-3.836 5.436Zm.035-9.468c-1.654 0-2.252 1.836-2.252 3.276v1.584c0 1.584.317 3.348 2.217 3.348 2.112 0 2.182-2.628 2.182-4.212 0-1.62-.07-3.996-2.147-3.996ZM116.739 14.544c-2.006 0-3.203-.936-3.625-2.952l1.408-.324c.281 1.332.985 1.98 2.322 1.98.986 0 2.041-.54 2.041-1.692 0-1.872-3.237-1.728-4.504-2.88a2.592 2.592 0 0 1-.845-1.908c0-1.872 1.549-3.096 3.308-3.096.915 0 1.795.324 2.428 1.008.423.468.563.972.739 1.62l-1.302.324c-.316-.972-.879-1.656-1.97-1.656-.915 0-1.725.576-1.725 1.584 0 .828.599 1.224 1.302 1.476 1.725.54 4.118 1.008 4.118 3.384-.036 2.052-1.83 3.132-3.695 3.132Z" class="svg-fill-colour"/></g><defs><clipPath id="a"><path fill="#fff" transform="translate(.75)" d="M0 0h120v18H0z"/></clipPath></defs></svg>								</a>
						</nav>
						<button class="physics-world-nav__search-btn">
								<i class="fa fa-search" aria-hidden="true"></i> Search<span class="sr-only">Open Search Dialog</span>
						</button>
				</div>

		</div>

		
<div class="homepage-search" aria-expanded="false">
		<form action="https://physicsworld.com">
				<label for="input-home-search">Search by content type, topic, person, research area and more</label>
				<div class="homepage-search__form-container">
					<input id="input-home-search" type="search" name="s" placeholder="Search..." value="" />
					<button type="submit">
							<i class="fa fa-search" aria-hidden="true"></i>Search<span class="sr-only">Submit search</span>
					</button>
				</div>
		</form>
</div>

		
<div class="other-sites">

	<ul class="items">

		<li>
			<a href="https://ioppublishing.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener">
				IOP Publishing
			</a>
		</li>

	</ul>

	<ul class="top-bar__social">
					<li>
						<a href="https://www.facebook.com/physicsworld/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">
								<i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i>
								<span class="sr-only">Follow us on Facebook</span>
						</a>
				</li>
						<li>
						<a href="https://twitter.com/PhysicsWorld" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">
								<i class="fa fa-twitter" aria-hidden="true"></i>
								<span class="sr-only">Follow us on Twitter</span>
						</a>
				</li>
						<li>
						<a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/physics-world" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">
								<i class="fa fa-linkedin" aria-hidden="true"></i>
								<span class="sr-only">Follow us on LinkedIn</span>
						</a>
				</li>
						<li>
						<a href="https://www.youtube.com/PhysicsWorldTV" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">
								<i class="fa fa-youtube-play" aria-hidden="true"></i>
								<span class="sr-only">Watch us on Youtube</span>
						</a>
				</li>
						<li>
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/feed" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">
								<i class="fa fa-rss" aria-hidden="true"></i>
								<span class="sr-only">RSS Feed</span>
						</a>
				</li>
			</ul>

	<ul class="items">

		
		<li>
			<a href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">
				Jobs
			</a>
		</li>

</ul>

</div>
</header>
<div class="popup sign-in">

	<div class="popup__tabs">
		<button class="popup__tab popup__tab--active popup__tab-sign-in" data-tab="0">Sign in</button>
		<button class="popup__tab popup__tab-register" data-tab="1">Register</button>
		<button class="fa fa-times-circle btn--close popup__close"></button>
	</div>

	<div class="popup__content">
		
<div class="sign-in__content popup__row popup__row--active ajax_container">
	<form action="#" method="POST" data-ajax="login" class="login-form ajax__content" data-dest=".sign-in__content" data-keep="1">

		<div class="flex flex--rows popup__row__content">
			<div class="popup__col">
				<input type="hidden" name="redirect" value="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog">
				<input type="hidden" name="page" value="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog">
				<ul class="sign-in__inputs">
					<li>
						<label for="input-signin-email">Enter e-mail address</label>
						<input id="input-signin-email"  type="email" name="user-email" required  oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/>
					</li>
					<li class="password-input">
						<label for="input-signin-password">Enter password</label>
						<input type="password" name="user-password" id="input-signin-password" class="password-field" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a password')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/>
						<input type="checkbox" name="password" id="show-pw" />
						<label for="show-pw" class="password-label">Show</label>
					</li>
					<li>
						<div>
							<input type="checkbox" name="remember-me" id="form-checkbox" class="form-checkbox" />
							<label for="form-checkbox"><span></span>Remember me</label>
						</div>
						<div>
							<a href="#" class="forgot-btn">Forgot your password?</a>
						</div>
					</li>
				</ul>
				<aside class="register__benefits">
					<strong>Are you an IOP member?</strong>
					<p>Sign into your <em>Physics World</em> account to get access to all available digital issues of the monthly magazine. Your <em>Physics World</em> account is separate to any IOP accounts you may have</p>
				</aside>
			</div>

			<div class="popup__col">
				<div class="field__attempts">
					<strong>Sign in to</strong>
					<ul>
						<li>Access more than 20 years of online content</li>
						<li>Manage which e-mail newsletters you want to receive</li>
						<li>Read about the big breakthroughs and innovations across 13 scientific topics</li>
						<li>Explore the key issues and trends within the global scientific community</li>
					</ul>
				</div>
			</div>
		</div>

		<div class="popup__actions">
			<input type="submit" value="Sign in" class="btn btn--green" />
		</div>

	</form>
</div>

		<div class="register__form popup__row">
		<form action="/" class="form-register ajax__content " method="POST" data-ajax="register" data-dest=".register__form" data-keep="1">

		
		
		<div class="flex flex--rows popup__row__content">
				<ul class="register__email gutter ">
						<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6">
								<label for="input-register-email">Enter e-mail address</label>
								<input id="input-register-email" type="email" name="user-email" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/>
								<div class="tooltip">
										<span class="fa fa-question-circle"></span>
										<span class="tooltip__content">This e-mail address will be used to create your account</span>
								</div>

																		<aside class="register__benefits">
												<strong>Are you an IOP member?</strong>
												<p>Create a <em>Physics World</em> account to get access to all available digital issues of the monthly magazine. Your <em>Physics World</em> account is separate to any IOP accounts you may have.</p>
												<p><strong>Note:</strong> The verification e-mail to complete your account registration should arrive immediately. However, in some cases it takes longer. Don't forget to check your spam folder.</p>
												<p>If you haven't received the e-mail in 24 hours, please contact <a href="mailto:customerservices@ioppublishing.org">customerservices@ioppublishing.org</a>.</p>
										</aside>
														</li>

														<li class="register__info col-xs-12 col-sm-6">
										<strong>Registration is free, quick and easy</strong>
										<br />
										<ul>
												<li>Access more than 20 years of online content</li>
												<li>Choose which e-mail newsletters you want to receive</li>
												<li>Read about the big breakthroughs and innovations across 13 scientific topics</li>
												<li>Explore the key issues and trends within the global scientific community</li>
										</ul>
								</li>
										</ul>
		</div>

		<div class="popup__actions">
				<input type="submit" value="Register" class="btn btn--green" />
		</div>

</form>
		</div>
	</div>
</div>

<div class="popup forgot-password ">
	<div class="popup__tabs">
		<h4 class="popup__tab popup__tab--full">Reset your password</h4>
		<i class="fa fa-times-circle btn--close popup__close"></i>
	</div>

	<div class="popup__content forgot-parent ajax__container">
		<form class="popup__row popup__row--active ajax__content forgot-form " action="/" method="POST" data-ajax="forgot" data-dest=".forgot-parent" data-keep="1">
	<div class="popup__row__content">
		<p>Please enter the e-mail address you used to register to reset your password</p>
		<p><strong>Note:</strong> The verification e-mail to change your password should arrive immediately. However, in some cases it takes longer. Don't forget to check your spam folder.</p>
		<p>If you haven't received the e-mail in 24 hours, please contact <a href="mailto:customerservices@ioppublishing.org">customerservices@ioppublishing.org</a></p>
		<label for="input-ajax-forgotten-email">Enter e-mail address</label>
		<input id="input-ajax-forgotten-email" type="email" name="user-email" required  oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')"/>
	</div>

	<div class="popup__actions">
		<input type="submit" value="Reset my password" class="btn btn--green" />
	</div>
</form>
	<div class="ajax__content forgot__message popup__row--active">
			</div>
	</div>
</div>

	<div class="popup popup-message autoclose ">
		<div class="popup__tabs">
			<h4 class="popup__tab popup__tab--full">Registration complete</h4>
			<i class="fa fa-times-circle btn--close popup__close"></i>
		</div>

		<div class="popup__content ajax__container">
			<div class="popup__row__content">
					<p><strong>Thank you for registering with <em>Physics World</em></strong><br />
If you'd like to change your details at any time, please visit My account</p>
				</div>
				<div class="popup__actions">
									<a class="btn btn--green" href="/">Close</a>
								</div>
		</div>
	</div>

<!-- Overlay -->
<div class="overlay "></div>

<main class="site-window" id="main-content">

<div class="type-bar
		 type-bar--noicon">

		

		<h1 class="type-bar__heading">
				Blog		</h1>

		
</div>

	

<div id="main-container" class="category-container">
	<div class="wrapper">
		<div class="row">
		<div id="primary" class="col-md-8 col-sm-7 equalize-sidebar">

			
						
<article class="listing-block ">
												<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/lego-interferometer-aims-to-put-quantum-science-in-the-spotlight/" class="listing-block__image object-fit-element">
												<img width="135" height="90" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-135x90.jpg" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="LEGO interferometer" decoding="async" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-135x90.jpg 135w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-211x141.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-317x211.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-768x512.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-1536x1024.jpg 1536w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-600x400.jpg 600w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-618x412.jpg 618w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-615x410.jpg 615w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-635x423.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-296x197.jpg 296w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-257x171.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-300x200.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer-128x85.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21_02_2025-LEGO-interferometer.jpg 1653w" sizes="(max-width: 135px) 100vw, 135px" />												<span class="sr-only">Read article: LEGO interferometer aims to put quantum science in the spotlight</span>
										</a>
								
		<div class="listing-block__info">
				
		<ul class="hero-top-banner__category">
				
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/people/education-outreach/" style="color: #764992;">Education and outreach</a></li>
										
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #764992;">Blog</a></li>
										
						</ul>


				<h3 class="listing-block__title">
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/lego-interferometer-aims-to-put-quantum-science-in-the-spotlight/" title="LEGO interferometer aims to put quantum science in the spotlight">
								<b>LEGO interferometer aims to put quantum science in the spotlight</b>						</a>
				</h3>

										<p>University of Nottingham researchers have developed a fully functional LEGO interferometer kit</p>
						</div>
</article>

			
						
<article class="listing-block ">
												<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/test-your-quantum-knowledge-in-this-fun-quiz/" class="listing-block__image object-fit-element">
												<img width="160" height="90" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-160x90.jpg" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="IBM&#039;s quantum mirage" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-211x119.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-317x178.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-768x432.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-711x400.jpg 711w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-732x412.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-720x405.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-635x357.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-350x197.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-257x145.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-300x169.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only-128x72.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-quiz-C0195338-Quantum_mirage-featured-SPL_single-use-only.jpg 1200w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 160px) 100vw, 160px" />												<span class="sr-only">Read article: Test your quantum knowledge in this fun quiz</span>
										</a>
								
		<div class="listing-block__info">
				
		<ul class="hero-top-banner__category">
				
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/quantum/" style="color: #764992;">Quantum</a></li>
										
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #764992;">Blog</a></li>
										
						</ul>


				<h3 class="listing-block__title">
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/test-your-quantum-knowledge-in-this-fun-quiz/" title="Test your quantum knowledge in this fun quiz">
								<b>Test your quantum knowledge in this fun quiz</b>						</a>
				</h3>

										<p>Try this fun multiple-choice quiz to mark International Quantum Year</p>
						</div>
</article>

			
						
<article class="listing-block ">
												<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/us-science-faces-unprecedented-difficulties-under-the-trump-administration/" class="listing-block__image object-fit-element">
												<img width="135" height="90" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-135x90.jpg" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="Donald Trump at a White House press briefing in February 2025" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-135x90.jpg 135w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-211x141.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-317x211.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-768x512.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-600x400.jpg 600w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-618x412.jpg 618w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-615x410.jpg 615w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-635x423.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-296x197.jpg 296w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-257x171.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-300x200.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work-128x85.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/2025-02-19-Trump-White-House-US-government-work.jpg 1200w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 135px) 100vw, 135px" />												<span class="sr-only">Read article: US science faces unprecedented difficulties under the Trump administration</span>
										</a>
								
		<div class="listing-block__info">
				
		<ul class="hero-top-banner__category">
				
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/scientific-enterprise/policy-funding/" style="color: #cf2e2e;">Policy and funding</a></li>
										
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #cf2e2e;">Blog</a></li>
										
						</ul>


				<h3 class="listing-block__title">
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/us-science-faces-unprecedented-difficulties-under-the-trump-administration/" title="US science faces unprecedented difficulties under the Trump administration">
								<b>US science faces unprecedented difficulties under the Trump administration</b>						</a>
				</h3>

										<p><strong>Matin Durrani</strong> looks at the fall out following Donald Trump's re-election as US president</p>
						</div>
</article>

			
						
<article class="listing-block ">
												<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/freedom-in-the-equation-exhibition-opens-at-harvard-science-centre/" class="listing-block__image object-fit-element">
												<img width="135" height="90" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-135x90.jpg" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="Freedom in the equation exhibition" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-135x90.jpg 135w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-211x141.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-317x211.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-768x512.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-600x400.jpg 600w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-618x412.jpg 618w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-615x410.jpg 615w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-635x424.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-295x197.jpg 295w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-257x171.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-300x200.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small-128x85.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Freedom-in-the-equation_small.jpg 1000w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 135px) 100vw, 135px" />												<span class="sr-only">Read article: Freedom in the Equation exhibition opens at Harvard Science Centre</span>
										</a>
								
		<div class="listing-block__info">
				
		<ul class="hero-top-banner__category">
				
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/people/" style="color: #764992;">People</a></li>
										
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #764992;">Blog</a></li>
										
						</ul>


				<h3 class="listing-block__title">
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/freedom-in-the-equation-exhibition-opens-at-harvard-science-centre/" title="Freedom in the Equation exhibition opens at Harvard Science Centre">
								<b>Freedom in the Equation exhibition opens at Harvard Science Centre</b>						</a>
				</h3>

										<p>The exhibition, which is part of the Science at Risk project, runs until 10 March </p>
						</div>
</article>

			
<div class="wrapper clearfix">
		<div class="ajax__container fullwidth-newsletter-sign-up newsletter" >
				<form method="post" enctype="multipart/form-data" data-ajax="register" data-dest=".fullwidth-newsletter-sign-up">

						<input type="hidden" name="signup" value="1">
						<input type="hidden" name="shortform" value="1">
						<input type="hidden" name="url" value="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog">

						<div class="fullwidth-newsletter-sign-up__email">
								<div class="gf_browser_chrome gform_wrapper" id="gform_wrapper_1">
										<div class="gform_heading">
												<h3 class="gform_title">Want to read more?</h3>
												<span class="gform_description">Registration is free, quick and easy</span>
												<p><strong>Note:</strong> The verification e-mail to complete your account registration should arrive immediately. However, in some cases it takes longer. Don't forget to check your spam folder.</p>
												<p>If you haven't received the e-mail in 24 hours, please contact <a href="mailto:customerservices@ioppublishing.org">customerservices@ioppublishing.org</a>.</p>
										</div>
										<div class="gform_body">
												<ul id="gform_fields_1" class="gform_fields right_label form_sublabel_below description_below">
														<li id="field_1_1" class="gfield field_sublabel_below field_description_below gfield_visibility_visible">
																<label class="gfield_label" for="user-email">E-mail Address</label>
																<div class="ginput_container ginput_container_email">
																		<input name="user-email" id="user-email" type="email" value="" class="medium" placeholder="E-mail address" required oninvalid="this.setCustomValidity('Please enter a valid e-mail address')" oninput="this.setCustomValidity('')">
																</div>
														</li>
												</ul>
										</div>
										<div class="gform_footer right_label">
												<button type="submit" id="register-signup" class="gform_button button button-registration-short" >Register</button>
										</div>
								</div>
						</div>

						<div class="clearfix">
						</div>

				</form>
		</div>
</div>


						
<article class="listing-block ">
												<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/say-hi-to-quinnie-the-official-mascot-of-the-international-year-of-quantum-science-and-technology/" class="listing-block__image object-fit-element">
												<img width="146" height="90" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-146x90.jpg" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="Quinnie, the cartoon mascot of the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-146x90.jpg 146w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-211x130.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-1024x631.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-317x195.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-768x473.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-650x400.jpg 650w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-669x412.jpg 669w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-666x410.jpg 666w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-635x391.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-320x197.jpg 320w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-257x158.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-300x185.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES-128x79.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quinnie_pose-2_dual-twins_LORES.jpg 1200w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 146px) 100vw, 146px" />												<span class="sr-only">Read article: Say hi to Quinnie &#8211; the official mascot of the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology</span>
										</a>
								
		<div class="listing-block__info">
				
		<ul class="hero-top-banner__category">
				
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/quantum/" style="color: #764992;">Quantum</a></li>
										
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #764992;">Blog</a></li>
										
						</ul>


				<h3 class="listing-block__title">
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/say-hi-to-quinnie-the-official-mascot-of-the-international-year-of-quantum-science-and-technology/" title="Say hi to Quinnie &#8211; the official mascot of the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology">
								<b>Say hi to Quinnie &#8211; the official mascot of the International Year of Quantum Science and Technology</b>						</a>
				</h3>

										<p>Meet the playful mascot marking the centenary of quantum mechanics in 2025</p>
						</div>
</article>

			
						
<article class="listing-block ">
												<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/european-space-agencys-euclid-mission-spots-spectacular-einstein-ring/" class="listing-block__image object-fit-element">
												<img width="136" height="90" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Euclid-EWS-NGC6505-EinsteinRing-Zoom_embargoed-1-136x90.jpeg" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="Einstein ring" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Euclid-EWS-NGC6505-EinsteinRing-Zoom_embargoed-1-136x90.jpeg 136w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Euclid-EWS-NGC6505-EinsteinRing-Zoom_embargoed-1-211x140.jpeg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Euclid-EWS-NGC6505-EinsteinRing-Zoom_embargoed-1-317x210.jpeg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Euclid-EWS-NGC6505-EinsteinRing-Zoom_embargoed-1-297x197.jpeg 297w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Euclid-EWS-NGC6505-EinsteinRing-Zoom_embargoed-1-257x170.jpeg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Euclid-EWS-NGC6505-EinsteinRing-Zoom_embargoed-1-300x199.jpeg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Euclid-EWS-NGC6505-EinsteinRing-Zoom_embargoed-1-128x85.jpeg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Euclid-EWS-NGC6505-EinsteinRing-Zoom_embargoed-1.jpeg 400w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 136px) 100vw, 136px" />												<span class="sr-only">Read article: European Space Agency’s Euclid mission spots spectacular Einstein ring</span>
										</a>
								
		<div class="listing-block__info">
				
		<ul class="hero-top-banner__category">
				
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/astronomy-space/" style="color: #004f99;">Astronomy and space</a></li>
										
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #004f99;">Blog</a></li>
										
						</ul>


				<h3 class="listing-block__title">
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/european-space-agencys-euclid-mission-spots-spectacular-einstein-ring/" title="European Space Agency’s Euclid mission spots spectacular Einstein ring">
								<b>European Space Agency’s Euclid mission spots spectacular Einstein ring</b>						</a>
				</h3>

										<p>The ring is due to the gravitational effects of a galaxy located around 590 million light-years from Earth</p>
						</div>
</article>

			
						
<article class="listing-block ">
												<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/plancks-physics-quiz-the-solutions/" class="listing-block__image object-fit-element">
												<img width="160" height="63" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-160x63.png" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="Simplified schematic of a pendulum clock mechanism" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-160x63.png 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-211x82.png 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-1024x400.png 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-317x124.png 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-768x300.png 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-1023x400.png 1023w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-732x286.png 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-720x281.png 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-635x248.png 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-350x137.png 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-257x100.png 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-300x117.png 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question-128x50.png 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-LT-quiz-question.png 1200w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 160px) 100vw, 160px" />												<span class="sr-only">Read article: PLANCKS physics quiz – the solutions</span>
										</a>
								
		<div class="listing-block__info">
				
		<ul class="hero-top-banner__category">
				
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/people/education-outreach/" style="color: #764992;">Education and outreach</a></li>
										
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #764992;">Blog</a></li>
										
						</ul>


				<h3 class="listing-block__title">
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/plancks-physics-quiz-the-solutions/" title="PLANCKS physics quiz – the solutions">
								<b>PLANCKS physics quiz – the solutions</b>						</a>
				</h3>

										<p>How did you get on with our fiendish end-of-year quiz?</p>
						</div>
</article>

			
						
<article class="listing-block ">
												<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/the-physics-of-george-r-r-martins-wild-card-virus-revealed/" class="listing-block__image object-fit-element">
												<img width="160" height="90" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-160x90.jpg" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="coronavirus" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-160x90.jpg 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-211x119.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-317x178.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-768x432.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-711x400.jpg 711w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-732x412.jpg 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-720x405.jpg 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-635x357.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-350x197.jpg 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-257x145.jpg 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-300x169.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani-128x72.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/coronavirus-featured-1203426591-iStock_RomoloTavani.jpg 1200w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 160px) 100vw, 160px" />												<span class="sr-only">Read article: The physics of George R R Martin&#8217;s Wild Card virus revealed</span>
										</a>
								
		<div class="listing-block__info">
				
		<ul class="hero-top-banner__category">
				
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/mathematics-computation/" style="color: #eb6608;">Mathematics and computation</a></li>
										
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #eb6608;">Blog</a></li>
										
						</ul>


				<h3 class="listing-block__title">
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/the-physics-of-george-r-r-martins-wild-card-virus-revealed/" title="The physics of George R R Martin&#8217;s Wild Card virus revealed">
								<b>The physics of George R R Martin&#8217;s Wild Card virus revealed</b>						</a>
				</h3>

										<p>Martin has put his name to a theoretical physics paper </p>
						</div>
</article>

			
						
<article class="listing-block ">
												<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/explore-the-quantum-frontier-all-about-the-international-year-of-quantum-science-and-technology-2025/" class="listing-block__image object-fit-element">
												<img width="160" height="90" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-160x90.png" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="Abstract image of futuristic technology" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-160x90.png 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-211x119.png 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-1024x576.png 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-317x178.png 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-768x432.png 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-711x400.png 711w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-732x412.png 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-720x405.png 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-635x357.png 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-350x197.png 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-257x145.png 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-300x169.png 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka-128x72.png 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/2025-01-Careers-quantum-iStock_piranka.png 1200w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 160px) 100vw, 160px" />												<span class="sr-only">Read article: Explore the quantum frontier: all about the International Year of  Quantum Science and Technology 2025</span>
										</a>
								
		<div class="listing-block__info">
				
		<ul class="hero-top-banner__category">
				
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/quantum/" style="color: #764992;">Quantum</a></li>
										
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #764992;">Blog</a></li>
										
						</ul>


				<h3 class="listing-block__title">
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/explore-the-quantum-frontier-all-about-the-international-year-of-quantum-science-and-technology-2025/" title="Explore the quantum frontier: all about the International Year of  Quantum Science and Technology 2025">
								<b>Explore the quantum frontier: all about the International Year of  Quantum Science and Technology 2025</b>						</a>
				</h3>

										<p><strong>Tushna Commissariat</strong> rounds up the key activities, talks and events in the IYQ calendar across the UK</p>
						</div>
</article>

			
						
<article class="listing-block ">
												<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/iop-president-keith-burnett-outlines-a-pivotal-year-ahead-for-uk-physics/" class="listing-block__image object-fit-element">
												<img width="160" height="90" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-160x90.png" class="attachment-list-image size-list-image wp-post-image" alt="Keith Burnett" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-160x90.png 160w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-211x119.png 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-1024x576.png 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-317x178.png 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-768x432.png 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-1536x864.png 1536w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-711x400.png 711w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-732x412.png 732w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-720x405.png 720w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-635x357.png 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-350x197.png 350w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-257x145.png 257w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-300x169.png 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett-128x72.png 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Keith-Burnett.png 1540w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 160px) 100vw, 160px" />												<span class="sr-only">Read article: IOP president Keith Burnett outlines a &#8216;pivotal&#8217; year ahead for UK physics</span>
										</a>
								
		<div class="listing-block__info">
				
		<ul class="hero-top-banner__category">
				
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/c/scientific-enterprise/policy-funding/" style="color: #cf2e2e;">Policy and funding</a></li>
										
																		<li><a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/" style="color: #cf2e2e;">Blog</a></li>
										
						</ul>


				<h3 class="listing-block__title">
						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/iop-president-keith-burnett-outlines-a-pivotal-year-ahead-for-uk-physics/" title="IOP president Keith Burnett outlines a &#8216;pivotal&#8217; year ahead for UK physics">
								<b>IOP president Keith Burnett outlines a &#8216;pivotal&#8217; year ahead for UK physics</b>						</a>
				</h3>

										<p>A failure to support physics and physics-based industries could result in missed opportunities, says Burnett  </p>
						</div>
</article>

			
			
			
<nav class="pagination col-sm-12">
		<ul class="pagination-list">

				

				

												<li class="active">
																						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/page/1/">1</a>
																		</li>
												<li class="">
																						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/page/2/">2</a>
																		</li>
												<li class="">
																						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/page/3/">3</a>
																		</li>
												<li class="">
																						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/page/4/">4</a>
																		</li>
												<li class="">
																						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/page/5/">5</a>
																		</li>
												<li class="">
																						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/page/6/">6</a>
																		</li>
												<li class="">
																						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/page/7/">7</a>
																		</li>
												<li class="">
																						<a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/page/8/">8</a>
																		</li>
				

										<li>
								<span>...</span>
						</li>
				

										<li class="next">
								<a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/page/2/"  ajax-page="2">Next</a>
						</li>

						<li class="last">
								<a href="https://physicsworld.com/l/blog/page/314/"  ajax-page="314">Last</a>
						</li>
				
		</ul>
</nav>


		</div>

		<!-- Sidebar -->
		<div class="col-md-1 col-sm-hide"></div>
		
<div id="secondary" class="iopp-sidebar col-md-4 col-sm-5 col-xs-12 equalize-sidebar" role="complementary">
		<div class="mpu-300x250">
		<span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-1563268425067-0' class="advert" >
  <script>
    googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1563268425067-0'); });
  </script>
</div></span></div>


<div class="key-suppliers wrapper">

		
		<ul>
				<li>
						<span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-2'>
  <script>
    googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-2'); });
  </script>
</div></span>				</li>
				<li>
						<span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-3'>
  <script>
    googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-3'); });
  </script>
</div></span>				</li>
				<li>
						<span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-4'>
  <script>
    googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-4'); });
  </script>
</div></span>				</li>
				<li>
						<span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-5'>
  <script>
    googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-5'); });
  </script>
</div></span>				</li>
		</ul>
</div>


		<div class="mpu-300x250">
				<span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-1567436410454-0' class="advert" >
      <script>
        googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1567436410454-0'); });
      </script>
    </div></span>		</div>

		<div class="sticky-me" role="complementary">
				
<div class="mpu-300x250 mpu-300x250--internal">
		
<article class="journal-ad">
	<a href="https://www.physicsworld.com/account?utm_source=pw&utm_medium=box&utm_campaign=pnnewsletter">
		<div class="journal-ad__image object-fit-element">
			<img width="207" height="197" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-207x197.jpg" class="attachment-1-3-cols size-1-3-cols wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-207x197.jpg 207w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-211x201.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-1024x976.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-317x302.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-768x732.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-1536x1464.jpg 1536w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-2048x1952.jpg 2048w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-420x400.jpg 420w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-432x412.jpg 432w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-430x410.jpg 430w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-635x605.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-202x193.jpg 202w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-262x250.jpg 262w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-94x90.jpg 94w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-128x122.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/PN-image-24x24.jpg 24w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 207px) 100vw, 207px" />
			<div class="journal-ad__content">
							</div>
		</div>

		<div class="journal-ad__info" style="background-color: #cf2e2e">
			<h3 class="journal-ad__title" >Particle and nuclear newsletter</h3>
			<p>Receive our highlights in particle and nuclear research, along with must-read features and opinion pieces straight to your inbox, quarterly.</p>
		</div>
	</a>
</article>
</div>

<div class="mpu-300x250">
		<span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-11' class="advert">
  <script>
    googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-11'); });
  </script>
</div></span></div>

		</div>
</div><!-- #secondary -->
		</div>
	</div>

	<!-- Other modules -->
	
<div class="wrapper m08b">
		<div class="row">
				<div class="col-xs-6">
						
<div class="section-breaks">
		<h2 class="section-breaks__heading">Related jobs</h2>
</div>


<div class="bright-recruits">
		<ul class='bright-recruits__jobs'>
				
<li class="bright-recruits__item">
    <a
      href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/job/21475/pump-system-engineer/?trackid=9&utm_source=RestAPI&utm_medium=Referral"
      target="_blank"
      rel="noopener"
      data-id="21475"
    >
        <span class="bright-recruits__location">
            United States                            | Honeywell                    </span>
        <h4 class="bright-recruits__title">Pump System Engineer</h4>
    </a>
</li>

<li class="bright-recruits__item">
    <a
      href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/job/21671/weapons-effects-technical-lead/?trackid=9&utm_source=RestAPI&utm_medium=Referral"
      target="_blank"
      rel="noopener"
      data-id="21671"
    >
        <span class="bright-recruits__location">
            Aldermaston                            | AWE                    </span>
        <h4 class="bright-recruits__title">Weapons Effects Technical Lead</h4>
    </a>
</li>

<li class="bright-recruits__item">
    <a
      href="https://www.physicsworldjobs.com/job/21658/network-engineer/?trackid=9&utm_source=RestAPI&utm_medium=Referral"
      target="_blank"
      rel="noopener"
      data-id="21658"
    >
        <span class="bright-recruits__location">
            Berkshire                            | AWE                    </span>
        <h4 class="bright-recruits__title">Network Engineer</h4>
    </a>
</li>
		</ul>
</div>

				</div>

				<div class='col-xs-6'>
						
<div class="section-breaks">
		<h2 class="section-breaks__heading">Related events</h2>
</div>


<div class="bright-recruits">
		<ul class='bright-recruits__jobs'>
					<li class="bright-recruits__item">
		<span class="bright-recruits__location">Astronomy and space | Exhibition</php></span>
		<a href="https://physicsworld.com/event/ane-global-meet-and-expo-on-astronomy-astrophysics-and-cosmology/" class="bright-recruits__title related-title">
			ANE Global Meet and Expo on Astronomy, Astrophysics and Cosmology		</a>
		<span class="bright-recruits__date">7&mdash;9 April 2025 | London, UK</span>
	</li>
	<li class="bright-recruits__item">
		<span class="bright-recruits__location">Education and outreach | Conference</php></span>
		<a href="https://physicsworld.com/event/international-conference-on-engineering-social-sciences-and-humanities-icessu-2025/" class="bright-recruits__title related-title">
			International Conference on Engineering, Social Sciences and Humanities (ICESSU-2025)		</a>
		<span class="bright-recruits__date">9&mdash;10 April 2025 | Manila, Philippines</span>
	</li>
	<li class="bright-recruits__item">
		<span class="bright-recruits__location">Detectors and sensors | Conference</php></span>
		<a href="https://physicsworld.com/event/spie-defense-commercial-sensing-2025/" class="bright-recruits__title related-title">
			SPIE Defense + Commercial Sensing 2025		</a>
		<span class="bright-recruits__date">13&mdash;17 April 2025 | Orlando, US</span>
	</li>
		</ul>
</div>

				</div>
		</div>
</div>

<div class='m21 wrapper'>
		
		<div class='row'>
				<div class="col-md-12">
						<div class="corporate-partners col-md-12">
	<ul>
		<li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true">  <div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-12'>
    <script>
      googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-12'); });
    </script>
  </div></span></li>
		<li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-13'>
  <script>
    googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-13'); });
  </script>
</div></span></li>
		<li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-14'>
  <script>
    googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-14'); });
  </script>
</div></span></li>
		<li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-15'>
  <script>
    googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-15'); });
  </script>
</div></span></li>
		<li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-1563269243507-0' >
  <script>
    googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-1563269243507-0'); });
  </script>
</div></span></li>
		<li><span class="mpu align-none" aria-hidden="true"><div id='div-gpt-ad-3759129-17' >
  <script>
    googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('div-gpt-ad-3759129-17'); });
  </script>
</div></span></li>
	</ul>

</div>
				</div>
		</div>
</div>
</div>


		<div class="printer-only push-me">Copyright &copy; 2025 by IOP Publishing Ltd and individual contributors</div>
		</main>

		
		<footer class="footer hide-for-printer">
				<div class="wrapper">
						<div class="row">
								<div class="footer__container">
										<div class="pw__info footer__grid-col--1">

												<img src="http://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/src/svg/pw-logo-white-red-text.svg" alt="Physics World logo" width="228px" height="42px">
												<ul class="footer__social">
																																<li>
																				<a href="https://www.facebook.com/physicsworld/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Follow us on Facebook">
																																												<i class="fa fa-facebook" aria-hidden="true"></i>
																																												<span class="sr-only">Follow us on Facebook</span>
																				</a>
																		</li>
																																				<li>
																				<a href="https://twitter.com/PhysicsWorld" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Follow us on X">
																																													<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" aria-hidden="true"  shape-rendering="geometricPrecision" text-rendering="geometricPrecision" image-rendering="optimizeQuality" fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" viewBox="0 0 512 462.799"><path fill-rule="nonzero" fill="currentColor" d="M403.229 0h78.506L310.219 196.04 512 462.799H354.002L230.261 301.007 88.669 462.799h-78.56l183.455-209.683L0 0h161.999l111.856 147.88L403.229 0zm-27.556 415.805h43.505L138.363 44.527h-46.68l283.99 371.278z"/></svg>
																																												<span class="sr-only">Follow us on X</span>
																				</a>
																		</li>
																																				<li>
																				<a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/physics-world" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Follow us on LinkedIn">
																																												<i class="fa fa-linkedin" aria-hidden="true"></i>
																																												<span class="sr-only">Follow us on LinkedIn</span>
																				</a>
																		</li>
																																				<li>
																				<a href="https://www.youtube.com/PhysicsWorldTV" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="Watch us on Youtube">
																																												<i class="fa fa-youtube-play" aria-hidden="true"></i>
																																												<span class="sr-only">Watch us on Youtube</span>
																				</a>
																		</li>
																																				<li>
																				<a href="https://physicsworld.com/feed" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer" alt="RSS Feed">
																																												<i class="fa fa-rss" aria-hidden="true"></i>
																																												<span class="sr-only">RSS Feed</span>
																				</a>
																		</li>
																														</ul>
																										<a href="https://physicsworld.com/account/sign-in/" class="btn btn--sign-in">Sign in</a>
														<a href="https://physicsworld.com/account/register/" class="btn">Register</a>
												
										</div>

										<div class="col__border-top footer__grid-col--2">
												<h4 class="footer__heading">Our mission</h4>
												<p><i>Physics World</i> represents a key part of IOP Publishing&#8217;s mission to communicate world-class research and innovation to the widest possible audience. The website forms part of the <a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-portfolio/"><i>Physics World</i> portfolio</a>, a collection of online, digital and print information services for the global scientific community.</p>

												
																									<div class="footer__podcasts">
														<h4 class="footer__heading">Podcasts</h4>
																															<a 
																	href="https://blubrry.com/physicsworldweeklypodcast/" 
																	class="footer__podcast" 
																	target="_blank"
																>
																	<img width="150" height="150" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1.jpg" class="attachment-profile_150 size-profile_150" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1.jpg 1500w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-317x317.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-211x211.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-768x768.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-400x400.jpg 400w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-410x410.jpg 410w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-635x635.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-197x197.jpg 197w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-250x250.jpg 250w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-90x90.jpg 90w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-193x193.jpg 193w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-128x128.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-196x196.jpg 196w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/PW-Podcast-WEEKLY-comp-1-412x412.jpg 412w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px" />																	<div class="podcast-details">
																		<h4>Physics World Weekly</h4>
																	</div>
																</a>
																																														<a 
																	href="https://blubrry.com/physics_world_science_podcast/" 
																	class="footer__podcast" 
																	target="_blank"
																>
																	<img width="150" height="150" src="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-150x150.jpg" class="attachment-profile_150 size-profile_150" alt="Physics World Stories podcast logo" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-150x150.jpg 150w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-211x211.jpg 211w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-317x317.jpg 317w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-768x768.jpg 768w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-1536x1536.jpg 1536w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-400x400.jpg 400w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-410x410.jpg 410w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-635x635.jpg 635w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-197x197.jpg 197w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-250x250.jpg 250w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-90x90.jpg 90w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-193x193.jpg 193w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-128x128.jpg 128w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-196x196.jpg 196w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-412x412.jpg 412w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-24x24.jpg 24w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-48x48.jpg 48w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-96x96.jpg 96w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized-300x300.jpg 300w, https://physicsworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/PW-podcast-logo-STORIES-resized.jpg 2000w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 150px) 100vw, 150px" />																	<div class="podcast-details">
																		<h4>Physics World Stories</h4>
																	</div>
																</a>
																												</div>
																						</div>

										<div class="col__border-top footer__grid-col--3">
												<h4 class="footer__heading">Explore</h4>
												<div class="menu-footer-1-container"><ul id="menu-footer-1" class="menu"><li id="menu-item-65637" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65637"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/about-us/">About us</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-65638" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65638"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-team/">Our team</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-65639" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65639"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-portfolio/">Our portfolio</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-65640" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-65640"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/advertising/">Advertising</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-119712" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-119712"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/our-artificial-intelligence-policy/">Our AI policy</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-67467" class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-67467"><a href="https://physicsworld.com/p/contact-us/">Contact us</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-67496" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-67496"><a rel="noreferrer" href="mailto:pwld@ioppublishing.org">Feedback</a></li>
</ul></div>										</div>

										<div class="col__border-top footer__grid-col--4">
												<h4 class="footer__heading">More information</h4>
												<div class="menu-footer-2-container"><ul id="menu-footer-2" class="menu"><li id="menu-item-65641" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-65641"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://www.iop.org/">Institute of Physics</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-67295" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-67295"><a rel="noreferrer" href="https://membership.iop.org/">Join the Institute</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-66155" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66155"><a rel="noreferrer" href="https://www.iop.org/slavery-and-human-trafficking-statement-financial-year-ending-31-december-2020">Modern Slavery Act</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-66151" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66151"><a rel="noreferrer" href="https://physicsworld.com/p/cookies-privacy-policy/">Privacy and cookies</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-65642" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-65642"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/">IOP Publishing</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-66154" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66154"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/copyright/">Copyright</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-66153" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66153"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/legal-statements/terms-conditions/">Terms and conditions</a></li>
<li id="menu-item-66152" class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-66152"><a rel="noreferrer" href="http://ioppublishing.org/legal-statements/disclaimer/">Disclaimer</a></li>
</ul></div>										</div>
								</div>
						</div>
				</div>

				<button class="back-to-top">Back to top</button>
		</footer>

		
				<script id="js-onesignal-ga">
					"use strict";
					window.OneSignal = window.OneSignal || [];

					// In some browsers the console might be undefined
					const log = function (message) { console && console.log(message); };

					const callback = function (payload) {
						log("OneSignal notification opened!");

						OneSignal.getUserId(function (user_id) {
							ga("send", {
								hitType: "event",
								eventCategory: 'OSNotification',
								eventAction: 'u_id ' + user_id,
								eventLabel: 'n_id ' + payload.id
							});
						});

						// Allow future opens to also trigger the callback
						OneSignal.addListenerForNotificationOpened(callback);
					};

					// Defer function until OneSignal has finished loading
					OneSignal.push(function () {
						log("OneSignal loaded!");

						// Listen for notification opened
						OneSignal.addListenerForNotificationOpened(callback);
					});
				</script>

				<script src="http://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/leaky-paywall/js/micromodal.min.js?ver=4.21.6" id="zeen101_micromodal-js"></script>
<script id="leaky_paywall_validate-js-extra">
var leaky_paywall_validate_ajax = {"ajaxurl":"\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","register_nonce":"20dbd4e42b","password_text":"Passwords do not match."};
</script>
<script src="http://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/leaky-paywall/js/leaky-paywall-validate.js?ver=4.21.6" id="leaky_paywall_validate-js"></script>
<script id="leaky_paywall_script-js-extra">
var leaky_paywall_script_ajax = {"ajaxurl":"\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","stripe_pk":""};
</script>
<script src="http://physicsworld.com/wp-content/plugins/leaky-paywall/js/script.js?ver=4.21.6" id="leaky_paywall_script-js"></script>
<script id="nine3-script-js-extra">
var nine3 = {"ajaxurl":"http:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php","nonce":"c8e0732253","marker":"http:\/\/physicsworld.com\/wp-content\/themes\/iopp\/images\/marker.png","debug":""};
</script>
<script src="http://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/dist/js/main.1dd973aef0d22fbbf91176416427f8f8.js?ver=6.7.1" id="nine3-script-js"></script>
<script src="http://physicsworld.com/wp-content/themes/iopp/static/js/sticky.min.js?ver=1645453936640" id="stickykit-js"></script>
<script src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/gh/mathjax/MathJax@2.7.1/MathJax.js?config=MML_CHTML&amp;ver=1645453936640" id="mathjax-js"></script>
<script src="https://cdn.onesignal.com/sdks/OneSignalSDK.js?ver=1.0.0" id="remote_sdk-js" async data-wp-strategy="async"></script>

		</body>
</html>
