East Asian Culture

Japan Warns Russia Against Visits To Disputed Islands

2010-11-08T15:18:00.000-08:00

Japan warned Russia today against more visits to a group of disputed North Pacific islands after President Dmitry Medvedev traveled to one of the isles this week, sparking a diplomatic row.

The islands, known as the Kurile Islands in Russia and the Northern Territories in Japan, are claimed by both countries.

Japan has temporarily recalled its ambassador from Moscow after Medvedev's visit.

Foreign Minister Seiji Maehara said today Tokyo has conveyed its position to Moscow that "the Northern Territories are Japanese territory."

Russia said on November 2 that Medvedev planned more trips to islands seized by the Soviet Union from Japan at the end of World War II.

Maehara, however, said he still hoped to meet his Russian counterpart on the sidelines of an Asia-Pacific summit in Japan next week.

Reuters

Korea-ASEAN Culture & Arts Forum Held in Seoul

2010-10-16T21:09:00.000-07:00

The Korea-ASEAN Culture and Arts Forum took place Friday at Lotte Hotel World in Seoul attended by culture ministry officials and industry experts from Korea and 10 Southeast Asian countries.
According to organizers the purpose of this year's forum was to enhance cultural exchange and cooperation and also to have discussions on the current situation of each country's support for culture and the arts.
The forum was divided into two separate discussions one with a focus on movies and the other on performances.
Representatives from the Philippines, Singapore and Laos held talks on their film industries while experts from Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia discussed ways to promote their traditional performances.

OCT 16, 2010
http://www.arirang.co.kr/News/News_View.asp?nseq=108027&code=Ne2&category=2

The Lao People

2010-02-19T19:19:00.000-08:00

Lao is an ethnic group in South East Asia. The majority of the Lao live in Laos and in Thailand. In Thailand the Lao are concentrated to the Isan province even if many have immigrated to other areas such as Bangkok. The Lao speak different dialects of Lao and Isan languages which is often regarded as one language.

The peoples of Lao's history is recognized in conjunction with Laos and Isan's history. These two regions belonged to the same Kingdom called Lan Xang. Im 1778-1779 Lan Xang was invaded and concerned by Siam. The success of Siam was much due to their technical advantage on the battlefield. During the 17th century Lan Xang starts an uprising against Siam in their struggle for independence. As a consequence of this a forced migration of the Lan Xang to the other side of the Mekong to Isan took place. Many of the Lao found themselves as slaves under the Siam rule. This in turn made Laos a underpopulated region.

These is somewhat 3 million Lao in Laos and they compromise around 50% of the total population. The rest of the population is so called mountain peoples. The Lao in Laos is by large so called Lao Loum (Lowland Lao). The make up a third of the Thai population in Thailand with about 15 million people, of which 1 million live in Bangkok. There are other ethnic Lao people in central Thailand, but they have by large assimilated with the Thais. Minor pockets of Lao are also to be found in Cambodia, especially in Strung Treng which once belonged to Laos. An estimated 500.000 expatriate Lao's live around the world. Most of these expatriates left during and after the Vietnam war and of fear of the Pathet Lao (Lao Communist Party).

The Lao people speak Lao and Isan, two languages with different dialects. The dialect in Vientiane have become the dominant in Laos. A dominant dialect do not exist in Isan. The main differences in the dialects is more to do with the usage of Thai loan words.

Isan and Laos is a poor region due to poor soils and dry climate. Most people are self sufficient farmers and therefore there are few urban areas to be found. The inhabitants in Laos and Isan belong to the Theravada Buddhism. Food in the regions are similar with fish sauce, chilli, and rice being daily ingredients. Contemporary Lao cooking have been influenced by French and Vietnamese elements. The traditional music is called Mor lam.

Geishas of Japan

2010-02-11T17:08:00.000-08:00

Geisha (芸者), sometimes pronounced Geiko is a Japanese entertainer and artist. The word Geisha do literately mean "artist person".

The task of a Geisha is to entertain guests in different social gatherings, often in tea houses (Ocha ya). She must master singing, dancing, playing instruments, and perform the tea ceremony, write calligraphy, hold conversation. The Geisha is most often dressed in traditional Kimono.

The Geisha tradition originates from taikomochiand hōkan. In the beginning all Geishas were men, but today only a hand full of these men remains. The men are still referred to as taikomochi. Previously many children were sold into become a Geisha in order to give the family an extra income. This practise is now illegal.

The most well known Geisha areas, so called hanamachi (flower town) are found in Kyoto. At present there are five of these hanamachis in Kyoto. The largest and most known is Gion, where many internationally known geishas have lived and worked, for example Mineko Iwasaki.

Make up. In the beginning of a maikos career a heavy white make is worn all the time. As a young maiko her elder sister assists but as she gets older she have to learn herself. To put on the make up is a very time consuming process which also have to be done before the kimono is put on in order not to get make on it. At last the lips are painted.

Geishas and prostitution. One should know that geishas never sell sexual favours. This is a common misconception in the western world. This misconception gained momentum after WWII when American soldiers came home with stories of what they called Gee-sha Girls. These Gee-sha Girls were probably only common prostitutes dressed as geishas to attract customers, especially foreign customers.

GEISHA
S

Great Samurai Prints 1

2009-06-19T20:48:00.000-07:00

I will treat you all with some great Samurai Prints.

The first print is Endo Kiemon Naotsuga. Warding off a heavy arrow barrage, Endo is preparing to return fire with the severed head of an enemy warrior. The multi hooked weapon above his right elbow is a kumade, or a bear's clutch.

The life cyckle, karma, and reincarnation

2009-06-07T20:19:00.000-07:00

Indians tend to worry less that Westerners about missed opportunities, as they believe that what goes around comes will come around again, perhaps in a different guise. Their fundamental beliefs in the continuity of live, and the western notion of ‘seizing the day’ is less current in India than ‘going with the flow.’

The cause of this attitude is the very deep seated belief that what you do in this life will affect you in coming lives. If you had a bad situation in this life, then it may be because of something you did in a previous life. Karma may be good or bad. If I am successful it is good karma: if I have bad fortune it is bad karma. I may do what I can to enhance the influence of good karma or mitigate the influence of bad karma, but ultimately everything that happens in my life is my karma and must be accepted with self-control.

Alongside the belief in karma is the belief in reincarnation. Traditional belief says that we have been born many times and will be born many times more. When we die we are reincarnated according to our karma, what we have done in our previous life. Life on earth is intended to improve our spiritual state by doing well with the good things we have, or working through the harmful things we have done in previous reincarnations. Therefore beggars subsiding in hovels in the center of towns are not a national scandal: it’s just karma. The begum in her stately palace is not socially irresponsible. It’s her karma. If you believe in improvements over many lifetimes, it certainly means you take a long view.

An old proverb sets out the pattern if Indian life. When you are young you grow up and have a family; then you make money to keep your family and yourself in good health. When you are old you stop making money and work to attain wisdom and improve your karma for your next life.

Japanese Youth Hostels

2009-06-05T21:37:00.000-07:00

Japan offers a great variety of accommodation including, Ryokan 旅館, private lodging 民宿, and Western style hotels.
Youth hostels are also popular among low budget travelers, and are found all over Japan. You will need to be a member pf a Youth Hostel association, otherwise you may not be able to stay, or you will need to pay extra. Many youth hostels are privately run, but there are some run with government subsidies or even operated by temples. There are various types of Youth Hostels: dormitory only or both dormitory and private rooms: including dinner and breakfast or with just cooking facilities. Some organize tours and other events. Unlike other backpacker hotels, Youth hostels can be strict with regulations such as set checkouts, meals and bath times, and renting regulation sleeping sheets if you do not have one. Youth hostels in Japan used to be much more popular among students in the 1970s that they are now. Many hostels organized meetings for guests at night with activities such as song (with folk guitar), games and dances, providing opportunities to meet others. These "group activities" became unfashionable and gradually many hostels stopped them and at the same time time eased some restrictions such as cleaning pr the method of folding the blankest correctly!

The Shinto Deity Susanowo

2009-05-29T20:08:00.000-07:00

Susanowo, the storm god and ruler of the oceans, was a trickster figure in addition to being a demon slayer. After he was banished from heaven, Susanowo descended to earth. There he came upon an old earth spirit weeping with his wife and daughter. The storm god asked why they were grieving. The earth spirit told him that a dragon arrived yearly to devour one of his doughters. When Susanowo asked what the dragon looked like, the earth spirit said it was forked tounged with huge bloody red eyed, eight heads, eight tails, and an enourmous body with a swollen belly. Susanowo took the doughter, Kushi-inada-hime, transformed her into a comb, and put her in his hair. He instructed the earth spirit and his wife to brew some sake. He then told the earth spirit to build a fence with eight gates, and eight benches, each with a vat of sake on top. The dragon came, drank from each vat, became intoxicated, and then fell unconsious. Susanowo slew the dragon in its sleep. He then created a house in the holy city of Idzumo and married the doughter. Together they had many childeren.

Three grounds on which Kotoku Shusui opposed the Russo-Japanese War.

2009-05-23T03:03:00.000-07:00

Kotoku Shusui (1871 – 1911)Socialist leader, one of the first proponents of radical political action in Japan. Firstly, In 1903 Kotoku Shusui resigned from his job as a journalist in Tokyo when it announced its support for the Russo-Japanese war and the occupation of Korea. He went on from there to start the anti-war Common People’s Newspaper Heimin Shinbun for which he would soon be imprisoned. He was arguing that patriotism since it had its origins in hatred of the enemy rather than love for ones country was militarism. Though he did allow that there was such thing as a just war, nominating North Americas attempt to abolish the slavery. If a war was for humanity, ethics, and freedom it was justified. The war against Russia was not such war.

Secondly, Kotoku’s had a point in that in the past and would be proven again it would be very costly for Japan to go to war, without bringing any gain at all. He said that neither the Sino-Japanese war nor the boxer rebellion had delivered any profit to Japan. None of the foot soldiers had gained any, only business, high raked officers, and bureaucrats had profited. Higher taxes and increased costs of living was the only result for the working class people. He was concerned by pointing out the link between war and capitalism. Militarism would to dominate Japan after the war. Something Kotoku opposed. Kotoku wrote before the war that chasing Russia out of Manchuria would secure Japans interest by making Korea safe from Russia – but even if the Russians did leave Manchuria it would not be enough. They would then have to be chased out of Siberia, then St Petersburg, and then Europe itself. Kotoku instead suggested peaceful, but large scale emigration to Manchuria, investing capital and settling of land.

Thirdly, Kotoku sought to undermine the official assertion that Japan had to acquire colonies in order to solve its problem with overpopulation. He instead said that colonies benefited no one but politicians and capitalists. War and colonies benefited only the ruling classes and oppressed workers and peasants. He rejected the implication that there was “one nation” or “one national interest”, or that Japan international status could adequately represent its national identity. The prime Minister expressed that this war concerned all Japanese equally as much, but this Kotoku rejected by meaning that there was a great distinction between the masters and servants, meaning that those who wanted war were not the same that had to fight the wars. The rich could easily avoid conscription whilst the majority of the soldiers were poor.

What was the charter oath and why is it significant?

2009-05-20T04:00:00.000-07:00

The Charter Oath was promulgated at the enthronement of Emperor Meiji of Japan on 7 April 1868. The Oath outlined the main aims and the course of action to be followed during Emperor Meiji's reign, setting the legal stage for Japan's modernization. It remained influential, if less for governing than inspiring, throughout the Meiji era and into the twentieth century, and can be considered the first of modern Japan. The Charter Oath opened the way for the modernization of the country and the introduction of a Western parliamentary constitution.

The five articles of the Charter Oath were the following:

(1) “Deliberative assemblies shall be established on an extensive scale, and all governmental matters shall be determined by public discussion.”

(2) “All classes, high and low, shall unite to carry out vigorously the plan of government.”

(3) “All classes shall be permitted to fulfil their just aspirations so that there will be no discontent.”

(4) “Evil customs of the past shall be discontinued, and new customs shall be based on the just laws of nature.”

(5) “Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world in order to promote the welfare of the empire.”

Although the articles in the Oath were not laws or legally binding in any way, the promulgation of the Oath was nevertheless an epoch-making event because it implied a complete overthrow of the established social structure and promised a new path for Japan based on modernization, westernization, and democratization.

To conclude, the various Meiji reform programmes could be interpreted as the fulfilment of the promises inherent with the Charter Oath. In point of fact, the goals set out in the Charter Oath were achieved rather successfully to a great extent by the end of the Meiji era.

The emergence of the Russo – Japanese war

2009-05-13T03:12:00.000-07:00

The Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905) was a military conflict that had its origin in Japanese and Russian competition over the Korean peninsula.

In the late 1800 hundreds many western nation competed over the wealth in Asia. At the same time as Japan made remarkable effort to become a modern state. Japan was eager to release herself from the unequal treaties imposed by the western powers in order to become an equally as strong player on the world stage. Japan had reasons to occupy Korea which led her into war and victory against China in 1885. As a result China handed over control over Korea and numerous other territories to Japan. International pressure forced Japan to give back Port Arthur to China which later fell in Russian hands. Russia had large military and political presence in Manchuria and parts of Korea, and they increased their military during the boxer rebellion much too Japanese protests. Both sides used diplomatic efforts as to reach an agreement on how to end the Korea questions and the arousing tensions. But all diplomatic relation was broken off by Japan in February 1904, shortly after the Japanese launched an attack against the Russians at Port Arthur. The Japanese forces defeated the Russian in the war, making Japan the first Asian country that had ever defeated a western nation in war.

In 1853 the Commodore Matthew Perry reached Uraga in Japan on orders by the American President to open up Japan for trade. This resulted in the end of to Tokugawa and the beginning of the Meiji Restoration in 1868. What was to follow was a rapid modernisation and industrialisation of Japan never before seen in history. Japans effort to strengthen itself was to gain international recognition in order to remain independent and to abolish the unequal treaties imposed by Commodore Perry. In doing so Japan managed to instead of being subject to colonisation to become a coloniser herself. This development is explained by Jansen that Japan was threatened on all sides by approaching colonisers and Japan had to join the colonisers to secure its own independence. In addition, social Darwinism had in the 19th century emerged as philosophy and Japans ambitions were to climb on the evolutionary ladder to secure its independence. Imperialism were to be the next natural step for Japan to gain access to the resources for the benefit of Japan and therefore begun its expansion on the Asian mainland. In 1894 the Japanese cabinet added as a policy that the acquirement of foreign territory was necessary to keep its independence, the year after Japan attacked China with the excuse to secure Korea’s independence.

The conflict between Russia and Japan can be said to have its roots in the Sino Japanese war. Civil unrest in Korea between rival parties in 1894 supporting either Japan or China forced the Chinese and Japanese authorities to send military reinforcements. Consequently the tension escalated and a declaration of war was made on August 1st. China, now a weak country after being exploited by western powers could not defend herself against the modern Japanese army and it took only until November before the Chinese was driven out of Korea. As a result of the Japanese victory and the signing of the treaty of Shimonseki Japan gained full control over Korea, the Liatong peninsula with Port Arthur, Taiwan, Pescadores islands, the opening of treaty ports, and a war indemnity of 500 million yen. Japan had now joined the ranks of imperialist countries to the fully and they began to regard themselves as belonging to the privileged, civilized nations and should from now be treated according to her newly gained status. Japanese thrill of their victory was however to be short-lived when Russia supported by France and German (the triple intervention) pressured Japan to give up Liatong peninsula which Japan did on May 5th 1895. This was a devastating blow to the Japanese pride as well as the realisation that the western camp was to stand together against any Japanese expansion, especially obvious was this when Russia was granted a 25 year lease of the Liatong peninsula in 1898 where they intended to station its pacific fleet at the ice free Port Arthur. Russia was to appear as Chinas protector against further Japanese influence and on June 3 a treaty was signed to mutually defend each other against potential Japanese aggression.

Both Japan and Russia actively worked to establish spheres of influence. In Japans case priority laid in controlling Korea and Manchuria. The Japanese leadership desire to control Korea was seen as a security measure to defend the Japanese home islands. It was thought that if a foreign power was to gain control over Korea they would gain a strategic advantage over Japan, and Russia was seen as the greatest threat. Similarity, Russia was concerned about Japans expansion on the continent which they saw a threat to the poorly populated Siberia. Russia was rapidly on the move eastwards with the construction of the trans-Siberian railway which was to shake the balance of power in the region. On the economic stage, Russia managed in 1897 to open the Russo-Korean bank which and thus gained control over Koreas domestic finances, a further blow to Japanese attempts of power.

The Boxer rebellion in China in 1900 that caused several uprisings and terror against the colonisers was the effect of the long exploitation of China. They were given the name “Boxers” due to their affiliation with secret societies. This rebellion was to grow large and in 1901 the Boxers attacked and occupied foreign embassies in Beijing. As response and attempted to bring order the so called Eight-Nation alliance which included Russia and Japan was to deploy 20,000 troops in China. Russia took the opportunity to deploy troops in Manchuria to protect its interest there. These troops had been promised to be withdrawn as long there were no disruption, which gave the Russians legality not to take this promise to seriously. This was much disturbing for the Japanese who called for the Chinese to hasten the removal of the Russians from Southern Manchuria, an act that added further tension between the two Countries.

Ito Hirobumi, former Prime minister of Japan went in November 1901 to St Petersburg to mediate a treaty together with Russia. The proposed offer was that, if Japan recognises Russia’s presence in Manchuria Russia should in turn recognise Japans sole rights in Korea. This offer was known as the “Man-Kan Kokan”, simply meaning the exchange of Manchuria for Korea, but his suggestion was however to be declined by Russia. What the Russians weren’t aware of was that the Japanese minister in London, Count Hayashi had begun to negotiate a defensive pact with the British. The alliance that was made official in 1902 meant simply that if any of the two countries got engaged in war the other would remain neutral, but if a third party interfered in any conflict they was to aid each others. Russia could therefore not rely upon any assistance from it ally France in any possible conflict. This gave Japan the power and confidence they needed in the power-struggle against Russia. The Russians must have been very surprised and concerned over the Japanese diplomatic success in Britain.

In the summer 1903 negotiations resumed about the question of Manchuria. Japan now backed by its alliance with Britain was now in a much more favourable position and this was noticeable in the Japanese demands, as they now wanted sole rights over Manchuria as well as restraint on Russian influence in Korea. The Russians ignored the Japanese demands and the Russians tsar’s response “there will be no war because I do not whish it”. Such comment clearly indicates great underestimations of the Japanese strength and determination by him.

Japan broke the diplomatic relations with Russia in February 1904, shortly after the Japanese military attacked the Russian fleet in Port Arthur. The Russians did not expect such bold move by the Japanese and were completely surprised, especially as the official declaration of war was not to be announced until February 10. The war lasted for 18 month and peace talks were held in Portsmouth, USA on July 8, 1905. Japan was represented by Foreign Minister Komura whilst Russia was represented by Sergej Witte, and the American President Theodore Roosevelt acted as mediator in the negotiations. There had been great sacrifices in human lives with some 89,000 Russian and 71,000 Japanese casualties. However, as being regarded as the victor in the war Japan had demanded rights of territory in South Manchuria, Korea, Sakhalin, and access to a number of ports; a Japanese demand for indemnity was raised as well. Most strikingly and important in this conflict was that never before in history had an Asian nation manage to defeat a western power in war and this victory was by many seen as the culmination of what had begun with the Meji restoration. The western camp could no longer ignore the strength and determination of Japan.

In conclusion, Japan was forced to rapidly modernise and develop itself in order to get rid of the unequal treaties imposed by the United States through Commodore Perry. Japan feared that if not a rapid development of the nation was done Japan would follow the same fate as so many other Asian countries, becoming a western colony. As a consequence The Meji revolution gained speed and an ever increasing demand of raw material and manpower was required to keep it up. The Japanese leadership did everything it could to gain international recognition and elevate on the world social ladder. In this era of imperialism Japan thought that the most rapid way to do so was to acquire its own colonies and turned its eyes west to Korea. Japan also feared that the increasing activity in the area and the construction of the Trans-Siberian railway would strengthen the Russians and form a great threat to Japanese interests in the area. Russia on their hand had similar fears of the Japanese activities, and tensions between the nations grew stronger. Russia saw its chance during the boxer rebellion to divert troops to Manchuria with the promise they would be removed as soon as tensions ceased. This caused much disturbance and diplomatic efforts were made in the attempt to remove the Russian troops. The Japanese failed in this attempt, but they succeeded in signing a defensive pact with Great Britain which gave the Japanese security of not having to fight against a third part in a possible war against Russia. Japan who now had built up its military strength saw as the only opportunity to defend its interest in Korea and Manchuria was by attacking the Russians militarily. 18 months later Japan was the winner of the most important war she had ever fought.

19th Century Chinese Immigration in the development of Australian Immigration Restriction Policies

2009-05-01T20:24:00.000-07:00

This entry will point out that Chinese people and immigrants have been a predominant part of Australian history and in the formation of Australian immigration policies. They became the target of restrictions made against foreign immigration which peaked with the introduction of the Immigration Restriction Act (1901), also known as the “White Australia Policy”.

Even though immigrants came from many parts of the world it was the arrival of the Chinese and the attitude against them that was to form into this policy as will pointed out. Initially the Chinese were welcomed as servants and as a source of labour as a result of the limited supply of convicts previously used by the colony. Domestic instability and wide spread poverty in China forced many Chinese to seek fortune overseas, including Australia. They were however soon to be regarded as threat to the white Australian society. As diggers on the Australian gold field they were looked upon with suspicion due to their appearance and cultural differences. Riots directed against the Chinese were not uncommon as the competition for work and resources intensified. Public and political opinion against Chinese immigration grew so strong that during the intercolonial conferences of 1881 and 1888 the colonies of Australia passed legislations to uniform and severely restrict further Chinese immigration. In 19th century Australia Sinophobia was an ever present feature. It was widely believed that immigration would tear down the Australian society as the Chinese were seen as a sinister race. It was claimed that they brought bad habits, diseases, immoral behavior among many other preconceptions.

The British were not the first to arrive on Australian shores. The first humans to colonise this vast continent was some 40,000 years ago was the indigenous peoples of Australia, the Aborigines. And it was not until the early sixteen hundreds the Dutch as first Europeans to sight Australia. Captain Cook was to follow the Dutch in the seventeen hundreds. But long before the arrivals of the Europeans the continent had been known by Asians and being subject to international trade long before the establishment of the British penal colonies. In the northern parts of Australia Maccassan fishermen had made annual journeys to fish for trepang, often known as sea cucumber and to trade with the local Aboriginal tribes. The trepang was regarded a delicates among the Chinese, also making it a part of early international Chinese-Australian trading network. One can presume that direct contact occurred but the first reliable account of a Chinese vessel reaching Australia was made in 1751 by a Dutch resident. It may be a bit strange at first but tea and the export of tea from China was to form the first images of the Chinese in the Australian psyche. Tea drinking had risen in popularity and did arrive in wooden boxes made my Chinese labourers. Such boxes became so popular artefacts that Chinese carpenters came to work and produce them in Australia. The image of the Chinese worker was so far a positive one, but this image was however to drastically changing in the years to come.

Previously the Chinese Ch’ing leadership had banned any migration form China. Even though some immigration occurred it was not until the treaty of Nanking in 1842 and the opening of ports after the Opium war (1840-1842), that large scale emigration begun. The driving forces of this emigration were due a number of factors. Southern China had long been affected by wars and disasters leading to great hardships for the people. Ryan describes that many of the emigrants embarked on journeys, often to unknown destinations in the search of a better future. In addition and due to the abolition of the slavery among many of the colonist nations new means for finding labour prompted them to use Chinese labour.

The solution to the labour shortage was to be the so called indentured labour. In the case of Australia who had used convicts to meet the demand for labour the Chinese now became a favourable option, and the first shipment of 100 adults and 20 Chinese children set sail in 1848 with destination Australia. The Chinese that came to work in Australia were subjects to two different systems. First it was the indentured labour system that was introduced to substitute the slavery. It basically meant that a person was bound to work for a contracted period of time, usually for a low wage. The second system was the credit-ticket system where workers were given credit through a series of organisers that arranged contacts, transports, to gain overseas employments. The borrower was then obligated to repay his debt with interest over the time of employment. The average wage for a five year contract was twelve pounds a year, but good worker could earn as much as 24 pounds a year, almost as much as a white worker.

When gold was discovered in New South Wales and Victoria in 1851 an ever increasing demand for contract labourers by gold investors was created. News about the findings of gold was spread to mainland China which in turn set off large scale movement of free and credit-ticket immigrants. The number of Chinese immigrant to New South Wales peaked in 1858 when 12.396 immigrants arrived. In Victoria numbers peaked in 1855 with 11,493 immigrants. Such high numbers of immigrants made the Victorian Government in 1855 to pass an immigration restrictive act to cut short immigrants. Worth to be noted is that acts passed to stop immigration was only pointed towards Chinese immigrants and not the thousands of other European immigrants searching for gold. The Chinese workers were also to be met with hardships and discrimination from the white miners and authorities. The white miners looked at the Chinese as intruders on the fields, and they were seen as scavenger of the gold fields when draining areas previously abandoned by white diggers It was not only aggression acts against the Chinese as competitors of resources, but also against them as a specific race. It was said that the Chinese were filthy, untrustworthy, spread diseases and had unusual customs that were not desirable in Australia. Many miners actively worked to exclude all the Chinese from conducting mining, and rallies were held to agitate against the Chinese. Riots against Chinese took place and one of more infamous riot was the Lambing Flan in NSW in 1860 when a series of attacks of white miners violently drove of the Chinese workers and burned their tents. The white miners had wide support in the society and even newspapers frequently published anti Asian articles. Simultaneously, there were debates in the NSW parliament to restrict further Chinese immigration, and after further riots in 1861 a bill was passed to further limit Chinese immigration.

At the 1881 Intercolonial Conference in Sydney it was discussed how to exclude Chinese immigration in order to come to an end with the racial tensions between whites and non whites. A unified form of restrictions between the colonies was sought after. South Australia was first to pass such legislations, with New South Wales and Victoria shortly after. During the conference it was agreed on four points that Australia should;

a. Britain should follow America's example and re-negotiate its treaty with China.
b. Chinese immigration to Australia should be controlled.
c. This control should be uniform, based on a £10 poll tax plus tonnage restriction.
d. Chinese who were British subjects were to be exempt.

One significant event to shape restrictions against the Chinese was the so called Afghan incident in the same year. The Afghan was a ship carrying a load of a few hundred Chinese that was suppose to land in Melbourne, Sydney, and New Zealand. After protest from passenger with legal documents and rights to enter Australia the supreme court of New South Wales ruled to the favour of those. This incident exposed the many differences and policies among the colonies in having different laws and regulations and calls were made by South Australian Premier Thomas Playford to gather a conference to resolve the matters.

In 1888 during the inter-colonial conference of Premiers held in Sydney much attention was put on how to control the Chinese immigration. As a result a uniform resolution was passed to restrict Chinese immigration to Australia and travelling by a Chinese person already in Australia between the colonies. Worth to be noticed is that before 1888 the Northern Territory had remained the only State or Territory that had not yet introduced specific restrictions against Chinese emigration.

The resolution agreed upon was as follows:

a. The further restrictions of Chinese immigration is essential to the welfare of the people of Australia
b. The necessary restrictions can best be secured through the diplomatic action of the British government and by uniform Australian legislation
c. The conference resolves to consider joint representation to the British government for the purpose of obtaining the desired diplomatic action.
d. The desired Australian legislation should contain the following provisions
(a) That it shall apply to all Chinese, with specific exceptions.
(b) That the restriction should be by limitation of the number of Chinese which any vessel may bring into any Australian port to one passenger to every 500 tons of the ships burden
(c) That the passage of Chinese from one colony to another, without consent of the colony which they enter, be made a misdemeanor
.
Australia of the 19th century did suffer from a great deal sinophobia and Irving describes that the Australian population did find the prescience of Chinese people very strange, considering their dress, language, and social patterns. When the first colonisers reached Australia it was declared Terra Nullius, and this was to remain the official policy throughout the colonial era. As a conclusion to this there was no native population of the land to be considerate with. Australia was to become a fully British white society surrounded by its highly populated Asian neighbors.

Social Darwinism had become a popular study in the 19th century placing the white man on the top of the evolution tree with all other races being below. Contemporary debates often dealt with the question that massive Chinese immigration would become a threat the racial purity of the white population as the Chinese was said to belong to such inferior race in comparison with the white. The main argument to exclude the Chinese was claimed to be their inability to assimilate into a western society. Racial difference was not the only argument to exclude the Chinese. The Chinese were believed to completely undermine the consisting labour structures when working for less and therefore steal employment opportunities for the white workers. Such believes had strong support among politicians including those belong to what was to become the Australian Labor party. Why were the Chinese such a target of racial fear and discrimination among all the other immigrant populations? As previously mentioned they stood out from the rest in their appearance and culture. But they were also stereotyped as being immoral, drug taking, gambling, evil minded people that were there to prey, or to ruin the racial purity of the white Australians. As most of the Chinese were males their presence could have been seen as a threat or competition to white males.

The height of Australian immigrating restriction policies came with the passing of Immigration Restriction Act 1901 that was passed without delay when the Commonwealth was founded and was to remain until 1958. This act was so sly in its way to restrict against immigration when it never mentions race as a mean to exclude any unwanted persons. Instead the controversial dictation test came to be used. It simply meant that any immigration officer could demand the immigrants to write a passage of 500 in any European language, and a language not known to the immigrant would then be used to fail the immigrant. This act was to be so successful that by the 1947 census that 99.75% of the Australian population, aborigines excludes was white. Even though The IRA 1901 was to work against any non white immigration it is understood that it was pure sinophobia that made it become a reality.

In Conclusion, Australian immigration restriction laws were a direct response to the Chinese immigration. Although necessary in the positive contribution of the Australian economy they were met with fears and aggression. Precautions were made to limit their presence and rights on Australian soils with the goal of protect Australian jobs, but equally as much as safety measures to protect the racial purity of the white Australian population. There were present believes that races could not live in harmony and the riots in the gold fields were regarded as confirmation of such statements. Anti Chinese feelings were present among the white and fueled by contemporary media and politicians, resulting in severe immigration restrictions implemented primarily in the intercolonial conferences of 1881 and 1888. The legislation's passed in those two conferences helped to reduce the number of Chinese people extensively. Restrictions against not only Chinese immigration but all non white immigration were to hit the highest point with the passing of IRA 1901 which led to an ever decreasing numbers of Chinese people in Australia. In short it was the labour competition on the gold fields and labour markets that set off the aggression against the Chinese and Social Darwinist influence that had built up a strong consciousness to protect the white race from degenerating Chinese influence.

Counting years in Japanese

2009-04-12T08:42:00.000-07:00

In addition to the western way of counting the years the Japanese have a traditional system based on the reign of the Emperors. Thus the year 1993 is also referred to as Heisei 5. There are also 14 national holidays in Japan. One long series of holidays that goes from from the end of April to the beginning of May is known as Golden Week. Golden Week ends with children's day on May 5th, during which parents with boys fly carp banners above their homes. This expresses their wish that their children grow up strong and healthy like carps.

Japanese Colleges and Universities

2009-04-10T18:27:00.000-07:00

Including Junior Colleges, there are approximately 1,000 universities in Japan. While mostly are concentrated in large cities, some universities have recently moved their campuses into more rural areas, and a few major universities have decentralized their campuses by locating various departments in different areas. Most campus facilities include libraries, co-op stores, gymnasiums, swimming pools, and cafeterias, and some have university hospitals attached to their medical schools. Housing for students and faculty staff however are limited.

Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess

2009-03-27T16:00:00.000-07:00

Amaterasu, the sun goddess is a key figure in the Shinto pantheon. She was associated with Kunitokotachi, the supreme deity who resided atop Mount Fuji, and it is possible that they have the one and the same being. She is also believed to be the direct ancestor of the Japanese imperial family.

The most famous story of Amaterasu tells of a falling-out between her and Susanowo, her brother. Susanowo, the storm god had continually bothered his sister with practical jokes and foolish behavior. When he destroyed Amaterasu's rice fields and frightened her maidens to death, she hid from him in a cave, and the radiance of the sun was withdrawn from the world. Susanowo was the banished by his father Izanagi, and forced to rule the oceans. Meanwhile the world grew dismal and evil spirits ran rampant.

The many earth spirits, or "the spirits of the plants" assembled in front of the cave to try to coax the sun goddess out. They brought many gifts and offerings and began to sing and dance. Amaterasu was curious as to why the spirits were celebrating and peeked out of the cave. A young and beautiful goddess named Uzume was dancing nearby and Amaterasu asked the young deity when she was so happy. Uzume said that there was now a more supreme deity than the Sun Goddess. When Amaterasu questioned her as to who this deity might be, Uzume presented a mirror to the sun goddess: Amaterasu then saw her own image. In the meantime some of the other gods had proceeded in blocking the entrance to the cave. Comforted Amaterasu returning to her throne in the heavens. The sun begun to shine again and order returned to the world.

The first emperor of Japan, Jimmu, who ascended the throne in 660BC is believed to have received the Sacred Mirror (now in the shrine of Amaterasu at Ise) directly from his divine ancestress Amaterasu.

Image: Amaterasu emerges from the Cave, casting Her Divine Light on all beings

Australia and Asia: Historical Perspective

2009-03-09T03:48:00.000-07:00

Australia and Asia have long had close ties. Unfortunately it has not always been without historical issues. Australia is in the Asiatic region but for many years it tried to remain as a white outpost of the British empire and the Australian parliament passed the The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 (IRA 1901). This Acts purpose was to exclude non white populations to remain or settle in Australia.

The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 (IRA 1901) was formed on already established racial views of the white settlers in the 17th century. When the Chinese arrived in the 1800s to work in the Australian goldfields tension went high among the white diggers due to the racial views they had over the Chinese and a call for exclusion of immigrants were created. This exclusion was supported by the common belief that the Asian workers would destabilize the Australian economy, being a source of cheap labour for employers. The Chinese were commonly regarded as being filthy, corrupt, and immoral, which consequently contributed to the society as a whole in a negative manner. To justify such believes Social Darwinism was referred to with the view that all races were subjects to laws of nature and by mixing races, one would contaminate the pure white race which would eventually lead to the destruction of the whole society. It is therefore fair to state that the major factors that influenced the framing of the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901 was the already established race relationship between the white and non white population, a fear that immigration would deteriorate the Australian labour market and society, along with the strong political will to keep the society racially white.

Australia has a long tradition of racial prejudice and fear. When British Imperial troops sat foot on Australian shores in late 18th Century and soon after claimed land rights they did so without any concern of the Aboriginal tribes already living there. According to Imperial law, the Aborigines fell out of the category as “users of the land” and Australia was therefore proclaimed Terra Nullius, a land belonging to no one. The Aboriginal tribes were regarded as something belonged to the past and were seen as inferior not only to the British but to the rest of the world’s races. Day explains that it became justified by the British to deprive them any rights of the land, especially as the Aborigines had declined offering of civilization, which was to be interpreted that the Aborigines was unable to become civilized.

Economic factors such as the supply of labour played a major role in the establishment of IRA 1901. Australian labour had first arrived with the shiploads of convicts but as those deliveries declined, contract labourers from the Asiatic countries became sought after and it was not long until the first ship with Chinese labourers arrived in late 1848. With the racial outlook already established the Asian immigrant, predominantly from China who arrived in 1850s faced severe racial prejudice in various forms. There was a strong concern that that a massive influx of Asian immigrants would overflow the continent with cheap labour and undermine the Australian economy. It did not take long before anti-Chinese feelings arose among the white Australian population and as Andrews explain there were fears among the Australian workers that jobs would be lost to cheap Asian labour. Facts were that the Chinese came in great numbers but instead of being seen as a potential asset for Australia they came to be regarded as competitors to the already established white populations. When gold was found in 1851 the Chinese came in larger numbers and by 1855 more than 18000 had arrived to work along side the white diggers.

The Chinese were seen as outsiders and intruders on the fields by the white workers and violence against them increased with their escalating numbers. In 1855 the Victorian Parliament passed “Act to Make Provision for Certain Immigrants” which resulted in that shipmasters could only bring one Chinese worker per tonnage along with a poll of 10 pounds per Chinese person brought over. South Australia was to follow Victoria and passed a similar act in 1857. Another catalyst that created anti Chinese feelings was due to that the Chinese workers sent their earnings back to China instead of letting it benefit the community. They were therefore seen as something like parasites of the land, further adding to the racial injustice directed against them.

The emergence of Social Darwinism as a theory in the 19th century justified the exclusion of non white in order not to contaminate and ruin the white society. Social Darwinism emerged in the 19th century and is based on theory that all are subjects to natural selection, meaning that the weak are diminished and the strong flourish. As described by Curthoys it was believed impossible for non whites to become assimilated into society and they should therefore be excluded. Because they could not be absorb in the society, as a result of their believed racial weakness. It was presumed that in the long term they would create a lower social class in the society and contaminate the Anglo-Celtic community with their lack of moral and Christianity if allowed to stay Similarly it is described by Evans that the Chinese were seen as potential contaminators being regarded as an immoral filthy and inferior race. It was repeatedly debated that no two cultures were able to live in harmony but one would become masters and the other sub servant. Such views are supported by Walker; he explains that contemporary news media backed the opinion that “where Europeans and Non-Europeans occupied the same territory one would inevitably come to dominate the other”. Australia had developed an image of it self as a young strong British nation, and this image was to be nurtured, protected and built upon and nothing was to be standing in its way.

Australian States and territories had all had different immigration regulations but after 1888-1889 a Bill was passed to uniform the state laws which resulted in decline of mainly Chinese immigrants in the country to 29,600 in 1901. This was however not enough and in 1901 the Immigration Restriction Act was passed to further tighten existing immigration laws by the complete exclusion of non whites, and white Australia policy was born. Australian immigration policy had reached full circle with the passing of the Act of 1901 which effectively excluded any person of non European origin. One of the most controversial parts of the Act came to be the dictation test where an immigration officer could demand a written test of fifty words in a European Language by the immigrant. After a non white immigrant passed one European language the immigration officer in charge would demand another one and yet another one until reaching a failing verdict. The reason or justification for implementing such test was that it was not based on race but literacy to discriminate against non European immigrants.

In conclusion the IRA 1901 came into practice by reason of believes that the white Anglo-Celtic were superior to anyone living in Australia before their arrival. This racial view was to be nurtured and used against the arrival of Asian immigrants in 1850s as they were also to be described as an inferior race. They were also accused to parasite on the land and stealing jobs from white Australian workers with their low wages. The Asian immigrants became to be regarded as a contaminator of the Australian race and society and a demand for their exclusion was demanded. Social Darwinism became the tool to justify the exclusion of non white populations from Australia and was used to protect Australians from facing destruction and to protect the future Australia. The IRA 1901 came into practice as a mean of protection for the Australian labour movement and the society of being contaminated by an inferior race. The IRA 1901 with including dictation test also meant that Australia was to remain a predominately white society.

SHOGUNS, SAMURAI AND CIVIL WARS

2009-02-20T15:08:00.000-08:00

In 1159 a bloody civil war known as the Heiji War broke out in Japan between two powerful clans, the Taira and Minamoto.
The Taira were victorious in the Heiji War and they controlled the government of the country for 26 years. However, the Minamoto rose again and regrouped to defeat the Taira in 1185. Yoritomo, leader of the Minamoto clan became the most powerful man in Japan and set new headquarters of the government in the city of Kamakura. The Emperor continued to act as head of the government in Kyoto, but he was effectively powerless. For almost the next 700 years, until 1868 military commanders such as Yoritomo were the real rulers of Japan. They were known by the title SEI I TAI SHOGUN, an army term meaning Great General Subduing the Barbarians.

Between 1185 and 1600 there were a great many wars as rival nobels, known as daimyo fought to become Shogun. Some Emperors also tries unsuccessfully to restore imperial rule. During this troubled time in Japanese history, Emperors, Shoguns, and Daimyo all relied on armies of well-trained Samurai to fight their battles. The Samurai were men from noble families and they were skilled at fighting battles. Members of each Samurai army were bound together by a solemn oath, sworn to their lord. They stayed loyal from a sense of honor and because their lord gave them rewards. The ere of civil wars ended around 1600 when the Tokugawa dynasty of Shoguns came to power. From this time onwards , Samurai spent less time fighting . Instead they served their lords as officials and business managers.

Chinese medicine and science

2009-02-10T16:24:00.000-08:00

From the Chinese empires first days, Chinese scholars published studies on medicine, astronomy and mathematics. The Chinese system on medicine had a similar aim to that of Daoist teachings, in that it attempted to make the body work harmoniously. The effects of all kinds of herbs, plants and animal parts were studied and then used to produce medicines. Acupuncture, which involves piercing the body with fine needles was practiced from about 2700BC. It was believed to release blocked channels of energy and so relive pain.

The Chinese were also excellent mathematicians, and from 300BC they used a decimal system of counting based of tens. They may have invented the abacus, an early form of calculator as well. In about 3000BC, Chinese astronomers produced a detailed chart of the heavens carved in stone. Later they were the first to make observations of sunspots and exploding stars.

Find more information about Chinese medicine here: The Australian Acupuncture and Chinese Medicine Association Ltd (AACMA)

CHINESE RELIGIONS, BELIEFS AND SOCIETY

2009-02-03T16:21:00.000-08:00

"Three teachings flow into one" is an old Chinese saying. The three teachings are Daoism, Confucianism and Buddhism. In China they gradually mingled together over the ages.

The first Chinese peoples believed in various gods and goddesses of nature, in spirits and demons. The spirits of nature and the flow of life inspired the writings which are said to be the work of Laozi (born c, 604BC). His ideas formed the basis of the Daoist religion. The teachings of Kong Fuzi (Confucius) come from the same period of history but they stress the importance of social order and respect for ancestors as a source of happiness. At this time another great religious teacher, the Buddha was preaching in India. Within 500 years Buddhist teachings ha reached China, and by the Tang dynasty (AD618-906) Buddhism was the most popular religion. Islam arrived at this time and won followers in the northwest. Christianity also came into China from Persia, but few Chinese were converted to this religion until the 1900s.

The river valleys and coasts of China have always been among the most crowded places on Earth. Confucius, with his love for of social order, had thought that this vast society could be divided into four main groups. At the top were the nobles, the scholars, and the land owners. Next came the farmers, including even the poorest peasants. These people were valued because they worked for the good of the whole nation, providing the vast amounts of food necessary to feed an ever-increasing population. In third place were skilled workers and craftsmen. In the lowest place of all were the merchants, because Confucius believed they worked for their own profit rather than for the good of the people as a whole. However, the way in which Chinese society rewarded these groups in practice did not fit the theory at all. Merchants ended up becoming the richest citizens, lending money to the upper classes. In contrast, the highly valued peasants often led wretched life, losing their homes to floods and earthquakes or starving in years of famine.

The Japanese people

2009-01-24T14:15:00.000-08:00

With some 128 million people, Japan has the eights-largest population in the world.

The Japanese are partly descended from who long ago crossed over from the Asian mainland to settle the islands, where they mixed with local peoples. Other early ancestors of the Japanese where Pacific islanders who came from the south. Later Korean and Chinese arrived.

By the end of the of the 1st century CE, the people on the islands now known as Japanese resembled the present day inhabitants and spoke a language not unlike the Japanese spoken today. In Japan today Koreans are biggest national minority group, although they make up only 0.4 per cent of the population. The Chinese are the next biggest.

Japanese is the one and only official language in Japan today. The written language is the same all over Japan but pronunciation differs across the country and each region has its own dialect words. The standard form of spoken Japanese is as it is spoken in Tokyo, the nations capital.

Asia of of the future - An outlook

2009-01-10T20:00:00.000-08:00

Continued poverty and rapid population growth in many of the Asian nations seems likely to remain major world problems. Already dangerously to the planet as a whole, they will become increasingly so unless they are remedied.

While this need to improve the lot of the poor is obvious on compassionate grounds grounds alone, the catastrophic economic, environmental and social consequences globally if remedies are delayed are no less important. Although it seems unlikely that world population will double again from the present 6.5 billion, because of minimally increasing or falling populations in the developed world and the severe mortality caused by disease and natural disasters in the developing countries, it is certain that there will be a considerable increase. The best estimates are for eight billion people by 2030.

Assuming this figure, virtually all recourse - food, water, energy, arable soil, minerals, fisheries - will become scarcer, and ocean and air pollution will increase. Eight hundred million people are already on the verge of starvation: lakes and rivers everywhere are becoming polluted and depleted: and almost half of the humans lack access to safe and satisfactory drinking water. Per capita grain production in the world, after increasingly steadily after the second world war, actually began to decline in 1984. World grain production fell behind consumption for each of the five years to 2004.

One implication is that the billions of Asia will not be able to evolve into affluent consumerist societies like those of the west and Japan. because of the planet's finite resources and its limited tolerance for pollution. Consequently, the drive to emulate the material profligacy of the West evident in several Asian countries, and its encouragement by elements in the West, are terrible and potentially disastrous mistakes. One simple statistic makes this clear. The wealthiest 20 per cent of the worlds people consume over 80 per cent of its resources, the poorest fifth less that two per cent. Even large surrenders of Western affluence could not permit significantly larger consumerism in the developing world.

Emperor Akihito marks two decades on the Japanese throne

2009-01-05T04:28:00.000-08:00

By Isabel Reynolds

TOKYO (Reuters) - Emperor Akihito marks two decades on the Japanese throne on Wednesday, but the anniversary is set to pass quietly given the poor health of the royal family that some officials blame on internal squabbling.

The 20th anniversary of the death of his father, Emperor Hirohito, comes a few weeks after Akihito, 75, canceled his annual birthday news conference and other official duties due to high blood pressure and intestinal bleeding.

A senior official said Akihito was believed to be stressed over the future of Japan's monarchy and disputes with his eldest son, Crown Prince Naruhito, prompting recriminations between officials from the two households.

But some experts say the problems facing the imperial household go beyond the succession and reflect a gulf between the idealized image of the institution and its reality.

"Imperial Household Agency and East Palace (Naruhito's residence) at war" said one headline in the weekly tabloid Shukan Shincho after officials weighed in on both sides.

"Over the past few years, I have noticed that he constantly seems to be anxious about the various problems facing the imperial household, starting with the succession issue," the head of the Imperial Household Agency, Shingo Haketa, told domestic media last month when discussing Akihito's condition.

Haketa went on to list issues he said were causing friction, from concern over Naruhito's own health, after he was treated for a polyp, to doubt over who was overseeing treatment for his ailing wife, Crown Princess Masako, local media said.

Other officials pointed out that Masako had also been hurt by speculation over the cause of her condition, media reports say.

A former diplomat, she has been largely absent from the public eye for five years, suffering a mental disorder officials have said was caused by the stress of adapting to palace life. But pressure to produce a male heir also likely played a role.

SUCCESSION QUESTION POSTPONED

The small size of the modern imperial Japanese household has led to a dearth of male heirs, although this dilemma was temporarily resolved by the birth two years ago of Prince Hisahito to the wife of Naruhito's younger brother, Prince Akishino.

Some observers say rifts within the imperial family likely stem from Naruhito's anger that moves to change the male-only succession law to allow his only child, Princess Aiko, to take the throne, were abandoned when Akishino's wife became pregnant.

"I think he was really ticked off," said Kenneth Ruoff, a history professor at Portland State University and author of "The People's Emperor: Democracy and the Japanese Monarchy 1945-1995."

"Now Crown Prince Naruhito and Crown Princess Masako don't even get to raise the heir to the throne," he said.

Tabloids have splashed increasingly bold stories on the imperial household across their covers in recent years, Ruoff said, although newspapers steer clear of gossip.

"They enjoyed for much of the post-war period an image as an ideal family," said Ruoff.

"Now they're obviously not an ideal family. They're a family which has its squabbles and so on," he added, saying that could make some Japanese feel closer to their monarch, while others might see it as an affront to imperial dignity.

Many agree that if any senior member of the imperial family were to breach the high standards of behavior expected of them, kid-glove treatment by mainstream media could stop, leaving them open to the paparazzi treatment faced by European royalty.

"The imperial family has a lot of self-control," said Yohei Mori of Seijo Gakuen University, an expert on the imperial household. "None of them have done anything really stupid. But if someone does, then the whole thing could change immediately."

(Editing by Dean Yates)

Religion and belifs in Korea

2008-10-18T17:22:00.000-07:00

To an outsider, Korean religious structures can be confusing. While adherents to the Confucian faith are small in numbers, the ethical standard of Confucianism pervade all aspects of Korean society. This dates back to the early days of the Yi Dynasty 600 years ago.

The closest Korea has to its own religion is Chondogyo, combining various aspects of the Buddhist, Confucian and Tao beliefs. Buddhism in Korea stems from the Mahayana line, having first arrived about 1700 years ago.

In South Korea Christianity is the dominant religion, despite being a late arrival to the peninsula. Over 200 years ago Jesuit missionaries working in China crossed into Korea, bringing their version of Catholicism to the people. Koreans enthusiasm for the faith made the Yi Dynasty feel so threatened that a campaign of persecution was launched against the Jesuits. Protestant missionaries arrived in the 1800s, spreading their faith by practical methods such as establishing schools and hospitals.

Officially, North Korea has no religion as it is considered contrary to to communist ideology. However, as was seen in other communist countries this is no barrier to people retaining their faith. Buddhism, which can be practised individually and in private is the strongest religion in the North

Peoples and daily life in Korea

2008-10-12T00:38:00.000-07:00

The people of both North and South Korea are overwhelmingly of a homogeneous Korean background. The evolution of the Korean people goes back more 9000 year with little input from other racial and cultural groupings. The strongest influence came from the Chinese and the Mongols, both of whom held sway over the Korean peninsula at various times over centuries. While there was a strong ethnic Japanese population in Korea during Japan´s occupation from 1910 to 1945, this had minimal effect on Korean culture.

Nobody knows for certain how the Korean language, which is unique to the Korean peninsula, evolved. Spoken Korean is most closely related to Japanese, although even then is has many distinct differences. The syntax is similar to Chinese: however, it does not use tones to discern meanings a Chinese does. Korean writings began 13000 years ago, but initially used Chinese rather than a distinctive Korean style. Hangul, the Korean phonetic alphabet, was devised around 500 years ago. For an outside observer Korean script tends to be less complicated than that of Japan or China.

Daily life varies enormously for Koreans depending on which side of the 38th parallel they live. The average North Korean lives a fairly bleak life under an unrelenting communist dictatorship. Where once North Korea was fairly self-sufficient, today it is widespread starvation and malnutrition. Agricultural workers live in communities of collectivised farms. Everyone works to produce food for the rest of the population. Non agricultural work centres primarily on heavy industry, mineral extraction and military service. The state controls all aspects of life.

South Korea is vastly different, having a private-enterprise economy, although with some state intervention at various levels. The average South Korean works a full day Monday to Friday and half day on Saturday.

Firebombing of Tokyo: 100,000 people dead in two days

2008-10-08T16:47:00.000-07:00

Causes and effects of the great Tokyo air raid of the 9th and 10th of March 1945

Introduction
Just as in Germany the allied air-forces, predominately the American attacked the Japanese island with an enormous bomb offensive during the latter part of World War II. Large scale bombings did not however come into practice until the Mariana-islands had been captured in the summer of 1944. At the same time the Americans introduced their newest bomb-aeroplane B-29 which had a much longer flying range and capability to carry heavier loads of bombs. Simultaneously, the Japanese air defence was almost none existing which left Japan completely defenceless from the massive hoards of bombers flying in over Japan and most of the Japanese major cities were destroyed which left hundreds of thousands of people dead as a result. The absolute peak of these air raids apart from the Atomic bomb over Hiroshima was to hit Tokyo on the nights of the 9th and 10th of March 1945. Even if the raids against the German city of Dresden is more known this was the worst bomb attack the world had ever seen, apart from the atomic bombs on the 6th and 9th of August the same year. In this particular attack over 330 B-29s dropped some 2000 tonnes of fire-bombs over Tokyo. The result was to be an overwhelming fire-storm raging over the city destroying everything its way. This was much due to large portions of Tokyo at the time was built by wood and paper and further attack on Tokyo and other Japanese cities such as Nagoya, Kobe and Osaka were carried out throughout the rest of the war. The devastation was immense with about 40 km2 of the city burnt down along with over 250 000 buildings of the city completely destroyed, leaving one million people on the streets. Not even the atomic bombs five month later caused as much material damage. No exact figures of the number of human deaths have been established but most research point towards at 100,000 dead civilians.

Today most scholars agree that the fire-bombing of Tokyo together with the bombings of Dresden to be acts of war-crime. Even the responsible people in the American air-force have been doubtful about the justification of the massive killings of such a large number of civilians and Curtis LeMay himself said "If we'd lost the war, we'd all have been prosecuted as war criminals". During the war it was however agreed upon that these kinds of bombing shortened the war and therefore spared a lot of lives, even civilian ones. This paper will examine that the massive destruction of Tokyo by the American fire-bombing raids was not solely due to American superiority in the air and by technology, but also by the strong determination of the leading Command to destroy Tokyo. It will also look at Japanese building materials and the ineffectiveness of the Japanese civil defence as possible explanations for the destruction of Tokyo.

The decision to carry out the attacks
In order to carry out the attacks it was necessary that there existed a strong leadership with a determination and will to deliberately target areas that consisted of large civilian populations. After the capture of Guam and Marianas Island by the American forces Japan came in reach for the American bomb squadron and on January 20th, 1945 Commander Curtis LeMay received the leadership of the American bomb squadron, and it was he who finalized the ideas and actively worked for a massive bombing of the Japanese cities. In the initial stages of the war American leadership opposed deliberate attacks on civilian populations and focused to limit raids on targets of military significance such as combatants, railroads, and factories. This stance was to be taken a 180 degree turn as the war went by and Commander LeMay describes it best in his own words when he said that he wanted Tokyo "burned down―wiped right off the map" LeMays mission and goal was to win the war as soon as possible and with as few American soldiers dead as possible. He believed that if a land invasion of Japan was necessary maybe 1,000,000 American soldiers could face death, and therefore Japan had to be crushed to spare those lives. With American bombers well in reach of Japan on their new bases and the strong will of Commander LeMay Japanese cities was destined to be wiped of the map.

New technology
As the Pacific war went on and the American forces managed capture islands within range of launching their bomb attacks on Japan along with with introduction of the B-29 in May 8th, 1944 Japan was now inevitable to be destroyed from the air. In March 9-10, 1945 these B-29 Super Fortresses was loaded with napalm and incendiary bombs flying in over Tokyo on low altitude to avoid detection as well as having their guns and ammunition taken off with the purpose of carry more bombs than usual. There were two types of bombs used, the M47 gel bomb with the purpose of starting major fires and smaller M69 gelled-gasoline bombs. The destruction and heat made by these bombs were immense and when exploding spreading a burning thick gel over buildings setting them on fire. The Japanese air defence was completely out of order, the number of defending fighter planes was so small they hardly made a difference, and there were no anti air craft artillery capable of defending the city against a low altitude attack of B-29´s.
Had the Japanese been more prepared and assembled more planes anti aircraft to defend Tokyo the destruction may have been limited.

Building materials
One of the absolute key factors to the rapid spread and damages caused by the fire-bombing was in fact due to that large parts of Tokyo was still built traditionally of wood and paper. This was a fact well known by the American Air force and experiments with incendiary bombs on copies of Japanese buildings were carried out as early as 1943. Many of the houses in Tokyo's densely populated residential areas were in fact small workshops or factories which made it impossible to draw a definite line between residential and industrial areas and therefore it was justified to destroy these areas as they did contribute to the overall Japanese war time production. No longer were factories and infrastructure only seen as the primary target for American air operations. Clusters of civilian populations were also actively targeted to end the war time industrial production, but also to completely break down the morale of the Japanese population to the degree that they would realize that any form of resistance or support of the defence of Japan were to be in absolute vain. Just to make matters worst, the night of the bombings a dreadful wind travelling of over 40 miles per hour swept over Japan and Tokyo helping to spread the fires rapidly over a much larger anticipated area. The wind made the fires reached temperatures over 950 degrees Celsius and when moving over the city it burning everything that could be burned at the same time as consuming all the air and spreading a deadly smoke killing everything in reach. Thousands of fleeing people did seek refuge in the Tokyo waterways only to drown or to be suffocated by the lack of oxygen. The heat and fires was so intense that the crews of the B-52 bombers reported that they could see Tokyo burning from as far away as 250 km.
Tokyo had at the time a population density without comparison by any other industrial city in the world with figures up to 135.000 people per square mile, with a total of 1.5 million people living in the actual target area. So as described, one major contributing factor to the high death rate was the high density of people living in a considerably small area in houses made by wood and paper, because they did not stand a chance as the bombs were falling.

Slow response to American bomb attacks
There was a very slow response to the American bomb attacks by the Japanese civil defence and the police. The war's demand for young skilful men seem to have left Tokyo and other Japanese cities with unsuitable and not properly trained never less equipped people as fire fighters. Guillian describes the fire fighters when battling the flames working with hand pumped water, wet blankets, and sand, clearly in vain. Many people were also just staying put were they were, ordered by the authorities to defend their homes after their own ability.
The Japanese never expected that enemy planes would ever reach Japan in any large numbers and did therefore not build up any significant defence towards bomb attacks. This policy did on the other hand change after November 1944 when B-29´s begun to bomb factories on the Japanese mainland. One can however assume that by then it was all too late. One of the consequences of the slow response to the bombings was that people remained within urban areas without any preparation to defend or protects themselves to any aerial attacks. For example every citizen was by 1945 required to have some sort of shelter organized but the truth was that the only effective shelters were to be found in business centres concrete buildings leaving most of Tokyo's residential population completely unprotected. The lack of preparation and knowledge in how to deal and act effectively during an air raid led to that absolute panic broke out and people were fleeing in all directions from the fires in search for shelter only to be caught in the fires.

Psychological effect
There was not only structural damage and massive losses of lives for the Japanese as a result of the bombings but also an immense psychological damage to the Japanese people. Commander LeMay managed to completely eliminate what was left of the morale of the residents of Tokyo. Daniels describes as a comparison that after earthquakes that regularly strike Japan and the destruction that follows of such events is always followed up by massive reconstruction activity, but after the fire-bombings the hopelessness among the people was so great that no such activity ever occurred. As a result of the fire bombings the Japanese authorities did begin what they should have done long ago when closing all the schools, handing out emergency rations of food, and conducting mass evacuations of civilians out from the cities.

Aftermath
The great Tokyo air Raid of March 9th and 10th caused some 100,000 civilian deaths and material damage to Tokyo of huge proportions. It was clearly understood by the American side of the conflict that the human losses were to be great. Allied forces had captured island well in distance for launching attacks on the Japanese mainland and they had recently developed technology in terms of planes with long distance capability and incendiary bombs and when used together it was a lethal combination. The Japanese leadership however failed completely to realise the Americans determination to destroy the Japanese cities and had therefore not managed or had the will to prepare the civilian population for what was to come. Residential quarter of Japanese cities did still to a large extent consist of materials such as wood and paper and they became literally dangerous traps when catching fire. The wind of the night spread burning flares to neighbouring houses and distances far away and caused damage in much larger area than planned by the Americans. LeMay's plan to wipe of Tokyo from the map of Japan was almost literally succeeded. A more important factor and success of his plan was however the effects of psychological devastation and sense of defeat on the Japanese side. Many did after this attack realise for sure that battle was over and that Japan was not in a position to continue a war against the allies.