Earth Travel Guide!

Mexico

2010-07-14T09:18:00.000-07:00

To MEXICO HAS PROPERTIES

Yayılmıstır chocolate from Mexico to the world

Avocado and ornamental peppers, and vanilla in Mexico is the homeland of many different versions mostly

Mexico is the homeland of the tomato

Meksika'dadir Latin America's best universities. (UNAM)

The first and only country in Latin America, Mexico is duzenleyen Olympics

Bull of the world's largest stadium in Mexico City is located in the neighboring

Mexico is Latin America's media giants

Mexico, Latin America's longest highway network with asfatlanmıs has

Latin America's largest airport in Mexico City Havaalanı'dir

Pemex (Mexican state company), Latin America's largest oil your business

The countries with the world's tourism industry is one of the largest (top 10)

Meksika'lılar, Latin America is a nation that spent the most money to took for a ride

In Mexico, the United States and Canada produce more cars

Most reptile species in the world is in Mexico. (707 species)

Most mammals have the world's 2 is land. (438 species)

Two of the world most amphibians (anfibiler) with type 4 is land. (209 species)

4 Most of the world's plant species is land. (26,000 species)

Capital, Mexico City, Latin Latin America's richest büyüksehridir

Latin America's first gokdeleni "Torre Latinoamericana" in Mexico City was built

Scientists found the first color television, "Guillermo González Camarena" Meksika'lıdır

LIFE

The world's 11th most populous is the land (107 million)

Does compulsory military service: YES (12 months)

Capital punishment: NO

The average suicide: one hundred thousand in the fourth

Abortion is free: NO / YES (mandatory except in cases and in each state is different)

Alcohol: 18 age limit

Ban on drinking in streets and car

Children whose father and mother's surname or both are

The most popular male names of children: Alejandro, Eduardo, Juan Carlos, Ricardo

The most popular girls' names: Gabriela, Adriana, Mariana, Claudia,

ECONOMY

Mexico, Latin America's largest media companies has

3 of tourism destinations major source of income

The world's 11th has the largest economy

The most important export products: Oil

Automobile production in the economy has a very big place

In huge economic differences between states are

Inequalities in income distribution is the problem of the country, most of this I

The most important agricultural products: corn, wheat, soy, rice, beans, cotton, coffee, fruit, tomato ..

Important dimensions of cattle and poultry production

The most important industrial commodities: petroleum, automobiles, chemically substances, tobacco and iron and steel

GEOGRAPHY

The world's 15th largest is land

One of the most naturally diverse countries in the world is

Boundaries in the rain forest and is one of a few countries have Coller.

2500 and plant species that are protected by the state official

Turkey, Iran and Colombia, greater than, Argentina and Saudi Arabia is less than

EDUCATION

9 year compulsory education

The largest and best universities: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, UNAM (269 thousand students)

UNAM, the world's best üniveristeleri (2008) ranked 1 was

UNAM, Latin America's most well-universitesidir

UNAM is also a Spanish language education is the best university in the world

Largest and highest quality Private universities:
Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education (ITESM)

ITESM: chosen one of the world's best business School'larindan

Mexico's Autonomous Technological Institute (ITAM)

ITAM: Latin America's best known as the School of Economics

SPORTS

Mexico national sport: Charreada (a variant of the rodeo)

Mexico hosting the Latin American countries have done well in one country in the Olympics (1968)

The most popular sport: soccer

Baseball and basketball, car racing and other popular sports are also

The most popular soccer teams: Chivas, America, Toluca, Pachuca

Mexico is in the neighboring Bull of the world's largest arenas (55 000 capacity, Mexico City)

DIN

In Mexico, the state's "official" no religion.

State church does not make financial assistance

89% of the people, Catholic

The men of religion can not participate in elections as candidates

Until recently, religion, the men were unable to vote

World's largest 2 is a Catholic country (after Brazil)

MEXICO meal / Cuisine

Mexican cuisine is one of the world's largest kitchen

Aztec, Mayan and Spanish flavors come together

Hispanic cuisine has many different types of

The most famous dishes, and food:
Fajiats, tacos, quesadillas, enchiladas, burritos, Tamales, mole

Traditional dishes from the state:
Puebla: mole poblano, chiles en nogada and chalupas

Monterrey, cabrito and machaca

Yucatan: cochinita pibil

Oaxaca: Tlayudas, barbacoa, chilaquiles, milanesas

ARMY

Mexican Army, the world's largest army of two is

Mexico, Latin America spent the most money in the 2nd to the army great country

Army service is compulsory in

Navy and Air Force military gonüllüdür

Malaysia

2010-07-14T09:09:00.000-07:00

Malaysia

Subscribing

Malaysia, a country where Muslims constitute a general population is approximately 55% of the country, even though you did is one of the powerful Islamic movement. Recently, however, Anwar Ibrahim in this country, some Muslim leaders olusumlardan ABIM'in libel laws to jail and then discharge the various discussions about some developments in that country was brought up. As of this debate, and both have the general structure and thought that this number Malezya'nin oldugunu taninmasina our needs in this country tanitiyoruz Geography of Islam.

General Info About Malaysia

Official Name: Malaysia

Capital: Kuala Lumpur (Population: 800 000)

Other major Cities: Ipoh, Pinang (George Town), Johor Baharu, Kelang, Kuala Terengganu, Port Kelang, Taiping, Kota Baharu, Seremban, Kuantan, Kuching, Kota Kinabalu,

Area: 330 434 km2.

Population: 22.5 million (1999 estimate). 43% of the population live in cities.

Population growth rate: 2.4%

Ethnic structure: the most crowded ethnic group in Malaysia, which constitute 49% of the population Malaylar. Malaylar Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand and the yayilmislardir to Madagascar. Indonesian Malay language is very close to Konustuklari. Malaylar whole kind of Muslims in Malaysia. The second largest ethnic Chinese are the elements that have 35%. There are few in number of Chinese Muslims. The majority of Buddhists, Christians a part. There are also Hindistanli 10% rate. A small part Hindistanlilarin Muslims, the majority is Hindu. Hindistanlilar Chinese and from China and India are the immigrants who gelmis, Malezya'nin is not native. Javanese has the proportion of 3.1%. Javanese Muslims you whole. Ethnic population of water constitutes the remaining elements: Minangkabu (0.8%), Sama (0.8%), Melanau (0.4%), South Asian (0.35%), Bugi (0.2%), Kalabit, Hui, Molbog. The majority of these ethnic elements of the Muslim, Christian or local religion is also a part.

Languages: Official language Malayca'dir. Also true in English and Arabic languages. In Tamil and Chinese press as well as spoken languages of various ethnic elements.

Religion: Islam the official religion. 55% of the people kind of Muslims. They are generally Hanafi Sunni Muslims, and. Rate of 17% Buddhist, 11.6% konfüçyanist (Chinese religious members), the ratio of 7% Hindu, Christian has the proportion of 6%. The remaining population belongs to various local religions.

Geographical status as the Southeast Asian countries Malaysia, northern Thailand, and Brunei in the South China Sea, east of Lake Selebes, southern Indonesia, Singapore and Malacca Bosphorus, with the west adjacent to the Andaman Sea with the Indian Ocean is surrounded. Is rich in rivers. The most important akarsulari Rejang, Ketantan, Perak and Sai Sai irmaklaridir Rompe. Malaysia land between two large land parçasiyla them located in the South China Sea islands occurs. West Malaysia and East Malezya'dir two big black part. A peninsula shaped western Malaysia and Thailand with a thin black baglantisiyla Siyam'a step depends on the current dir. East Malaysia, which dominated a large portion of Borneo island of Indonesia is in the. Topraklarinin agricultural area and 30%, 61% forest. A tropical rainy climate and are abundant in Malaysia. East Malaysia, West Malaysia yagislidir more.

Management shape: Malaysia krallikla managed and is a confederation based on multi-party democratic system. Confederation of states which constitute the federal krallikla are managed. In Malaysia, one of the four western provinces krallarindan yilligina general king that "great president" is elected. 31 August 1957, the country is governed by the constitution put into effect. Implemented a bicameral parliamentary system. The first assembly 69, the second assembly consists of 180 members. Members of this council is determined to free the general election. Malaysia, the UN, the OIC (Organization of Islamic Conference), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the British Commonwealth of Nations (Commonwealth), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Islamic Development Bank is a member of such international organizations.

Political parties: the major political parties pressing Malezya'nin as follows:

United Malay National Organisation (UMNO) was founded Malezya'nin bagimsizligindan before. Countries are still leading the party. Formed the first government after independence. Occasionally Malaysia Islamic Party (PAS) 'd entered into a coalition. But the committee stressed the importance of religion in Western-style secularism was adopted. Effect between the parties entered into a aydinlarin some Islamic states with positive bakiyordu Islâmizasyona kurumlarinda. This party still in power, the Islamic movement does not interfere Islamizasyona still trying tikamaya front. Herein may be said to be the important role of Western powers. It's the most important development in Western Malezya'yi lap economically significant way, this country has been shaken by the Asian crisis. Current general chairman is Prime Minister Mohammad Mahatir UMNO'nun water.

Malaysia Islamic Party (PAS): (see part at the Islamic movement.)

Democratic Action Party: We are supported by many Chinese.

Administrative division: 11 West, 2 in the 13 federal states in East Malaysia, 133 cities occurs. There is also the capital of a separate federal statute.

Date: Malezya'nin batisiyla dogusunun date should be separately discussed. In the historical sources are referred to as West Malaysia Malaya. Buddhism and Islam to the area before receiving the various states kurmuslardir Brahmanistler here. After Islam came to Malaysia was founded in 1400. Founder of the city of Malacca Malacca Prince Prameswara throat kiyisindaki kralinin kiziyla married and became a Muslim and Pasha in the year 1414 the name was changed their Mecât Alexander Sah. Muslims in areas under his management olmasindan then began to spread rapidly Islam. West from India and Muslims and helped him. 1424'te Mecât Alexander died, and subsequent rulers tried to spread Islam in the country. Sah Sultan Muzaffer July sultanligina 1446'da Malacca became the official religion of Islam on time. Malacca at the same time, Islam in Southeast Asia took center becomes. Commercial and economic importance grew, and Muslim traders also came to visit here and more. Sah'in management rather than triumphant, and it was over 1458'e Sah was the son of Mansur. Mansur, who ruled until 1477'ye Sah Sultanligi around during the political and religious point of Malacca came to an effective position. Malaya'nin other regions in Indonesia Islam, and today, the Sumatran adasina under management also began to spread. This siralarda Portuguese colonialists began to disturb the area. 1511 limanini also seized Malacca. He holds the management of Sultan Mahmud of Malacca siralarda Portuguese karsisinda of the attacks could not stand anymore and he Johor'a Malakka'yi birakti them through a separate sultanate founded here. Until then, Johor, Malacca was a province Sultanligi'nin. After the Portuguese conquered Malakka'yi Christianise studies in this area baslattilar but olamadilar successful. Johor State, Malakka'yi Portuguese held back from the theater several times to get. Ottoman Empire in this action weapons, the support found in Aceh, soldiers Sultanligi. However, the results of these operations alinamadi. Malakka'ya Dutch colonists began to organize an attack since 1606 and bought by the hand of 1641'de de Portugal. Pahang in 1812, was Johor'dan ayrilarak independent state. Johor 1824 and divided again into two separate principalities Rio Lingga center was established. This ayrilmalar and then continued in the region Perak, Selangor, Kedah emerged a few principality. 18. Towards the end of the century the British colonizers came to the region and the severe assaults result 1786'da city of Penang, Kedah state bought in hand. Genislettiler the occupied areas of a base here and see then. In 1824 the Dutch took the Malakka'yi a wide area in the region was conquered and all local governments in the region to recognize the British protectorate zorladilar. Negri Sembilan in 1889, nine states consisting of the latest and pressing the federation under the auspices of the British entry into the Malay peninsula was completely British sultasina. All the natural riches of the region from the British side to their countries carrying in one hand, indigenous people of the Muslim fakirlestirdiler. A new awakening among the people of this state are hereby dogmasina movement. Since 1930, an organized activity dönüstü awakening movement. II. After World War struggle for independence was even more effective. Meanwhile, the United Malay National Organisation (UMNO) was formed. However, some ethnic groups did not enter into this organization. Federation of Malaya in 1948, British control was established. August 31 Malezya'nin independence was declared in 1957.

Sarawak and Sabah state on Borneo that the Apartment Malezya'nin east of the 15th Islamic adasina century, entered early. Since 1826 the Dutch began to come here and invade. British colonists, but soon came to the island in 1841, Brunei and Sarawak states sultanligi by the British abandoned. June 14, 1888 Sarawak was officially subject to the UK. Brunei sultana de Sabah'i British birakti 1877. The independence of Sarawak and Sabah after a tanidiktan British Malezya'nin also drew from these two states and 16 September 1963 to the Confederation of Singapore or Malaysia katilmasiyla. Singapore ayrilarak separate from the confederation in 1965, became a state. Negri Sembilan kralliga Malezya'nin independent olmasindan first elected Abdurrahman sultana. Then, the respective water person landed Kingdom: Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah (1960-61), Sayyid Harun Putra (1961-65), Ismail Nasiruddin Shah (1965-70), Abdul Sah massive (1970-75), Yahya Petra (1975-1979 ), Ahmed Sahu'l-Brass knuckles (1979-1984), Mahmud Alexander (1984-1989), Azlan Tuhanku Muhibbuddin (after 1989).

Dental problems: The Philippines and Indonesia, Sarawak and Sabah states on the East Malezya'yi forming ediyorlardi claims. Indonesia to Malaysia in 1963, so I opened the war. If this war ended in 1965, the Indonesian province of ordinary days vazgeçmis is not exactly related to claims.

Islamic Movement: Islamic government in Malaysia is significantly effective. This is also the country's Islamic movement a success. After the formal institutions of government in 1980 launched STUDY others more Islamized. Come to this stage in the continued existence of the state still has been the impact of the four main Islamic movements. This movement briefly tanitalim:

Malaysia Islamic Party (PAS): Independence to be established after the Islamic aspects of the state because they like to have the weighted UMNO'dan ayrilanlar order was founded in 1951. PAS'i program of establishing a political party of a particular religion sikistirilamayacagi area, a vital necessity kapsamasi seen were in each field and wants to establish UMNO'nun çikiyorlardi against the secular state model. PAS success by following a line in the first general elections in 1959 in Kelantan state and local governments established Terangganu. In the next period with the National Party formed a coalition government as well.

Malaysian Islamic Youth Movement (AB I) was established in 1971, Malaysian Muslim Students Association members ögrencilerce. Shortly after the committee formed an alliance with rust. After 1974, under the leadership of Anwar Ibrahim to travel significant distances. My Mevdudi'nin Islâmiye'yle Muslim Jamaat founded by the EU Kardesler'i own samples were acquired. I Malezya'nin EU in all areas like to have a country that is governed by the provisions of Islam. Current general chairman Dr ABIM'in water. Manuti'dir Muhammad Nur.

Notified of the congregation: a uzantisidir of Pakistan notified the community.

Daru'l-General Staff: 1968 Ashari was founded under the leadership of Muhammad. Weight is given to education and cultural activities and community to establish the Islamic way suurlandirilmasinin Islamic state was defended before the idea comes from. Was particularly effective among young people. But negatively affected the development of criticism against rust. Some superstitions then Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammad and deviations by falling kapatildi grounds.

In Malaysia, some of them even outside the Islamic development in small groups, there is. Malaysian Muslims, especially young people are famous bagliliklariyla religion. 70% of young people are fulfilling their religious duty. Among college youth of the Islamic movement is strong.

Economy: Malaysia's economy and agriculture in the first degree hayvanciliga withstand. Ürettigi at the beginning of agricultural products rice, rubber, palm seeds, pineapple, cocoa, and various fruits and vegetables come. As a long beach with fishing being the commoner. Provide close to the important contribution of the forest products economy. By local resources are rich. Most tin reserves are. However, during the British colonial order azaltilmistir mineral reserves. Since the 1970s, oil and natural gas are being produced and exported.

Industry: Malaysia at a good level in terms sayilir industry. Oil treatment facilities, besides cars, durable consumer goods, textiles, various foodstuffs, cement and other construction materials, furniture and wood products, paper and stationery supplies, chemicals, fertilizers, rubber, plastic goods, earthenware and metal goods, mechanical vehicles, electrical appliances, pharmaceuticals, palm oil, etc.. established factories that produce many more. Hasiladaki share of gross domestic manufacturing industry is 27%. Approximately 18% of the population is employed in industry has seen.

Antarctic, antartica

2010-07-14T08:13:00.000-07:00

All information about the Antarctic Continent

Antarctic continent and the world's view of the position
In the south and south yarımküresinin
is. Southern hemisphere

containing the south pole
South Pole, the world axis at the bottom (south end) identifying the remaining points. "South of the legendary continent of" found after a search of the 200-year, but 1840 has been concluded successfully. Sailing along the coast road area about 2000 km Charles Wilkes, the Arctic sea, comprising the contrary, the South Pole is a continent where he really proved himself.

Africa, southern Europe, the Atlantic Ocean east of the Indian Ocean in the west and north of the Antarctic continent. Black Africa is one of the ancient world, with 30.218 million km ² surface area between the continents of Asia and America, then come in third place. African name, Carthage by the Romans who first set foot on "Africans" or "Africani" is inspired by the name of the tribe are called. African name given to this country during the Punic wars.

In the north of the country in Oceania, which is the only continent without. The world's fifth largest continent. Surface area of 14,107,637 square kilometers. Each side is covered with snow around the south pole, always stormy, and a piece of land is surrounded by ice. Antarctica, Ross Sea and the Gulf and the Antarctic Peninsula, except for Wendel main hatlarıyle is almost circular.

Antarctic research, the first between the years 1772 to 1775 Captain
The island continent of many countries and Australia. Guneyinde Asia, north of Antarctica, is located on the edge of the Pacific and the Indian Ocean.

James Cook was commanded by a British team. Later in 1819 the British
Image: Captainjamescookportrait.jpg | thumb | 250px | James Cook

William Smith discovered the South Shetland Islands. N. Americans Brown Palmer, then the peninsula appears to be Ozleans the passage, Palmer found the name of the northwest coast.

By 1820

Between the years 1830 to investigate Antarctica's more work was done. Fabian von Bellngshausen around the continent by a Russian researcher in 1821 and has discovered many islands. 1823'te British sailor James Weddell Sea found itself with the name mentioned. Dumont d'Urville French researchers has drawn 1840 map of the Adelie Coast. U.S. naval captain, Charles Wilkes, between the years 1838-1842 as a result of his research as a continent of Antarctica was revealed. Kıt'anın
In the Indian Ocean coast to coast had seen his name was given.

Sir
India, Africa and Oceania are translated by the world's third largest ocean. In south Asia, the sea between Africa and Australia. 20 ° east longitude from the Atlantic, with a 147 ° east longitude, is separated from the Pacific Ocean. This sea is the smallest in the ocean. The distance between Australia and Africa is approximately 10,000 kilometers. Km2yi area of 74.9 million, together with arms finds.

James Clark Ross, with his name mentioned, between 1839-1843, were completely free of ice, found a body of water. Then continued on its way into the soil arrived at Victoria. Ross, however, land has never set foot. In 1895 the Norwegian Leonand Kristensen, Ceupe team pulled to shore near the island and returned to the team as a winter stay kıt'ada.

Since the last decade of the nineteenth century, the discovery kıt'aya trips was increased. Captain Robert Falcon Scott, Nils Ofto Swiss Gustar, Ernest Henry and Jean Charcot Shacleton kıt'anın like a lot of researchers have discovered a lot.

Norwegian Roald Amundsen in 1911, the German Wilhelm Filcner, British Robert Scott, and Japanese Avurturyalı Dauglas Mawon kıt'aya It was a team of Nobu Shiruse'den occurring. The goal of all was the South Pole. Amundsen reached the pole first. Mc Murdo Sound reached from behind a pole. However, in turn, bit of food and animals were killed by freezing because of fatigue.

The use of aircraft in the Arctic and Antarctic discovery of a new era has opened. Sir Hubert Wilkins successful flights over Antarctica was the first time. Between 1928-30, Richard E. Reconnaissance planes made flights with Byrd and Amundsen set up base at a location near where the "Little America Base" was established. Mentioned his name, who discovered the east kıt'anın Byrd, pious times with aircraft and ships made kıt'aya time.

1926 to 1937, the Norwegians to make maps of various parts found in their study. Mandi queen of the land along the rocky shores after making a detailed map of the lake ice is not found. These are sufficiently de-ice the summer sun, the beach with debris flows in the neck, melting snow are causing the lake.

1923 to 1939 in the new continent, a new, large areas were found. Since 1935, several flights Ellworth yapdı during these flights has found his name mentioned with the region. The British continued with various research in the area. This study went into a recession during the Second World War.

Americans Richard H. Cruzen with soldiers went to the continent. Wedali Antarctic Peninsula and the whole Antarctic Sea coast into the area outside the court drew a map of the air.

Then the British, the Norwegians, the Swedes, the French have been conducting various research and a variety of bases established in the Antarctic.

International Geophysical Year on the occasion of the meeting held by the research team proposed the establishment of a work program created for this team. Established team of scientists from various states took part in many places were discovered kıt'anın. December 31, 1958 after the end of the program successfully, for the continuation of scientific research "in Antarctica, the Special Committee on Research" (SCAR) called an international commission was established.

During the Antarctic Treaty, held in cooperation with the international scientific projects have increased. They also edit individual countries are continuing their research projects. To protect the animals living on the shores of the continent in 1982 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Life was founded.

Today, in the framework of existing treaties, the sources kıt'ada regularly use some more work to be done.

Snow and ice cover, according kıt'alara other locations outside of the average height is doubled, the average is 1830 meters. The thickness of ice and snow over the land mass of around 2000 m on average. Find the highest point is 4270 meters.

Antarctica is the world's coldest regions. Coastal margins, and higher than the inside is hot. Vostok station in 1960 at a height of 3962 meters -88.3 degrees records were read by the coldness of the world. The average temperature in the coldest months at -20 ° C to -30 ° C on the coast, the inland, between -40 ° C to -70 ° C varies. Precipitation in the form of snow.

Temperature does not go much above the freezing point of the most vicious in terms of scarce plants and animals is the journeying. Just north facing, sun on the slope toward the rock and plant forms are extremely small. Botanists and along the sides of mountains near kıt'anın 400 were met in various algae species.

The continent's 20 ° and 80 ° longitude of the Antarctic Peninsula and Shetland between Britain sovereignty; Ross dependency region of New Zealand sovereignty; Australian Antarctic Territory, Macquarie Heard and Mc Donald Australian sovereignty, Marion and Prince Edward Island South Africa, Republic of sovereignty; Kerguden the Crozet Archipelago, a new Amsterdam, Adelie land, sovereignty, France, Bouvet, S. Pierre Island Norway sovereignty; Falklanda area between Ross and the U.S. are under the sovereignty.
Antarctic Lakes
Scientists, many miles of Antarctic ice at the bottom of lakes and rivers are connected to each other the secret was revealed. According to British scientists who do research in Antarctica, issuing out of the river, taking samples from the lake by drilling plans should be revised.

Interconnected lakes and rivers because it is secret, one that could create the risk of pollution also affected the other reveals. These lakes, on issues such as climate change and global warming for millions of years ago that the secrets of the store is viewed as a time capsule. Moreover, research done in lakes, glacier-covered ocean of Jupiter's moon Europa, believed to contain, and may shed light on other planets as well.
You can get thousands of lakes. Previously, the world's ice house because the extreme cold of Antarctica, the continent could be unfrozen lake or pond was not unlikely.
The radar and satellite studies of the 1960s, then a thick layer of ice beneath the lakes that were uncovered. So far proved the existence of continents and thousands of lakes 150 lakes may occur again. The largest is Lake Vostok. Antarctica is so far the largest body of water of Lake Vostok. 250 The length of the lake, reaching up to 40 kilometers in width. Depth of approximately 400 meters.
NASA and the Russian Academy of Sciences, now with the lake water samples from the drilling is planned to take. Millions of years, ice-covered lakes of hitherto unknown species are believed to have.

Antartika'daki streams (ice streams)
Streams in the Antarctic continent, Antarctica, ice was all due to its location on earth. This causes all the rivers in the Antarctic continent is known as ice or ice streams. Glacial streams in the Antarctic continent is as follows:
• to Bailey Ice Stream
• the Bindschadler Ice Stream (Ice Stream D a)
• Byrd Glacier to the River
• the David Glacier River
• the Denman Glacier River
• River to the Glacial DeVicq
• the Evans Ice Stream
• the Foundation Ice Stream
• Institute of the ice stream
• River to the Glacial Jutulstraumen
• Kambiz the ice stream (ice stream C)
• Streams to the Lambert Glacier
• Land of the Ice Streams
• MacAyeal TV to stream (ice stream E)
• the Mercer Ice Streams (A to Ice Stream)
• Streams to the Mertz Glacier
• River ice to Möller
• the Mulock Glacier River
• the Ninnis Glacier River
• Pine Island Glacier River map
• River to the Glacial Rayner
• Recovery to Ice Streams
• the Rutford Ice Stream
• Scott River to the Glacial
• the Shirase Glacier River
• the Slessor Glacier River
• Smith River to the Glacial
• Support Force to Glacier River
• River map Stancomb-Wills Glacier
• the Thwaites Glacier River
• Totten Glacier to the River
• the Whillans Ice Stream
• Van der Veen TV to stream
Robert Falcon Scott, an English sailor and explorer. South Pole, Roald Amundsen reached a month later on January 17, 1912 is the second person. Scott, on June 6, 1868 near Davenport came into the world. After completing his naval officer, was charged by the British navy began working in various ships.

Miami

2010-07-14T08:02:00.000-07:00

Places to visit

Historic sites, residential areas and magnificent villas scattered across the city next to Miami, the natural wonders of the human mind is the beginning. Kilometers of beaches, parks, animals and plants, unique
Everglades National Park (Grass River) and has a charming atmosphere.

Art Deco Historic District (Art Deco Historic District), the 20th largest Century, the official National Historic District (20th Century National Register Historic District) is. In this neighborhood, 1920s, 1930s and 1940s to over 800 buildings are owned.

The Vizcaya Museum and Gardens in Coconut Grove, is a valuable Italian Renaissance-style villa. 15. and 19 century belongs to the furniture, paintings and decorative work, as well as parts of the villa overlooking the magnificent gardens, beaches, stunning fountains, elegant pools, channels and paths are many.

Miami is the only city with the country's two national parks. A rare and spectacular 1.5 million acre Everglades National Park is located on the eco-system, was held to be no face is home to many animal species do. American crocodile, Florida panther, such as the species that live in the park. Biscayne National Park, the major part is covered with water wonderland. In this park, emerald islands, coral reefs and the aquarium is located. These parks, is for those who want to have fun out there.

Located downtown uncharted Parrot Island (Parrot Jungle Island), the world's rare birds and other animals from all types of hosts. Orangutan this tropical island, crocodiles, tigers, as well as a variety of animals such as activities, shopping and entertainment facilities is also a popular place.

Miami City Zoo, the zoo is one of the country's most important. Here Asia, Africa, Australia, South and North America to places such as specific animal hosts makes the total 1300.
Culture and Entertainment

Hedonic approach to the fore with a recreation of life in Miami, has a rich artistic and cultural heritage.

Endless cultural and entertainment events, dynamic and fascinating city of everyday life, social life, it leads to hitting your mark.

Miami, biting her lips with the groundbreaking drama and other performing arts which is a city. Actors Theatre (Actor's Playhouse), Jackie Gleason Theater and the Coconut Grove Theater, Miami's perfect world of the theater are a few examples. Miracle Theatre (Miracle Theatre) which is located Oyunevi Actors, professional performances for adults and children will be hosting.

Miami, great opera performances of classical and contemporary production, is at the forefront of world-famous music star is a city which offers an alternative.

Chopin Foundation of the United States, offers classical music concerts are open to the public. Carnival Center for Performing Arts Florida Grand Opera performs at the Broward Center for the Performing Arts, the city's main cultural center here. Miami Symphony Orchestra performs at sunset, Central American, Hispanic and European-style performance in the verbal music sets the scene.

Located in South Beach Miami City Ballet, one of the most important value of the city to be seen. Appreciated that the ballet world, the legendary dancer Edward Villella in the management of classical and contemporary performances reveal.

Miami has many of the performing arts center as well as any time of day is a city in the forefront of entertainment. Miami Carnival (early March), the city is the largest cultural events. International Hispanic (Spanish and Latin Americans living in the United States were called) Theatre Festival (May-June), the Miami Reggae Festival (August), the Miami Book Fair (November), one of the city's most important cultural events. Every year hundreds of thousands of writers and visitors flock to book fair is held in Miami.

Miami beach culture, botany and natural wonder, nightlife, rich cities are the most important part of recreational life. Photographic and exotic landscapes, nature and water areas of the stamp that accompanied the Miami beaches, amazing entertainment, and sports areas. Air shows, scuba diving, skiing, sports activities such as team sports are a city allows. After the sun is hidden behind Miami in the dance clubs and lounges, accompanied by warm ocean breezes will entertain guests. These places are essential for fun-loving places.
Wining and Dining

Live entertainment at the peaks are talking about a city's culinary culture of the city should not be surprised dizzy. Each category offers international cuisine from the place where all of Miami cuisine, appetite, effervescent flavor, fascinating material and has a wealth of wonderful flavors consisting of. Latin America and Caribbean cuisine rich bean dish in the city at the forefront of cuisine, from international cuisine to every taste and pocket is filled with examples that appeal.

Shopping

Miami is a corner of paradise for shopping lovers. In the world of the city's shopping and fashion design, clothing production to find everything from clothes to-day. Shopping centers, Miami beaches, boutiques, specialty shops, markets and other shopping sites offer you alternatives.

Airport, located near the Dolphin Mall, a shopping, entertainment and food is complex. Here, 240 outlets, shops and shopping venues are private.

Bal Harbour Shops, selling fashion designs are fascinating places. Consisting of design houses in this place you can find world-famous fashion brands.

Opa-locka/Hialeah Sunday in the north of the city, South Florida is one of the largest markets. Here, 1,200 wholesalers and retailers are over.

Bolivia

2010-07-14T07:54:00.000-07:00

Bolivia summary
Bolivia, the peso currency, at the Ernesto Che Guevara Revolution preparations were caught by soldiers killed in Bolivia is a country of South America. Capital Sucre is, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Potosi other major cities birkaçıdır.İspanyol Colonialism during the Upper Peru called to the area, then South America, the Spanish yoke liberated from the Simon Bolivar memorial Bolivia (Bolivar's country) was named. all

historical
tiahuanaaco on the north side of Lake Titicaca in the region by examining the remains has been obtained. Here, the results of excavations Anno Domini Between 100 and 600 years is estimated to belong to an advanced civilization that has many ruins. Which constitute the majority of inhabitants in Bolivia today Aymarslar are probably the descendants of the founders of this civilization. Towards the middle of the fifteenth century by the Incas in Peru now, Bolivia's Altiplano region by defeating some of Aymarsların seized. However Aymarslar moved closer to the mountains and the Incas began to deal with living there. They took the mountain under its influence. Francisco Pizarro in 1531 he commanded the Spanish arrived here, they do İnkalarla 1528'de result of the war have seized the whole of Bolivia.

Spanish 16 century, the rich silver deposits at the legendary native blacks brought from Africa as slaves, and ran. The city of Potosi in the center of the colony in 1650 with a population of 150,000 was the largest city in Latin America. Spanish administration of their locals on the 17th and 18th editions vukua political revolution was a series of centuries. In 1780 a local group, led by La Paz rebelled and they called the guerrilla war conducted by the defeat, many were destroyed. The first independence movement, launched in 1809 and independence was declared. Started but did not accept the independence of the Spanish as a result of the long war, in 1825 the Spanish on Bolivia's independence, were forced to accept. They established a republic and Chaguisaca Bolivian city of Sucre to the capital with their names.

The war lasted until 1883 in Bolivia and Peru, and Bolivia lost to Chile in the Pacific coast to Chile, was forced to leave. When he lost the war, the 1903 acre area in Brazil, Paraguay in 1932 and left a portion Chaconun. Long period of civil unrest in several countries have been shaken. Mines de 1966 a 1952, the government again was transferred to the private sector. The price adjustments in 1974, the country was cause great confusion to arise. Hundreds of natives were killed. In 1976, authorities seized the army took over the management. Finally the army in 1982 after several years of turmoil in July, bringing the case to the Presidential General Guido Vildoso'yu calmed down.

Physical Structure

Bolivia has a different structure is visible, is divided into three major regions. First: Countless curves, hills covered with snow Ilkampane'de nearly 7000 meters in height with a great beauty who is the Andean region. They extend 640 km from the Bolivian Andes. Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Mountains between Mount Criental Altiplano Plateau at an altitude of 4500 m to 4000 runs. Most of the Bolivian people live here.

The second largest region, interrupted by several uninhabited valley in the eastern region consists of mountains. This region is divided into two parts. First, the normal temperatures, little rain and sterile plants, the valleys are characterized. To the north and northeast toward the second half of the tropical climate, the low valleys are characterized by abundant vegetation.

Bolivia's third district, where more than two-thirds of the country occupying the land is flat. Lowland valleys of the southeastern part of Bolivia's largest Chaco Valley, which constitutes Gron. Although there are rich oil deposits in this area is very underdeveloped. Chaco tropical lowlands in the northern reaches of the valley, where the trees are common greens and pampas.

Rivers and lakes: the most important river Desagudero'dur 3500 m above sea level and flows down. The most important lake is Lake Titicaca. If there is another river that is insignificant.

Climate

Tropical climate in the entrance area of the high plateaus of Bolivia are remarkably cold, low in the region is marked by the sweltering heat. Altiplano region, an area with wind and rain is less. The annual average temperature of 10 ° C.. Cochabamba'da these temperatures as low as -20 ° C, at 18 ° C up to Sucre'de. Yungas valley and flat lands, but too much rain they get. Cold winds from the south "Surazos" soften rüzgaları hot and dry weather. Chaco region is hot and dry during the summer period. In winter is rainy.

Natural resources

Bolivia's climate and vegetation according to elevation changes. 4500 meters above the ground in many areas and have very few plants are treeless. Small amount of timber trees in the Altiplano region, where plants such as thorns, and moss, tough grasses are also available. Eucalyptus (Malaria tree) is grown. As the fall height, the amount and types of plants increases. Tropical rain forests are frequently found in the northeast. In this forest of cedar, mahogany and palm trees are as hard as.

Animals, alpacas, eagles, Condor, monkeys, jaguars, puma many varieties of snakes, birds and a variety of colorful parrots are scattered in various parts of the country. Fishing is also an important source of income.

Bolivia is rich in mines. But the rich silver tin ore, bismuth, lead and other metals, are removed from Altiplano valley. Silver is a true mountain, is situated in the hills Potesi the Altiplano region. Considerable amount of tungsten, zinc, copper, antimony and gold are. Petroleum deposits were found in the Chaco region.

Population and Social Life

More than half of the population is indigenous in Bolivia. One third of the "Cholos" with his grandfather, known as white is a blend of indigenous (Hybrid is). Aymarslar important that indigenous groups, in some parts of the valleys and Altiplano region live. Cholos tribe in Bolivia is the most colorful and diverse traditions of the tribe.

15% of the population is white. Hispanic origin is. Some of these hybrids with native organisms. Although the official language in Spanish, but 36% of the population speaks this language on a daily basis. Those who speak Spanish are also spoken Aymarsların or Queshuaların language. 95% of the country is Catholic. 60% of the population in rural areas, 40% live in the city. There are very few blacks. The capital of La Paz and Sucre, Potesi, crystal, and major cities are the cities of Santa Cruz. Elementary education shall be compulsory. 65% of the population does not know reading and writing.

Politics

An independent political life in the Republic of Bolivia, who frequently was interrupted because of military coups. President of the Council of Ministers elected by the people and holds executive powers. Legislative powers of the House of Representatives and the Senate committee's 157-member National Congress in the hands. La Paz, the administrative center of the country, judicial center Sucre'dir.

Economy

Bolivia's economy is based on the foundation of the mining. Long period of Spanish silver, tin and copper mines as an important move to have his own. Bolivia at the moment, among the mineral-rich countries. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century operated silver mines, 20 century, silver or tin operations took place and became the head of Bolivia's exports. The second is in terms of world tin production.

Agriculture: two-thirds of the working population employed in agriculture, although a significant portion of the country's food needs are imported. Potatoes, barley, breakfast cereals with a refurbished product quinua are mainly grown in high places. Peas, wheat, corn, grown in the Altiplano region. Yungos in corn, wheat, green vegetables and fruit are produced.

Industry: Political instability is preventing the development of industry and assessment of resources is not to lead. The main products of oil refining, sugar and raw horse meat is. Shipbuilding, furniture, textile products is limited. In recent years, mines have been focused on the construction of factories for business.

Transport: air transport in Bolivia to the sea without a shore, with road and rail are provided. The total length of waterways to transport around 14 500 km. La Paz and Santa Cruz are international airports.

Berlin, Germany

2010-07-11T05:10:00.000-07:00

Settlement over the city
Colle's first settlements in Berlin today, that is currently Museumsinsel (Museum Island), Berlin was the, Spree'nin in the northern coastal region. Both 13 Century was founded, on 28 October 1237 Cölln'ün first name was known. When this was probably the founding of Berlin. In 1307 the city of Berlin is united with Colle.

1451 elektör (Kurfürst) II. Friedrich double the city as a center of unrest after the government has declared itself. Time the government (1640 - 1688) Friedrich Wilhelm launched the city's kalkımını, Berlin fire again, after being rocked with heavy blows, such as plague and war. It was developed in Berlin and then to the castle began construction of the magnificent structure, for example, today's "Unter den Linden" street.

And the rapid development of the city government
Elektör III. King of Prussia, Frederick I. in the year 1701 itself Friedrich declared a royal capital and the Berlin city government has increased. Many famous architectural works were built later.I. Friedrich Wilhelm ("soldier king") and his then II. Friedrich ("United") from 1740 to 1786 in Berlin under the king of Prussia in the city to become the leading industry succeeded.

Frederick the Great Architect Knobelsdorff management architecture new arrangement also has continued. Population of 150,000 were up to and even exceeded. Friedrich, particularly with older art and culture, science, research is encouraged. Except for Berlin, it became a center of Enlightenment era.

Between 1808 to 1806 Napoleon's troops had captured the city. But the people held in Leipzig in 1814 Napoleon's annexation of the war after the victory has configured the Quadriga (four horsemen koşaltı) again was taken back to the Brandenburger Tor. Klasisist structures and artistic masterpieces Schinkel Lenné'nin parks were formed subsequent decades. 19. ihtibaren in the middle of the century the economy has experienced a strong recovery. The rapid population çoĝalmaktaydı.

Capital of the German Empire
In 1871, the German Empire in the founding period, in Berlin, 800,000 more people lived. 1861 to 1888 this year, the first king of Prussia Emperor Wilhelm of Germany was installed at the crown. Berlin was the capital of the German Empire and in 1895 the population here exceeds half a million had already. II the last German emperor from 1888 to 1918. Wilhelm continued his ruling here in 1918 after the First World War, before being deported.

In 1918, after the First World War, the surrender of the Empire and the capital was put into a deep crisis, and the republic was declared. Difficult economic conditions and cultural life in spite of the chaos revolution in the twenties had been developed. Of innovative theater scene, splendid film premieres, high-paced and unique varieties of night life in Berlin that the "Golden Twenties" ("Golden twenty people"), the time had been determined.

In 1933, Adolf Hitler's empire was başbakanlıĝını üstlendiĝi year. His coming to power of the Jews, communists, homosexuals, the persecution of opposition groups has begun, and many other seekers. This was the beginning of the city's black page.

XI in 1936 in Berlin. Yazoyunları Olympics was held, and very few people were aware of Hitler's megalomanlıĝının. Year 1941 is the start of air attacks on cities. May 8 1945 until the surrender of approximately one third of the houses and historic buildings are often the victims of these attacks have been demolished.

Already been rebuilt and division
Nazis and the terror of the Second World War in 1945 after the city had become a ruin.Population had almost halved. Soviet Union (East), USA (west), United Kingdom (the west) and France (northwest), which was divided between the victorious powers of the city region.

June 25, 1948 ihtibaren three western sectors were blocked by the Soviet Union. Allies city "Rosinenbomber" (raisin bomber plane) with the help of aircraft were called, and thus about one year after the Berlin blockade ended May 12, 1949.

Due to the establishment of the German Democratic Republic East Berlin, October 7, 1949, was declared the capital of DDR. DDR government moved to the city's east side. Berliners yet who could easily transition to the eastern part of Berlin, for example, to work there.

13 August 1961, built the walls are sealed with the division of Berlin. What the people now at work in East Berlin side of the family members to go to what the city's west side could make the transition. John F. agreement barely pass certificate Kennedy visit, has been made since 1963. "Tränenpalast" ("Palace of Tears"), called the Friedrichstrasse train station waiting room in the broad sense in this period was of great.

The collapse of the wall and reunification
During the night of November 9, 1989 to the fall of the Berlin Wall came suddenly, during the earlier months of DDR citizens fled to the west through Hungary and Czechoslovakia after. The whole city, so the whole country was celebrating! From this moment ihtibaren former DDR citizens could move freely again.

October 3 With the 1990 reunification of Germany in Berlin again became the capital of Germany. Berlin since 1999, although again, the German Federal Government Location konaĝının became the center of German politics. April 19th parliament since 1999, Sir Norman Foster has configured restored in the former Imperial Parliament under the name of the German Federal Parliament in the session.

Since then the glass dome of Berlin, people from all over the world and an attraction for tourists.On the occasion of the Berlinale festival in 2000 has opened the doors to the Sony Center at Potsdamer Platz and the center has completed a complete redesign.

Tokyo, Japans

2010-07-11T05:06:00.000-07:00

Tokyo, Japan's capital. Japanese in Tokyo (东京), CTR (东 east) Kyo (京 city), that the word means "the capital of the east" is. The area is 600 km ² and a population of 12 million, the Tokyo metropolitan area is one of the largest cities in the world. Honshū in the central part of the island, the Pacific which is an indentation on the edge of Tokyo Bay, is located at the mouth of the Sumida River. Tokyo winters are very mild, the summers are hot and wet.

History

Tokyo's opening to settlement of the region today are based on very old. 6. century in Japan after the establishment of a strong imperial rule was part of the province of Musashi.

Port city on the shores of Tokyo Bay in Tokyo 19 century until the Edo ("estuary gate") was recognized with the name. Edo Castle 12 century family home of a powerful samurai clan in Edo Japan has occurred in history. 1603'de Tokugava Şogunluğu Tokugava Ieyasu, founder, served as the capital of Edo'yu shogun management. Edo shogunate in Japan under the regime kürtürel and economic and political development in the area was the center.
Shogun Japanese emperor who put an end to 1868'da management, the old shogun palace in Kyoto to Edo castle whether immigration, the ancient capital of Kyoto in the east, because the capital city's name was changed to Tokyo.

Tokyo, September 12 1923 saw the great damage from earthquakes. The city was rebuilt after the earthquake, and this time around in the suburbs began to be formed. II 20 years later.Severe bombardment by U.S. aircraft in World War II is not collapsed again.

Tokyo in 1950 after the country's economy grew rapidly and by showing a parallel development has reached its present level.

Presentation

In the center of town, surrounded by gardens and a wide moat of the Imperial Palace is located.To the east of the palace, Japan's central business district is described as Maranouçi, many university and commercial printer located in the northeast of the district lies in the blood. Public buildings in the south of the palace were in the Kasumigaseki district. Kasumigaseki'nin the national parliament building in the west. The world famous Ginza district, a shopping center in the eastern part of the city. Tokyo's architecture, two or three-storey wooden houses, Meici era stone building made of concrete or steel and a variety of shows ranging from skyscrapers. The temple's main worship center in Japan as a national monument as Meici accepted.

In the beginning you had against earthquake resistant buildings is limited to 30 meters, but after 1960 many new buildings resistant to earthquakes in excess of this height has been constructed. Their major Mainiçi Publishing, Tokyo Cathedral, National Theatre and the International Trade Center is.

Local transportation by bus, subway and public or private sector is provided with electric trains.Flights in Tokyo, one inside and one outside the allotted time, there are two airports.

Japan's cultural center in Tokyo, many museums, libraries and universities are located. Tokyo National Museum in Ueno Park, National Science Museum, National Zoo and the Western Art Museum is located. The majority of universities and colleges in Japan are in Tokyo. The major national higher education institutions outside the University of Tokyo Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo University of Fine Arts University and is Hitotsubaşi. The most famous of the private universities are also Vaseda and Keio University.

Newyork, America

2010-07-11T04:59:00.000-07:00

New York City (the official name in English: New York, York, Turkish pronunciation: Nüv York),
The United States is the largest city in terms of population. Same name
Is located in New York State. Is more than a century of world trade and financial center is one of the most important. City, media, politics, education, entertainment and fashion because of the global impact is considered as a world city. United Nations General Assembly building is home to a very important center for foreign affairs in case. Poor and homeless living in the districts of the large number of unemployed.

The city is divided into five sections;
Manhattan
Brooklyn (Kings Country)
Queens (Queens Country)
Bronx and Staten Island (Richmond). 830 km ² with a population of 8.2 million living in an area of New York,
U.S. cities with the population density is greatest. With the suburbs surrounding New York metropolitan region has 21 million nufusa and one of the world's most populous residential area creates.

New York, is an immigrant city. Approximately 170 languages are spoken in the city and one of every three people born in a country outside the United States. English is spoken with different accents. English, Spanish or English, as well as intense as is spoken. Little Italy (Little Italy) in the Italian district, China Town (Chinatown) Chinese is spoken.

Many American cultural movement of the birthplace of New York City, literary and visual arts in the Harlem Renaissance, painting abstract expressionism (the New York School), in music, hip hop, punk, salsa and Tin Pan Alley as many mobile hosts has been. 24-hour traffic in the subway and took the name of the city that never sleeps.

Statue of liberty,
Empire State Building,
Central Park and
Times Square

Museum of Modern Art, the Guggenheim museum and the city's attractions are the Museum of Modern History. Skyscrapers, streets, restaurants, shopping centers and the people of New York is attracting tourists.

Born in New York City
New York by the Dutch in 1613 under the name New Amsterdam was founded. In 1664 the city passed to the United Kingdom and New York became known. In 1778 the city for two years, became the capital of the newly formed United States of America. After the capital moved to Washington, the city's importance continued to grow.

New York was discovered by Europeans in 1524 had a population of 5.000. The French navy, the Italian explorer Giovanni Verrazzano Royal Nouvelle Angoulême New Angoulême city (a city in France) was named. Then start the fur trade, the Dutch called New Amsterdam by the city of Manhattan from Native Americans in 1626 to $ 1000 with today's purchase price. The British conquered the city in 1664 by the British Duke of York and Albany in New York was named to the dedicated.

City 19 century was transformed by immigration and expansion movements. Central Park, between the cities of American landscape architecture in 1857 with the distinction of being the first park is a stone. In 1827, slaves used to be held in New York, New York, but after the 1830s, abolition of slavery in the north, became the center of the action.

New York City subway in 1904, the opening of his new city to come together. New York City 20In the first half of the century the world's commercial, industrial and contact center has become.This development was of course a price. By General Slocum steamboat fire at the 1.021 passengers, occurred in 1911 in New York City Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, the largest industrial disaster in the 146 garment workers lost their lives. New York City in the 1920s during the Great Migration of African Americans in South America was one of the main direction. In 1916 the city of New York with North America's largest urban African diaspora was the city.New York city in 1920s London, leaving behind became the most populous city and the Metropolitan Region in the early 1930s, over 10 million points in human history was the first mega-city.

Great Depression forced the reformers in the years to be elected mayor Fiorello La Guardia'nın Tammany Hall in New York for 80 years to establish political domination ended. Returning World War II veterans and immigrants from eastern Europe formed in Queens, large residential areas. New York went on a failed war, blood from the nose and the United States on the world's dominant economic power rises as Wall Street and give direction to the world has become a city. Completed in 1950, the United Nations Headquarters in New York's policy, the impact is clearly represented. Economic problems in New York in the 1960s, rising crime rates and racial tensions reached a peak in the 1970s. Occurring in the financial sector again in 1980 to strengthen the city's public finances improved. Common in the 1990s, racial tensions in the city focused, crime rates dropped dramatically, and crowds of people from Asia and Latin America, he emigrated to New York.

On September 11, 2001 the city witnessed America's greatest terrorist. September 11, 2001 attack during the incident known as the hijacked planes that New York's tallest skyscrapers, the World Trade Center buildings (Twin Towers) factors led to the deaths of terrorists in 3000.Twin tower in the region of the Freedom Tower and the memorial will be built with three office towers and the buildings will be completed in 2013 found.

New York's regions (districts)
New York, each in English, 'Borough' consists of five regions called. The
Manhattan is an island in itself constitute the center of the city. From Manhattan
East River (East River) and separated by Brooklyn
Queens and Long Island area constitutes the western end of the island.
Harlem River, Manhattan and

Separates the Bronx area. Bronx, is the only region not on an island on the mainland and North America. The fifth and final area of the city across the bay in New York, Staten Island consists of an island still solid. Manhattan, Brooklyn, with three bridges (Brooklyn, Manhattan and Williamsburg bridges); Queens bridge (59.uncu Street bridge) and a tunnel (Midtown-Ortaşehir tunnel) is optional. Between the Bronx and Manhattan bridges crossing the Harlem River connects. Manhattan is the only region without a direct connection to Staten Island, Brooklyn and Verrazano suspension bridge connects. Bronx, New York is a region in the north. Yankee Stadium and the New York Yankeeleri'nin center is located here. Here is also a small part of Marble Hill.

Tourism
New York nearly 47 million tourists visit annually, and usually destinations Empire State Building,
Times Square (Times Square)
Brooklyn Bridge
Broadway, Metropolitan Museum of Art,
MoMA,
Madison Avenue in the Bronx Zoo and the shopping centers. Halloween Parade and also the Tribeca Film Festival, which attracts tourists and an American cultural phenomenon. Central Park

U.S. is the most visited parks. New York's food culture is very wide. Especially New York style bagel and pizza are the most famous food. ((Fact) Middle Eastern foods that are easy to find.

Importance of the city
The heart of the financial world of
Wall Street Street, New York
Takes place in Manhattan.

New York Stock Exchange (
New York Stock Exchange) are here. Statue of Liberty (Statue of Liberty) is a small island in the harbor of New York. In the streets around the theater and Broadway musicals have been collected. John F. Kennedy International Airport passenger traffic, carrying most of the world is one of the airport. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Museum of Modern Art, the Guggenheim Museum as the museum has the world's most valuable art collections. New York Times newspaper of the city is one of the world's most respected newspapers. The three major U.S. television channel ABC, CBS, and NBC's centers are located in New York.

Sister cities
1923 Istanbul, Turkey
1960 Tokyo, Japan
1980 Beijing, China
1982 Cairo, Egypt
1982 Madrid, Spain
1983 Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
1992 Budapest, Hungary
1992 Rome, Italy
1993 Jerusalem, Israel
2001 London, United Kingdom
2003 Johannesburg, South Africa
2005 Santiago, Dominican Republic

ATHENS, GREECE: A CITY-STATE THAT GREW FROM OPTIMA1LITY IN THE GOLDEN ERA TO EXCESSIVE URBANIZATION BY THE 21ST CENTURY

2010-07-11T04:49:00.000-07:00

ATHENS, GREECE: A CITY-STATE THAT GREW FROM OPTIMA1LITY IN THE GOLDEN ERA TO EXCESSIVE URBANIZATION BY THE 21ST CENTURY*

Lecture by:
Leonidas C. Polopolus
Professor Emeritus
Food and Resource Economics
University of Florida

Introduction

Athens has been a perennial urban center from its birth in antiquity until the present dawn of the 21 st century. As the premiere city-state, Athens, Greece provides an excellent example of the societal benefits that arise from progressive urban leadership exhibited by its citizens of the ancient period, as well as what can go wrong with excessive population and environmental degradation in a modern era of the late 1 990s.

The City-State

A city-state is a geographic area that has one major central city containing a concentration urban residents. Each city-state does have a suburban and/or rural fringe, whose population are tied to the central city.

The concentration of urban citizens in a central city are made possible from a commercial agricultural sector that creates sufficient storable food that can be consumed by the urban non-food producing residents. Thus, a city emerges, not simply in conjunction with, but as a direct result of advances in agriculture. Where there is no agriculture, we find only a very thin concentration of population (Bairoch, 1991, p. 1). Urbanization cannot take place without a concentration of population.

Athens, Greece provides one of the first examples of a city-state in the ancient world. Ancient Rome also influenced the urban architecture and urban planning for Europe over the centuries. There is no doubt that the Graeco-Roman world exhibited an extremely urbanized way of life.
In addition to technological advances in ancient Greek agriculture, there were several other factors that contributed to the success of urbanization of the Athens city-state:

· Greece had a written alphabet by 700 B.C.
· The ancient Greeks invented coined money.
· Central banks were invented by the ancient Greeks.
· The city conducted a variety of cultural functions for its citizens.
· The Agora, as a place for public functions, became the focus of urban life.

Communications are obviously enhanced with the ability of citizens to read and write a common language.

Money is of utmost significance for economic activities in general and for urban life in particular. Coined money is certainly an advantage over the barter system which prevailed in the rest of the ancient world.

The use of coins made exchange easier and thus favored the growth of cities by giving them the additional function of issuing currency.

Classical Greece had a type of city-state in which the cultural functions of the city became important to its citizens.

At its inception, the agora was a place where public assemblies gathered. The agora became the focus of urban life because of such cultural functions as the theater, religion, and city administration.

One can argue that the achievements of the ancient Greek civilization are, in effect, the positive results of Greek city-states, particularly Athens.

Optimum Size of a City-State

Greece appears to have been the first civilization to raise the question

of urban planning from the point of view of size. Both Plato and Aristotle addressed this problem in somewhat different ways.

Aristotle insisted on the existence of a minimum population (from Politics, VII), as well as a maximum size, in both cases without specific numbers. In treating size, Aristotle gives emphasis on the public function of cities: "It is vital that the citizens know one another". He was also worried about the problems of security when cities become too large. "Foreigners and half-breeds usurp without difficulty the rights of citizens because it is easy for them to escape notice owing to the size of the population".

In Laws, V. 74, Plato states that the ideal republic would have 5,040 citizens, i.e., heads of households. This figure implies an optimum size population of about 20,000 people. He linked his optimum size of city to the need for communications among citizens. "The city must remain sufficiently small to permit the holding of public meetings with all of the citizens present."

Greek city-states of the ancient world did in fact remain limited in size. Athens (Attiki) was the largest Greek city-state, approaching a population of approximately 100,000 by 500-450 B.C.

The other Greek city-states rarely had populations as many as 40,000 people. As a general rule, as soon as a city approached a population of 20,000 to 30,000, it decided to found a new city ratherthan to continue the original city's development.

The ancient Greeks understood the constraints to excessive urban development. These constraints involved the limited productivity of the soils to produce food and the increasingly high cost of transportation to the central part of the city from the hinterland (and vice versa).

Thus, the ancient Greeks knew that the cost of urban growth became prohibitably high at certain levels of population.

Transportation and the Location of a City

According to Aristotle, transportation was an important consideration for urban planning. First, a city should be so configured so as to permit military aid to all parts of the city-state's territory. Second, the city should be able to provide transport of foodstuffs and wood for buildings, as well as materials for manufacturing.

Also, it was important for Athens to have the ability to export items to other city-states and foreign nations, as well as import necessary grain from distant lands. Thus, ports of entry and exit were needed for goods. This gave rise to naval transportation, in addition to the ground transportation methods employed at that time.

Importance of International Trade

The sale of exported goods from a city-state created wealth for the city-state. Even in ancient times, exports provided capital that multiplied in importance within the exporting city-state. For Athens, it was the export of its manufactured goods, as well as olive oil, that generated the drachmae to import needed grain. The overall effect was an increase in wealth for Athens and a better standard of living for its citizens.

The urbanization of Athens of ancient times created highly specialized laborers and craftsmen. This division and specialization of labor contributed to the economic success of the city-state.

(Scholars have largely ignored the function and economic role of cities of ancient Greece. This is reflected in the scant amount of literature on this subject.)

We do know from the literature, however, that grain imports into Athens were crucial for the economic performance of the ancient city. The municipal assembly of Athens, for example, was required to regularly inscribe on the order of the day the assurance of provisions of wheat. Wheat supplies were as important to Athens as matters dealing with national defense. Athenian law regulated wheat trade so as to protect the interests of its consumers

Domestic Trade in Athens

The city of Athens provided the marketplace for the surrounding district of Attiki. Peasants from the outlying areas came into town to sell their products in exchange for money to pay their taxes, rents and manufactured goods.

Retailers also existed in ancient Athens. Artisans and other craftsmen sold their items from their workshops. Some of these items, particularly pottery, became so wel1 known that they were exported to foreign markets.

Overall, the economy of ancient Athens became the forerunner of the medieval economies of Europe several centuries later.

Banking in Ancient Greece

It is estimated that there were banks in 53 Greek city-states ( Bairoch, 1991, 78). The functions of these banks went beyond mere money changes. Greek banks engaged in payment operations for trade and manufacturing. They also were involved with consumer credit and public sector financing.

Public Sector Employment in Ancient Greece

The role of government in public services also required specialized personnel. Thus, jobs became available in ancient Athens for work in such areas as urban administration, public transportation, police, street cleaning, garbage disposal and the maintenance of public gardens.

Nations versus City-States as Economic Generators

The contemporary thinking of most economists, as well as the general populace, is that a nation is the operative economic unit for analyzing economic performance, not city-states.

This primacy of nations as the basic economic unit for analysis is rooted in our belief that Keynesian economics can be used effectively to control business cycles. Using such macroeconomic variables as interest rates, levels of unemployment, government spending and wage rates, a nation could stabilize price levels, employment, and interest rates through government actions.

The ineffectiveness of Keynesian economics to control business cycles has led some economists to question the validity of this approach. One such economist is Jane Jacobs who places her reliance on city-states as the engines of economic growth for nations.

A review of early world history tells us that city-states ruled world trade for centuries, beginning with ancient Greece. Eventually, city-states lost out to nation-states for a variety of reasons. One such reason was that city-states had few resources to dominate neighboring economies and world markets. Another reason was that politics dominated economics. City-states are primarily economic units, while nation-states are mainly political units. Since nations are defined by political boundaries, city-states became subjects of the larger nation-states over time (Barnes and Ledebur, 1998, p. 104.

When looking at the performance of individual nations, Jacobs argues that the cities, not nations, provide the economic engines for growth and development. According to Jacobs, "nations are political and military entities, and so are blocs of nations. But it doesn't necessarily follow that they are also the basic, salient entities of economic life".

Basic Conclusions Regarding Ancient Athens From the Point of View Of Economics and Economic Development

The city-state of Athens is well known for its contributions to Western civilization in terms of philosophy, science, architecture, medicine, and mathematics. Hardly anyone pays any attention to the contribution of the city-state of Athens for its contributions to Western civilization in terms of urban planning, public administration, food policies, money and banking, and overall economic policies. In reality, the contributions of the citizens of ancient Greece were highly significant and innovative, making lasting contributions to economics, money and banking, public administration, and public policy.

Historical Transition from the Classical Period to the Modern Period

Although Athens virtually lost its independence to Macedonia in 338 B.C., the city continued to be an important cultural center. It fell to Rome in 146 B.C., but maintained good relations with the Romans until they sacked it in 86 B.C., destroying many of Athens' monuments.

Nonetheless, Athens remained a center of learning for prominent Greeks and Romans from the lst century B.C. until late antiquity. In the 3rd century A.D., it was damaged by invading Goths, who were repelled with some difficulty. In 529 A.D. the Christian Emperor Justinian closed the pagan philosophical schools, virtually ending the city's classical tradition.

In effect, the citizens of Athens entered a long period of bondage (that lasted almost 2,000 years) three centuries after the death of Pericles in 429 B.C.

During the Byzantine period from roughly 400 A.D. to 1450 A.D., Athens became a cultural backwater. Many of the city's artworks were moved to Constantinople. The temples became Christian churches. Byzantine emperors occasionally visited Athens, but the city was largely ignored and impoverished.

The Ottoman Turks gained complete control of Athens in 1458 A.D. The Parthenon, built as the major temple of the goddess Athena, was ~then made into a Muslim mosque. Under Turkish rule, the city was still run by Greeks, even though the population of the city had a mix of Greeks, Turks and Slavs. The Parthenon was badly damaged in 1687 A.D. when a Venetian bombardment ignited gunpowder that had been stored inside the building.

The Modern Period

The Greek War of Independence (1821-1829) liberated Athens from the Turks. Athens was subsequently made the capitol of the entire nation of Greece. Thus, Athens now shifts from merely a city-state to the central location for the nation-state of Greece.

For the remainder of the 19~ century, Athens remained a relatively
small city, serving mainly as a tourist center for its ancient monuments. The population Athens by 1900 is estimated to have been about 100,000 (Table 1). In the 20th century, the population of Athens increased dramatically from 100,000 in 1900 to over 3 million by 1996 (Table 1).
Some Demographic Characteristics of the Current Athens Population
The Athens city-state (Attika) represents the largest concentration of population in Greece today. The Attika region (of which Athens is the largest component) had 3.5 million people in 1991/92 or more than one-third of Greece's total population of 10.3 million (Table 2).

The urbanity of modern Athens is also seen in data reflecting
population density or the average number of people living in a square
kilometer. For Greece as a whole, there are 78 people living in a square
kilometer, while for Attika, population density per square kilometer is an
astonishing 923 (Table 2).

Productivity per individual, measured by Gross Domestic Product
(GDP), is only slightly higher for the Athens regions compared with Greece as a whole (Table 2). The productivity per individual for Athens is
hampered by the higher unemployment rate for Athens (9.9%) when
compared with Greece as a whole (7.7%) (Table 2).

A cross section of the economy can be gleaned from a look at how
total employment is distributed among the three basic sectors of agriculture, industry and services. From Table 2, the Athens region has ceased to be a major agricultural production region, with only 1.2% of the total workforce in the Athens region gainfully employed in production agriculture. For Greece as a whole, 22.2% of the total workforce is employed in production agriculture.

The comparisons for employment in "industry" for Attika and Greece
as a whole are quite similar. There is, however, a wide difference in the
percentage of workers employed in "services". For the Athens region in
1991/92, over two-thirds of the workforce were employed in the services
sector, while that number for Greece as a whole was slightly over one-half of the total (Table 2).

The Industrialization of the Athens Region

With the growth of population of the Athens region in the 20t Century came industrialization. Much of the "industry", however, was initially controlled and operated by the central government, headquartered in Athens. Thus, the banks, the railroads, the airlines, the buses, the telephones, and the electricity were run by government agencies.

Since Greece's entry into the European Union in 1982, Greece has been attempting to privatize many of the services controlled by the government. This effort continues with limited successes. Part of the difficulty with Greece's competitiveness in world markets is due to the inefficiencies of some of Greece's services run by Government entities, i.e., the Olympic Airways.

With the government involved with so much economic activity for Athens as well as the entire country, the government, however, is a major source of employment for the people of Greece. This sometimes has a tendency to lead to politics in getting a job with government agencies.

Shipping and tourism are both headquartered in Athens and provide for a significant economic stimulus. Greece has the largest fleet of commercial vessels in Europe and highly ranked in terms of tonnage in the world. The cruise ship industry is also highly developed in Greece, with Athens (Piraeus) serving as headquarters.

In terms of manufacturing, Athens is also the headquarters for the following important industries (among others):

· Cement Textiles
· Alcoholic beverages
· Soap
· Flour,
· food and soft drinks
· Paper products
· Leather goods
· Pottery
· Chemicals and petrochemical products
· Printing & publishing
· Machinery and transport equipment
· Glassware

While the Athens city-state of Attika accounts for slightly more than one-third of Greece's total population, it leads the nation in a number of economic categories. For example, Attika accounts for the following percentages of Greece's:

· 37.4% of national Gross Domestic Product
· 39% of total manufacturing employment
· 40% of employment in the energy sector
· 77% of Greece's international organizations
· 60% of employment in financial services
· 54% of employment in mortgage services
· 48.5% of employment in transportation services
· 48% of employment in health services
· 45% of government employees

The Athens city-state also has the highest percentage of Greece's educational institutions, research centers and technological centers. Moreover, this region of Greece has the nation's largest airport. The port of Piraeus has the largest capacity of any port in the Balkans.

And unfortunately for the air quality in the summer season, the Attika region has 43.6% of Greece's automobiles.

Thus, the Athens city-state has been transformed from a somewhat agrarian region in ancient times into a modern industrial society by the beginning of the 21 st century, owing to the diversity of manufacturing and service activities in the region.

Athens and its port city of Piraeus is a major hub for the export of Greek goods, as well as the import of foreign items.

Neighboring European Union countries account for 60% of Greece's exports. The major trading partners are from Italy, Germany, France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States. Some of the major products exported from Greece include wine, fresh and processed fruits and vegetables, olive oil, clothing and textiles, minerals, fuels and lubricants, iron, steel, aluminum and associated alloys. The principal market for Greek exports is Germany.

As a member of the European Union(EU), as well as the Euro zone ';

euro currency, almost two-thirds of Greece's imports are from EU countries.

Some of the major items imported into Greece include petroleum associated products, motor vehicles, machinery and transport equipment, food and live animals, chemicals and associated products. Italy is a major source for imported items.

Environmental Issues

The growth of Athens, particularly since World War II, has led to a myriad of environmental problems. The high population density, coupled with a large number of automobiles, has led to problems of air quality. Traffic remains congested, as the city was not designed in antiquity to handle millions of autos and taxi cabs.

Garbage disposal is also a problem area, along with potential pollution of the nearby Aegean sea. Almost annual forest fires in the Athens region also affect air quality.

The Greek government is keenly aware of its environmental problems and other problems caused from urban sprawl. A new subway system was opened in 2002, as well as the opening of a large new international airport in nearby Spata. Various schemes have been imposed on restricting personal automobiles from entering the central core of the city of Athens. The government is also attempting to relieve automobile congestion in downtown Athens by constructing peripheral ("ring") avenues which allow avoidance of the central areas of Athens.

Development of new transportation systems in the Athens area is uniquely slow because any type of digging below the current earth's surface uncovers previously unknown treasures from antiquity.

The government program to make the Attika regions a sustainable city rests on a comprehensive plan to go forward with intervention programs dealing with the following problem areas: Air pollution Waste disposal Traffic congestion Noise pollution Land use planning Urban development Environmental awareness Appropriate legislation

Dealing with the above problem areas, simultaneously with developing the infrastructure and venues for the 2004 Olympic Games, will challenge any city-state and nation-state.

Concluding Remarks

Over the span of almost 3,000 years and despite many years of subjugation by various rulers, Athens remains a city on the hill. The remarkable contributions of the Athens city-state of the golden ancient period have remained on a worldwide basis: coined money, banks, public services, and land use planning.

Athens in the 20th and 21St centuries, despite its high population density, makes important contributions to its nation-state (Greece) and to the world at large. Despite its small size relative to other major city-states like London, New York and Tokyo, Athens has produced two Nobel laureates in literature in recent decades and an Oscar for the best music in a movie (Never on Sunday).

According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, the Athenian is witty, warm and generous. They have maintained their long oral tradition, which has led them to seek discourse that tends to exaggerate reality. Athenians have a sharp-edged sense of personal and family honor and the spoiling of children.

The ancient heroes, too, were vain about both themselves and honor, boasting as much about outwitting the enemy as about outfighting them (Britannica, 2001).

Selected References
Bairoch, Paul, Cities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of Hist~ry to the Present, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, paperback 1991.

Barnes, William R., and Larry C. Ledebur, The New Regional Economics: The U.S. Common Market and the Global Economy, Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 1998.

Camp, John M., The Athenian Agora: Excavations in the Heart of Classical Athens, London: Thames and Hudson, 1986.

Encyclopedia Britannica

Various internet sites on Athens, Greece

Hittites

2010-07-11T02:52:00.000-07:00

Hittites in the history of civilization in Anatolia, is a state founded.
Anatolia between the direction of development, through the Caucasus, the Black Sea from the Dardanelles, or should be. The most generally accepted ideas, in the direction of Anatolia over the Caucasus.

Hittites seen before in history goes back to the kingdom ruled between 1660-1630 BC, I. Is said to have been founded by Hattusili. 1460-1190 BC, the Hittite kingdom in "The Great Kingdom" is called the period. BC After the year 1190 have been destroyed.

Hattuşaş'dır the first settlements. 82 km to Hattusas Corum. away. Then spread to various regions of Anatolia, have continued their dominance. See the map below:

Hittites

Our knowledge about the Hittites to the beginning of this century are based on people. Until the end of the nineteenth century, in the position of Hittite history was unknown. Egyptian texts and the Torah, though she was talking about a nation of people, but this may be of Anatolian origin had not occurred to anyone.
Internal research on the history of the First Age in Anatolia, in the nineteenth century, Charles Texier who visit here, for travelers such as William Hamilton did not go beyond the impression.
Then the "Tablet of Yozgat" called, Bogazkoy library with artifacts were found and in 1917 by renowned Czech scholar Hronzy solved.
The tablets from this region of Anatolia in the country of Hatti was seen mentioned is that the creators of this civilization, the match with a name in the Torah been called by the Hittites.
To recognize the Anatolian Hittite civilization, or even to recognize the means of Anatolia today.
We who are heirs Hittiler'in on Anatolian soil, known as the culture, beliefs and learn, the better we can understand our present culture.
Hatti
Before then review the Hittite, Hittite civilization established in the same place as before the migration and then greatly influenced by the Hittites, who are required to examine the Hatti civilization.
Between approximately 2500-1700 BC Anatolia created a great civilization, our information is very limited Hatti. Hatti is considered as indigenous people of Anatolia, however, they came to immigration - even those who argue there are-they are of Turkish origin. Research Hittite civilization and faith / mythology in terms Hattiler'den revealed very impressed.
Although the Hittites themselves known by other names, countries and religions say about their country of Hatti tablets are talking in the language specified in the Line of the priest shows this effect. Moreover, many of the specific name comes from the Hatti language.
Line of civilization was the most important works Alacahöyük. The excavation began in 1935 under the auspices of Ataturk now exhibited at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations solar courses, statues, gold cups were a lot of work.
During excavations in the position of the dead hocker (womb as well as in fetal position), soil and the presence of the cult of resurrection, and therefore indicate the presence of the mother goddess cult.
Tokat Horoztepe'dir also finds another place. Here, too, belong to the idols and ceremonial ringing of the mother goddess was found. However, the majority of the finds kaçırılmıştır.Hattiler abroad to their own ornaments and decorations, as seen in many places of Anatolia, a spread is and how much of this civilization is important. Line people, the animals developed the cult of the god-shaped, especially the bulls have been the most important symbols. Celestial bull / bull combination of sun disc / think the relationship could gain heaven. Accordingly, the bull represents the greatest god of the heavens. Fused Hittite Hatti, Hittite Hatti civilization has continued to live in civilization.
Origins of the Hittites
Anatolian Civilizations is one of the most important Hittite origin is still controversial. However, the Hittites of Anatolia, locals are not sure they come from the outside. Even after the Hittite name is a name invented by the Old Testament. What's with these people for themselves so we commemorated the Hittite language, we know who we are speaking of generations.
In the western world, scientists have agreed that the Hittites were an Indo-European roots as a nation on track. They spoke the language and culture of patriarchal structures and other features supported this view. However, they migrated from the Hittites were not fully clarified.
In the early years of the republic, then the names, the Hittites were said to be Turkish. Etibank even took the name here. On the other hand, even if the Hittites Hattiler'in Asiatik has relevance to people. Particular languages and cultures is strengthening this link. On the other hand, another theory is the way the Hittites Circassian origin. This thesis is also concerned Hatti items in terms of language and culture is supported and does not seem impossible. However, more comprehensive research should be done. Because the Hittite Hatti Çurey then mixed, for example out obscure places, have broken out theories.
A Glimpse of the History of the Hittites
After you look at the origin of the Hittites to the problem, then the Hittite Indo-European origin, entered Anatolia via the Caucasus as a nation we can accept.
Hittites seen before in history goes back to the kingdom ruled between 1660-1630 BC, I. Is said to have been founded by Hattusili. Considering this issue the documentation is a bit complicated, because the preceding Hattusili Labarna and capital Kussara'dan talks. This term is quite complicated because the local king in Anatolia prevails.
Hattusili in fact, is the person who founded the kingdom at the center Hattusas. Akurgal this situation is summed up:
"Written sources is clear that the results as we can say that Labarna named king Kussara'da ruler after instead nephew Labarna or Tabarna name with the king. However, this second Labarna, after a time the administration center of the capital to be in every way conducive Hattusha ' or neklediyor and so too is a name which means Hattuşlu Hattusili that. "
Hattusili proliferation policy was followed to the south of the border, and Syria today by taking the country expanded westward Arzawan. Instead of dying at a time Hattuşili'nin Murşili is past. Murşili his father had followed a policy of expansion, Halpa '(Aleppo) as t goes to Babylon has received approximately MÖ1550 years old, also burned here at the Hammurabi dynasty has ended.
Murşili'den later became a king. These are the most important one Telipinu'dur (BC 1535-1510) Telipinu from the time of writing both the Hittite history provides insight both Telipinu first the kingdom to whom you'll stay has determined: "The first woman born boy king is. If the first ordinary prince or, The second ordinary boy who becomes king. One king child, a boy is not present in this case, the first ordinary girl who is married, her husband becomes king. "
1460-1190 BC, the Hittite kingdom in "The Great Kingdom" is called the period. Hurri-Mitanni Empire in Anatolia in this period, the largest political force after the Kingdom of the Hittites.
II.Tuthaliya first king of this period 'is. Of this important dynasty of kings ruled until the end of the Kingdom of the Hittites.
During this period the most important one Şuppiluliuma'dır kralardan. This time the king (MÖ1350-1345), the kingdom has expanded the boundaries well, focused on relations with Egypt.
Also another important Muvatalli'dir king (1315-1282 BC). He suppressed the disturbances in time and against Egypt resulted in the successful battle of Kadesh. III.Hattuşuli was then the famous Kadesh Treaty.
Towards the end of the 1200s BC, the Kingdom of the Hittites were in their best period after the death of the king's brother is not in the child II. Şuppiluliuma'nın throne in the palace and out confusion, even among the people of the rebellion has been. On this, a "northern tribes" could not bear attack, adding the Hittite giants, under the invasion has become history. Later on "Late Hittite" has been called the period of Principalities, Hittite culture in the south has continued to live in a little more time to date has been mixed.
Hittite Beliefs
This habit is about the "Hittite Religion" will be reviewed under. Sometimes we use this terminology, but this issue, set the general rules, it is not a homogenous religion, "Faith of the Hittites" is more accurate to examine under. Hittite, probably from Anatolia during that period must be mosaic, each community has embraced God, has created a large pantheon. Tablets this must be why "the thousand gods of Hatti country" pass phrase. Yazılıkaya'daki parade of gods also provides information about this topic quite well. Most of us in the name of God, but God in the testimony section of the agreement is reached.
The Hittites, the Old Kingdom and the Indo-European origin, the god of Hatti as they embraced, and later Hurrian and even Mesopotamian deities origin were also adopted. In the Hittite goddess Ishtar of Mesopotamia, and is also referred to various names had been of great importance. However, from the same origin and Damnika Ea, god of water, the sun god Shamash and his wife, the moon and the moon god Sin, took part in the Hittite pantheon. Where these gods must also have been involved şahiliğin.
In the Hittite gods were considered as fully human, according to this sense of belonging to the gods of the people can live, or even to be hungry, thirsty, and are ill.
The vast majority of these local deities and the gods are the various communities. During this period, Hurri, Luwi, Pala, and the Mesopotamian god of Hatti majority. Gods, no matter how much the gods are in fact shared certain characteristics. In other words, carry the same properties in different names. In this context, we can reveal the major characteristics of God.
To examine their beliefs about the Hittites in the form of a more accurate title would be:
Hittite Gods
* Sky God / God of Storm
Undoubtedly the most important deities in the pantheon of the Hittites "Sky God" respectively. This god is called in different names locally, in the language of Hatti "Taru", Hurrian language "Teşup", the Hittite language "tarragon, Tarragon or Tarhunt" was called.
In fact, they came the Hittites, an Indo-European origin, had the gods. Sioux name this god, the Greek Zeus and the Latin Deus, dii words had the same origin. This root as well as the god of light, also has to have means to shine. Siu specific god, but over time has ceased to be the name and meaning of God in general has become. However, a period of Hittite, Indo-European named as Luwi they also protect the names of other gods are supposed to.
Akurgal'da in God's name and symbols, it is useful to take the following excerpt:
"Baştanrı Hittite texts, usually 'Line Country of the sky god', 'sky god', 'Hattusha God', 'House of God' with names such as is known. The 'army Göktanrısı', 'Rain Göktanrısı' name the also been found. A god of the hieroglyphic sign two split consists of an ellipse. First, the question mark, if you mean the god of the sky, divided into two ellipses were written under the sign of W-shaped lightning; means both sky god. "
Mountains with the sky god, or rather the mountain gods, are among the symbolic link. In fact, this "move mountains gökkubbeyi that" faith is better to deal with. This, then we will see in the Atlas of Greek mythology, the legend must be the first form. Hittite texts, the sky god, god of the mountain to symbolize the two men stand on the figure we also reinforces this view.
One of the most important symbols of the sky god is also bullish. Bulls are thought to symbolize the sky god. Alacahöyükte resulting in a relief sculpture of a bull in front of the king and queen's homage to that fact must be associated with the sky god. Çatalhöyük'ten, perhaps even more important to protect this symbol since ancient times in Greek mythology, Zeus, and then presents the bulls will come in disguised.
Sky god was also the god of thunder. If we are already considering the climate of Anatolia-the-storm that is supposed to be hot once again how important that is clear. II.Murşili during a storm, even the king of being held to the language we learn:
"Suddenly the air broke. Sky god, a horrible roar, and I'm scared I have. Then in his mouth that was reduced and that the interruptions by making up the output. Years later when these dreams himself began to proclaim. The fall in one of God's hand on me was worth it and talk to my strength all the lost .
In the late period, all the features of the sky god passed into the storm god, the god of thunder Teşup Horriya the Hittites moved into a position equivalent to the sky god. Teşup more to the south of the Taurus and Syria in the region until there were cult centers.
* Goddess
It is also important as the goddess of the Hittite gods. That's the projection of women as the male equivalent of Hittite society is located.
Goddess of the Hittites, Hatti "Vuruşemu" Horriya "Hepat" is the goddesses named. Hittite "Arinna'nın sun goddess" in the late Hittite "Kupaba" as is past. (Cybele is also likely to keep the faith.)
Goddess names in different name in these tablets have the same properties if they are late. Hurrian influence, especially with the entrance into the pantheon of Teşup'un with his wife, the goddess Hepat Teşup'un also started to hold an important place, even in a position Arinna'nın became synonymous with the sun goddess. In a document it is said:
"All countries of the master of the queen, the sun goddess Arinna'nın! Line Arinna'nın in the country you get the name of the sun goddess, the cedar tree in the country get Hepat name."
Interestingly, even after centuries Apuleius will use such an expression. Many gods and goddesses in relief equal importance are depicted side by side. There are also descriptions of the divine couple Yazılıkaya'da. Besides, the couple's son is also important as a protective deity.
Among the most important, of course, the sun goddess is the goddess of Arinna'nın. There are different assumptions about Arinna city. However, based on what is the most powerful and arkeolojil evidence, is that Arinna'nın Alacahoyuk. Arinna'nın sun goddess is also important in the life of the kingdom. II.Murşili (MÖ1345-1315) has long been neglected and portrayed the victory of the cult was connected to it:
"I am your majesty, my father on the throne I sat around all the enemies with me to war engaged. But I'm not an enemy country against the time before Arinna city of the sun goddess, with ceremonies and I've revised my [...] and she called out: Arinna'nın sun goddess! Me sir , next to me coming down and [...] your territory who wish to surrounding enemy nations to destroy.! and Arinna'nın sun goddess that I heard and came to me. Then my father to the throne sat not, the surrounding enemy nations in the decade I beat them down I shot. "
Hepat other goddesses, such as timing, this was very important and "protocols" have their place.
* Local Gods
Ahmet Unal Hitiler'in local perspective to the gods about the plot in the palace of the Hittite text called a fortune in the operation explained in the text it seems very good. This is the text of a fortune, and the incident is asked opinions about the gods. (Fal topic will be covered in detail later). This text is an important place Arušna city of god. Unal explained that God is:
"Temple, the cult and cult personnel Arušna'da the Hittites to the very foreign and name of the unknown is a god. The alien, despite great king's illness because Hittite palace with her close relationship in the form. Very touchy and delicate to be a god, and the fortunes of the text to be written that is why was. Because the king's illness in his reference is not, therefore, the wrath has come. anger of another cause, the queen a dream through wanted the gold wreath of the accessories along with his offer to not, the chamberlain's home reserve is. Therefore, God's anger to calm the atonement must be had great king kept the disease survived after an apologetic ritual to attend in person Arušna'ya to go, fortunes tool, respectively. All these efforts despite the god's wrath subsided that was not, and apparently this foreign god cult of well known non-Hittite priests, God's care, the ritual of done so. Arušna'lı priests were forced to leave. "
In addition to these events by other local gods gained importance.
* Animal Gods
In addition, animal-shaped Hitilerde (zoomorphique) there are gods. Hitilerde animal-shaped containers are tools zoomorf cult god idea. Due to the storm god symbolized by the bull-bull-shaped containers are the most important. Here's a must stop on the issue in more detail. II.Muwatalli but in a Hittite text of the prayer) is mentioned as follows:
"The bull run in front of Hatti'nin Sherry Storm God, sir, I pray that my words as reported to the gods!" Gentlemen, Lord of heaven and earth and the gods are typical for this word. "
According to the bull we see here is accompanied by a storm god, and has been mediating between the gods insdanlar. Thus we have seen in relief scenes of bull-worship is more meaningful.
This is a role similar to the Greek mitolijisindeki Hermes'inkine.
Also bear / human-shaped figures were included in the art of the Hittites.
Sfenks'tir interesting figures in the art of the Hittites. Sphinx and the Egyptian origin of Hittite art have passed through Syria.
Kubaba
Hittite gods for a long time, although we give names of places in Anatolia dates is necessary to emphasize the continuity in terms Kubaba.
Since the time of the Great Hittite Empire, one of the most important center in northern Syria, which has been Carchemish. During this period, the vassal king of the Hittite kingdom, by family yöneytilen Carchemish, the Hittite Empire collapsed after the "Late Hittite Empire" as being continued. The most important one of these centers also Kubaba'dır tanrçalarından. Seen here with great respect Kubaba will then live with the name of Cybele in Anatolia.
In the cult of the Hittite gods
Hittite gods and the cult of cults is the state religion, in fact, officials of the state cult of the god görevlileridir.Hitit rock / open-air temple holds an important place. Today, has been examined in detail below, has reached a very open-air temple. Many also, unfortunately, was destroyed by treasure hunters. Among these are the most important Yazılıkaya. The parade of gods and goddesses have been established in more than 60 gods. God at the beginning of a pointed hat and a belted waist with knees down when you have clothes, a cylindrical head at the beginning of the goddess and blouses and pleated skirts over them vardır.Yazılıkaya 'show in the pantheon of gods seems largely Hurrian. As human gods of the Hittites (antropomorphique) because they think "House of God as" the great importance of the temple was considered. The temples were full of God's house. The statue of the god or goddess is about to stop here, and god or goddess in the temple where the statue was inanılırdı.Tanrı is only the king, queen and selected the statue as the priests were allowed to enter the room. Someone else, especially modified so that a foreigner to enter put to death.
Hattusas in smaller cities such as major temples in the temple, there were smaller. In general, the temple's main courtyard and rooms overlooking a courtyard in the center were present. Kutsdal room where the statue of the god of the temple is on the back was able to get a light from two sides.
There were two rooms in the temple in the holy Hattusas. One of the rooms as the storm god, the other was issued on behalf of the Sun Goddess düşünülmektedir.Yazılıkaya Arianna'nın as the open-air temples were much different. Special ceremonies and festivals are celebrated here (new years) were held. As temples and religious centers also have become an economic center as well. Here only the gifts and donations to the temple at the same time is not stored grain warehouses are seen as functions. (It is impossible to generalize here, but it has been inferred in the light of the excavations.) With statues of gods or idols represented by these objects belong to a cult, according had. This is decorated with statues around the worship ceremony, as ceremonies around the statue to a car used to be boarded. At the end of this statue of Jesus, açıkhavaya, woods, forest, or in high places where sacrifices are being taken to move ZI.KIK, eat, and games were being played. Line to the Gods of the ceremony, a ceremony to the gods than others to be happy, and dance, acrobatics and various entertainment shows almakdaydı place. Moreover, as the protector of the city used to be an offering to God. Precious metals as a gift offered to the gods as food, beverages offer. Libasyon1 a presentation format was also used very often. Alp these ceremonies are described:
"King of the leading role to play, queen, prince and princess and the state's most high-ranking officials with the participation of actual religious holiday ceremonies, ceremonial procession and many times tapınakdaki cult hall god statue or altarının before the animals were sacrificed and given to drink the (Hittite šipant-) and bread break (Hittite pars-) and other food presentation or adorasyon (worship) in the stages song, music and sometimes dance with the accompaniment to the great importance had. [...] The scenes which the gods sacrifice offered or worship if that god mensub the ethnic In the language of the group (eg Hattice, Luwicw, Pala vehicle, or Hurrice Nešaca) had us singing to pieces. Text of this language we uncovered the lyrics. All the ethnic groups had different singers. "
Yasar Coskun, and his work on the vessel containing the names of the text that gives us information about the ceremonies:
"The next morning the king of the gods inside the house goes to pieces and her soft wheat bread harşiialli'sine2 puts the victim."
"Then [one sacrificial thin bread of God x] e [track] s, on the cut [Province has] the liver (and) his heart [put], liver on the one cooked brisket meat [and] them, then the victim desk sets. Wine huprushi3 in front (as the victim drinks) offers. Then one fine bread pieces in the storm god. put on the cut liver, heart, liver, beef brisket cooked on one, [and onl] bee put the victim to the table "
Text of a directive related to temple officials said the temple provides insight into the cult. This text is being asked to clean the temple employees, are required to even make the cut even. Also clean pigs and dogs are not accepted are asked to be careful not to enter. What employees have been offered sanctuary to the gods themselves do not consume or with relatives, especially emphasized. Officials "that the gods because nothing tells us it does not do anything," he should not have, because "God's spirit is strong, rushing to catch does not. But the catch when turned on." This quote also the temple officials of God over fear not, and the presentation language as they shared their shows.
Also interesting here is the directive:
"If any one woman lying next to it (o) of the gods worship what arranged if (and) to the god of food (and) drink (what means) shall, if the woman next to (the) same way about it. Then the woman lying next to you. Dawn when immediately wash you. In the morning god of cooking time immediately (the temple), there are. If he neglect if it's for (the) major crime. If the who of a woman lying next if his supervisor (or) big from the back (a cult task) to shoulder to it (right) sings. If he dared to say can not tell your friend you and washed you. if he knowingly put off if (and) yet without washing of the gods, the victims of bread and the victim a drink next to the dirty approach, this case his friend knows and if he 'evil will (even) if it conceals, but in the back occurs if the [ their] the death penalty (is). They let both die. "
Holidays
Many of the Hittites holiday / festival had. Day 18 until the investigations were the result. The most important one is the spring festival, called Purulliyaş doubt. This line originates from the root word as "world" means. With various rituals and myths of this feast, and to explain the revival would be a celebration.
AN.TAH.SUM.SAR Hittites referred to as the Feast Day of plants, 38 days ilkbahrda ongoing fall in the 21 days continues TARRIIASHAS Nun.
In the Hittite is an interesting holiday feast or Hadauri. Balcioglu is explained that the holiday's kutlanış:
"During this holiday what more nor a partial description does not exist, other holidays frequently encountered, drink, bread, various animals and different food types, etc.. Presented whether present or not do not know. Hadauri festival passes all the text places the victim animals as sheep to present this festival from others twenty is the most important feature. [...] Another feature of this festival, including the Spring and Autumn is celebrated twice a year. "
This holiday sun god, god of the storm, and some are celebrated in the temple of the gods of Hatti origin. This festival is celebrated within the AN.TAH.SUM.SAR was also considered.
Sacrifice by pouring it into the soil
Jars of smaller vessels
Biggish pots, bowls
In Hittite Beliefs Related to Nature
In the Hittite with the nature of the cult that was also seen in research. Existing fountain in the Hittite pantheon / resource gods / goddesses, Hitiler'in water resources, they are regarded as sacred springs are shown. Eflatunpınar'daki monuments have confirmed this view.
Hittites in the mountains and the mountain was considered sacred to the gods believed. There were also ceremonies of every mountain. The long skirted the mountain gods in general, are depicted as sharp as külahlı. Symbols are seen in the mountains above the suit oladuğu. There is also some indication of the horn. When we think of the mountains in the country of the Hittites in Anatolia tapımının mountain seems to be normal. In fact it only operate in his study on the origin of the mountain gods are connected to the outside and interesting conclusions are:
1. Hittite god of the mountain is alien to the religion and the arts, has come from outside.
2. The oldest depiction of God according to our current knowledge of the mountains in Syria Mari's oversize (eighteenth century BC), Syrian-style seals (XV-XIII BC. Yy), northern Mesopotamia (BC XV.yy) and Kassit is seen in the art.
3. Patterns of mountain gods and the Mitanni-hur regions are understood to be gone and it is generally accepted ideas.
4. The first depictions of the mountain gods completely stone facade is made of plastic arts, they are bearded, down, up and out to indicate that God's purposes, is depicted .[...]
5. 11. Anatolian Hittites in the art according to our current knowledge of the mountain god depicted XIII BC. century since we met. Hittite cuneiform texts, the mountain gods of various records relating to the nature of the race. Old Hittite Empire period required between the State and Empire in the period of the circuit and have been detected in Anatolia at the time of impact Hur hur god along with other mountain gods have taken place in the pantheon of the Hittites is possible.
In Hittite and Divination Divination
The Hittites, the will of the gods, outraged when they already have admitted to horoscopes to find out why. Besides these topics, but much simpler in fortunes seems to have been admitted. Fortunes here should be considered differently than predicted, and given signs of the gods must be different. We need to understand that fortune, leading a person's fortune, about an event is to ask God's opinion. Durmda against it at the same time a confession to God that is in question. See a variety of methods are used in Hittite fortunes. To look at internal organs of animals, to follow the flight of birds such as the Hittites In practice is also available. In addition, the movement of water in the pool to look at the snakes, like some kind of game is played with stones, such as the fortune fortune fortune methods used.
Most applicable, is to ask questions, positive or negative. This will provide information about a section of text is a fortune:
"His Majesty's illness Concerning: [........ and] Aruşna city [god] heat majesty of the disease in any of the questions of [mıştır. O God for this girl If, birinici the sign is positive and the last while as I] negative whether . First the signs are positive [...] Aruşna city of god (Majesty's) disease, because in spite determined that when it comes to: "O God, in any way, the temple in the anger you. (if so) the sign is negative you. Left suti negative. O my god if (only) If you have anger in the temple, but to his majesty [ka] RSI did not any of the girls, to get good marks. "
The text is so long away. As we have seen here, has been used frequently in the fortunes of the Hittites. A fortune in the Hittite texts has enabled us to learn about many issues.

istanbul

2010-07-10T17:29:00.000-07:00

Location

Silhouette of Hagia Sophia and Blue Mosque
Istanbul, 41 ° N, 29 ° E is located at the coordinates. Strait and along the Golden Horn, istanbul in northwestern Turkey has been established to the surrounding. Istanbul, on the west coast of Europe and Asia in the east coast based on the two continents are the only metropolis. There are 32 districts.
The world's most ancient cities of Istanbul, 330-395 years between the Roman Empire, 395-1204 and 1261 to 1453 between the Byzantine Empire, from 1204 to 1261 between the Latin Empire, and finally from 1453 to 1922 between the Ottoman Empires were.

Marmara Region, is one of Turkey's seven geographical regions. Balkan Peninsula and Anatolia as a bridge between Europe and Asia, connecting with nature can be said. Approximately 67 000 km2 and has a yüzölçüme 8.5% of Turkey 's are matched against.
Marmara Region, industry, trade, tourism and agriculture developed. The most developed industrial areas in the cities of Istanbul-Bursa-Izmit, although the region's industrial activity is widespread in other regions. As the major industrial products, processed food, textiles, garments, cement, paper, petrochemical products, white goods can be considered.
Approximately half of the cultivated area of wheat and sugar beets wheat, corn and sunflower follows. Region, approximately 73% of Turkey's sunflower production, corn production is around 30% of the carries. Tekirdağ Viticulture is also highly developed, Sarkoy, Murefte, and the island of grapes and wines are renowned Avşa.
Seven geographic regions with the lowest elevation in the region. 30% of sown-planted land.11.5% of forested areas' tour. Is common in poultry and sericulture. Population and population density is very high due to migration. Energy consumption and tourism income is the highest region.
[Edit] Etymology

BC In 667 years, Istanbul Megaras colonists established settlements in the city during that period for the king Byzas "Bizantium" has put the names. Anno Domini In 196 the Roman emperor Septimius Severus the city was captured after an attack, but at this time the city has become a ruin. He restored the city, many Romans had migrated to Istanbul. Although Severus, the city his son's name Augusta Antonina (emperor when the name of Antoninus Caracalla has been) to give it or rumor, of Constantine to the city of Constantinople, the name give in before the public in the city Nova Roma (New Rome) was called.
Constantine at the beginning of the official name of the city wanted to put Nova Roma, but he held back when the religious disagreements. Also based on the origin of the name of istanbul is claimed that the ancient Greek. The Turks conquered Istanbul, during and before the Seljuk well as in the city Stamboul-Stambul. As well as Turks, Arabs in the 10th century, 12th century, the Armenians were called to the city by that name are provided. However, the state uses the name of the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople.
Frequent use of the name of the city is Istanbul-İstambol 17th century, Evliya Çelebi mentioned with the name of the town begins. Istanbul Greek word "εις την Πόλιν" or "στην Πόλη" (eis ten poli Sten pole = town or city or right) comes from the phrase. 1 century III. Mustafa in the period, the removal of funds from Constantinople, he officially becomes İstambol'u place. (1770)

The new Baroque style Ortaköy Mosque in Ortaköy
Istanbul in many languages which have different names:
Modern: Konstantinúpoli (Κωνσταντινούπολη), Istinpolin, Megali Police Kalipolis, Vizantion
Latin: Bizantium, Antoninya, Alma Roma Nova Roma
Slavic: Çargrad, Konstantingrad
Hebrew: איסטנבול (Carbon-tan-finding), the Middle Ages קושטא (Bird-ta)
Norsca: Miklagard
Armenian: Vizant, Stimbol, Esdambol, Eskomboli, Stambol (Ստամբուլ)
Arabic: Bizantiya, hand-stranded, the Kustantina hand-expert
The time of the Seljuks: Constantinople, Constantinople Mahrusa-i, Stambul
Old Russian: Çargrad, Vizantiy, Constantinople, Stambul
In Ottoman: Dersaadet, Deraliyye, Mahrusa-i reign, Istanbul, Islambol, Darü's-reign-i Aliye, Asitane-i Aliye, Darü'l-Hilafetü 'l Aliye, Sultanate Payitaht-i,-i Mualla lodge, Südde-i Saadet , Kostantiniyye (قسطنطينيه)
French: Stamboul
Spanish: Estambul
Hungarian: Isztambul
Lithuanian: Stambulas
Latvian: Stambula
Albanian: Stambolli
Welsh: Iostanbúl
Loglanca: Gonstantinupol
Laz: Poly
Ladino: Estanbol
Persian Estanbol
Rumence: Istambul
[Edit] History

Main article: History of Istanbul

Although the World three times since the ice age 300,000 years pass, and although the soil mass displacement; Kucukcekmece Yanmburgaz in Neolithic cave, and were followed until Kaltolitik people. Dudullu Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic with trees used in the instruments were to be found. However, these ages mentioned anywhere in the world can be found in traces. After the last ice age times we live in BC Aittir.M.Ö to 5000 years.Fikirtepe inscriptions belonging to the year 5500 with the discovery of the Chalcolithic period were found in the capital.
Istanbul city's history can be grouped into four main. These are the names of Istanbul, the second settlement period of the Byzantium, Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire founded by Constantine period, the Ottoman Empire and the Republic era. Istanbul, the Roman Empire (330-395) 's, then the Byzantine Empire (395-1204, 1261-1453) and the Latin Empire (1204-1261)' s, and finally Ottoman Empire (1453-1922) 's capital has been . Roman and Byzantine capital of Constantinople by the Ottoman capital by Stambul, İslambol, Constantinople, etc. Dersaadet was known. Cumhuriyeti'nce Turkey since 1930 the city is officially called Istanbul.
[Edit] Byzantine Period
Main article: Byzantium
This period, BC With 660 A.D. 324 years between the covers. BC Megara 667'de people, after settling into the city, the king for Byzas, Byzas'ın Bizantium meaning place or city (or Byzantium Bizantion - Βυζάντιον) puts the name.
According to legend Megaras known in the Aegean Sea to the north is the right way, in this order from the King Byzas'a the Delphi oracle "was the opposite of the blind" in the new city would build. Mageralılar after reaching the Bosphorus, in place of travel and periods Kalkedon'u (Χαλκηδών) today Kadıköy on the ground will set the foundation of the city.

Bizantium drawing
Sarayburnu Megaras later settled in, but many times the city has been invaded. BC Were seized by 269'da Bitinyalılar. BC 202'de Bitinyalılar frightened by the invasion of Macedonia, had appealed for help from Rome and Roman culture has slowly begun to affect the city. BCBeginning in 146 the Roman Empire came under the rule. Since that time the city, has been in the state of Bithynia-Pontus.
Roman Emperor, "Septimus Severus," the city, because people kept Partlıları MS 196'de pervades the city and the city is almost completely disintegrates. (According to another opinion of Severus the city was burned all the settlements), Severus, because the city is quite like the city is completely rebuilt. During this period, because of the problems in Rome, Rome, the vast majority of people migrate to Istanbul. During this period, from Rome to Istanbul from the city "Nova Roma (New Rome) will say, but does not this name is never formalized.
Domination of the Goths in 269 cities in July, fell to the Nikomedyalıların 313'de said.Constantine takes the Nikomedyalılardan city is the capital of the Roman Empire.
[Edit] Byzantine Empire Period
Main article: Constantinople

Map of Constantinople. Detailed maps.
During this period 324 - 1453 covers the years between. I. Konstantinus captured the city after the capital of the Roman Empire, the city is also the administrative center of the east of Rome.During this period the population of Romans, the Roman nobles including the critical dimensions of migration has increased. During this period, has greatly extended the city with a new architecture. 100-seat hippodrome (Sultanahmet Square), as well as ports and water facilities have been built.
Although the city of Rome during the Nova Konstantinus'un, May 11 330 of the city was named Constantinople. In the period, the Hagia Sophia cathedral in the world's largest 360 Constantine established, so that Christianity is the religion of the Roman Empire changed. West of the Roman pagan religion, which began with the first break in this period. Although the Byzantine Empire, I. Although the death of Theodosius, beginning with the Byzantine Empire brought Christianity to Konstantinus from his respect for him always saw it as a Byzantine Emperor; 1453'deki up to the collapse of the Emperor than 10 names have been Konstantinus. Istanbul is a very strategic role in this period, was a door between Europe and Asia. With this opportunity, commerce, culture, and is a center of diplomacy is done. During this period, the city's name "Poly" (the city) there have been.
After the collapse of Rome in 476, the West, the Western Roman Empire, the vast majority of Romans who had emigrated here, and Istanbul has been the capital of the Byzantine Empire.543'de causing the death of half of the population after an outbreak of plague in the city of Emperor Was built during Justinian again.
700lü point in the Sassanid and Avars attacked the city; 800lü in Bulgarians and Arabs, the Russians and Bulgarians in 900lü was attacked.
However, among the most devastating attacks in 1204 has become one. By the Crusaders; 4The Crusade in 1204 seized the city was looted, the vast majority of people fled from the city, the poor and became a city in ruins. The reason for this growth in the Latin West of Rome, the Catholic Christian Orthodox Christian beliefs with the understanding Bizans'daki differences and incompatibilities are between. After this period, from 1261 in Palailogos Dynasty; Michael VIII Palaeologus recaptured the city and Latin'lerin period has ended.
Gradually decrease after this period the Byzantine, the Ottoman Empire began to be besieged by 1391'den later, May 29 1453, eventually became a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire.Conquest of istanbul history of the world symbolizes the end of the Middle Ages.
[Edit] Ottoman Era
Main articles: Ottoman Empire and the conquest of Istanbul

Conquest of istanbul
During this period 1453 - 1923 covers the years between. May 29 1453, the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror after the 53-day siege of Istanbul is the capital of the Ottoman Empire and end the 3rd.
After the Ottoman conquest, the establishment of the Grand Bazaar, Topkapi Palace and then opens a lot of schools and public baths. From around the world and the people of the empire moved to Istanbul. Jews, Christians and Muslims live together is a cosmopolitan society.Remaining from the Byzantine era, the old buildings and walls are repaired. 50 years after the conquest of Istanbul is one of the world's largest cities. "Little Apocalypse", also known as, in the wake of September 14, 1509 Istanbul Earthquake (as is suggested in eight of violence), lasted 45 days with aftershocks destroyed thousands of buildings and many people lose their lives.
In 1510, Sultan Mahmud II. Beyazıd; 80,000 people working in the city will rebuild. Today, the vast majority of existing works from this period remain. Suleiman the Magnificent in the period, given the importance of architecture and art. Architect Sinan builds mosques and other buildings. During the Tulip Revolution, the Grand Vizier Damat Ibrahim Pasha Nevşehirli Since 1718, the fire brigade was founded, and opened the first printing press was set up factories.November 3, 1839 has been declared after the Tanzimat and the West have accelerated the process of, and improvements have occurred in many areas.

Londra

2010-07-10T17:28:00.000-07:00

HISTORY
The capital of the world's most famous royal, one of the most important centers of world markets and is a favorite of European youth, contrasting the city of London.
Although different people have different tastes, and anyone wishing to London in Europe was always the first choice for years. No reason not to; 2000 years ago, a few thousand people and a Roman city founded as London today, seven million people lived, every year millions visit to the cosmopolitan şehir.Türkçe and Turks, including many languages spoken whether many of the nation live with a world city.

Royal center:
London, the British royal family for centuries the capital city because it was made today at the Royal Treasury of the home is the most important. Queen of the house that Bukingham Palace (August-October months between the partly open to visitors) as well as the Royal treasures are on display London Tower, Lady Diana's home in Kensington Palace the city's Royal with a few crowns a few only.

Culture City:
London world's most important works of art and history kalınıtlarına home
held at the same time a cultural city. Classic pictures on display Tate Gallery, this year opened a modern art works on display Tate Gallery Of Modern Arts and the National Gallery, a unique table with the visitors growing while the British Museum, including Turkey, many countries have come from historical works and every day thousands of visitors to fascinate continues.

Not only that, the world after London, New York
the most important musical city. Cats, Phantom Of The Opera, Chicago
and number over thirty, all ages (and even non-English speakers)
musicals appeal to a culture of London geceleirnde wind blows. But attention is almost impossible to find tickets at the last minute.

Contemporary musical, as well as Shakspeare for fans of the city's south side of the period the most important games are on display (and in summer is still on display as) to the theater on a trip and here for a tour to perform, if you want the game to watch possible.

Museums:
London, museums in terms of both number and quality of the world's leading cities. As well as to revive the culture of the museum while visiting the museum will be extremely impressive environments and new experiences you will live

Once the first museum in London to revive the museum comes to mind of course the most famous Madame Tussaud's. Ataturk, including artists and politicians of many countries, where the mummy is always a long queue at the entrance to this museum is made. Oxford Circus underground station to buy tickets in advance can avoid waiting in the queue with copies.

Ø Meridian:
London's Maritime Museum in Greenwich in the east coast as well as the Greenwich Observatory Museum, and all of them in the zero meridian in Greenwich, where the lush park visit. Greenwich will be held outdoors with a boat full day visit to perform a tour of every London travelers. Charing Cross Pier to Greenwich and on my return boat ticket he museum ticket prices and packages that are able to get cheaper.

paris

2010-07-10T17:24:00.000-07:00

In addition to being the capital of France, science, culture, art in such fields as one of the world's leading centers adopted in Paris, has nearly 2000 years of history. Seine River, which was established on both sides of the city, is located in the northern part of France with a turn and spiral around the center of the county is divided into 20 consecutive. City, the river north of the Right Side of the remaining sections, the section south of the Left Bank, was named.

Paris, crossed the Channel from the mouth of the River, 375 km inland spills are you.Nevertheless, the Seine River via canals and rivers into the Mediterranean Sea and the Channel to Germany, Belgium and France are also connected to other parts of the city is considered a haven for. Paris, Orly and Charles de Gaulle international airport has two names.

Paris city plan is usually two or more flats in each floor, six-story apartment buildings are located. The cafes in the city boulevards of Paris are popular destinations for most of the people. Transport in Paris, the automobile, bus and subway is right. France's roads and railways all over the country are starting from Paris. In the industrial area south of the city's tanneries, cement, beer and tobacco factories are. Aircraft, locomotives, electric vehicles, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, industrial products between Paris. Paris is also France's film production center.

Paris in many ways New York, London or another European city rather than the business atmosphere has accelerated in the air. Parisians are famous for being rude and arrogant created. If Parisians are rude to them nevertheless shown that even a small kindness is reversed immediately. Into a shop when you enter say you'll "Bonjour, Madame", one's attention when you want to use "excusez-moi," or accidental one hit or when you make a mistake when you Sorry to say the sullen shop assistants even a smiling assistant and most cantankerous person or sympathetic citizens can make . Politeness is very important in France.

Inner city residents typically Parisian crowd of people waiting at the sober tone of the conversations are. Train or subway to look for people who speak loudly expressed their discomfort. These people often return from work they are tired of the noise is very disturbing.Vast majority of those who live in Paris do not like to deal with tourists, but politely asked all French will help you with your problem.

To visit Paris is a bad idea to rent a car. In addition to traffic congestion, especially around tourist sites are hard to find parking. These streets were built long before the invention of cars, is not suitable for navigation by car. Most Parisians do not have a car that is so. Vaux-le-Vicomte castle still like the car you can go to places outside the city. In such cases, the rental car to a location outside of Paris would be more appropriate.

Take a walk in Paris is one of the greatest pleasure to live. If you are able to deter entry into the numerous cafes and shops all within two hours of a city is able to pass through. 2012, the center of the city completely by foot, bicycle or ride in the subway is planned to be made.Within a few years, the 1 2. 3. and 4 regions are thought to be completely closed to traffic.
Will go where the distances are less than two stops, to walk rather than ride the subway to get to know the city is the best choice in terms.

Ephesus In Turkey

2010-07-10T09:58:00.000-07:00

The first era, one of the most famous cities of the ancient city of Ephesus, Küçük Menderes river water discharge has been established near the gulf. Arable land, to the East opened up the way for greater trade, have an important religious center of idolatry in the form both of the Christian era,
to pass into history as a great city has provided. Has announced the name of science and the art world, famous people trained. Their interpretation of dreams Ardemidotus, poet and Hipponax Callinos, philosopher Heraclitus, Painter Parrhasius, Zenodotos grammar knowledge, physicians and Rufus'tur Soranos. The history of the ancient city of Ephesus M.Ö.6000 URLs which it extends, and in recent years Arvalya Çukuriçi finds revealed in the mound.

Ayasuluk Hill during excavations here today from the early Bronze Age settlements have continuously showed up. This is also the former Hill Ayasuluk Ephesus, where the Tribes and the Hittites of Anatolia was settled by Canada. Hittite texts also Apasas in this city is the last city that became final. Strabo and Pausinias ancient writers, history Herodotus, the ancient sources Callinos Efes'li poet Ephesus was established by the Amazon and indigenous people have pointed out Karians create and Leleg.

M.Ö.11-century Athens, the son of King Kodros'un Androklos, like other colonists had arrived in Anatolia, is located around the ancient city of Ephesus. According to legend, Androklos way to build a new city will consult the priests before. Priests where he founded the city will be represented by a fish and wild boar will tell. Anatolian coast of the island of step with the man they caught fish Androklos pan, while the splash of a fish jumped out of the pan sparks will ignite bushes. Located behind the bushes, fearing a wild boar to escape the flames begin. Remember what I said Andraklos priests and the horse will follow, and it kills the wild boar and wild pigs killed over the city will set up. This myth is depicted in the frieze of the Temple of Hadrian. The original of this relief in the Ephesus Museum sergilenmektedir.Helenler when they come here almost every part of Anatolia, as they found the Mother Goddess Cybele as chief god. To deal with indigenous peoples with the mother goddess Artemis began to worship in the same place a hold.

Artemis at Ephesus, the mother goddess of Anatolia, the fertility goddess Cybele was replaced. BC Artemis is the first temple built in 625 years. BC 7th century 'Cimmerians invaded the city and the Temple of Artemis will be razed. BC 560'da Lidyalı'lar is captured by the city of Ephesus Artemision moved around. Ephesus today visited by Alexander the Great's generals Lysimachos Mockingbird BC in the valley between the mountains and the Carnivalesque Was established in the 3rd century. One of the important trade centers of the Mediterranean sea, the city has become. BC The 2nd 'domination of the Romans began to fall rapidly, and Ephesus in Asia Minor as the capital of the Roman Empire, AD The 2nd 'la lived up to the most brilliant period. At that time, the city's population had reached 250 thousand.

Structure of the ancient city of Ephesus

- Magnesia Gate
- East Gymnasiomu
- Odeon
- State Agora
- Prytaneion (City Hall)
- Memmius Memorial
- Temple of Domitian
- Kuretler Street
- Trajan Fountain
- Skolastika Baths
- Latrina
- Temple of Hadrian
- Terrace Houses
- Love House
- Celsus Library
- Mazeus-Mithridates Gate
- Commercial Agora
- Marble Road
- Theatre
- Arkadiane Street
- Theatre Gymnasium
- Harbour Gymnasium and Baths
- Double Churches (consul Church)
- Stadium
- Vedius Gymnasium
- The Seven Sleepers
- Church of St.John
- Isa Bey Mosque
- Ayasuluk Castle

Ephesus Location
The ancient city of Ephesus, Izmir-Aydin highway access. 3 km distance from the ancient city of Ephesus in Selcuk, Kusadasi, from the left side of the road (after crossing the Temple of Artemis) of Ephesus, where the sign of the mall (at the same time the road is the road Seven Sleepers) is entered. Selcuk major roads intersect at a point where it is possible to provide access to the many bus companies. Go to the ancient city of Ephesus in Selcuk bus station is the Bus, if you go to your own vehicle or go to the ancient city of Ephesus short distance until you see it you have to realize there are many more things will be. If you wish to rent a bicycle from the center of Selcuk, or even a half-hour walk through the ancient city of Ephesus can be reached. However, only 1 km away from the ancient city of Ephesus in Ephesus, a small aircraft landing off airport is available to

Ayasofya Mosque | In Turkey - Istanbul (Costantine)

2010-07-10T09:37:00.000-07:00

Architecture, magnificence and functionality, the first and the last unique application in terms of Hagia Sophia as a common, albeit on the basis of the Ottoman mosques inspired idea, is a product of the East-West synthesis. This work on the world of architecture has remained intact until the present day among the most important monuments are located. Therefore, the Haghia Sophia, as well as history, architecture, mosaics and Turks over the centuries by the age structure has attracted the interest of all humanity.

916 in Hagia Sophia church, the mosque was 481 years, history functions as a museum since 1935 continues.

Byzantine historians (Theophanes, Nikephoros, grammarian Leon), the first Emperor of Hagia Sophia Constantine I (324-337) have suggested the time was done. Basilica with a wooden roof of this building, was burned at the end of an uprising. No remains of this structure has survived.

ayasofyaİmparator II. Theodosius Hagia Sophia was built, and 415 for the second time has opened for worship. Again basilica was burnt down during the Nika revolution 532. During excavations in 1936 revealed some ruins about it. Digits indicating the entrance of their temples, columns, capitals, fragments of the building.

Iustinianus emperor (527-565), the first two wanted to build a church larger than St. Sophia, famous architects of the era Isidoros Miletos and the Hagia Sophia has reached Anthemios of Tralles. The remains of the ancient city of Anatolia, columns, capitals, marble and colored stones were brought to Istanbul to be used in Hagia Sophia.

The works started on December 23, 532, 537 was completed December 27. Architecture is examined in terms of a large central space, two side rooms (nef), abscissa, the inner and outer narthex has occurred. Interior, 100 x 70 m. extent, and four large feet on the 55th move of the m. height, 30.31 meters in diameter was covered with a dome.

The mosaics of Hagia Sophia as well as the architecture is of great importance. The oldest mosaics in the narthex and the side naves are gilded mosaic of geometric and floral motifs. Figurative mosaics IX.-XII. century were made in. Emperor on their doors, absiste, exit doors and upstairs gallery are seen.

Sophia camiAyasofya starting with the conquest of Istanbul in the Turkish period, several repairs were made. Environmental niche, Turkish china art and includes the finest examples of Turkish calligraphy. The dome of the famous Turkish calligrapher Mustafa Izzet Efendi Kazasker taken from the Koran with a period of 7.50 m. The most interesting is the diameter of the circular plate. In these sheets, Allah, Mohammed, Omar, Osman, Ali, Hasan, Abu Bakr, Hussein's name is written. The side wall of the niche in the writing of the Ottoman sultans and the plates are presented here.

Sultan II. Selim, Sultan III. Mehmet, Sultan III. Murat and the tomb of the prince, Sultan I. Mahmut's fountain, primary school, soup kitchen, library, Sultan Abdülmecid Sultan Mahfi with muvakkithane, Hagia Sophia in the Turkish-age samples and mausoleums, interior fittings, tiles and architecture and classical Ottoman tomb tradition of the most beautiful examples of form.

09:30 to 16:30 every day except Mondays between the hours of the museum can be visited.