ENGINEERING PROJECTS

There would be a definite craze in you to endeavor mini projects in your college life. Influence yourself in doing a constructive work like this which can bring a big difference to your knowledge. Develop the passion for few subjects and master those subjects by dedicating more time towards it. Attempting a mini project and coming up with success can be a cake walk if you have the fervor to learn the subject practically. You can really be outstanding once you start acquiring practical knowledge by doing mini projects. Do not wait for time, place and instructions. Search for the options available and explore.

Choosing Topic

From the subjects that you are studying in your semesters, you can take up one which you like the most. Say for example, you are having flair towards Digital Electronics; learn all the basic gates, their logic and circuits associated with it. Find books, get assistance from your staff and use the internet to see the application of digital Electronics. As a first step, look for a mini project that has already been done. Take it up and try doing it on your own. You will have difficulties when you start which will turn as a stepping stone for your success. With the amount of experience you are gaining in doing a project that has been well prescribed, you can really move on questing more into this area.

Finding Time

The beginning of the semester is the best time where you can start thinking about the project. In fact, for a learning process like this, there need not be any specific time. Never get bogged down with the internal exams, tests and other routine stuff in college as they are going to keep coming at you. Spare just an hour in a day over a period of two to three weeks and this will be exceedingly enough to complete the project.

Resources

Plan your project and look for the resources that you can avail. When it is a software based project, there is nothing you will have to possess other than a computer. Look where you can spend time in doing the project whether in home or in laboratories in your college. You can fetch books from established libraries at very low cost and you can have the eternal internet reference by your side. Speak about your initiative to your staff and learn things from them. Every person will not be strong in all the subjects but will have strengths in one or other areas. Counsel with the staff whom you feel is good in that area and get ideas to proceed.

Forming Team

It is much better to do a mini project with couple of class mates by your side than doing it individually. Team effort saves time and cost for you and the knowledge that you can share and develop amongst yourselves will also be high. Motivate yourself and your team members in venturing mini projects

IBM Research Projects - Copyrighted

2011-01-25T23:33:00.000-08:00

Source : domino.research.ibm.com

''Quantum mirage'' may enable atom-scale circuits
4th Proactive Problem Prediction, Avoidance and Diagnosis Conference
9p Universal Resource Sharing Protocol
Advanced Computing Technology Center
Anti-Spam Research
Atomic force microscopy Bioinformatics and Pattern Discovery Group
Bipolar transistor
Blue Gene Blue Gene/L and ASTRONBlue Gene/L, Science ProgramBusiness Intelligence from Voice of CustomerCancelable Biometric TechnologyCancer ModelingCarbon Nanotube Light EmissionsCarbon Nanotube TransistorsCarbon NanotubesCell ProcessorCollaborative Organization Analysis CoMMA
Computational Genomics
Connection Network IntelligenceContinuous Program OptimizationCopper chip technologyCoScripterCryptography Research Data Channels Data Hiding
Disaster Recovery Planner ProjectDogear
Double-Gate Transistor Dynamic Optimization Group
echeck projectElliptic Curve Cryptography Embedded DRAM at IBM Research

For More Project Titles of this kind click here

3 comments:

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Electronics and Telecommunication

2011-01-25T23:30:00.000-08:00

Electronics Project with complete manual

2011-01-25T23:29:00.000-08:00

Solar Tracker (home page)	Automated Bench Testing (home page)
Conveyor positioning for Automated Manufacturing (home page)	PLC Networking & Database Connectivity (home page)
Senior Project Lab Security (home page)	Virtex II (home page)
AKVM (home page)	C# PLC HMIs (home page)
Automated Greenhouse (home page)	Zigbee Network (home page)
Digital Image Processing (home page)	Wireless Data Acquisition (home page)
Automated Saw Mill Carriage (home page)	High Frequency Vibration Test (home page)
Reverse Engineering DCC for Model Trains	Neurologically Controlled Prosthesis (home page)

Inventory Management System (home page)	Low FER Beacon Controller (home page)
RFID Management System (home page)	High School Teaching Lab (home page)
Autobot System (home page)	Human Interface (home page)
Electronic Flute (home page)	Bluetooth Controlled Lighting (home page)
Autonomous Robot (home page)	Cognex Vision (home page)
Chipscope (home page)	Web-Interfaced Robot Arm (home page)
Wireless Weather Station	Software Radio (home page)
Wireless Guitar Transmitter	Class D Amplifier

How to Document Mini Projects and Final Year Projects

2011-01-25T23:27:00.001-08:00

The documentation of your project is as important as doing the project. You cannot take your mini project everywhere for a demonstration and it is the hard and soft copies of your documentation that will speak for you. It often occurs that people would strive hard to do the project and fail to document it properly. This should not be the case as it spoils your efforts. Allot time and put your efforts in constructing the mini project documentation.

Parts of Documentation

The documentation most often people do is just the procedure of the mini project. This is really nothing when compare to the efforts you take in doing the project. Grab all the information that you need and put it as a raw collection. Determine the side headings that are best and could give the best possible explanation about the project. Now pick the contents from your collection and fill it up under the side headings. Some of the subtitles that are common and mandatory are given below.

Abstract and Introduction

The abstract is just one paragraph of what the project is and where it can be put into use. Just include a sentence of how it works and how it has been designed. The next part is the introduction where you can speak about all the basics of the things that you have used in the project. You can bring out circuit diagrams, flow charts in this section.

Design

In this segment, you can bring out the algorithm and procedure of the mini project. The construction of the mini project or the algorithm if in case of software based project can be elaborated. The entire flow can be explained in detail.

Working

Here is the highlight of the documentation where you can explain about the working of your project with all the internal mechanisms involved in the project. Every step of the project along with how one triggers the next step should be mentioned clearly. This should be the biggest part of your documentation. Avoid copying contents in the procedure segment and try to build your own content.

Conclusion and Application

As the last part of the documentation, bring out the conclusion in an impressive manner. The three or four lines that you are going to inscribe in the conclusion segment must be catchy and at the same time be factual. You can append a sub title application where you can explain the area where your project can be put into use in a detailed manner. Additional segments like advantages, limitations and future enhancements can be discussed in one paragraph each. This can picture your scope of the project. Add a title of references where you can briefly pen down the books, sites and people you referred in bringing out your project. Keep your documentation precise and speak about the usage often.

Hard Ware Projects from rbainnovations.com

2011-01-25T23:25:00.001-08:00

HARDWARE PROJECTS
I. Projects in DSP Microcomputer ADSP 2115/2105
S.No	Project Name	Cost of basic Hardware	Additional Hardware at extra cost	Abstracts
1.	Noise/Echo canceller	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
2.	DTMF generation and detection	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
3.	Spectrum/Harmonic analyzer	Rs. 7,500/-	Wave generator Rs. 1,000/-	Download
4.	FIR filter design	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
5.	Signal generator	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
6.	3D Graphic generation	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
7.	Two dimensional filters/ Image processing	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
8.	Speech compression and decompression using ADPCM technique	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
9.	Voice processor unit for karoke system	Rs. 8,500/-		Download

a. projects in 80C31/80C51/89C52 microcontroller
S.No	Project Name	Cost of basic Hardware	Additional Hardware at extra cost	Abstracts
1	Automatic bell system	Rs. 7,000/-		Download
2	Data logger (PC serial port interface) a) 8-bit 8-channel b) 12-bit 8-channel c) 16-bit 8-channel	Rs. 6,000/- Rs. 8,000/- Rs.12, 000/-	Sensor Rs.500 & Above	Download
3	Data logging through multidrop communication	Rs. 7,000/-	Sensor Rs.500 & Above	Download
4	Digital PID controller	Rs. 6,000/-	Sensor & Tank set up Rs.1, 200/-	Download
5	Distributed control system	Rs. 8,000/-	Sensor & Tank set up Rs.1, 200/- Valves Rs. 2,000/-	Download
6	Electronic voting machine	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
7	Flow meter	Rs. 7,000/-		Download
8	Function generator	Rs. 7,000/-		Download
9	Fuzzy controller design a) DC Motor speed control system b) Temperature controller	Rs. 10, 000/- Rs. 7, 000/-	Sensor & Tank set up Rs. 1,200/-	Download Download
10	Implementation of multitasking operating system	Rs. 7,000/-		Download
11	Industrial PLC	Rs. 7,000/-		Download
12	Industrial Robot	Rs. 8,000/-		Download
13	PH meter	Rs. 7,000/-	PH sensor Rs.2, 000/-	Download
14	Prepaid energy meter	Rs. 8,000/-		Download
15	Protective relay-V, I, V / F protection a) Single-Phase b) Three-Phase	Rs. 7,500/- Rs. 9,000/-		Download
16	Protective relay-Impedance relay a) Single-Phase b) Three-Phase	Rs. 7,500/- Rs. 9,000/-		Download Download
17	Quiz answering network system	Rs. 8,000/		Download
18	Security system with Auto dialer & voice playback	Rs. 10,000/-		Download
19	Telephone communication for handicapped person	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
20	Telephone controlled switch	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
21	Telephone sharer	Rs.10, 000/-		Download
22	Telephone Conversation recorder	Rs. 10,000/-		Download
23	Voltage regulation of alternator	Rs.12, 000/-		Download
24	Weather monitoring system (Humidity & Temperature monitoring)	Rs. 7,000/-	Temperature sensor Rs.500/- Humidity sensor Rs.4,500/-	Download

S.No	Project Name	Cost of basic Hardware	Additional Hardware at extra cost	Abstracts
1.	Speech Recognition System	Rs. 16, 000/-		Download

S.No	Project Name	Cost of basic Hardware	Additional Hardware at extra cost	Abstracts
1.	Digital PID controller	Rs. 7,000/-	Sensor & Tank setup Rs.1, 200/-	Download
2.	PH Meter	Rs. 7,000/-	PH sensor Rs. 2,000/-	Download
3.	Telephone controlled switch	Rs. 7,000/-		Download

I. PROJECTS IN EMBEDDED MICROCONTROLLER SYSTEM
d. projects in pic 16F877A microcontroller
S.No	Project Name	Cost of basic Hardware	Additional Hardware at extra cost	Abstracts
1.	Data logger (8-bit 8- channel)	Rs. 6,000/-	Sensor Rs. 500 & Above	Download
2	Flow Meter	Rs. 7,000/-		Download
3	Temperature controller	Rs. 7,000/-	Sensor & Tank set up Rs. 1,200/-	Download
4	Industrial Robot	Rs. 8,000/-		Download
5	PH Meter	Rs. 7,000/-	PH sensor Rs.2,000/-	Download
6	Protective relay - Impedance relay	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
7	Protective relay -- V,I,V/F protection	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
8	Telephone Communication for handicapped person	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
9	Telephone control switch	Rs. 7,500/-		Download
10.	Weather monitoring system (Humidity & Temperature monitoring)	Rs. 7,000/-	Temperature sensor Rs.500/- Humidity sensor Rs. 4,500/-	Download

S.No	Project Name	Cost of basic Hardware	Refundable after returning the hardware	Abstracts
1.	Industrial robot using servomotors and scenix microcontroller SX28	Rs.20,000/-	Rs.10,000/-	Download
2.	Web server using scenix microcontroller SX52	Rs.20,000/-	Rs.10,000/-	Download

A. PROJECTS IN 8085/8086 MICROPROCESSOR
S.No	Project Name	Cost of basic Hardware	Additional Hardware extra cost	Abstracts
1.	Function generator	Rs. 6,500/-		Download
2.	Message or Character display	Rs. 6,500/-		Download
3.	Remote switching of motors	Rs. 6,500/-		Download
4.	Stepper motor interface	Rs. 6,500/-	Motor Rs. 1,500/-	Download
5.	Temperature controller	Rs. 6,500/-	Temperature sensor Rs. 500/-	Download
6.	Traffic light controller	Rs. 7,000/-		Download
7.	Protective Relay - V,I,V/F Protection a) Single - phase b) Three - phase	Rs. 7,500/- Rs. 9,000/-		Download

S.No	Project Name	Cost of basic Hardware	Refundable after returning the Hardware	Abstracts
1.	Embedded fuzzy controller using NEC V25+ (Intel 8088 compatible)	Rs. 20,000/-	Rs.10,000/-	Download

IV. PROJECTS IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATION (RF/IR/FM COMMUNIACTION)
S.No	Project Name	Cost of basic Hardware	Abstracts
1.	PC to Printer wireless communication	Rs. 8,000/-	Download
2.	PC to Stepper motor wireless interface (without motor)	Rs. 8,000/-	Download
3.	Wireless communication between PC and 8031 system (without sensor)	Rs. 10,000/-	Download
4.	Wireless data transmission (without sensor) a) PC to 8031 b) 8031 to 8031	Rs. 10,000/- Rs. 12,000/-	Download Download
5.	Wireless ON/OFF control of equipments	Rs. 8,000/-	Download
6.	Wireless PC to PC communication	Rs. 7,500/-	Download
7.	DC motor wireless control using 8031	Rs. 12,500/-	Download
8.	Vehicle Authentication System	Rs. 10,000/-	Download
9.	Remote Access through ATM Networks	Rs. 10,000/-	Download
10.	Wireless Caller ID Protocol stack Development	Rs. 10,000/-	Download
11.	Industrial Automation through SMS	Rs. 10,000/-	Download
12.	Mobile to PC Communication	Rs. 11,000/-	Download
13.	Wireless LAN	Rs. 12,500/-	Download
14.	Wireless Power Line Communication	Rs. 10,000/-	Download

V. PROJECTS IN VLSI
S.No	Project Name	Cost of basic Hardware		Refundable after returning the hardware
A.	PAL IMPLEMENTATION	Rs. 3000/-		-
B.	ATMEL FPGA IMPLEMENTATION	Rs. 20,000/-		Rs.10,000/ -
C.	ALTERA CPLD/FPGA IMPLEMENTATION	Rs. 10,000/-		-

The following Projects are available in PAL/FPGA implementation
Projects in PAL/FPGA		Abstracts in PAL	Abstracts in ATMEL FPGA		Abstracts in ALTERA CPLD
1.	ALU design (using carry propagate/carry save/ripple carry adder)	Download	Download		Download
2.	Binary to 7-segment decoder for multiplexed display(2-digits)	Download	Download		Download
3.	Bus arbiter	Download	Download		Download
4.	Character display array	Download	Download		Download
5.	Digital code convertor	Download	Download		Download
6.	Elevator controller	Download	Download		Download
7.	Error detector and corrector unit	Download	Download		Download
8.	Function generator	Download	Download		Download
9.	IC tester	Download	Download		Download
10.	RAM unit	Download	Download		Download
11	Stepper motor controller( without stepper motor)	Download	Download		Download
12.	Traffic light controller	Download	Download		Download
13.	Level controller	Download	Download		Download
14.	Industrial PLC *	Download	Download		Download
15.	Industrial Robot *	Download	Download		Download
16.	Two channel temperature scanner *	Download	Download		Download
17.	Firing angle control of SCR*	Download	Download		Download
18.	Speed control of DC motor using fuzzy (without motor) *	Download	Download		Download
19.	Temperature controller.	Download	Download		Download
20.	Protective relay	Download	Download		Download
21.	8-bit Microprocessor*	Download	Download		Download


Note : 1. "*" Marked projects cannot be implemented in PAL 2. The Cost does not include sensor and motor

VI. PROJECTS IN POWER ELECTRONICS
S.No	Project Name	Cost of basic Hardware	Abstracts
1.	AC motor drive (V/F method of speed control) a). Single phase input - Single phase output b). Single phase input - Three phase output c). Two phase input - Three phase output d). Three phase input - Three phase output	Rs. 10,500/- Rs. 12,000/- Rs. 13,500/- Rs. 15,000/-	Download
2.	AC motor starter a) Single phase b) Three phase	Rs. 5 ,500/- Rs. 9,500/-	Download
3.	Chopper drive for DC motor a) Two - quadrant operation b) Four -quadrant operation	Rs. 7,500/- Rs. 8,000/-	Download Download
4.	Cyclo converter drive for ac motor a) Single phase b) Three phase	Rs. 7,500/- Rs. 14,000/-	Download
5.	DC motor drive(Armature voltage control) a) Single phase input-DC output b) Three phase input-DC output	Rs. 7,000/- Rs. 11,000/-	Download
6.	Dual Converter	Rs. 11,500/-	Download
7.	Protective relay-df/dt protection	Rs. 9,000/-	Download
8.	Speed control by slip power recovery scheme	Rs. 16,000/-	Download
9.	Thyristorized power controller for industrial application a) Single phasecontroller-2KVA b) Three phase controller-3KVA	Rs. 7,000/- Rs. 11,000/-	Download
10.	Voltage Regulator-single phase	Rs. 7,000/-	Download
11.	Linear induction motor with V/F drive	Rs. 18,000/-	Download
12.	Multi Level Inverter-Single phase a) 3 Level b) 5 Level c) 7 Level	Rs. 9,500/- Rs. 10,500/- Rs. 12,500/-	Download
13.	Robust PID controller for DC motor	Rs. 10,000/-	Download
14.	PWM based DC drive for bi-directional speed control using single potentiometer	Rs. 9,500/-	Download
15.	Resonant inverter	Rs. 12,000/-	Download


Note : For all power projects 1. For Microcontroller based control Rs. 4,000/- extra 2. For FPGA based control Rs.6,000/- extra

VII. PROJECTS IN PC based projects
S.No	Project Name	Cost of basic Hardware	Additional hardware at extra cost	Abstracts
1.	Data logger (add-on card to PC mother board) a) 8-bit 8-channel b)12-bit 8-channel c)16-bit 8-channel	Rs. 7,000/- Rs. 8,000/- Rs. 12,000/-	Sensor Rs. 500 & Above	Download
2.	Protective relay a) For single phase load b) For three phase load	Rs. 7 ,500/- Rs. 9,000/-	Load Rs. 1000 & above	Download Download
3.	Speed control of dc motor using digital PID/Fuzzy controller	Rs. 10,000/-		Download
4.	Telephone controlled switch	Rs. 7,000/-		Download
5.	Temperature (or any process variable) control using PID/Fuzzy controller	Rs. 7,000/-	Sensor Rs.500/- & above	Download
6.	Four quadrant drive for DC motor using fuzzy logic	Rs. 12,000/-		Download
7.	Boiler drum(water) level control	Rs. 9,000/-	Valves Rs.2000/-	Download
8.	Voltage regulation of alternator	Rs. 12,000/-		Download
9.	Steganography	Rs. 10,000/-		Download

Project Ideas - Engineering, Science, Electronics & knowledge

2011-01-25T23:23:00.000-08:00

LED driven tail/brake Light Cluster

Constant current circuitry

12V Battery operation

Speed limit Alert

Wireless portable unit

Adaptable with most internal combustion engine vehicles

Park-Aid

Three LEDs signal bumper-barrier distance

Infra-red operation, indoor use

Sequential Brake/Turn Lights

Bar-mode LED-cluster sequencer

Can drive up to 16 clusters

Power Flasher

Suitable for alerting purposes

Drives 12V Car bulbs

Automotive Voltage Indicator

Monitors battery voltage

Three-LED Display

Sequential Turn Lights Driver

Four-LED left and right sequence

Particularly suited to motorcycles

Park-Aid Modification

Three-step beeps signal bumper-barrier distance

Infra-red operation, indoor use

Headlights Timer

Pushbutton activated

Very simple circuitry

Modular Audio Preamplifier

High Quality, Discrete Components Design

Input and Tone Control Modules

Phono Preamplifier

Simple circuitry suitable for moving-magnet cartridges

Passive high-frequency equalization

Stereo Preamplifier with Bass-boost

High Quality, simple design

20 to 30V supply

Automatic Loudness Control

Simple add-on module

Switchable "Control-flat" option

Portable Microphone Preamplifier

High headroom input circuitry

9V Battery powered

Mini-MosFet Audio Amplifier

Including Preamp, Tone Controls and Regulated dc PS

18 Watt into 8 Ohm - 30W into 4 Ohm loads

18 Watt Audio Amplifier

High Quality very simple unit

No need for a preamplifier

25 Watt MosFet Audio Amplifier

High Quality simple design

No need for a preamplifier

60 Watt MosFet Audio Amplifier

High Quality, powerful unit: 90W into 4 Ohm

Also suited as guitar or bass amplifier

Headphone Amplifier

High Quality unit

No need for a preamplifier

Portable Headphone Amplifier

3V Battery powered

High Performance unit

Pure Class-A Headphone Amplifier

400mW RMS into 32 Ohm load

Single-rail Supply - Optional Tilt Control

Battery-powered Headphone Amplifier

Low distortion Class-B circuitry

6V Battery Supply

10W Audio Amplifier with Bass-boost

High Quality, very simple design

No need for a preamplifier

Mini-box 2W Amplifier

Designed for self-powered 8, 4 & 2 Ohm loudspeakers

Bass-boost switch

3 - 5 Watt Class-A Audio Amplifier

Behaves like a one-valve operated amplifier

Simple circuitry - No cross-over distortion

Portable Mixer

High-quality modular design

9V Battery powered - Very low current drawing

Intercom with fader

Suitable for tandem bicycles and motor cycles

Connects to iPod and similar MP3 audio players

Mini Mixer

Small portable device - 9V battery operation

Three high/low-sensitivity switchable inputs

Portable 9V Headphone Amplifier

High Quality One-IC unit

Low current consumption

Speech Amplifier Box

Small portable device - 6V battery operation

Suitable for teachers, lecturers, tourists' guides etc.

Audio Clipping Indicator

Detects clipping in preamp stages, mixers, amplifiers etc.

Single LED display - 9V Battery supply unit

Three-Level Audio Power Indicator

Battery-operated 3 LED display

Simply connect it to loudspeaker output

Six-LED Bar Power Indicator

Useful to monitor audio power delivered to loudspeakers

No power supply - no setup required

Precision Audio Millivoltmeter

Measures 10mV to 50Volt RMS in eight ranges

Simply connect to your Avo-meter set @ 50µA range

Sound Pressure Level Meter

Suitable for home-cinema setup

9 Volt operated portable unit

1KHz Sinewave Generator

Simple circuitry, low distortion, battery operated

Variable, low impedance output up to 1V RMS

Low-distortion Audio-range Oscillator

Generates very low-distortion sine waves up to 1V RMS

No thermistors required - No settling time

Simple Squarewave Generator

Three switchable frequencies: 100Hz, 1KHz, 10KHz

1.5V battery operated, minimum parts counting

Self-powered Sine to Square wave Converter

Converts sine to square waves without a power-source

Useful as a test instrument for audio purposes

Amplifier Timer

Turns-off your amplifier when idle for 15 minutes

Fed by amplifier tape-output

Amplified Ear

Useful to listen in faint sounds

1.5V Battery operation

Full-duplex Intercom

No complex switching required

Simple circuitry, 6-12V supply

Telephone call Voice Changer

Voice manipulation device specially intended for props

9V Battery operation

Engineering Projects

2011-01-25T23:22:00.000-08:00

1.5V TOUCH ACTIVATED SWITCH)
A single 1.5v silver oxide button cell powers this complete touch activated switch circuit for 5 years. It features both a normally open and a normally closed set of solid state switch thermals. It also has an adjustable sensitivity, which can be set for a touch capacitance change as small as 1 picofarad.
5V CAPACITANCE TOUCH ACTIVATED MOMENTARY SWITCH
This circuit is discussed in more detail in the section on Capacitance Proximity Switch Technology. The circuit is powered from a standard +5v supply. It has both a source and sinks output that change state whenever a metal button connected to the circuit is touched. An earth ground reference is required.
12V TOUCH SWITCH EXCITER CIRCUIT
This circuit is designed to generate a 20 KHz pseudo sine wave signal that can power about 50 remote touch activated switch circuits. It can support a cable length of about 2500 feet. A typical remote switch circuit is also shown as well as a receiver circuit for those switches.
120VAC Touch Switch
This is a capacitance based touch on/touch off switch, which can control power to a 200 watt 120vac load.
240VAC Touch Switch
This is another capacitance based touch on/touch off switch, which can control power to a 200 watt 240vac load.
5 VOLT MOMENTARY OPERATION TOUCH SWITCH
This simple circuit uses a single IC to form a nice touch switch circuit. A single transistor forms the remote active switch sensor. Multiple switches can be wired in parallel. The switch circuit can be located about 500 feet from the control circuit
3V CAPACITANCE PROXIMITY SWITCH
This circuit was designed to provide a touch activated switch function without an external power supply. It draws so little power that a single 3v battery will operate the circuit for many years. It is discussed in more detail in the section on Capacitance Proximity Switch Technology. (Note link is off site)
5 VOLT MOMENTARY OPERATION TOUCH SWITCH
This simple circuit uses a single IC to form a nice touch switch circuit. A single transistor forms the remote active switch sensor. Multiple switches can be wired in parallel. The switch circuit can be located about 500 feet from the control circuit.
DOORKNOB ALARM
Many companies offer simple alarm devices for personal use in bedrooms or hotel rooms. A metal chain attached to a box holding the electronics is placed around the inside doorknob of a wood door. Anyone grabbing the knob from the outside is detected by the electrical capacitance change that occurs from the human hand contact between the knob and the box. Almost all of the commercial devices sold use a more expensive and power consuming radio frequency circuit approach to detect the capacitance change. But, a very inexpensive and micro power technique can also work. This circuit schematic should dramatically reduce the cost of the device and allows it to operate for many years from one set of batteries.
HIGH POWER TOUCH SWITCH EXCITER CIRCUIT
If you have hundreds of touch switches that need an excitation signal, then this circuit is what you need. Its 20KHz 20v peak to peak output signal can supply up to 3 watts of touch switch excitation power.

FINGER TOUCH ACTIVATED SWITCH
It does not get any easier if you want a solid state switch that is activated by the touch of a finger. Two small metal pins route voltage through the finger skin to a MOSFET switch. The circuit is great for situations where a membrane type mechanical switch is not desired.
5V Capacitance Touch Activated Monetary Switch
This circuit is discussed in more detail in the section on Capacitance Proximity Switch Technology. The circuit is powered from a standard +5v supply. It has both a source and sink output that change state whenever a metal button connected to the circuit is touched. An earth ground reference is required.
5-Volt Momentary Operation Touch Switch
This simple circuit uses a single IC to form a nice touch switch circuit. A single transistor forms the remote active switch sensor. Multiple switches can be wired in parallel. The switch circuit can be located about 500 feet from the control circuit
Low Value Capacitance Meter
This circuit was originally designed to measure the volume of fluid inside a medical syringe. As designed, it produces a zero to 5 volt output, corresponding to a capacitance change of about 10 microfarads. With a digital voltmeter, at its output, it can resolve a capacitance change of 0.002 picofarads or 2 fermifarads. (added 12/04)
Capacitance Type Liquid Level Monitor
This circuit was originally designed to monitor the level of liquid natural gas in a tank but it can be used to also measure almost any liquid. Two custom insulated metal tubes form a capacitor plate. The capacitance between the two tubes increases as the level of the liquid rises. The circuit converts an increase of capacitance into a positive voltage change. The circuit could be changed to handle almost any scale factor needed.
Precision Low Capacitance Meter NEW
This circuit was originally designed to measure the volume of the fluid inside a 10cc syringe. It used two copper foil strips attached to the outside barrel of the syringe. The fluid between the two copper strips increases the capacitance. As the fluid volume decreased, the capacitance also decreased. With the circuit shown below, it is possible to calibrate the circuit, so the voltage produced is proportional to the fluid volume inside the syringe. With the values shown, the circuit produces a 5v DC output,
Short Range Reflective Object Sensor
Drawing only 30uA from a 3v supply, this circuit will detect a human finger with a range of about 1 inch. The sensor uses an inexpensive infrared LED and a matching photo diode
VERY LOW POWER GATED CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
The circuit gates the output of a continuously operating 32KHz crystal oscillator to the input of a C-MOS buffer when clock pulses are needed. The technique gets around the problem of a slow starting crystal oscillator by keeping the oscillator going and switching on a transistor power stage only as needed. The method keeps the standby power consumption to a very low 1uA when used with a 3v supply.
VERY LOW POWER ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
This classic circuit draws only 200 nanoamps from a 1.5v supply.
ULTRA PURE 125 KHz SINE WAVE SIGNAL SOURCE
For some RFID systems operating at 125 KHz, a very low distortion signal source reference is needed. The circuit shown on this page produces a 10 volt peak to peak signal into a 50 ohm load, with a distortion of only 0.01%.
SQUARE WAVE DRIVER HAS FLEXIBLE OUTPUTS
This circuit can produce an output signal ranging from DC to 100 KHz. It can source a voltage ranging from 1v to 30v. It can sink a voltage ranging from zero volts to –30v. It can drive up to 200ma of current and can even be switched to a floating tristate output.
MEDIUM POWER 125KHZ OSCILLATOR
This circuit is similar to CMOS INVERTERS FORM 125KHZ OSCILLATOR but adds more invertors in parallel to deliver more power. The values shown are for 125 KHz.
MEDIUM POWER 125KHZ OSCILLATOR-2
This circuit is similar to MEDIUM POWER 125KHZ OSCILLATOR but adds even more inverters in parallel to deliver yet more power. The values shown are for 125 KHz.
HIGH POWER TOUCH SWITCH EXCITER CIRCUIT
If you have hundreds of touch switches that need an excitation signal, then this circuit is what you need. Its 20 KHz 20v peak to peak output signal can supply up to 3 watts of touch switch excitation power.
Fully Isolated 50/60Hz Sync Generator
This circuit will produce a single pulse at the zero voltage cross points of the power line voltage. An opto-coupler provides very safe 5KV isolation.
CMOS NAND GATE FORMS GATED 125KHZ OSCILLATOR
This circuit is similar to schematic CMOS INVERTER 125KHz LC OSCILLATOR but uses a NAND gate as an inverter. The gate allows the oscillator to be gated on and off. Again, the values shown set the frequency at 125 KHz but can be changed to produce other frequencies.
CMOS INVERTERS FORM 125KHZ OSCILLATOR
This circuit is similar to schematic CMOS INVERTER 125 KHz LC OSCILLATOR but inverts the LC components so the inductor is grounded. Two inverters are needed to produce the needed oscillation. Again, the values shown set the frequency at 125 KHz but can be changed to produce other frequencies.
12V TOUCH SWITCH EXCITER CIRCUIT
This circuit is designed to generate a 20 KHz pseudo sine wave signal that can power about 50 remote touch activated switch circuits. It can support a cable length of about 2500 feet. A typical remote switch circuit is also shown as well as a receiver circuit for those switches.
200MHz400MHz VOLTAGE controlled OSCILLATOR
If you need a clean emitter coupled logic (ECL) type signal between 200MHz and 400MHz this circuit works fine. It uses four voltage-controlled capacitors to change the frequency
300V PEAK TO PEAK SIGNAL GENERATOR
This circuit converts a square wave signal to a +-150 volt output signal with fast 100nS rise and fall times.
40KHZ LED TEST SIGNAL GENERATOR
This 40KHz crystal controlled oscillator circuit drives an infrared LED with powerful 40ma pulses. The circuit can be used to test optical communications circuits, designed to receive 40 KHz modulated light signals.
AUDIO FREQUENCY DIGITAL NOISE GENERATOR
when you need to test an audio circuit with broadband noise, this circuit works great. It uses just three inexpensive C-MOS ICs that generate a series of output pulses whose widths vary randomly. I included a level control pot.

CAPS PROVIDE VOLTAGE BOOST TO SERIES REGULATOR
This circuit adds some capacitors and diodes to a traditional transformer type series regulator circuit to extend the normal operating range. It can insure regulation during low line voltage conditions or it can squeeze a few more watts out of a plug-in-the-wall power adapter power supply.
CHARGE PUMP EFFICIENTLY DIVIDES SUPPLY VOLTAGE
This circuit uses a few FETs and logic devices to down convert a DC voltage to about one half its value.
CMOS INVERTER 125 KHz LC OSCILLATOR
This circuit uses a single CMOS inverter to form a series resonant LD oscillator. The values shown set the oscillation at about 125 KHz but other frequencies are possible by changing the main LC values.

• LINE POWERED 60Hz CLOCK GENERATOR
This circuit is connected to the 120vac power line and transfers 60Hz clock pulses to a logic circuit. The optoisolator used provides 5000 volts of isolation between the power line and the logic side of the circuit.

ACCEPTABLE VOLTAGE INDICTOR
I have used this circuit many times in custom test fixtures where a simple go-no go indication was needed. The circuit can also be used to adjust a particular voltage be within specific high or low limits. The three LEDs will indicate if the voltage is high, low or OK. When connected to other converters, such as a frequency to voltage converter, a current to voltage converter or a power to voltage meter, it could provide a quick indication of a proper level.
Battery Charge Current Indicator
This circuit turns on a LED whenever it detects at least 25ma of battery charge current.
DC CURRENT INDICATOR #4 December 15, 2008
The circuit below uses some common components to turn on an LED whenever DC current above a certain level is detected. The circuit uses a very popular LM393 dual voltage comparator from National Semiconductor and a common 1N4148 signal diode. The diode acts as a crude 0.7v voltage reference. Only one of the comparators inside the 8 pin package is used. A pair of resistors across the diode forms a voltage divider, which produce a reference voltage of about 0.015v. ....

• PRECISION AC PEAK DETECTOR
This unique circuit uses a very inexpensive voltage comparator to form a peak detector. The DC voltage produced tracks the positive peak of the input signal. It works from about ten mill volts to about 10 volts peak to peak. The maximum frequency is about 150KHz.

XENON LAMP FLASH DETECTOR
This circuit uses a small 2.5mm square photo diode in conjunction with a 100mH coil to detect the short light flashes from a xenon lamp. The coil makes the circuit immune to normal room lights. Its 10mv sensitivity can detect light flashes from a range of over 100 feet. Reflections from a room’s walls and ceiling is usually enough to trigger the circuit. The entire circuit draws only 3 Micro amps from a 6 to 9 volt battery.

WIDE BAND ZERO CROSS DETECTOR
This circuit was designed to convert a low amplitude 40KHz signal into a clean square wave signal. It will work with inputs as small as 5mv peak-to-peak or as large as 3 volts peak to peak. The input frequency can range from a few kilohertz to about 150KHz.
40KHZ LED TEST SIGNAL GENERATOR
This 40KHz crystal controlled oscillator circuit drives an infrared LED with powerful 40ma pulses. The circuit can be used to test optical communications circuits, designed to receive 40KHz modulated light signals.
Ultra Low Power 32KHz Crystal Oscillator
I have used this circuit many times when I needed a low frequency reference, which did not draw much power. With the components show, the current from a 3v battery is less than 1.2 micro amps.
VERY LOW POWER GATED CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
The circuit gates the output of a continuously operating 32KHz crystal oscillator to the input of a C-MOS buffer when clock pulses are needed. The technique gets around the problem of a slow starting crystal oscillator by keeping the oscillator going and switching on a transistor power stage only as needed. The method keeps the standby power consumption to a very low 1uA when used with a 3v supply.
Low Voltage H-bridge
TTL type Q and inverted Q inputs control a classic H-bridge circuit, rated at 50 volts and about 10 amps. The circuit can control power and direction of a DC motor. (added 7/06)

• Motor Brake
This circuit will bring a fast moving DC motor to a stop in seconds. The braking action is automatically applied whenever DC power is removed.

PWM Circuit for Motor Speed Control
Sometimes you want to slow down a brush type DC motor. The most efficient way to do this is with a pulse width modulation (PWM) technique. The hobby circuit below can operate from about 3 volts to 15 volts. The frequency is fixed at about 2KHz but the pulse width can be varied from nearly 100% to 0%. ...
Two Button Motor Controller
Two small pushbutton switches, a few diodes and two relays form a method to control on/off power to a brush motor as well as the motor direction. The circuit was originally designed for a motorized lifting platform.
9v POWERED XENON PHOTOFLASH Controller
This 9v battery powered circuit is designed for remote control flash needs. A charge control circuit turns off the high voltage generator when the photoflash capacitor is fully charged. A neon lamp is included to indicate when the system is ready to flash.
555 Timer Forms Simple PWM Motor Controller
Using a CMOS version of the 555 timer, this circuit can be used to control the speed of a motor by adjusting the duty cycle of the pulses sent to the motor. (added 7/06)

Automatic DC Motor Brake
In many DC motor powered systems you would like the motor to quickly come to a full stop. This circuit provides an automatic electronic braking action to any DC motor ranging from 6v to 24v up to 1 amp of current. Some of the component values could be changed for larger motors....
DC Motor Brake
When the power switch is closed, the gate voltage of Q1 turns Q1 on. The drain of Q1 swings low, turning off Q2. Current flows freely into the DC motor with only one diode drop from D2. When the power switch is open. The gate voltage of Q1 swings low, causing the drain of Q1 to swing high. This turns on the transistor Q2. With Q2 on, the resistor R3 is switched in parallel with the motor, producing a braking action. The value of R3 can be selected for the desired braking action....
1 AMP CURRENT INJECTOR
When you need to measure resistance down to a few micro ohms, this circuit works great. It is powered from two "C" cell batteries and is designed to inject a well regulated one amp of current into the unknown resistance. By measuring the voltage drop across the resistor with a digital voltmeter, the resistance value can be accurately measured. The circuit also is equipped with a low battery monitor. Published in Popular Electronics, November 1992
4 – 20ma Current Loop Tester
This circuit injects an adjustable current through a wire loop. Using a digital current meter, the current can be adjusted from near zero to over 24 milliamps.
Constant Current LED Driver
Bob Pease from National Semiconductor came up with this circuit and I have used it many times. It maintains a constant current through one or more LEDs. A single resistor controls the desired current
NEW Computer Controlled 100ma Current Source (July 11, 2008)
Often in industrial control systems a constant current source is needed, which is controlled by a computer and referenced to circuit ground. The circuit below converts a zero to 5v signal from a computer’s analog output into a current, with a full scale of 100ma. The circuit shown requires a 9v DC supply but any voltage from 9v to 12v will work.
6v NMH/NiCd Battery Tester
I designed this circuit to test rechargeable six volt battery packs under constant current conditions. As designed, the circuit applies a 10 amp load to the battery pack. A heat sink must be used on the main power transistor.
10MHz TO 20MHz LASER LIGHT DETECTOR
This circuit was originally designed to detect laser light pulses for an optical Ethernet communications system. It has good ambient light immunity.
1uS LIGHT PULSE RECEIVER PLUS POST AMP
This circuit is designed to detect very weak light pulses lasting 1uS. It uses a tuned LC feedback network to provide high sensitivity while giving high ambient light immunity. A post voltage amplifier is included with a gain of about X20. The circuit is described in more detail in the receiver section of my Handbook of Optical Through the Air Communications. Note: The LF357 op amp is no longer available; this circuit is for reference only.

40KHz MODULATED LIGHT DETECTOR
This circuit uses a unique cascade amplifier circuit to convert the current from a PIN photo diode to a current without any feedback network. It is very stable and very sensitive. The circuit shown has the potential for a conversion factor of 10 volts per microwatt at 900nm. I included a simple JFET post-amplifier with a gain of about 20.
40KHz LASER BURST DETECTOR
This circuit was originally designed to detect weak flashed of laser light bounced off of a fabric video projection screen. It was used as part of a firearm training system. It generates a 100mS output pulse whenever it detects a 3ms to 5ms-laser burst, modulated at 40KHz. It is very sensitive and could be modified for long-range laser communications.
40KHz LIGHT RECEIVER IS IMMUNE TO AMBIENT LIGHT
If you want even more sensitivity than the above circuit, try this design. When used with a one-centimeter square photodiode, you can achieve a range of several hundred feet with a standard TV or VCR remote control module.
AIR TRANSPARENCY MONITOR, XENON FLASH RECEIVER
I designed this circuit many years ago to monitor the quality of a mile long column of air for future optical communications experiments. The transmitter system (circuit 72 below) uses a powerful xenon flash in conjunction with a large 12 inch Fresnel lens at the transmitter end and a matching 12-inch lens with a PIN photo diode at the receiver. The receiver system was connected to a weather station and a computer to collect the changes in intensity of the light flashes under different weather conditions. It has the potential for a 30+-mile range. I have also used this system to conduct cloud bounce experiments.
BROAD BAND 2MHz OPTICAL FIBER RECEIVER
If you need more sensitivity than the above circuit this circuit provides about ten times more gain. It too is designed around an inexpensive plastic optical fiber detector.
BROAD BAND 5MHz OPTICAL FIBER RECEIVER
This circuit is a simple broad band light detector that uses a very inexpensive IC and a PIN photodiode that is packaged for use with plastic optical fibers. It has a bandwidth from 1KHz to over 5MHz. It is great for experimenting with various modulated light sources
CASCODE LIGHT RECEIVER CIRCUIT
This page provides a detailed explanation of how the modified cascade light receiver circuit operates. The cascade technique in conjunction with an inductive load provides very high current to voltage conversion as well as very high speed.
FET INPUT HIGH SPEED LIGHT DETECTOR
This circuit is yet another design that converts current from a PIN photo diode to a voltage. It has a bandwidth that extends beyond 50MHz.
OPTICAL RFID TEST CIRCUIT
I designed this test the concept of using light techniques to send identification data instead of RF. A more detailed discussion on this scheme can be found in the Imagineered new products section.
Photo Transistor Interface Circuits
This page shows different ways to improve the response time of a photo transistor circuit.
SINGLE IC FORMS SENSITIVE MODULATED LIGHT RECEIVER
The circuit uses a very inexpensive C-MOS IC that is connected to a small photodiode. Using a unique inductive feedback network, the circuit provides high sensitivity under high ambient light conditions. It is a great circuit when you want to extend the range of an optical remote control transmitter.
Xenon Lamp Flash Detector
This circuit has a very low standby current requirement yet has very high sensitivity toward the light flashes from a xenon lamp. When connected to a flip/flop it can serve as an on on/off Controller
LASER/LED LIGHT OUTPUT INTENSITY METER
This circuit uses a large 1cm X 1cm silicon PIN photo diode and a transimpedance amplifier to measure the light power output of infrared and visible LEDs and laser diodes. It can be modified to produce almost any milliwatts to volts scale factor. It can be connected to either a multi-meter or an oscilloscope.
LIGHT RECEIVER WORKS FROM 1KHz TO OVER 70MHz
This circuit uses one tiny C-MOS inverter IC to form a modulated light receiver with a very fast response. It is designed around a PIN photo diode that is packaged for use with plastic optical fibers. It can be used as an optical fiber receiver. By using the open end of the optical fiber it can "sniff" out any modulated light signals.
0.5V Negative Supply
Although not very efficient, this simple circuit, consisting of two LEDs and a photo diode, generates a negative voltage with a current level of a couple milliamps. It is ideal for supplying a negative rail to low power “rail to rail” op amp circuits, which need to have a true zero volts output.
Battery Powered Plus-Minus 15v Supply
Many classic operational amplifier circuits call for a split positive and negative 15 volt supply. The circuit below makes the job of generating such a supply much easier by using an off-the-shelf DC to DC converter, powered from a cheap 6v battery made from four AA cells. The converter, part number VESD1-S5-D15-SIP, is available from Digikey, their catalog number 102-1410, for about $6.00. To insure clean voltages, I follow the output of the converter with two voltage regulators, also available from Digikey. The result is a very nice supply rated at 30ma from each supply voltage. This should be plenty of current for most circuits.

• Run Switching Type AC Power Adapters on DC NEW
I have received a couple emails from people looking for inexpensive DC to DC converters, which can convert 40v to 60v DC into say +5 or +12v. Such input voltages are often found in new automotive and industrial applications with a typical DC voltage of 48 volts. It turns out that many, not all, but many, standard AC line operated power adapters, which use switch mode techniques, will indeed work great when supplied with DC instead of AC. The unit below works down to about 30v DC and delivers 500ma at 5v. If you draw less current, it will operate at even lower DC input voltages....

Charge Pump Efficiently Divides Supply Voltage
This circuit uses a few FETs and logic devices to down convert a DC voltage to about one half its value.
1uS Light Pulse Discriminator Plus F TO V Converter
This circuit is designed to detect the narrow 1uS pulses produced by the above amplifier circuit. The clean logic type pulses produced by the discriminator are then sent to a frequency to voltage converter. The circuit is designed to process a pulse frequency of 10KHz that is frequency modulated by voice audio signals. The circuit is described in more detail in the receiver circuit section of my Handbook of Optical Through the Air Communications.

• Pulse Period to Voltage Converter
This is a test circuit converts a square wave input signal into a voltage. But, the voltage produced is proportional to the time between edges (period) of the signal, not the frequency. The range is from 100uS to 10mS, which produces a voltage from 100mV to 10 volts. Other scale factors are also possible. The circuit is powered from single 15v supply and uses inexpensive parts. It is great when a signal's period instead of its frequency needs to be monitored.

Line Powered 60Hz Clock Generator
This circuit is connected to the 120vac power line and transfers 60Hz clock pulses to a logic circuit. The optoisolator used provides 5000 volts of isolation between the power line and the logic side of the circuit
Wide Band Zero Cross Detector
This circuit was designed to convert a low amplitude 40KHz signal into a clean square wave signal. It will work with inputs as small as 5mv peak-to-peak or as large as 3 volts peak to peak. The input frequency can range from a few kilohertz to about 150KHz
0.5V Negative Supply
Although not very efficient, this simple circuit, consisting of two LEDs and a photo diode, generates a negative voltage with a current level of a couple milliamps. It is ideal for supplying a negative rail to low power “rail to rail” op amp circuits, which need to have a true zero volts output.
0.5v to 6v Voltage Converter
Conventional silicon transistors just can't operate at voltages less than about 0.7v. Old germanium transistors could be used, but those are hard to find these days and most are rather large in size. Some new n-channel MOSFET devices with very low gate-source threshold voltage can operate at quite low voltages. I've been experimenting with various devices and came up with one circuit, which demonstrates how to boost the low voltage from a single solar cell to a higher voltage.

• Charge Pump Efficiently Divides Supply Voltage
This circuit uses a few FETs and logic devices to down convert a DC voltage to about one half its value.

40KHz Voltage to Frequency Converter
This circuit was designed to frequency modulate a 40KHz carrier, using human voice frequencies. A common flip/flop is used at the core of the circuit.
200MHz - 400MHz VOLTAGE controlled OSCILLATOR
If you need a clean emitter coupled logic (ECL) type signal between 200MHz and 400MHz this circuit works fine. It uses four voltage controlled capacitors to change the frequency
40KHz Voltage to Frequency Converter
This circuit was designed to frequency modulate a 40KHz carrier, using human voice frequencies. A common flip/flop is used at the core of the circuit.
Air Transparency Monitor, Xenon Flash Receiver
I designed this circuit many years ago to monitor the quality of a mile long column of air for future optical communications experiments. The transmitter system (circuit 72 below) uses a powerful xenon flash in conjunction with a large 12 inch Fresnel lens at the transmitter end and a matching 12 inch lens with a PIN photo diode at the receiver. The receiver system was connected to a weather station and a computer to collect the changes in intensity of the light flashes under different weather conditions. It has the potential for a 30+ mile range. I have also used this system to conduct cloud bounce experiments.
Air Transparency Monitor, Xenon Flash Receiver, Page 2
This is Page 2 of the receiver circuit Air Transparency Monitor, Xenon Flash Receiver

• Light to Frequency Converter
This circuit uses a CMOS version of the classic 555 timer, to form a light intensity to frequency converter. A small PIN photo diode is used as the light detector. The pulses produced are short, so in some applications you may want to stretch them or feed them through a flip/flop to produce a square wave signal. Although the circuit shown is designed for a 5v supply, it could operate from almost any voltage from 3v to 15v.

VOLTAGE TO FREQUENCY CONVERTER + 1uS LED PULSE DRIVER
This circuit receives the signal from the above amplifier and launches powerful 1uS infrared light pulses from a low cost LED that are frequency modulated by the audio information. The 10KHz center frequency of the pulse stream is low enough so a standard infrared LED can emit ten times more light than conventional long pulse techniques. The circuit is described in more detail in the transmitter section of my Handbook of Optical Through the Air Communications.
Wide Band Zero Cross Detector
This circuit was designed to convert a low amplitude 40KHz signal into a clean square wave signal. It will work with inputs as small as 5mv peak-to-peak or as large as 3 volts peak to peak. The input frequency can range from a few kilohertz to about 150KHz.
12KV High Voltage Generator The hobby circuit below uses an unusual method to generate about 12,000 volts with about 5uA of current. Two SCRs form two pulse generator circuits. The two SCRs discharge a 0.047uF a 400v capacitor through a xenon lamp trigger coil at 120 times a second. The high voltage pulses produced at the secondary of the trigger coil are rectified using two 6KV damper diodes. The voltage doubler circuit at the secondary of the trigger coil charges up two high voltage disc capacitors up to about 12KV. Although this circuit can’t produce a lot of current be very careful with it. A 12KV spark can jump about 0.75 of an inch so the electronic circuit needs to be carefully wired with lots of space between components.
LOW POWER 12,000 VOLT POWER SUPPLY
If you need about 12,000 volts DC for an ion generator this circuit might be the ticket. It draws power from the 120vac power line but it uses a small 6KV camera flash trigger coil. The output signal is isolated from the power line. Although the circuit can only deliver about 5uA of current it can produce dangerous shocks, so be careful
SIMPLE NITROGEN SPARK GENERATOR
Nitrogen or air sparks are very powerful light sources that produce flashes that last only a few nanoseconds. This line powered circuit generates a continuous series of very small sparks across electrodes with a 0.05 inch gap.
0.5V Negative Supply
Although not very efficient, this simple circuit, consisting of two LEDs and a photo diode, generates a negative voltage with a current level of a couple milliamps. It is ideal for supplying a negative rail to low power “rail to rail” op amp circuits, which need to have a true zero volts output.
CHARGE PUMP EFFICIENTLY DIVIDES SUPPLY VOLTAGE
This circuit uses a few FETs and logic devices to down convert a DC voltage to about one half its value
40KHz Voltage to Frequency Converter
This circuit was designed to frequency modulate a 40KHz carrier, using human voice frequencies. A common flip/flop is used at the core of the circuit.
200MHz - 400MHz VOLTAGE controlled OSCILLATOR
If you need a clean emitter coupled logic (ECL) type signal between 200MHz and 400MHz this circuit works fine. It uses four voltage controlled capacitors to change the frequency.
Air Transparency Monitor, Xenon Flash Receiver
I designed this circuit many years ago to monitor the quality of a mile long column of air for future optical communications experiments. The transmitter system (circuit 72 below) uses a powerful xenon flash in conjunction with a large 12 inch Fresnel lens at the transmitter end and a matching 12 inch lens with a PIN photo diode at the receiver. The receiver system was connected to a weather station and a computer to collect the changes in intensity of the light flashes under different weather conditions. It has the potential for a 30+ mile range. I have also used this system to conduct cloud bounce experiments.
Air Transparency Monitor, Xenon Flash Receiver, Page 2
This is Page 2 of the receiver circuit Air Transparency Monitor, Xenon Flash Receiver
CMOS SCHMITT TRIGGER IC MAKES VCO
By changing the supply voltage fed to a classic 4584 Schmitt trigger type oscillator, the oscillator frequency can be changed over a range of 50:1. A 74HCU04 inverter is used at the output of the 4584 to maintain a constant TTL logic level signal.

555 Timer Forms Simple PWM Motor Controller
Using a CMOS version of the 555 timer, this circuit can be used to control the speed of a motor by adjusting the
CIRCUIT FORMS DIVIDE BY 1.5 COUNTER
Two inexpensive ICs divide a TTL clock signal by 1.5. By following the circuit with another flip/flop, you could
DARKROOM CAMERA SHUTTER TIMER
This circuit was designed to control a film exposure shutter for a darkroom. It has 8 time steps ranging from
HONEYBEE COUNTER
I designed a circuit similar to this one a long time ago to help a beekeeper count the number of bees going
LONG PERIOD COMPUTER WATCH DOG TIMER
This circuit uses a simple 4060 IC oscillator/timer which is reset periodically by a computer. Should the compo
On/Off Flip/flop Circuit with Automatic Timeout
This circuit is ideal when a device needs to be turned on and off with a single pushbutton switch, but also needs
Poor Man’s Digital Counter Using Pedometer
There are many occasions when you may want to count something electronically. Perhaps it is car traffic on
Poor Man's Timer
Often during testing of certain equipment and components, you would like to keep track of the elapsed time in
10MHz TO 20MHz LASER LIGHT DETECTOR
This circuit was originally designed to detect laser light pulses for an optical Ethernet communications system. It has good ambient light immunity.
1uS LIGHT PULSE RECEIVER PLUS POST AMP
This circuit is designed to detect very weak light pulses lasting 1uS. It uses a tuned LC feedback network to provide high sensitivity while giving high ambient light immunity. A post voltage amplifier is included with a gain of about X20. The circuit is described in more detail in the receiver section of my Handbook of Optical Through the Air Communications. Note: The LF357 op amp is no longer available; this circuit is for reference only.
40KHz LASER BURST DETECTOR
This circuit was originally designed to detect weak flashed of laser light bounced off of a fabric video projection screen. It was used as part of a firearm training system. It generates a 100mS output pulse whenever it detects a 3ms to 5ms-laser burst, modulated at 40KHz. It is very sensitive and could be modified for long-range laser communications.
40KHz LIGHT RECEIVER IS IMMUNE TO AMBIENT LIGHT
If you want even more sensitivity than the above circuit, try this design. When used with a one-centimeter square photodiode, you can achieve a range of several hundred feet with a standard TV or VCR remote control module.
40KHz MODULATED LIGHT DETECTOR
This circuit uses a unique cascade amplifier circuit to convert the current from a PIN photo diode to a current without any feedback network. It is very stable and very sensitive. The circuit shown has the potential for a conversion factor of 10 volts per microwatt at 900nm. I included a simple JFET post-amplifier with a gain of about 20.
10MHz TO 20MHz LASER LIGHT DETECTOR
This circuit was originally designed to detect laser light pulses for an optical Ethernet communications system. It has good ambient light immunity.
1uS LIGHT PULSE RECEIVER PLUS POST AMP
This circuit is designed to detect very weak light pulses lasting 1uS. It uses a tuned LC feedback network to provide high sensitivity while giving high ambient light immunity. A post voltage amplifier is included with a gain of about X20. The circuit is described in more detail in the receiver section of my Handbook of Optical Through the Air Communications. Note: The LF357 op amp is no longer available; this circuit is for reference only.
40KHz LASER BURST DETECTOR
This circuit was originally designed to detect weak flashed of laser light bounced off of a fabric video projection screen. It was used as part of a firearm training system. It generates a 100mS output pulse whenever it detects a 3ms to 5ms-laser burst, modulated at 40KHz. It is very sensitive and could be modified for long-range laser communications.
40KHz MODULATED LIGHT DETECTOR
This circuit uses a unique cascade amplifier circuit to convert the current from a PIN photo diode to a current without any feedback network. It is very stable and very sensitive. The circuit shown has the potential for a conversion factor of 10 volts per microwatt at 900nm. I included a simple JFET post-amplifier with a gain of about 20.
40KHz LIGHT RECEIVER IS IMMUNE TO AMBIENT LIGHT
If you want even more sensitivity than the above circuit, try this design. When used with a one-centimeter square photodiode, you can achieve a range of several hundred feet with a standard TV or VCR remote control module.
LASER/LED LIGHT OUTPUT INTENSITY METER
This circuit uses a large 1cm X 1cm silicon PIN photo diode and a transimpedance amplifier to measure the light power output of infrared and visible LEDs and laser diodes. It can be modified to produce almost any milliwatts to volts scale factor. It can be connected to either a multi-meter or an oscilloscope.
LIGHT RECEIVER WORKS FROM 1KHz TO OVER 70MHz
This circuit uses one tiny C-MOS inverter IC to form a modulated light receiver with a very fast response. It is designed around a PIN photo diode that is packaged for use with plastic optical fibers. It can be used as an optical fiber receiver. By using the open end of the optical fiber it can "sniff" out any modulated light signals.
Xenon Lamp Flash Detector
This circuit has a very low standby current requirement yet has very high sensitivity toward the light flashes from a xenon lamp. When connected to a flip/flop it can serve as an on on/off Controller
Photo Transistor Interface Circuits
This page shows different ways to improve the response time of a photo transistor circuit.
SINGLE IC FORMS SENSITIVE MODULATED LIGHT RECEIVER
The circuit uses a very inexpensive C-MOS IC that is connected to a small photodiode. Using a unique inductive feedback network, the circuit provides high sensitivity under high ambient light conditions. It is a great circuit when you want to extend the range of an optical remote control transmitter.
OPTICAL RFID TEST CIRCUIT
I designed this test the concept of using light techniques to send identification data instead of RF. A more detailed discussion on this scheme can be found in the Imagineered new products section.
4-20ma Current Loop Tester: Using just a few components, this circuit can simulate signals from various instruments, which source a constant current.
Pump Motor Monitor
This circuit can turn on a light or sound a beeper, whenever an AC line powered pump motor turns on. It is designed to detect the motor current using a small inductor placed on the outside of the motor’s power cable. No direct wire contact is needed.
TEMPERATURE SENSOR WITH 4 TO 20mA CURRENT LOOP
I designed a circuit similar to this one years ago to accurately measure the air temperature inside a building 1000s of feet from a control room. The circuit uses a very robust current loop method. It uses a highly accurate semiconductor temperature sensor and an equally accurate voltage reference. The circuit includes a diode bridge, so it is polarity independent. By using the component values indicated, the circuit should not require calibration. It has a range from –40F to +120F and an accuracy of +/- one degree F.
AC Current Monitor
The hobby circuit below shows how a small current transformer from Magnetek can be used to monitor AC current to a load. The AC voltage developed at the secondary of the transformer can be scaled so it can be read by any digital multimeter. The transformer is rated at 30 amps.
Battery Charge Current Indicator
This circuit turns on a LED whenever it detects at least 25ma of battery charge current.
DC CURRENT INDICATOR #4 December 15, 2008
The circuit below uses some common components to turn on an LED whenever DC current above a certain level is detected. The circuit uses a very popular LM393 dual voltage comparator from National Semiconductor and a common 1N4148 signal diode. The diode acts as a crude 0.7v voltage reference. Only one of the comparators inside the 8 pin package is used. A pair of resistors across the diode forms a voltage divider, which produce a reference voltage of about 0.015v. ....
Electrical Current Indicator
I designed this circuit as a simple current indicator for any load ranging from 40 watts to 250 watts. The circuit turns on a small LED, whenever it detects current flowing to a remote load. (added 12/04)
ISOLATED AC CURRENT MONITOR
This circuit uses a small AC current transformer from Magnetek to produce an isolated voltage proportional to the AC current in the primary winding. The transformer contains a single turn primary with a low 0.001-ohm resistance. It can easily handle 30 amps of AC current and provides at least 500vac of isolation. With the components shown, the output AC voltage is scaled so 1 amp of current produces 100mv of AC voltage.
Low Value Capacitance Meter
This circuit was originally designed to measure the volume of fluid inside a medical syringe. As designed, it produces a zero to 5 volt output, corresponding to a capacitance change of about 10 picofarads. With a digital voltmeter, at its output, it can resolve a capacitance change of 0.002 picofarads or 2 fermifarads.
Pump Motor Monitor
This circuit can turn on a light or sound a beeper, whenever an AC line powered pump motor turns on. It is designed to detect the motor current using a small inductor placed on the outside of the motor’s power cable. No direct wire contact is needed.
1 AMP CURRENT INJECTOR
When you need to measure resistance down to a few micro ohms, this circuit works great. It is powered from two "C" cell batteries and is designed to inject a well regulated one amp of current into the unknown resistance. By measuring the voltage drop across the resistor with a digital voltmeter, the resistance value can be accurately measured. The circuit also is equipped with a low battery monitor. Published in Popular Electronics, November 1992
4 – 20ma Current Loop Tester
This circuit injects an adjustable current through a wire loop. Using a digital current meter, the current can be adjusted from near zero to over 24 milliamps.
6v NMH/NiCd Battery Tester
I designed this circuit to test rechargeable six volt battery packs under constant current conditions. As designed, the circuit applies a 10 amp load to the battery pack. A heat sink must be used on the main power transistor.

NEW Computer Controlled 100ma Current Source (July 11, 2008)
Often in industrial control systems a constant current source is needed, which is controlled by a computer and referenced to circuit ground. The circuit below converts a zero to 5v signal from a computer’s analog output into a current, with a full scale of 100ma. The circuit shown requires a 9v DC supply but any voltage from 9v to 12v will work.
Constant Current LED Driver
Bob Pease from National Semiconductor came up with this circuit and I have used it many times. It maintains a constant current through one or more LEDs. A single resistor controls the desired current.

Electronics and Communication Projects

2011-01-25T23:20:00.001-08:00

Everything you Wanted to know About Wideband Low frequency Transformers: 11/23/00 EDN-Design Ideas / (added 5/03).

External Isolation Transformer Box: designed for Mackie and other Mixers Eliminates RFI Problems (Electronic Schematic / circuit added 4/02).

Grounding & Shielding: describes basic audio transformer uses like balanced in/out and signal splitters (Electronic Schematic / circuit added 4/02).

High CMRR Balanced Interface: Uses for Crystal18 or20 Bit A/D Converters. This is a PDF file (Electronic Schematic / circuit added 4/02).

High Output Line Driver for Single Ended Power Supply: PDF file (Electronic Schematic / circuit added 4/02).

IC Mic Preamp uses Jensen Twin Servo topology: (added 8/02).

Isolator transformer for audio lines: If you want to do the ground loop elimination in audio path, you have to cut the galvanic connection but pass the whole audio range. The simplest and most common way to do the isolation is use audio transformer which is ment for audio use. Transformers for audio use have some problems like distorted bass response and attenuating in high-frequency response. Basically a transformer slows down upper frequencies and allow the low frequencies to pass first, creating what we perceive as a "fat/warm" tone. Inadequate frequency response on the low end (rolloff at like 20Hz), causes low frequencies to be "slowed", allowing the upper frequencies to be heard first, this is perceived as "barky/ brittle". High-quality audio transformers cover whole audio band with good response, but those are quite expensive....(Schematic / circuit added 10/05).

A magnetic loop antenna for 160 to 15m: (design added 6/07)

A magnetic loop antenna for 40 to 17m local and DX contacts from tight spaces: (design added 6/07)

A magnetic loop antenna for 80 and 40m an antenna for anywhere, even indoors!: (design added 6/07).

A QRP DX antenna pier + squid pole + wire = QRP DX: (design added 6/07)

Active Antenna for AM-FM-SW: (circuit added 9/04)

Active Antenna for HF-VHF-UHF: (circuit added 9/04)

Active Antenna with Gain: An antenna with an integrated RF (electronic circuit added 6/02)

AM/FM/SW Active Antenna: This circuit shows an active antenna that can be used for AM, FM, and shortwave SW. On shortwave band this active antenna is comparable to a20 to30 foot wire antenna. This circuit uses receivers that use untuned wire antennas, such as inexpensive units and car radios. L1 can be selected for application (added 4/02)

An end-fed antenna: L-match coupler and resistive bridge for HF one wire, all bands (design added 6/07)

Antennas: Ground Pole and Half-Wave Dipole Antennas (circuit added 10/06)

Magnetic loop antenna for 160 to 15m: (design added 6/07)

Magnetic loop antenna for 40 to 17m local and DX contacts from tight spaces: (design added 6/07)

OA-26: OA-26 Designing Active High Speed Filters: National Semiconductor Application Note (app note added 3/06)

MW Active Antenna: This circuit is designed to amplify the input from a telescopic whip antenna. The preamplifier is designed to cover the medium waveband from about 550Khz to 1650Khz. The tuning voltage required is 1 to 12 volts and can be obtained from a 10k potentiometer connected to the 12 Volt power supply. RV1 is the gain control allowing weak signals to be amplified or strong signals to be attenuated. The control voltage is applied to gate 2 of TR1, a dual-gate MOSFET, the signal voltage applied via gate 1; .... (added 10/05)

Q-Multiplying Loop Antenna: (electronic design added 6/07)

QRP Antenna Tuner: (electronic design added 6/07)

QRP DX antenna pier : (design added 6/07)

TV/Radio Antenna Cable galvanic isolator: (design added 8/03)

The ATL-3 Loop Antenna: (electronic design added 6/07).

29.85 MHz Bandpass Filter Schematic: (electronic circuit added 7/03)

45 to 90Hz hum filter: (electronic circuit added 2/07)

A Basic Introduction to Filters: Active, Passive and Switched-Capacitor: National Semiconductor Application Note (app note added 6/06)

A Simple Method of Designing Multiple Order All Pole Bandpass Filters by Cascading 2nd Order Sections: AN27A Linear Technology Presents two methods of designing high quality switched capacitor bandpass filters. Both methods are intended to vastly simplify mamatics involved in filter design by using tabular methods. The text assumed no filter design experience but allows high quality filters to be implemented by techniques not presented before in literature. The designs are implemented by numerous examples using devices from LTC's SwitchedCapacitor filter family: LTC1060, LTC1061, and LTC1064. Butterworth and Chebyshev bandpass filters are discussed.

Active 2nd Order Filters: (electronic circuit added 7/03)

Active Bandpass Filters: (electronic circuit added 7/03)

Akerberg-Mossberg AM Second Order Bandpass inverting: (electronic design added 6/07)

Bandpass Filter Features Adjustable Q and Constant Maximum Gain: 03/3/05 EDN-Design Ideas / (added 5/05) In low-noise analog circuits, a high-gain amplifier serves at input to increase SNR. The input signal level determines input-stage gain; low-level signals require highest gain. It is also standard practice in low-noise analog-signal processing to make circuit's bandwidth as narrow as possible to pass only useful input-signal spectrum...

Bandpass Filter Single Opamp : A band pass filter passes a range of frequencies while rejecting frequencies outside upper and lower limits of passband. The range of frequencies to be passed is called passband and extends from a point below center frequency to a point above center frequency where output voltage falls about 70% of output voltage at center frequency. (added 5/02)

BandPass Filter: Highpass frequencies >70MHz and low pass frequencies 180MHz. (circuit added 9/06)

Bandpass Filters #3: (electronic circuit added 7/03)

Bandpass filters: (circuit diagram added 1/07)

Bandpass filters: (diagram added 2/07)

Band-pass Network: Circuit Ideas for Designers Application Notes Advanced Linear Devices, Inc. (app note added 6/06)

Basic Introduction to Filters : Application notes on active, passive and switched capacitor filters, document in PDF format (app note added 4/02)

Berka-Herpy BH Second Order Bandpass non-inverting: (electronic design added 6/07)

Biquad Active Bandpass Filter Schematic: (electronic circuit added 7/03)

Cascade Bandpass Filters for Higher Q: 02/15/00 EDN-Design Ideas / (added 2/06)

Chebyshe Volt Bandpass Filter: (electronic circuit added 7/03)

Chebyshe Volt/Butterworth Filters: (electronic circuit added 7/03)

Constant-impedance IF bandpass filters improve circuit performance: Application Note MiniCircuits.com (app note added 6/07)

Deliyannis Second Order Bandpass I inverting: (electronic design added 6/07)

Deliyannis Second Order Bandpass II inverting: (electronic design added 6/07)

Digital signal processor DSP for radio communications: (diagram added 2/07)

Dpps Program Key Parameters of Bandpass Filter: 12/12/02 EDN Design Ideas / (added 12/04) The three-amplifier implementation of the state-variable filter in Figure 1 provides for second-order bandpass, highpass, and lowpass responses. The strength of the circuit, however, is in the bandpass response (VOUT/VIN), in which it's easy to achieve high gain (G) and high Q. These two characteristics are important in applications in which selectivity is a key parameter in the filter....

Equal Element Filter Improves Passband Performance: 03/15/01 EDN-Design Ideas / (added 2/06)

Fliege Second Order Bandpass non-inverting: (electronic design added 6/07)

High Dynamic Range Bandpass Filters for Communications: DN37 Design Notes (Linear Technology) (app note added 1/06)

KHN Inverting Input Second Order Bandpass non-inverting: (electronic design added 6/07)

KHN Non-Inverting Input Second Order Bandpass inverting: (electronic design added 6/07)

LC filter design: (diagram added 2/07)

Linkwitz Cosine Burst Generator: part of speaker measurement set described in the construction article (added 6/07)

Isolation Transformer Passes Millihertz Signals: 08/04/94 EDN-Design Ideas / (Electronic Circuit diagram added 03/03) You can successfully use an ordinary low-cost line transformer as an isolation transformer in ac circuits that require floating sources. However, at frequencies below 20 to 30 Hz, high distortion and excessive phase shifting occur. The simple circuit in Fig 1 restores the phase and frequency response down into the millihertz region. Based on phase-response data, the low-end frequency response extends below 100 mHz...

Internal Modification to Mic Inputs of the Mackie 1604 Mixer Eliminates RFI Problems: adding transformer isolation increases common mode rejection and eliminates RF interference, PDF document (Electronic Schematic / circuit added 4/02).

Interconnection of Balanced & Unbalanced Equipment: 4 page booklet in PDF format (Electronic Schematic / circuit added 4/02).

18v AC to DC Power Supply
This is a classic linear power supply which produces a regulated 18v, rated at about 1 amp. (added 7/06).

240VAC TO 5VDC POWER SUPPLY
This is simple way to power some 5v logic from a 240vac source. If a 120vac power adapter is used, the circuit will also work for 120vac power lines.

CAPS PROVIDE VOLTAGE BOOST TO SERIES REGULATOR This circuit adds some capacitors and diodes to a traditional transformer type series regulator circuit to extend the normal operating range. It can insure regulation during low line voltage conditions or it can squeeze a few more watts out of a plug-in-the-wall power adapter power supply.

Classic Plus and Minus DC Power Supply
This is a classic example of a regulated DC power supply that produces both a positive 15v and a negative 15v from a 20vac wall adapter. (added 12/04).

Classic Linear 5v Supply Using 6.3vac Transformer A classic method for producing a regulated +5v DC supply is shown below. This circuit consists of an iron core transformer, a bridge rectifier, a filter capacitor and a voltage regulator. Many people are tempted to use a very popular 6.3v transformer for this +5v supply but they will often discover that there just isn’t enough voltage from the transformer to make the circuit work properly under all but very light load conditions. Higher transformer voltages will work but at the expense of much more power being dissipated in the voltage regulator....

LOW POWER 12,000 VOLT POWER SUPPLY If you need about 12,000 volts DC for an ion generator this circuit might be the ticket. It draws power from the 120vac power line but it uses a small 6KV camera flash trigger coil. The output signal is isolated from the power line. Although the circuit can only deliver about 5uA of current it can produce dangerous shocks, so be careful.

MINIATURE ISOLATED AC/DC POWER SUPPLY This circuit uses a novel approach to produce a fully isolated and regulated 5 volts @30ma from the 120vac power line. It uses two tiny SCRs that alternately discharge two capacitors through a miniature high frequency transformer. The voltage spikes produced through the transformer are rectified, filtered and regulated. A very common 8 ohm audio impedance matching transformer can be used for the transformer. Published in EDN, Feb. 17, 1992

Run Switching Type AC Power Adapters on DC NEW
I have received a couple emails from people looking for inexpensive DC to DC converters, which can convert 40v to 60v DC into say +5 or +12v. Such input voltages are often found in new automotive and industrial applications with a typical DC voltage of 48 volts. It turns out that many, not all, but many, standard AC line operated power adapters, which use switch mode techniques, will indeed work great when supplied with DC instead of AC. The unit below works down to about 30v DC and delivers 500ma at 5v. If you draw less current, it will operate at even lower DC input voltages....

Non-isolated Off-line AC to DC Power Supply
This compact efficient circuit can provide up to 100ma of a regulated 5 volts from an AC power source ranging from 20vac to 120vac.

A Compact Algorithm using the ADXL202 Duty Cycle Output: AN-603 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

A Design and Manufacturing Guide for the Lead Frame Chip Scale Package: AN-772 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06)

Acceleration Monitor using ADXL202 and AVR: (Electronic circuit added 7/03) ADXL202 Accelerometer to C Volt Output: The Air Whammy is a simple dual control voltage generator that uses a 2 axis accelerometer as the source. The whole circuit fits .

AN-347: Shielding and Guarding: AN-347 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06) How to Exclude Interference-Type Noise. What to do and Why to do it-A Rational Approach

AN-374: Using Accelerometers in Low g Applications: AN-374 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-377: Increasing the Frequency Response of the ADXL Series Accelerometers: AN-377 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-378: Reducing the Average Power Consumption of Accelerometers: AN-378 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-379: Mounting Considerations for ADXL Series Accelerometers: AN-379 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AC Line Powered LED Strings
This shows 4 different ways to string white LEDs that are powered by a 120vac or 240vac power line. The circuit was designed by Ken Schultz. (added 12/04).

CHARGE COUPLED BI-DIRECTIONAL POWER MOSFET RELAY
The circuit uses an inexpensive C-MOS inverter package and a few small capacitors to drive two power MOS transistors from a 12v to 15v supply. Since the coupling capacitor values used to drive the FETs are small, the leakage current from the power line into the control circuit is a tiny 4uA. Only about 1.5mA of DC is needed to turn on and off 400 watts of AC or DC power to a load.

SOLID STATE RELAY REQUIRES ONLY 50uA DRIVE CURRENT
This circuit demands a control current that is 100 times smaller than that needed by a typical optically isolatedsolid state relays. It is ideal for battery-powered systems. Using a combination of a high current TRIAC and a very sensitive low current SCR, the circuit can control about 600 watts of power to load while providing full isolation and transient protection.

ISOLATED AC CURRENT MONITOR
This circuit uses a small AC current transformer from Magnetek to produce an isolated voltage proportional to the AC current in the primary winding. The transformer contains a single turn primary with a low 0.001-ohm resistance. It can easily handle 30 amps of AC current and provides at least 500vac of isolation. With the components shown, the output AC voltage is scaled so 1 amp of current produces 100mv of AC voltage.

+12V/-12V Power Supply unit: To work the circuit which used the operational amplifier and so on, the positive and the negative power supply become necessary. The power supply which I introduce here is the one to have used the unit which has the two power supplies of 12 V in the one unit.
The power supply unit is using the ready-made. It inputs AC100 V and it is possible to take out 12 V of the two DCs which are independent as the output. (Electronic circuit added 4/05).

12V to 9V car converter: (Electronic circuit added 4/05).

Algorithm Tests for Point Location: 08/03/00 EDN-Design Ideas / (Circuit / schematic design added 6/06) .

Algorithm Transforms Filter Coefficients: 01/21/99 EDN-Design Ideas / (Circuit / schematic design added 6/06) To synthesize infinite-impulse-response (IIR)-filter functions, expressed as H(z), you commonly use analog prototype-filter functions, expressed as H(s), using the bilinear-z transform. This operation entails some algebraic complexity in calculating the filter coefficients. The simple algorithm shown here transforms the prototype-filter coefficients (W0, W1, W2) to the IIR digital-filter coefficients (U0, U1, U2). These coefficients transform from the s (analog) domain to the z (digital) domain....

An Acoustic Transformer Powered Super-High Isolation Amplifier: National Semiconductor - Application Note (app note added added 6/06).

AN-285: An Acoustic Transformer Powered Super-High Isolation Amplifier: National Semiconductor - Application Note (app note added 6/06).

Connect line-level signal to phono input : The circuit does two functions: signal level attenuation and inverse RIAA filtering. The signal attenuation is needed to convert the 500 mV signal to 2.5 mV signal. The inverse-RIAA filtering is needed to make the frequency response of the system flat (same equalization that is used when music is transferred to vinyl in the studio). The picture blow shows the frequency response of the ideal inverse-RIAA filter (Schematic / circuit added 10/05).

AN-380: Compensating for the 0 g Offset Drift of the ADXL50 Accelerometer: AN-380 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-383: Embedded Shock and Temperature Recorder: AN-383 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-385: Wide Temp. Range, UltraLow Drift Accelerometers using Low Cost Crystal Ovens:

AN-385 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-396: Understanding Accelerometer Scale Factor and Offset Adjustments: AN-396 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-411: Acceleration to Frequency Circuits: AN-411 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-596: Using the ADXL202/ADXL210 with the Parallax BASIC Stamp Module® to Speed Algorithm Development: AN-596 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-598: Temperature Compensation Techniques for Low g iMEMS Accelerometers: AN-598 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-600: Embedding Temperature Information in the ADXL202's PWM Outputs: AN-600 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-601: Minimizing Power Consumption of iMEMS® Accelerometers: AN-601 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-602: Using the ADXL202 in Pedometer and Personal Navigation Applications: AN-602 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-603: A Compact Algorithm using the ADXL202 Duty Cycle Output: AN-603 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-604: Using the ADXL202 Duty Cycle Output: AN-604 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-652: Considerations for Soldering Accelerometers in LCC-8 Packages onto Printed Circuit Boards: AN-652 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

AN-772: A Design and Manufacturing Guide for the Lead Frame Chip Scale Package: AN-772 - Analog Devices Application Notes (added 2/06).

An Acoustic Transformer Powered Super-High Isolation Amplifier: National Semiconductor Application Note (app note added 2/06).

AN-285: An Acoustic Transformer Powered Super-High Isolation Amplifier: National Semiconductor Application Note (app note added 2/06).

AN597: Implementing Ultrasonic Ranging: Microchip Application Note Published 26-Aug-97 (app note added 2/06).

AN-H56: Designing an Ultrasound Pulser with MD1812/MD1813: Supertex Semiconductors (app note added 2/06)

Circuit for a Critter Ridder: Ultrasonic Sound Generator (circuit design added 11/06)

Designing an Ultrasound Pulser with MD1812/MD1813: Supertex Semiconductors (app note added 2/06)

IR Detector/Emitter: (electronic circuit added 4/05)

Popular Electronics Ultrasound Detector: (electronic circuit added 4/05)

Ultrasonic dog whistle: (electronic design added 10/06).

Ultrasonic Parking Sonar: (schematic / circuit design added 08/05)

Ultrasonic Pest Repeller : (electronic Schematic added 03/05)

Ultrasonic radar: This is a very interesting project with many practical applications in security and alarm systems for homes, shops and cars. It consists of a set of ultrasonic receiver and transmitter which operate at the same frequency. When something moves in the area covered by the circuit the circuit’s... (electronic design added 6/07)

Ultrasonic Remote Control and Alarm: (circuit added 7/02)

Multiple Feedback MFB Second Order Highpass inverting: (electronic design added 6/07)

Sallen-Key SK Second Order Highpass I non-inverting: (electronic design added 6/07)

Sallen-Key SK Second Order Highpass II non-inverting: (electronic design added 6/07)

Twin-T Second Order Highpass non-inverting: (electronic design added 6/07)

resume and project for engineering

2011-01-25T23:19:00.001-08:00

Difference between CV, Resume and Cover Letter

For most of you, a CV and a Resume typically mean different names of the same version but sent to people or companies belonging to different countries namely US and Britain.

Trying to find the relationship between a Resume and CV is one thing, but relating these two to Cover Letter is a completely diversified subject.

Both Resume and CV give an account of a person’s qualifications and his achievements, but the cover letter is a short description of what to expect in the resume or CV and perfect reasons as to why you are applying to the job.

Hence, understanding how Resume, CV and Cover letter are different from another and also how to effectively write them so that your prospective employer would want to read ahead, is very important.

Some critical differences

Length

A CV or the curriculum vitae basically means “course of life”. As the meaning, it is a detailed description of your history of educational and employment that is completely updated. It is a long document having at least two pages.

On the other hand, the Resume is shorter and consists of a single page. Here you are required to give a focused account of your skill and talent that are required for that particular job. You can mention your experience in the relevant field.

Purpose

The purpose of CV is to give a detailed account of your educational achievements, qualifications, awards received, scholarships and experience in the required field. A CV is particularly used when a post doctoral position or teaching position is sought.

A Resume is used to highlight briefly on your talents that are transferable to the intended company and show how useful you would be to the future growth of the company. Thus no details are expected here.

Though CVs are common form of job application, people in US always prefer a Resume.

CVs are more descriptive whereas Resumes are self promoting in nature.

CV sections

A CV usually is sectioned under separate subheadings such as objective, educational qualifications, skills, awards/ medals won and career summary etc.

You can present the information in bullet points or tables, so that your prospective employer may get an idea of what you want to highlight.

Resume sections

A Resume can also be sectioned just as in CVs, however all the information is not required. Depending on the type of Resume you may change the information provided.

A Functional Resume should highlight your skills and qualifications. A Chronological Resume is concise form of CV and a Targeted Resume gives specific information that is required for the job you are applying.

Cover Letter

A Cover Letter basically is a formal letter that is presented as a prelude to CV or Resume which briefly but effectively gives an insight of what can be expected inside.

Writing an efficient and catchy Cover Letter is very crucial because it has the capacity to decide the fate of your application and thereby your fate.

Some important points that you have to keep in mind while writing a cover letter are

· Keep your Cover Letter Linked to your CV. This provokes enough interest in your prospective employer to read the CV thoroughly.

· Make the letter sound as if you are personally speaking. Address the person to whom you intend to send the CV, giving a personal and emotional touch.

· The letter should be brief giving a crisp description.

· The person reading the letter does not expect any excess pompous information about you. Too much “I: factor could turn them down.

· Most Important –DO NOT MAKE TYPO AND GRAMMATICAL ERRORS. This would surely spoil your image.

Though basically CVs and Resumes mean and give the same information, they are quite different from one another. Choosing the right form of your personal information you have to present on specific occasion gives you better chance of getting the intended job.

A well crafted cover letter along with a neatly thought out and written CV or Resume gives better chances of success to you.

Wednesday, October 27, 2010

How To Prepare a Project Report

Report writing is one of the primary objects of any student who are in the threshold of completing their graduation. It is to be noted that the final report is not to be done for sheer formality. This report acts as a tool for judging the professional skill of the new engineer. It is also considered to be an extended service for the engineering students who might require information. Remember this report will be subjected to critical analysis by many readers.

Hence to prepare the final report, an engineering graduate must have good knowledge about the practical skills that will be required to solve an engineering problem. All sorts of resources must be compiled to create a report. Experimenting by using the lab, analyzing the theories, observation, details with regard to how to use the equipments, and work experience with others. The most important aspect is one must have a good flair for writing and ideas must be well communicated and the information should be authentic.

There are structural guidelines that one needs to follow while preparing a project report for final year engineering. This format is applicable to all types of students.

Title Page

The following details must be given

· Title

· Authors full name

· Discipline and degree

· Appropriate industrial and other collaboration

· Month and year of submission

It is important that this page will not show any page number

Abstract

Here one has to pint out the main ideas of what the project is about, how it was visualized, and what has been achieved. All this must fit into one page.

Content List

Here one must give a complete list of what the report will contain including the abstract. Make sure that the title page is not included in this list. Here you will be providing chapter wise list.

List of Tables/Figures

A list of tables and figures must be provided if the report contains tables/figures. The list must include table/figure number, title of the table/figure and also page number. These must be numbered sequential throughout the document. The table/figure must highlight clearly the points you are making. Fit the contents of the table within a page. Use a smaller font if necessary or place it in a landscape mode.

Acknowledgements

It is normal to thank all the people who have helped you and provided support. It could be your guide/supervisor. Acknowledgements should be short and business like.

Background.

This area deals with the subject area of the project.

· Chapter 1 : Background

- Motivation

- Problems description

- Objectives of the work

- Organization of the report

Introduction

Here you must include specific topic related problems that you would be researching. Include your research design, hypothesis etc.

· Chapter 2: Introduction

- Details of relevant theory

- Review of past/reported work

- Brief introduction of the proposed work/solution

Methodology

This is the main body of the report. This will include the following:

· Chapter 3: Deals in accordance with the title that is to be researched.

- Main work

- Theory

- Simulation software

- Solution approach

- Design or circuit

· Chapter 4:

- Method to be described

- Presentation of Data

- Results

- Findings

· Chapter 5: Evaluation [ this could be an optional]

- Provide objectives of evaluation

- Compare with other works

Conclusion

· Chapter 6: Conclusion

- Review of the project in brief

- Reiteration of important findings

- Suggestion of future work

Appendices

This has to be numbered sequentially with Appendix 1. Numbering of pages will include appendices.

References and Bibliography

Usually a number of reference materials will be used in a report. The use of source material should be explicit in the report. Every item mentioned in the report must have an entry in the reference list. There are many styles that are followed like APA etc. It follows a sequential order

Books

Title of the book, name of the author, year of publication, and name of the publishers can be included.

Journal

Author(s) name, year of publication, title of the article, name of the journal, volume, year of publication and page numbers can be included.

Website

Do not specify as Google/Yahoo. Specify the exact url of the website rather than specifying the top level domain like www.xyz.com

Instead specify as www.xyz.com/abc.html

The above is the basic structure of a report. There are hard fast rules one must apply when writing the report. Some are discussed below:

Formatting of the report

Please use Microsoft Word so that all information that is explained will have good looks as these help you to avoid rearrangements. Also make sure that the document is Word 2003 compatible.

Length

Basically there are no hard fast rules and the length can vary from person to person depending on the project. It is advisable for an engineering report to have around 100 pages. These will include tables and appendices.

Language of Report

Report must be written in English as this is considered to be consistent form. Certain grammar rules needs to be followed

Apostrophes: This is the most common mistakes all students make. In English language the apostrophes is used as a contraction. In an academic writing the words must be written in its full form and words should not be shortened.

Acronyms:

Science and engineering fields use lot of acronyms and will be familiar only to specialists who are familiar with the subjects. When using it for first time always give it the expanded version.

Colloquialisms:

Avoid usage of slang, phrases, idiomatic and chatty expressions while writing a report. In an academic or technical writing avoid using the first person ‘I’ as much as possible and also do not refer to the reader as ‘you’

Grammar:

Make your sentences small and write it as whole sentences. Proofread your writing every 3-4 hours so that you will be able understand the text as it was to be meant. Ensure that the writing is clear and it follows the basic grammar rules.

Jargon:

Be consistent while using technical terms. Please define and use the same words when you are writing about the same concept.

Spelling:

There are no excuses for spelling mistakes. It creates a bad impression. Take the help of spell checker or dictionary. Spell checker will not be useful if the words spelt are correct ex. ‘from’ or ‘form’ Hence a manual spell check is advisable to ensure the correct word fits into the sentences. Hence proof reading is always suggested.

Typeface and Font Size

Times New Roman typeface and font size of 12-point should be used throughout the report except for Appendices. Italics should only be used sparingly for emphasis.

Paper

High quality 80gm A4 size paper shall be used. The paper should be white in colour, acid free and non-erasable kind.

Printing

Printing has to be done on one side only. It is recommended to use a laser or ink jet printer. Avoid dot matrix printers.

Corrections

Corrections of typographical errors, or changes in the text, figures, or tables, must be made as cleanly and invisibly as possible. Do not use Correction fluid. Corrections should be made on the original word document before printing the problem page.

Margins

The margin on the document must measure according to the following specifications:

Top : 25mm

Bottom : 20mm

Left : 20mm

Right : 20mm

Spacing/Justification

Text should be typed, one and a half-spaced, left-right justified on one side of the paper only. For captions of figures and tables, single spacing can be used.

Pagination

Page numbers are to be placed at least 15 mm from the edge of the page at the bottom centre of the page. Every page except the title page must be numbered.

Title page is 'i' but is not numbered. Preliminary pages are to be numbered in lower case Roman numerals (ii, iii, iv etc).

The main text pages are to be numbered in numerals and all pages must be numbered consecutively and continuously.

Header

A header should be included at the top of each page from the title page. It will include candidate’s name, qualification sought and calendar year.

Paragraph

This should be separated by a single blank line.

Citations

Whenever more than 30 words are quoted from other person’s work the authors name should appear in the references. When small words are quoted, these can be written within quotation marks.

Plagiarism

This should be avoided at any cost. Try to use the content of the subject matter but do not copy word to word. Words and sentences can be rephrased and written. This can lead to serious trouble and it will be treated as an offence as many come under the copyright category.

Hence it is to be noted that report writing is an art by itself and one has to follow the normal procedures.

Sunday, July 25, 2010

Information Technology ( IT ) Mini Projects - Tips and Latest Trends

The wide range of information, data, and knowledge for problem solving and decision making are dealt with Information Technology. Demanding needs of users has always been fulfilled by Information Technology with establishing trends. Before starting with the projects, students should be aware of authentication, and integrity features in their projects. Breaking of passwords and hacking can be avoided using these techniques. Anyhow, the various trends for projects are based on the emerging software technology.

Flash Technology

To add multiple types of external data to the given text, images, video, XML and to interact with web pages, Adobe Flash is used. It provides multimedia platform. The main purpose of this technology is to be used in advertisements and games. Both audio and video streams are supported by flash. One of the Object-oriented languages called ActionScript is the language used here by the developers. Flash player includes ActionScript Virtual Machine (AVM). The compiler, Just-In-Time (JIT), is used for MP3-based audio and bitmap graphics. Flash CS5 is the latest version of Adobe flash which was released on April 12, 2010.

Microsoft Silverlight

Microsoft Silverlight is developed on web framework and is similar to the functions of those in Adobe Flash. In addition, it also integrates multimedia graphics and interaction with a single runtime environment. Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) and its development tools are supported by Silverlight. The processor x86 with streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE) is used by Silverlight. Also the other processors which support Silverlight include the Intel Pentium III and AMD Athlon XP. Any of the .Net Programming language is supported for Silverlight applications. The developing tools for the application can be used along with the .Net language but should be aware that they can target only the Silverlight core CLR for hosting the applications and not that of the .Net Framework CLR since both differs in their own functionalities. 4GDR1 (4.0.50524.0) is the latest version of Silverlight and was released on 03 June 2010

Open Source Software

Open source software is newly emerging trend which is one of the best options for the students. The source code can be modified by the students as per the objective of project. Hence Open source is much flexible than closed version software. Open source software is mainly developed on peer to peer production by collaboration of end product, source material. Open source software can be enhanced by anyone and if you join some open source developers community, you can learn a lot of things directly from the most knowledged persons in the developers community. Even the top companies like Google who are paymasters gives lots of importance to candidates who have worked in open source projects during the interviews.

http://sourceforge.net is one of the biggest open source community and you can engage in one of the groups or even start a new project.

Cryptography

Cryptography is the practice and study of hiding information. It also refers to confidentiality. It is often seen as a “black art”, which means something others don’t understand but you need to understand. Cryptography is one of the essential aspects for secure communication. There are many aspects of security and applications ranging from secure commerce to private communication and to protect passwords. Cryptography is necessary for secure communication but it is not sufficient by itself. Here, the text is encrypted first; i.e the plain text is changed to inarticulate garbage. The end user does the reverse process i.e decryption, where the original text is retrieved. There are a lot of algorithms in this area which is used in real time for data protection in sectors like banks, Research, Password Protection and so on.

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is the study of controlling properties of an atom and molecules. As the name indicates, it deals with the study of structures sized between 1 and 100 nanometer. It is said that, nanotechnology has a tendency to create new materials and devices which can be used in future in a wide range of fields such as medicine, energy production, electronics and bio materials. As they are very small in size, nano structures have a tendency to change its state for transformation of energy. The two main approaches used in nanotechnology are Bottom-up and Top-down. In bottom-up approach, materials and devices are built from molecular, a component which later assemble themselves chemically and follows the principles of molecular recognition. In top-down approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger entities without any atomic level control. Biotechnology is the best example to show the use of nanotechnology in various fields.

Conclusion

The upcoming trends mainly focus on security and hacking. Mobile application for iPhone and Android are great areas to explore with good revenue opportunities as well. If you want to stand out from others, instead of going for some courses, try to contribute for an open source projec

electrical engineering projects ( iit kanpur )

2011-01-25T23:14:00.000-08:00

Static Convertor for Railway

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Like great books, no project is created entirely by an individual. There are many people involved in this project too and have helped a lot right from the beginning till the completion of our project. Any bouquets for the merits in this project should go to our door. Any brickbats we are ready to catch ourselves.
It is with a great sincerity, we convey our heartfull gratitude to our guide Mohd.Israr, Supervisior, Electric Loco Shed, Kanpur, for his excellent guidance, valuable advice and ample co-operation throughout the training. It is a proud privilege to have availed of the opportunity of guidance.
We are thankful to Mr.A.K.Mishra too, for their excellent cooperation during our training for the proper response of the machine. We are grateful to all the railway employees,

ELECTRIC LOCO SHED, KANPUR
The

Electric loco shed, Kanpur was established during the year 1965 for homing 11 locomotives. This shed was commissioned primarily to meet the requirement of passenger and goods traffic over Indian railways. At present the shed has been expended suitably to home 176 loco motives for hauling, passenger and goods traffic.

The shed is responsible for carrying out monthly inspection schedule viz. IA, IB, IC, I0 & ICO in addition to annual and intermediate overhauling schedules.

Further the unscheduled repairs to electric locos of CNB shed & other sheds are being done as per requirements of RDSO organization & HQ’s instructions. All modification & special maintenance instructions, approved by RDSO & N.Rly. Hd.Qtr., are also carried out as per the guide lines being issued from time to time.

ELECTRIC LOCO MAINTENANCE SHED

Electric Loco Shed maintains locomotive for utilization in freight and passenger train. All the miner and major inspection are carried out in the shed on a regular schedule specified by RDSO (Research Design Standard Organization). Monthly schedule are done at an interval of 45 days and major schedule are carried out after 18 months.

QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Through this quality manual, ELS intents to provide a transparent quality system to assure its customer of ELS’s the capability in maintaining in electric locomotives to highest standard.

This quality manual has been written and develop in accordance with international quality system. Standard ISO-9001:2000. The manual is used as a refreshed document by:
• Employees of ELS to practice the quality system.

• Customers to have confidence in the capability of ELS to meet quality requirements on regular basis.

• Internal as well as external auditors for verification of compliance of the quality system.

OPERATION OF LOCOMOTIVE

The electric locomotive basically works at 25 KV, 50Hz supply. The 25KV AC supply is drawn from overhead catenaries wires. The supply from overhead wires are drawn through a pantograph inside the loco transformer. This transformer is an autotransformer from which regulated voltage is taken to a rectifier block for conversion from AC to DC .It may be worth mentioning that the final tractive effort is through DC traction motor hence AC is required to be converted to DC. The DC current from rectifier block is then filtered to pure DC and then fed to traction motor.

There are 6 traction motors which works parallel to provide the attractive effort for hauling the train.

All the operations are controlled through control circuit which works at 110 volt DC. Various power equipments during operation gets heated up and hence to cool the same, it is done by various blowers.

Different Equipments in an Electrical Locomotive

1) Pantograph

It is pneumatically operated equipment mounted on the roof for collection of current from overhead wire.

2) Main Transformer

It is an autotransformer which is utilized for drawing various grades of voltage required for operation of locomotive.

3) Rectifier

This unit consists of rectifier diodes connected in bridge for conversion of AC current to DC current.

4) Traction Motor

The traction motor is one of the most important equipment in the locomotive which transmits power to wheels for moving the trains.

5) Auxiliary Circuit

This Circuit is three phase 415 volts which supplies current to various three phase induction motors used for driving blowers for forced air cooling of major equipments like transformer, rectifier, smoothing reactor and traction motor. This 3 phase line voltage is supplied by either static converter or Rotary ARNO Converter.

6) ARNO Converter

Arno converter , is specific-duty machine for conversion of a single-phase supply into a three-phase supply. While the electric traction supply is standardized as single-phase A.C. supply, a three-phase supply is needed on locomotives for driving certain auxiliary equipments. The function of the Arno converter is to convert the incoming single-phase supply in to a three-phase supply for the auxiliaries.

ARNO Converter is of vertical construction and has a flexible mounting .The machine is of robust mechanical construction to withstand the several vibrations encountered on locomotives.

TECHNICAL DATA

Single-phase input Three-phase output
KVA 150 KVA 120
Volts 380 Volts 380
Amps 395 Amps 190
Frame VA-330

Class ’F’

Connection: Star RPM 1490 Cycle 50

OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLE

The single-phase supply of 380 volts AC is fed ‘direct’ to the ‘U’ & ‘V’ phases of the Arno converter. Since the ARNO Converter is connected to single-phase supply, no starting torque is developed. For starting the ‘ARNO’ split phase starting method has been employed. The W phase winding is connected to the supply phase U through a starting resistor R-118 and starting contactor C-118 for a short duration to start the Arno. Thus unbalanced three-phase voltage is impressed to each phase winding of Arno converter and the starting torque is developed .the Arno Converter picks up speed within five seconds. After the Arno has gained sufficient speed, the phase W is opened from the starting circuit by starting contactor C-118.

The Arno converts the single phase input into 3 phase output as 380 volt ± 22.5%. The three-phase output of the Arno converter is connected to the auxiliary motors.

7) Control Circuit

The control circuit is purely 110 volt DC and the most important network for handling various operational feature of the locomotive. All the power equipment and auxiliary circuit equipment are controlled through various switches in 110 volt circuit provided in the driving cab. All the circuit and equipment in the high voltage power side & auxiliary circuit equipment and the control circuit is protected against overloading, short circuiting and earth fault. For this purpose various relays have been used as protection device so as to protect the circuit from any mal functioning.

8) Asynchronous Motor
Modern traction motor type using three phase AC electrical supply and now the favoured design for modern train traction systems. Can be used on DC and AC electrified railways with suitable control electronics and on diesel-electric locomotives.
9) Axle Brush
The means by which the power supply circuit is completed with the substation once power has been drawn on the locomotive. Current collected from the overhead line or third rail is returned via the axle brush and one of the running rails.
10) Battery
All trains are provided with a battery to provide start up current and for supplying essential circuits, such as emergency lighting, when the line supply fails. The battery is usually connected across the DC control supply circuit.
11) Bucholz Relay
A device inserted in the oil cooling circuits of electric locomotive transformers to detect low oil pressure. In this event the relay trips out the power system. Often a source of spurious circuit breaker trips if not carefully calibrated.
12) Camshaft
Most DC electric traction power circuits use a camshaft to open or close the contactors controlling the resistances of the traction motor power circuit. The camshaft is driven by an electric motor or pneumatic cylinder. The cams on the shaft are arranged to ensure that the contactors open and close in the correct sequence. It is controlled by commands from the driver's cab and regulated by the fall of current in the motor circuit as each section of resistance is cut out in steps. The sound of this camshaft stepping can be heard under many older (pre electronics) trains as they accelerates.
13) Cannon Box
Sleeve used to mount a traction motor on axle in electric power bogies and sometimes including an axle brush.
14) Chopper Control
A development in electric traction control which eliminates the need for power resistors by causing the voltage to the traction motors to be switched on and off (chopped) very rapidly during acceleration. It is accomplished by the use of thyristors and will give up to 20% improvement in efficiency over conventional resistance control.

15) Circuit Breaker
An electric train is almost always provided with some sort of circuit breaker to isolate the power supply when there is a fault, or for maintenance. On AC systems they are usually on the roof near the pantograph. There are of two types - the air blast circuit breaker and the vacuum circuit breaker or VCB. The air or vacuum part is used to extinguish the arc which occurs as the two tips of the circuit breaker are opened. The VCB is popular in the UK and the air blast circuit breaker is more often seen on the continent of Europe.
16) Contactor
Similar to a relay in that it is a remotely operated switch used to control a higher power local circuit. The difference is that contactors normally latch or lock closed and have to be opened by a separate action. A lighting contactor will have two, low voltage operating coils, one to "set" the contactor closed to switch on the lights; the other to "trip" off the lights.
17) Converter
Generic term for any solid state electronic system for converting alternating current to direct current or vice versa. Where an AC supply has to be converted to DC it is called a rectifier and where DC is converted to AC it is called an inverter. The word originated in the US but is now common elsewhere.
18) Cooling Fans
To keep the thyristors and other electronic power systems cool, the interior of a modern locomotive is equipped with an air management system, electronically controlled to keep all systems operating at the correct temperature. The fans are powered by an auxiliary inverter producing 3-phase AC at about 400 volts.
19) Creep Control
A form of electronically monitored acceleration control used very effectively on some modern drive systems which permits a certain degree of wheel slip to develop under maximum power application. The GM Class 59 diesel-electric locomotive built for the UK has this system. A locomotive can develop maximum slow speed tractive effort if its wheels are turning between 5% and 15% faster than actually required by the train speed.
20) DC Link Filter
Used on modern electronic power systems between the single phase rectifier and the 3-phase inverter. It is easier to convert the single phase AC from the overhead line to the 3-phase required for the motors by rectifying it to DC and then inverting the DC to 3-phase AC.
21) Dynamic Braking
A train braking system using the traction motors of the power vehicle(s) to act as generators which provide the braking effort.
The power generated during braking is dissipated either as heat through on-board resistors (rheostatic braking) or by return to the traction supply line (regenerative braking). Most regenerative systems include on board resistors to allow rheostatic braking if the traction supply system is not receptive.
The choice is automatically selected by the traction control system. .
22) Grid
Train or locomotive mounted expanded steel resistor used to absorb excess electrical energy during motor or braking power control. Often seen on the roofs of diesel electric locomotives where they are used to dissipate heat during dynamic braking.
23) Ground Relay
An electrical relay provided in diesel and electric traction systems to protect the equipment against damage from earths and so-called "grounds".
The result of such a relay operating is usually a shut-down of the electrical drive. Also sometimes called an Earth Fault Relay.
24) GTO Thyristor
Gate Turn Off thyristor, a thyristor which does not require a commutation (reverse flow circuit) circuit to switch it off .

25) IGBT(Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)
Most recent power electronics development. It is replacing the GTO thyristor as it is smaller and requires less current to operate the switching sequences.
26) Inverter
Electronic power device mounted on trains to provide alternating current from direct current. Popular nowadays for DC railways to allow three phase drive or for auxiliary supplies which need an AC supply.
27) Jerk Limit
A means by which starting is smoothed by adjusting the rate of acceleration of a train by limiting the initial acceleration rate upon starting. It could be described as limiting the initial rate of change of acceleration. Also used in dynamic braking.
28) Line Breaker
Electro-mechanical switch in a traction motor power circuit used to activate or disable the circuit. It is normally closed to start the train and remains closed all the time power is required. It is opened by a command from the driving controller, no-volts detected, overload detected and (were required) wheel spin or slide detected. It is linked to the overload and no-volt control circuits so that it actually functions as a protective circuit breaker.
29) Master Controller
Driver's power control device located in the cab. The driver moves the handle of the master controller to apply or reduce power to the locomotive or train.
30) Motor Blowers
Traction motors on electric locomotives get very hot and, to keep their temperature at a reasonable level for long periods of hard work, they are usually fitted with electric fans called motor blowers. On a modern locomotive, they are powered by an auxiliary 3-phase AC supply of around 400 volts supplied by an auxiliary inverter.

31) Notching Relay
A DC motor power circuit relay which detects the rise and fall of current in the circuit and inhibits the operation of the resistance contactors during the acceleration sequence of automatically controlled motors. The relay operates a contactor stepping circuit so that, during acceleration of the motor, when the current falls, the relay detects the fall and calls for the next step of resistance to be switched out of the circuit.
32) No-Volt Relay
A power circuit relay which detected if power was lost for any reason and made sure that the control sequence was returned to the starting point before power could be re-applied.
33) Overload Relay
A power circuit relay which detected excessive current in the circuit and switched off the power to avoid damage to the motors.
34) Rectifier
A converter consisting of thyristors and diodes which is used to convert AC to DC. A modern locomotive will usually have at least two, one for the power circuits and one or more for the auxiliary circuits.
35) Relay
A remotely controlled switch which uses a low voltage control circuit. It will close (or open) a switch in a local circuit, usually of higher power.
36) Resistance Control
Method of traction motor control formerly almost universal on DC electric railways whereby the power to the motors was gradually increased from start up by removing resistances from the power circuit in steps Originally this step control was done manually but it was later automatic, a relay in the circuit monitoring the rise and fall of current as the steps were removed. Many examples of this system still exist but new builds now use solid state control with power electronics.
37) SEPEX
Short form of SEParate EXcitement of traction motors where the armature and field coils of an electric motor are fed with independently controlled current. This has been made much more useful since the introduction of thyristor control where motor control can be much more precise. SEPEX control also allows a degree of automatic wheel slip control during acceleration.
38) Shoegear
Equipment carried by a train and used for current collection on track mounted (third rail) power supply systems. Shoegear is usually mounted on the bogies close to the third rail. It is often equipped with devices to enable it to be retracted if required to isolate the car or on-board system which it supplies.
39) Synchronous Motor
Traction motor where the field coils are mounted on the drive shaft and the armature coils in the housing, the inverse of normal practice. Favoured by the French and used on the high speed TGV Atlantique trains, this is a single-phase machine controlled by simple inverter. Now superseded by the asynchronous motor.
40) Tap Changer
Camshaft operated set of switches used on AC electric locomotives to control the voltage taken off the main transformer for traction motor power. Superseded by thyristor control.
41) Thyristor
A type of diode with a controlling gate which allows current to pass through it when the gate is energised. The gate is closed by the current being applied to the thyristor in the reverse direction. Thyristors (also referred to as choppers) are used for traction power control in place of resistance control systems. A GTO (Gate Turn Off) thyristor is a development in which current is turned off is by applying a pulse of current to the gate.

42) Transformer
A set of windings with a magnetic core used to step down or step up a voltage from one level to another. The voltage differences are determined by the proportion of windings on the input side compared with the proportion on the output side. An essential requirement for locomotives and trains using AC power, where the line voltage has to be stepped down before use on the train.
43) Transistor
The original electronic solid state device capable of controlling the amount of current flowing as well as switching it on and off.
In the last few years, a powerful version has been applied to railway traction in the form of the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT). Its principle advantage over the GTO Thyristor is its speed of switching and that its controls require much smaller current levels.
44) Wheel Spin
On a steam locomotive, the driver must reduce the steam admission to the cylinders by easing closed (or partially closed) the throttle/regulator when he hears the wheels start to spin.
On diesel or electric locomotives, the current drawn by individual or groups of traction motors are compared - the motor (or group) which draws proportionally less amps than the others is deemed to be in a state of slip - and the power is reduced.
Some systems - EMD Super Series for one - measure known wheel speed against ground speed as registered on a Doppler Radar. Many locomotives additionally use sand, which is applied to the wheel/rail contact point to improve adhesion - this is either controlled automatically, or manually by the driver.
45)Wheel Spin Relay (WSR)
A relay in older traction motor control circuits used to detect wheel spin or slide by measuring the current levels in a pair of motors on a bogie and comparing them.
The idea is to prevent motor damage by preventing an over-speeding motor causing an unacceptable rise in current in the other motor of the pair.
If detected, the imbalance causes the control circuits to open the line breakers and reset the power control to the start position like a "no-volt" relay.

The Block Diagram of Modern AC Electric Locomotive describing the various parts, can be given as:

180kVA Static Converter

Introduction of Static Converter in Indian Railway

The first Static converter was used in WCAM – 3 locomotives jointly developed by RDSO and BHEL in 1997. The Static Converter converters the DC / AC voltage into 3 phase 415 volts for running auxillary machines.

This converter was supplied by ACEC. In late 19s, SIEMENS provided 8 nos 180 KVA Static Converter in conventional Locomotive at ELS / NCR / CNB.

Presently CLW manufactures only Static Converter fitted locomotive and till date, the total population of Static Converters fitted locos are more than 750.

Advantages of Static Converter

i. Very steady output voltage with maximum regulation of ± 5%.
ii. All the three phases output voltages are balanced resulting in balanced supply to the loads.
iii. Very high system efficiency.
iv. Soft starting of loads possible resulting in reduced system over loading.
v. In-built fault management system with storage of faults and traces.
vi. Various problems of auxiliary machines are reduced due to regulated and balanced supply voltage.

Working Principal

The converter generates 415V, 3 phase, 50Hz output from 760V / 830V, 1 phase, 50Hz
input which is available from the main locomotive transformer.

The static converter is made using a half controlled single phase bridge rectifier at the input, a DC link filter and a three phase IGBT based PWM inverter.

All functions of the converter are controlled through 32 bits Digital signal processor (DSP) together with an EPLD & host of digital gates and analog amplifiers.

Fig. 180kVA Static Converter

The converter consists of following sub-modules:

A. Input Section

The input section consists of input fuse (MF), Metal oxide varistors and input bus bar. Input fuse is used to protect the converter and for ensuring safe operation of the converter under worst input conditions. Metal oxide varistors (MOV) are used to protect the converter from surges.

B. Rectifier Section

The rectifier section is made using a half controlled single phase bridge rectifier. This consists of a half controlled bridge rectifier, made up of 2 thyristors and 2 diodes.

When the input AC voltage is positive, one of the thyristors is fired with a predetermined delay. It starts conducting and the voltage of the DC link rises.

Fig. Rectified Waveform

The current continues to flow due to the DC link reactor, until the input voltage changes polarity and the other thyristor is fired.

Now, the other thyristor with the corresponding diode takes over the current.

The rectifier circuit converts single-phase AC input voltage into DC voltage of desired level (760 volts).

The main controller maintains the DC link voltage at a preset value by controlling the firing angle of the thyristors.

A PI(proportional integral) controller is used to determine the firing angle. If the DC link voltage is lower than desired voltage, the firing angle will be small and if the DC link voltage is higher than the desired voltage, the firing angle will be increased.

RC snubber circuits are provided across each thyristors and Diode’s to protect against high “dv / dt”(rate of change of voltage with time) experience by devices.

C. DC Link Filter & Over Voltage Chopper

The DC link filter consist of DC link Choke (FL) and DC link Capacitors (FC). DC link Choke and Capacitors provided at the output of the rectifier to reduce the ripples in the DC link voltage that is fed to the inverter.

The over voltage chopper is made-up of an IGBT switch with a resistor and an anti-parallel diode. The IGBT switches the resistor on and off in the DC circuit if the DC voltage exceeds a preset value.

The chopper dissipates the extra energy and protects the system from over voltage, especially during transients at start-up.

D. Inverter Circuit

The Inverter consists of six IGBT modules. IGBT modules are configured as a 3-phase bridge circuits. The bridge is made up of three identical phase branches and each branch consists of two IGBTs.

The DC link voltage is converted into PWM sinusoidal waves by switching IGBTs at a high frequency. The width of the individual pulses in the PWM wave determines the amplitude of the output voltage and the width of the pulse block determines the output frequency.

As the system is a constant voltage, constant frequency system, the output frequency is maintained at 50Hz and the PI controller receives an output voltage feedback in order to keep the voltage constant, too. The final stage is responsible for generation of switching signals utilizing Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM) technology.

State-of-the-art space vector PWM technique has been adopted in the design of inverter software as this technology is more flexible & adapts to wider variations in the input DC link voltages. For better regulation of the output voltage, proportional integrated control has been used.

E. Output LC Filter

The Inverter output voltage is PWM, which is converter into sine wave by using output filter. It consists of 3 phases AC Choke (ACL) and 3 phases Capacitor (ACC).

Brief Technical Specification

Input

i. Nominal voltage : AC single phase, 760V or 830V.
(corresponding to catenary voltage of 22.5KV)

ii. Min. voltage continuous : 642V AC.

iii. Max. Voltage continuous : 1014V AC.

iv. Min. voltage at which converter
trips on under voltage : < 591V AC.

v. Max. Voltage beyond which
converter trips on over voltage : 1150V AC.

vi. Input voltage range for which
guaranteed converter performance : 642V to 1014V AC.
is available

vii. Input voltage range for which
guaranteed converter performance : 591V to 642V on lower side.
is not available but converter will : 1014V to 1150V on higher side.
not trip on either under voltage
or over voltage

viii. Power factor : 0.8 (At rated conditions).

ix. Input frequency : 50±3Hz.

Output

i. Output power : 180kVA, 0.8pf (at nominal operation).

ii. Overload : 200% for 5sec. (360KVA & current
Limit of 600A).

iii. Voltage 1 : AC 415V±5%, 3 phase system
between 642 - 1014V.

iv. Frequency : 50 Hz ±1% .

v. Waveform : Sine wave.

vi. THD in voltage : 10% (up to 20th harmonic).

vii. Efficiency : 92% (At nominal input voltage
And at rated load).

viii. Voltage 2 : DC 110V±5%,
[±5% ripple (rms) at full load and at nominal continuous rated input voltage of 642 - 1014V].

Mechanical

i. Size (approx.) : Cubicle 1- 670mm(L)×1805mm(W)×1650mm(H).
: Cubicle 2 -850mm(L)×670mm(W)×390mm(H).

ii. Weight : Approx. 1440 kg (1320 kg + 120 kg).

iii. Cooling : Forced air cooling for Cubicle-1.

General

i. Ambient temperature : 0ºC to 70ºC (max. 55ºC inside loco).

ii. Humidity : 100% in rainy season (90% at 55ºC).

iii. Altitude : 160m above mean sea level.

iv. Dust : 1.6mg/cubic m, max. Ph 8.5.

v. Audible noise : 80dB (A) at 1m distance from
Cubicle as per IEC-1287-1.

vi. Display & communication : Vacuum fluorescent display and RS-232
Port for data logging.

vii. Control voltage : DC 110

As an effort towards continuous improvement, the present stage of the static converter incorporates :

a) Modular control electronics.
b) SMPS battery charger.

Fig. Modular Type Control Unit

Fig. Battery Charger Input / Output
Description of Static Converter
The static converter is made using a half controlled single phase bridge rectifier at the input, a DC link filter and a three phase IGBT based PWM inverter. All functions of the converter are controlled through 32 bits. Digital signal processor (DSP) together with a EPLD & host of digital gates and analog amplifiers.

A. Input Module

The input section consist of input fuse ( MF ) , Metal oxide varistors and input bus bar. Input fuse is used to protect the converter and for ensuring safe operation of the converter under worst input conditions. Metal oxide varistors ( MOV ) are used to protect the converter from surges.

Fig. Input Section

B. Rectifier Section

The input stage of the static converter consists of the main switch, input fuse and rectifier circuit. The input fuse protects the circuit against input over current. The rectifier circuit converts AC input voltage into DC voltage of desired level.

The configuration of the rectifier circuit is a semi-controlled rectifier bridge. When the input voltage is positive, one of the thyristors is fired with a predetermined delay. It starts conducting and the voltage of the DC link rises. The current continues to flow due to the DC link reactor, until the input voltage changes polarity and the other thyristor is fired. Now, this other thyristor with the corresponding diode takes over the current. The main controller maintains the DC link voltage at a preset value by controlling the firing angle of the thyristors. A PI controller is used to determine the firing angle .

If the DC link voltage is lower than desired voltage, the firing angle will be small and if the DC link voltage is higher than desired value, the firing angle will be increased.

Fig. Block Diagram of Rectifier Control

Fig. Rectifier Section

Fig. Thyristor GDU Card

C. DC link filter & Chopper Module

The DC link filter consist of DC link Choke ( FL ) and DC link Capacitors ( FC ). DC link Choke and Capacitors provided at the output of the rectifier to reduces the ripples in the DC link voltage which is fed to the inverter.

The over voltage chopper is made up of an IGBT switch with a resistor and an anti-parallel diode. The IGBT switches the resistor on and off in the DC circuit if the DC voltage exceeds a preset value. The chopper dissipates the extra energy and protects the system from over voltage, especially during transients at start-up.

D. SMPS battery charger

It is made up of uncontrolled rectifier, single phase IGBT inverter and filtering circuit for providing boost and float mode charging.

E. Inverter Section

The inverter consists of six IGBT modules. IGBT are configured as a 3-phase bridge circuits. The bridge is made up of three identical phase branches and each branch consists of two IGBTs.

The dc link voltage is converted into PWM sinusoidal waves by switching IGBTs at a high frequency.

The width of individual pulses in the PWM wave determines the amplitude of the O/P voltage and the width of the pulse block determines the O/P frequency.

As the system is a constant voltage, constant frequency system, the O/P frequency is maintain at 50 Hz and the PI controller receives an O/P voltage feedback in order to keep the voltage constant too.

The final stage is responsible for generation of switching signals utilizing space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) technology.

Fig. Inverter Module

F. Output LC Filter

The Inverter output voltage is PWM , which is converter into sine wave by using output filter. It consist of 3 phase AC Choke(ACL) and 3 phase Capacitor(ACC ).

G. Main Controller Unit ( MCU )

The main controller card consists of 32 bits digital signal processor (DSP) together with a EPLD, host of digital gates and analog amplifiers, controlled the function of the converter. It generates switching pulses to drive the IGBTs and thyristors.

It also monitors sensor signals to detect faults and abnormal operation of the static converter. Status of various parameters are monitored and compared with the reference levels. Desired preventive and corrective actions are initiated through the respective controllers in the event of abnormal conditions.

Faults, if any are identified, stored in the fault memory and also can be displayed through display panel. A communication port with RS-232 interface is provided on the front panel for control gain setting, fault information and real time monitoring through a Notebook PC.

A keyboard and Vacuum Fluorescent Display (VFD) is provided on the front panel for selection of operation mode & text display of monitoring status, voltage, current level & fault messages.

Main Control Card ( MCU ):
KIT-2 Main Control Card ( MCU ):
KIT- 3

H. Thyristor Gate Drive Card ( TGDU)

The gate driver circuit receives switching pulses from the MCU card. The opto-coupler in the gate driver provides the perfect isolation between the power circuit and the control circuit for these pulses.

After further amplification, these switching pulses are sent to the Thyristors.

I. Chopper Gate Drive Card

The gate driver circuit receives switching pulses from the MCU card. The opto-coupler in the gate driver provides the perfect isolation between the power circuit and the control circuit for these pulses.

After further amplification, these switching pulses are sent to the Chopper IGBT. In case of over-current of the chopper, the gate driver blocks the gate pulses to protect the IGBT and feeds the information back to the main control card.

J. Inverter Gate Driver Card

The gate driver circuit receives switching pulses from the MCU card. The opto-coupler in the gate driver provides the perfect isolation between the power circuit and the control circuit for these pulses.

After further amplification, these switching pulses are sent to the Inverter IGBTs. In case of over-current of the inverter, the gate driver blocks the gate pulses to protect the IGBTs and feeds the information back to the main control card.

K. Display card ( DCU )

A Vacuum Fluorescent Display ( VFD) is provided for display parameters and fault data along with its associated keys / push buttons.

Display is provided on the front panel for selection of operation mode & text display of monitoring status, voltage, current level & fault messages.

The display card also provide LED indications of various faults.

A communication port with RS-232 interface is provided on the front panel for fault information and real time monitoring through a Notebook PC.

L. Power Supply Card

M. Input Current Transformer ( ACCT )

The Input Current Transformer (ACCT ) is use to measure the input current. It is located near to input section / Fuse.

Its ratio is 800 / 1 Amp. A burden resistor of 6 ? is always connected across its terminal.

N. Input Potential Transformer ( ACPT 1 )

The Input Potential Transformer ( ACPT 1 ) is use to measure the input voltage. It is located at RFU section area. Its ratio is 1300/7.22 volts.

O.DC Link Current Transducer ( DCCT )

The DC Link Current Transducer ( DCCT ) is use to measure the DC link current.

P. DC Link Voltage Transducer ( DCPT )

The DC Link Voltage Transducer ( DCPT ) is use to measure the DC link voltage. It is located at RFU section area.
Q. Chopper Current Transducer ( CHCT )

The Chopper Current Transducer ( CHCT ) is use to measure the Chopper current.

R. Output Current Transformer

The Output Current Transformer ( ACCT1 / ACCT2 / ACCT3 ) are use to measure the output current. It is located output section.

Its ratio is 800 / 1 Amp. A burden resistor of 6 ? is always connected across its terminals.

S. Output Potential Transformer

The Output Potential Transformer ( ACPT 2) is use to measure the output voltage. It is located at RFU section area. Its ratio is 600/7.22 volts.

T. Zero Current Transformer

The Zero Current Transformers are use to measure the Input leakage current
( ZCT 1) and Output leakage current ( ZCT 2 ).

They are located near Input section and Output section respectively.

Protection & Settings

The Static converter is equipped with circuits to protect itself and its load from all disturbances. Its operation is stopped by all fault conditions.

1. Open Circuit in Auxiliary Winding

This circuit detects that input voltage is too low or completely absent. It is practically the protection from input under voltage.

2. Fuse Failure in Converter

This circuit monitors the signals from the fuse contacts and if a fuse blows the converter is tripped.

3. Thermal Overloading

Temperature sensors are mounted on the heat sinks of the rectifier unit and the inverter unit. If the temperature of the heat sink exceeds a predetermined level, a fault signal is sent to the main controller.

The operation of inverter is stopped. The circuit resumes operation automatically when the temperature returns to normal.

4. High/Low Voltage in DC Link

A voltage sensor monitors the DC link voltage. If DC link voltage is too high or too low, the main controller shuts down the converter.

5. Failure of Power Supply to Control Electronics

The main controller monitors the power supply. If a failure is detected, the main controller blocks the gate signals of IGBTs and thyristors.

6. Transient & Surge Protection

Voltage surge suppressor is provided at the input.

7. Input Over/Under Voltage

The main controller monitors input voltage continuously. The sensor is located at the input of the rectifier circuit.

In case the input voltage exceeds the predetermined value of under voltage or over voltage, an alarm signal is given to the main controller, which initiates adequate protective operation. When the input voltage returns to normal, the inverter resumes normal operation.

8. Input Over Current

The current sensors are also installed at the input of the rectifier circuit. Whenever the input current exceeds the predetermined value, a fault signal is sent to the main controller to initiate required protection.

9. Output Over/Under Voltage

The voltage exceeds the predetermined value of over voltage or under voltage, a fault signal is sent to the main controller to initiate the protective operation. The main controller immediately switches off the inverter.

10. Output Over Current

The output of the inverter is protected against overload. Whenever the output current exceeds the predetermined value, a fault signal is sent to the main controller to initiate required protection.

11. Short Circuit at Output

The output of the inverter is protected against short circuit. Whenever the output current exceeds the predetermined value, the main controller initiate required protection. Under short circuit conditions, a fast current limit protects the power semi-conductors in the 3-phase Inverter Bridge.

12. Earth Leakage

In case the earth leakage detector has detected an earth leakage current, an earth fault is initiated and the inverter trips.

13. Single Phasing

The single phasing protection is automatically available in the inverter through the over current protection. If the output current of the inverter exceeds the predetermined limit due to single phasing, then the inverter will trip.

Low cost wind power plant

Energy is an important part of any country’s economy. Today major energy need in a
country is achieved by using conventional sources of energy. It includes coal, natural gas, nuclear fuel, etc. But
these sources are limited on earth .
Looking towards the environment effect as thermal plant releases smoke and ash which causes air pollution
Nuclear power plant releases radioactive waste which are hazardous and cause air and land pollution.
Due to these factor we concern our idea toward non conventional sources of energy.
Non –conventional sources of energy are environmental friendly, easily available
on earth .

Wind energy has evolved as one of the non conventional sources of energy . It is an indirect form of solar
energy. Wind power plant extract energy from wind and convert it into mechanical energy which is used by
turbine to convert it into electrical energy.

Cause of wind flow-

Due to non uniform heating of land and water by solar energy, air nearer to equator heats
up quickly , these hot air tend to move upward because of less density ,The air vacancy created is filled by
cold air coming from poles .
Air carrying momentum is known as wind. Turbine blades as barrier which extract power from wind.

Advantages of wind energy

• Wind energy is available in the country situated on bank of the sea.

• Wind power plant does not require any additional source of energy for power generation.

• It is pollution free and eco-friendly.

• Both type of plant large scale and small scale can be constructed.

Wind in India
Studies shows that wind in India is varying in nature. Wind direction changes with season .
Some state like Tamilnadu, Gujrat has large potential of wind energy.

Parts of wind power plant

Rotor blade
Blade extract power from the wind. When wind forces the blade it transfers some energy to rotar.

Betz’s coefficient -
• Theoretical studies show that ideal wind turbine extract 60 % of total wind energy.
• That is maximum fraction of power that can be extracted by wind turbine is 60%.Therefore shape and size of blade will determine turbine performance.

Shaft
Wind turbine shaft is connected to centre of rotor .when the rotor spins the shaft spins as well and rotor
transfers rotational energy to shaft .
Generator
Generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy . Generator is based on the
principle of electromagnetic induction.
Gearbox
Gear box contains gear which are mechanically coupled to each other. Gear convert high speed-low torque
to low speed- high torque.
Turbine efficiency
Turbine efficiency = Na * Ng * Nc * Ngen

Where Na = aero turbine efficiency
Ng= gearing efficiency
Nc = mechanical coupling
Ngen = generator efficiency

Our wind power plan
Our wind plant is horizontal axis wind plant as in India wind blows much higher than our rooftops.
We use variable pitch gear as coupling device with variable speed controller using lever and crank-shaft
mechanism.
Type of material for blade – Wood (pine & spruce)
• Easy to carve
• Resistance to fatigue
Diameter of blade-5 meter
Number of blade –when the number of blade increases turbine will stops more wind energy i.e lift force on
Blade increases but axial thrust(drag)also increases which is counterbalanced by mechanical design .we use
three blades which are so adjusted on hub so as when speed increases there will be increase in drift and decrease
in drag.
Gear system and speed controller-we use variable pitch gear as coupling device which is mounted on
generator. Wind turbine rotator shaft is connected with a gear which is coupled through variable pitch gear by
chain which passes over a secondary gear .secondary gear is pivoted with crank shaft mechanism by a lever other
side of secondary gear is connected with spring for it’s sidewise movement.

Crank is attached with a motor which is connected with coil inside which there is a U –shaped permanent
Magnet.
Generator -we use three phase generator as it extract more power from rotor (three times more than
single phase). If more power is extracted there will less desipition of wind energy as vibrational energy.

Rectifier-we use six diodes to make rectifying circuit to convert AC into DC . diodes are provided with better
heat sink
Voltage regulator-voltage regulator circuit is drawn in figure.
Regulating operation
1. If the output voltage decreases , the increased base emitter voltage causes transistor to conduct more .
Thereby raising the output voltage –maintaining the output constant.
2. If the output voltage increases ,the decreased base emitter voltage causes the transistor to conduct less
Thereby reducing the output voltage –maintaining the output constant.

Battery storage
We use 12 V lead acid rechargeable battery as it’s energy/price ratio is more . it has long life
High charge\ discharge cycle. Easily available in market.

1.2.3--- Ball bearing system
4------- blade
5 - variable pitch gear
6 - generator
13 - diode
14 - crank shaft
11 - U shaped magnet
10 - coil
8 - chain

Working - whole system is set up in low wind speed with chain on the upper most variable pitch gear
When wind increases it generates current in coil on free end of rotor which pull secondary
gear and draws the chain in second pitch on variable gear hence maintaining speed.

when wind speed decreases spring pull back chain to large diameter of variable pitch gear
hence maintaining speed of generator by increasing speed of variable pitch gear.

Power quality and its consequences..

Introduction:
The power quality problem is defined as any problem manifested in voltage, current or frequency deviations that results in mal-operation of customer equipment. The power quality problem causes the deterioration of performance of various sensitive electronic and electric equipments. The good quality of power can be specified as
The supply voltage should be within guaranteed tolerance of declared value.
The waveshape should be pure sine wave within allowable limits for distortion.
The voltage should be balanced in all three phases.
Supply should be reliable i.e continuous availability without interruption
Modern industrial machinery and commercial computer networks are prone to many different failure modes. When the assembly line stops, or the computer network crashes for no apparent reason, very often the electric power quality is suspected. It is a convenient culprit, as it is invisible and not easy to defend. Power quality problems may be very difficult to troubleshoot, and often the electric power may not have any relation to the actual problem. For example, in an industrial plant the faults of an automated assembly machine may ultimately be traced to fluctuations in the compressed air supply or a faulty hydraulic valve. Or in an office building, the problems on a local area network may be find their root cause with coaxial cable tee locations that are too close together, causing reflections and signal loss.

Why power quality is so important?
Power quality is an increasingly important issue for all businesses. Problems with powering and grounding can cause data and processing errors that affect production and service quality.
1 Lost production: Each time production is interrupted, your business loses the margin on the product that is not manufactured and sold.
2 Damaged product: Interruptions can damage a partially complete product, cause the items to be rerun or scrapped.
3 Maintenance: Reacting to a voltage disruption can involve restoring production, diagnosing and correcting the problem, clean up and repair, disposing of damaged products and, in some cases, environment costs.
4 Hidden costs: If the impact of voltage sag is a control error, a product defect may be discovered after customer delivery. The costs of losing repeat sales, product recalls and negative public relations can be significant and hard to quantify.
A recent study by IBM showed that power quality problems cost U.S. businesses more than $15 billion a year. That’s an average of $79,000 for each company!
The good quality of power can be specified as: -
1 The supply voltage should be with in guaranteed tolerance of declared value.in India the specifications related to power quality are _+10% variation in voltage and _+2%of frequency
2 The wave should be a pure sine wave within allowable limits for distortion.
3 Voltage should be balanced in all 3 phases.
4 Supply should be reliable
5 The earthing system should serve its purpose properly

Causes of poor power quality:
The causes of poor quality can be attributed to :
1 Variations in voltage, magnitude and frequency
2 Variations in magnitude can be due to sudden rise or fall of load, outages, repetitive varying loading pattern in rolling mills, power electronic converters, lightning etc.
3 Variations in frequency can rise of out of system dynamics or harmonics injection.

Consequently the voltage or current waveforms of a power system ceases to be purely sinusoidal in nature but consist of harmonics and other noises.

Impact of poor power quality:
The effect of these aforesaid poor power quality problems has serious implication on the utilities and customers. Utility side impacts higher losses in transformers, cables etc. In conductors the neutral wires can burn due to the presence of third harmonics generated by non-linear loads. The power factor correction capacitors may puncture due to resonant conditions at resonant frequencies near lower order harmonics. The energy-meters, which are calibrated to operate under pure sinusoidal conditions, may give erroneous readings. The solid-state protective relays can maloperate due to poor power quality. There can be increased losses in cables, transformers and conductors.
The customer side of the power network also experience adverse effects of poor power quality. The automatic processes employing adjustable speed drives may shut down because of nuisance tripping due to even short voltage sags.. The induction synchronous motors can have increased copper and core loses, pulsating torques and overheating with derating effect.

The non-sinusoidal power supply thus reduces torque and efficiency of the motors. The computers and telecommunication equipment encounter loss of data and maloperation due to poor power supply quality. The domestic electronic gadgets such as digital clocks, VCRs and TVs are also affected by voltage distortions.
Causes and consequences: -
The causes and consequences of power quality problems can be traced to a specific type of electrical disturbance. By analyzing the waveform of the disturbance, power quality engineers can determine what problems your facility has and what the optimal solution is.
For comparison purposes, a normal voltage waveform is 50 cycles per second - at most plus or minus ten percent of nominal voltage.
Power disturbances can be classified into five categories, each varying in effect, duration and intensity.

Voltage fluctuations:
Voltage fluctuations are changes or swings in the steady-state voltage above or below the designated input range for a piece of equipment. Fluctuations include both sags and swells.
1 Causes: Large equipment start-up or shutdown; sudden change in load; improper wiring; or grounding; utility protection devices
2 Vulnerable equipment: Computers; fax machines; variable frequency drives; CNC machines; extruders; motors
3 Effects: Data errors; memory loss; equipment shutdown; flickering lights; motors stalling/stopping; reduced motor life
Solutions: Verify proper electrical connections and wiring; relocate equipment; reduce voltage motor starters; uninterruptible power supply; voltage ride-through equipment.

Transients
Transients, commonly called "surges," are sub-cycle disturbances of very short duration that vary greatly in magnitude.
When transient occur, thousands of voltage can be generated into the electrical system, causing problems for equipment down the line.
1 Causes: Lighting; normal operation of utility equipment; equipment start-up and shutdown; welding equipment.
2 Vulnerable equipment: Phone systems; computers; fax machines; digital scales; gas pump controls; fire/security systems; variable frequency drives; CNC machines; PLCs.
3 Effects: Processing errors; computer lock-up; burned circuit boards; degradation of electrical insulation; equipment damage.
4 Solutions: Transient voltage surge suppression; uninterruptible power supply; isolation transformer; proper grounding
Harmonics:
A sinusoidal component of a periodic wave of quality having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. It is a mathematical model, which is used to analyse distorted waveforms and the current drawn by computers, electronic ballasts; variable frequency drives and other equipment, which have modern “transformer-less” power supplies.

The dynamic power system loads produce a time varying amplitude in current waveforms depending on the load characteristics which consists of the fundamental and harmonics components. These harmonic components distort the voltage or current waveforms thereby deteriorating the power quality. The non-linear loads such as inverter fed adjustable speed drives. UPS (uninterrupted power supply system), rectifiers and furnaces, cyclo-converters etc., which form the major chunk of industrial loads, contribute to the severe fluctuations in power quality

The industrial load also consist of large percentage of power factor improvement capacitors which often create resonance conditions at particular harmonic frequencies generated by non-linear loads fed from the load bus, producing high oscillating currents at resonant frequency and there by induces harmonic voltages distorting the pure sinusoidal voltage waveform..

For assessing power quality it is important to know the total harmonic distortion i.e. the voltage and current distortion factors
V THD = & I THD =
Vk = Voltage of Kth harmonic, Ik = Current of Kth harmonic
Where V1 and I1 are the r.m.s values of fundamental components of voltage and current waveforms. The power quality deteriorates if the source has significant impedance causing the distortion of voltage of the load bus supplying combination of linear and non-linear loads.

Harmonics problems often can be corrected by filtering or resizing power system components like:

Sources of harmonics:
Harmonics of different orders generated when connected power system network by different sources as below:
1. The non linear loads such as inverter fed adjustable speed drive.
2. The use of powerfactor correction capacitor creates parallel or series resonance problems increasing the harmonic distortion.
3. Process control and solid state power conversion equipments.
4. Energy efficient compact flourescent lamps.
5. Use of AC and DC adjustable speed drives
6. Static VAR compensators.
7. Transformers produces very high levels of harmonics when they are initially energized, the so called in rush current will generate harmonics of several orders.
8. Cycloconverters,Lift control system,Traction,AC voltage regulators, UPS, Battery chargers.
The following are the undesirable effects of harmonic on the operation of different equipment connected to power system network. The effect of harmonic depends on harmonic voltages and currents are the integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.

Effects of Hormonics:
?? The duration presence of long duration harmonic cause more serious effects on the various equipments connected to the power system .
Amplitude of harmonics :Large amplitude harmonics of short duration under resonance condition cause dielectric breakdown due to over voltages.
Now a days various devices and equipment being measured applications are more sensitive compared to the past.
? The capacitor used for power factor correction and in different filters decreases resulting in increasing in current drawn by capacitor beyond permissible limits. The capacitor acts as sink for harmonic currents resultant effect of harmonics is overloading , hence over heating increases dielectric stress and increase the power lost. The thermal failure of capacitor may take place because of higher temperature.
?????Non sinusoidal power supplies results in reduction of torque of induction motor
?????It will increase interference with telephone , communication and logic circuits.
? Error in reading of induction type energy meters which are calibrated for pure sinusoidal A.C power.
?????Higher order harmonics causes voltage stress and carona .
? Presence of harmonics in power system network can cause additional losses in power system netwooverheating of transmission lines, transformers and generators etc.,
? Malfunction or even failure of electronic or computer controls.
Hence it is clear that day by day the increase in harmonic contents will impose new problems on operations of electronic equipment . The energy efficient electronic equipment that will be produced in future trends result in poor performance due to the voltage distortion. Hence it is essential to have the proper coordination between the supply authorities and consumers regarding the power quality problem, their causes and results and solutions available to eliminate them.

Importance of Hormonic measurement:

? Meaurement provides the real time information about the power system network to utilities, consumer and designer .Filters designed after harmonic measurements are technically better and economical.
? Measurement provide information to analyze the combined effect of harmonic generated by different loads on power quality.
Different types of instruments available for harmonic measurement are :
? Power profiler BME 303A: It can measure and print in addition to various electric quantities voltage and current total harmonic distortion and frequency.
? Power network analyzer DIP8000: It is portable three phase network analyzer designed for power surveys in which the measured data are transformed to PC for evaluation and documentation.
? Measurement setup: The measurement is done via high quality probe. The computer loads the waveforms of graph sheets.
? Memory hicorder 8840(Hioki make) :It is used to measure three line currents and there line to voltage.
? Dynamic signal analyzer model Hp3561: The parameters such as fundamental frequency of A.C. current, line or phase voltage across potential transformer.

Hormonic elimination techniques:
To avoid the ill effects of harmonics on the operation of sensitive equipments, it is necessary to keep harmonic contents below safe limit by installing filter at load end. The simplest way of eliminating harmonics of different orders is to install filters at the location generated by different loads are connected in two ways in power system network.
1.Series connected filter:
Such type of filters are connected in series with power system network and offer high impedance at turning frequencies high impedance offered by filters allow very little harmonics are passed. The drawback of series filters are high cost, because the rating of filter component required is rated full load current.
2.Shunt connected filter:
It is most commonly used filters in A.C. power system network and offers very low impedance path to harmonics. Shunt type of filters are cheaper than series type because the shunt connected filters are designed for graded insulation levels which makes the components cheaper than the series filter components.
Following are the different techniques used to eliminate harmonics of different orders to keep harmonic distortion within permissible limit.
3.Passive filters:
These are LC resonating or parallel resonating circuits which offer very high or low impedance at tuning frequency. These filters are resistive at tuned frequency, capacitive at below tuned frequencies and inductive beyond tuned frequency.
Advantages of Passive filters:
1.Simple in construction, less costly and efficient
2.Serves dual purpose harmonic filtration and power factor correction of load.
Disdvantages of Passive filters:
1. Cannot function under saturated condition.
2.Number of passive filters installed must be equal to the number of harmonic levels to be compensated.
3. Connection of passive filters necessities a specific analysis of each installation.
4.Non adaptability to system variations .
5.Bulky in size.
6.Tendency to resonate with the other load.
Active filters:
When the number of harmonics to be filtered, large no of branches of passive filters will be required . The large no of branches of passive filters will be required. The actual number of branches will depend upon no of harmonic level of branches will depend upon no of harmonic level to be compensated. Hence, because of passive filter use for filtration of large no of harmonics results in large size &more cost. Introduction of self commutated devices e.g. MOSFETS, IGBT etc. Accelerated the research in design of active filter & resulted low cost, high performance active filter suitable to eliminate the harmonics of different orders to overcome the drawbacks of passive filters.
Active filters compensates voltage of current harmonic signal measured. The injected voltage or current harmonic signal measured. The injected voltage or current harmonic signals in to the power system network is of same magnitude and opposite in phase of the measured harmonic signal . It comprises power converter and control loop which controls the harmonics injection of the filter as the function of harmonic signal measure.

Electrical noise:
Electrical noise is high-frequency interference caused by a number of factors, including arc welding or the operation of some electric motors.
1 Causes: Lighting; normal operation of utility equipment; equipment start-up and shutdown; welding equipment.
2 Vulnerable equipment: Phone systems; computers; fax machines; digital scales; gas pump controls; fire/security systems; variable frequency drives; CNC machines; PLCs.
3 Effects: Processing errors; computer lock-up; burned circuit boards; degradation of electrical insulation; equipment damage.
4 Solutions: Transient voltage surge suppression; uninterruptible power supply; isolation transformer; proper grounding

Power outages:
Power outages are total interruptions of electrical supply. Utilities have installed protection equipment that briefly interrupts power to allow time for a disturbance to dissipate.
For example, if lightning strikes a power line, a large voltage is instantly induced into the lines. The protection equipment momentarily interrupts power, allowing time for the surge to dissipate.
1 Causes: Ice storms; lightning; wind; utility equipment failure.
2 Vulnerable equipment: All electrical equipment.
3 Effects: Complete disruption of operation.
4 Solutions: Transient voltage surge suppression; uninterruptible power supply.

SOLUTIONS: -
Surge suppressors:
These are small plug-in devices designed to protect equipment from moderate surges and spikes. Surge suppressors should be considered the minimum level of protection from internal and external transients on electrical, telephone and data lines. Installing surge suppression at the main service panel and following through to each electronic device is strongly recommended
Isolation transformers:
These devices electrically separate the electronic equipment from the incoming power system, reducing unwanted electrical noise.

CONCLUSION:
Harmonic distortion is increasing day by day at a faster rate and is a matter of concern to the utility, customer and manufacturers of different equipment. To keep the harmonic distortion to low value, following actions are necessary.
? In India it is necessary first to create awareness regarding harmonic problems, their effects and elimination techniques among the utility, consumers and manufacturers of different equipments to make power system less polluted.
? The harmonic standards should be imposed on the equipment and should be made mandatory to the manufactures and consumers. The equipment should strictly comply to the harmonic standards before selling it in open market.
? The utility should monitor the installation of high tension consumers periodically, regarding the harmonic distortion and penalties should be imposed on customers using equipments crossing specified limits.
? Filters should made compulsory to H.T. consumers.

sampitroda life history

2010-12-22T05:46:00.000-08:00

Prime Minister Manmohan Singh [ Images ] on Tuesday approved the setting up of a National Innovation Council to prepare a road map for the 'Decade of Innovation 2011-2020'.

Sam Pitroda [ Images ], adviser to the prime minister on public information infrastructure and innovations, will head the National Innovation Council.
The Council has been given the mandate to evolve an Indian model of innovation focussing on inclusive growth and creating an appropriate ecosystem conducive to fostering inclusive innovation.
It will delineate appropriate policy initiatives within the government required to spur innovation. It will also promote the setting up of sectoral innovation councils and state innovation councils.
While encouraging all important sectors of the economy to innovate, the NIC will take special efforts to facilitate innovation by micro, small and medium enterprises.
Innovation in public services delivery and encouraging multi-disciplinary and globally competitive approaches for innovations would be focused on by the council.
The National Innovation Council would have as its members:

K Kasturirangan, members of the Planning Commission;
Arun Maira, member of the Planning Commission;
Ramesh A Mashelkar, former director general of CSIR;
Kiran Karnik, former President, Nasscom;
Devi Prasad Shetty of the Narayana Hrudyalaya;
R Gopalakrishnan, executive director, Tata Sons;
Kiran Mazumdar Shaw, chairperson, Biocon [ Get Quote ];
Shekhar Kapur [ Images ], film director;
Saurabh Srivastava, chairman, CA Technologies;
Anil K Gupta, professor IIM Ahmedabad [ Images ];
Sujatha Ramadorai, professor, TIFR;
Chandrajit Banerjee, director general, CII;
Amit Mitra, secretary general, FICCI;
Samir Brahmachari, director general, CSIR; and
Sanjay Dhande, director, IIT Kanpur [ Images ].

R Gopalakrishnan, additional secretary in the Prime Minister's Office, will be the member secretary of the National Innovation Council.

By providing public access to telephones, Mr. Sam Pitroda revolutionized the state of telecommunications in India. Currently, Mr. Pitroda is the Chairman and CEO of World-Tel Limited, an International Telecom Union (ITU) initiative. He is also the Chairman and Founder of Sevend high-technology. Sam Pitroda is also the founding Chairman of a non-profit Foundation for' Revitalization of Local Health Traditions in India. As a result of his pioneering works, Sam Pitroda holds more than 50 patents and has lectured extensively on Telecom, Technology and Development, in almost all parts of the world. Sam Pitroda has also featured in several newspapers, magazines, radio and TV programs.

Background
Satyanarayan Gangarm Pitroda, better known as Sam Pitroda was born in Titlagarh, Orissa, India. Sam Pitroda did his schooling at Anand Vallabh Vidyalaya in Gujarat and Masters in Physics and Electronics in Baroda. In the year1964, Sam Pitroda went to the US and did his Masters in Electrical Engineering in Chicago. Thereafter he worked at GTE and formed Wescom Switching, Inc. In the year 1984, Sam Pitroda returned to India and founded the Center for Development of Telematics (CDAC) and later became advisor to the PM of India on National Technology Missions. Mr. Pitroda lives in Chicago, Illinois with his wife Anu, son Salil and daughter R central for development of telematics

The Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) is the Telecom Technology development centre of the Government of India. It was established in August 1984 as an autonomous body. It was vested with full authority and total flexibility to develop state-of-the-art telecommunication technology to meet the needs of the Indian telecommunication network. The key objective was to build a centre for excellence in the area of telecom technology.

While the initial mandate of C-DOT in 1984 was to design and develop digital exchanges and facilitate their large scale manufacture by the Indian Industry, the development of transmission equipment was also added to its scope of work in 1989.

electronic wallet

An encrypted storage medium holding credit card and other financial information that can be used to complete electronic transactions without re-entering the stored data

NEW DELHI: Technology evangelist Sam Pitroda has another innovation up his sleeve and this time, he says, it will change the way people the world over look at money and carry out transactions by putting a "digital wallet" into mobile phones .

The inventor of the Casio Digital Diary, which was a rage in the 1980s, Pitroda’s company C-Sam has developed a mobile money transaction platform that, he vouches, will transform today’s concept of banking, credit cards, payments and money.

His latest innovation has also been explained in his new book -- "The March of Mobile Money: The Future of Lifestyle Management" -- that was released by Planning Commission Deputy Chairman Montek Singh Ahluwalia at the India International Centre Tuesday evening.

"Today all your credit, debit cards are put in an envelope and sent to you. In the future, your plastic cards will be digital and sent to your new address -- your mobile phone," Pitroda said at the well-attended launch function.

"This involves the convergence of banks and merchants along with the user. And this is already happening. It is almost here."

Pitroda, who is advisor to Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on public information, infrastructure and innovation, says the inspiration for his latest invention was his wife Anu, who would spend hours writing cheque after cheque.

It was then he thought of the concept of "mobile money" that combines the cash you have in your bank account, credit cards, bank accounts, mobile phone and a secure transaction gateway all into a digital wallet of convenience.

The book has been co-authored by his long-time associate at the Chicago-headquartered C-Sam Mehul Desai and published by Harper Collins.

Pitroda said the use of technology and communications in commercial activities can help transform a country like India, empower citizens, reach social uplift programmes more effectively and bring about a drastic lifestyle change in both urban and rural areas.

With over 600 million mobile phone subscribers in India, this electronic version of the leather wallet can deliver personalised and secure services individually to a wide spectrum of users covering almost all sectors, he said.

In today's world, Pitroda said, more than 10 billion cards are produced every year. "The mobile wallet would, in the future, replace these cards, bringing down the cost of transaction and increasing efficiency."

Pitroda, who also chairs the National Innovation Council and headed the now defunct National Knowledge Commission, had filed a patent for the mobile wallet in 1994.

The technology, he says, is already present and used in some form in countries like Brazil, Bolivia, Costa Rica and Singapore. This apart, a version of this technology - called iMobile -- is also being used by ICICI bank.

The application of this technology -- as has been with his numerous innovations, notably the Casio Digital Diary -- seems simple.

To pay for a transaction, one has to navigate to the menu of a mobile phone and click on the designated icon. The phone asks how to pay, and one then clicks on the credit card. The transaction is done over a secure encrypted platform.

What is more, one can also plug-on this platform to a computer, see the history of transactions, the balance cash, the spending pattern, charts, graphs and even take a printout of receipts, said Pitroda.

"With mobile money, I can buy something from Brazil, pay in rupees, and charge it to my account in Chicago."

j n t u portion english

2010-12-22T05:35:00.000-08:00

c.v raman history
Born: November 7, 1888
Died: November 21, 1970
Achievements: He was the first Indian scholar who studied wholly in India received the Nobel Prize.

C.V. Raman is one of the most renowned scientists produced by India. His full name was Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman. For his pioneering work on scattering of light, C.V. Raman won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930.

Chandrashekhara Venkata Raman was born on November 7, 1888 in Tiruchinapalli, Tamil Nadu. He was the second child of Chandrasekhar Iyer and Parvathi Amma. His father was a lecturer in mathematics and physics, so he had an academic atmosphere at home. He entered Presidency College, Madras, in 1902, and in 1904 passed his B.A. examination, winning the first place and the gold medal in physics. In 1907, C.V. Raman passed his M.A. obtaining the highest distinctions.

During those times there were not many opportunities for scientists in India. Therefore, Raman joined the Indian Finance Department in 1907. After his office hours, he carried out his experimental research in the laboratory of the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science at Calcutta. He carried out research in acoustics and optics.

In 1917, Raman was offered the position of Sir Taraknath Palit Professorship of Physics at Calcutta University. He stayed there for the next fifteen years. During his tenure there, he received world wide recognition for his work in optics and scattering of light. He was elected to the Royal Society of London in 1924 and the British made him a knight of the British Empire in 1929. In 1930, Sir C.V. Raman was awarded with Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on scattering of light. The discovery was later christened as "Raman Effect".

In 1934, C.V. Raman became the director of the newly established Indian Institute of Sciences in Bangalore, where two years later he continued as a professor of physics. Other investigations carried out by Raman were: his experimental and theoretical studies on the diffraction of light by acoustic waves of ultrasonic and hypersonic frequencies (published 1934-1942), and those on the effects produced by X-rays on infrared vibrations in crystals exposed to ordinary light. In 1947, he was appointed as the first National Professor by the new government of Independent India. He retired from the Indian Institute in 1948 and a year later he established the Raman Research Institute in Bangalore, where he worked till his death.

Sir C.V. Raman died on November 21, 1970.

A Child Genius

Tiruchirapalli is a town on the banks of the river Cauvery. Chandrasekhara Ayyar was a teacher in a school there. He was a scholar in Physics and Mathematics. He loved music. His wife was Parvathi Ammal. Their second son was born on 7th November 1888. They named the boy Venkata Raman. He was also called Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman or
C.V. Raman.

Raman grew up in an atmosphere of music, Sanskrit literature and Science. He stood first in every class and was. Talked about as a child genius. He joined the B.A. class of the Presidency College. In the year 1905, he was the only boy who passed in the first class. He won a gold medal, too.

He joined the M.A. class in the same college and chose Physics (study of matter and energy) as the main subject of study. Love of science, enthusiasm for work and the curiosity to learn new things were natural to Raman. Nature had also given him the power of concentration and intelligence. He used to read more than what was taught in the class. When doubts arose he would set down questions like 'How?' 'Why?' and 'Is this true?' in the Margin in the textbooks.

The works of the German scientist Helmhotlz (1821 - 1891) and the English scientist Lord Raleigh (1842 - 1919) on acoustics (the study of sound) influenced Raman. He took immense interest in the study of sound. When he was eighteen years of age, one of his research papers was -published in the 'Philosophical Magazine' of England. Later another paper was published in the scientific journal 'Nature'.

Biography

Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was born at Trichinopoly in Southern India on November 7th, 1888. His father was a lecturer in mathematics and physics so that from the first he was immersed in an academic atmosphere. He entered Presidency College, Madras, in 1902, and in 1904 passed his B.A. examination, winning the first place and the gold medal in physics; in 1907 he gained his M.A. degree, obtaining the highest distinctions.

His earliest researches in optics and acoustics - the two fields of investigation to which he has dedicated his entire career - were carried out while he was a student.

Since at that time a scientific career did not appear to present the best possibilities, Raman joined the Indian Finance Department in 1907; though the duties of his office took most of his time, Raman found opportunities for carrying on experimental research in the laboratory of the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science at Calcutta (of which he became Honorary Secretary in 1919).

In 1917 he was offered the newly endowed Palit Chair of Physics at Calcutta University, and decided to accept it. After 15 years at Calcutta he became Professor at the Indian Institute of Science at Bangalore (1933-1948), and since 1948 he is Director of the Raman Institute of Research at Bangalore, established and endowed by himself. He also founded the Indian Journal of Physics in 1926, of which he is the Editor. Raman sponsored the establishment of the Indian Academy of Sciences and has served as President since its inception. He also initiated the Proceedings of that academy, in which much of his work has been published, and is President of the Current Science Association, Bangalore, which publishes Current Science (India).

Some of Raman's early memoirs appeared as Bulletins of the Indian Associationfor the Cultivation of Science (Bull. 6 and 11, dealing with the "Maintenance of Vibrations"; Bull. 15, 1918, dealing with the theory of the musical instruments of the violin family). He contributed an article on the theory of musical instruments to the 8th Volume of the Handbuch der Physik, 1928. In 1922 he published his work on the "Molecular Diffraction of Light", the first of a series of investigations with his collaborators which ultimately led to his discovery, on the 28th of February, 1928, of the radiation effect which bears his name ("A new radiation", Indian J. Phys., 2 (1928) 387), and which gained him the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physics.

Other investigations carried out by Raman were: his experimental and theoretical studies on the diffraction of light by acoustic waves of ultrasonic and hypersonic frequencies (published 1934-1942), and those on the effects produced by X-rays on infrared vibrations in crystals exposed to ordinary light. In 1948 Raman, through studying the spectroscopic behaviour of crystals, approached in a new manner fundamental problems of crystal dynamics. His laboratory has been dealing with the structure and properties of diamond, the structure and optical behaviour of numerous iridescent substances (labradorite, pearly felspar, agate, opal, and pearls).

Among his other interests have been the optics of colloids, electrical and magnetic anisotropy, and the physiology of human vision.

Raman has been honoured with a large number of honorary doctorates and memberships of scientific societies. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society early in his career (1924), and was knighted in 1929.

Electrical Engineering - TryEngineering

2010-12-17T21:18:00.000-08:00

Electrical Engineering - TryEngineering

Smart wireless multi-metering solution

2010-12-15T23:55:00.001-08:00

Smart wireless multi-metering solution from A.P. Systems uses Sierra Wireless AirPrime™ Embedded Modules and software

Following the successful deployment of over 500,000 Sierra Wireless-enabled wireless energy monitoring devices, A.P. Systems selects Sierra Wireless modules and software for next generation solution

Vienna, Austria - September 22, 2010

Sierra Wireless (NASDAQ: SWIR; TSX: SW) today announced that A.P. Systems, a leading Italian supplier of information and communication technology to utilities and public administrations, is using the Sierra Wireless AirPrime WMP100 Intelligent Embedded Module and Open AT Operating System to provide wireless connectivity to its M3-S multi-metering system. Designed for the simultaneous remote management of gas, electricity, water, heat and street lighting, the M3-S can manage data from different types of devices in a single infrastructure using cellular, low power RF ZigBee or power line carrier connections.
“Since 2002, A.P. Systems has deployed more than 500,000 wireless energy monitoring devices using Sierra Wireless modules and Open AT software,” said Davide Bassetto, product manager at A.P. Systems. “Utility meters stay in the field for many, many years, and the quality and reliability of all their components and software are of prime importance. Our positive experience with Sierra Wireless technology made the choice of integrating their high quality, reliable embedded wireless modules for our next-generation solution an easy one.”
“We are very pleased that A.P. Systems continue to rely on our technology, and in particular the Open AT Operating System,” said Didier Dutronc, Vice President of Marketing at Sierra Wireless. “By taking full advantage of the capabilities of the Open AT OS and embedding their application software directly on the wireless module, A.P. Systems’ talented engineering team has created an innovative wireless multi-metering solution with an extremely efficient architecture. We are proud to be a part of this solution which answers utility companies’ needs for a reliable, efficient and flexible wireless energy monitoring device.”
The AirPrime WMP100 Embedded Module combines embedded processor capability and wireless connectivity in a single device. The BGA form factor and dedicated IOs are suited for automated component placement, and enables equipment manufacturers to optimize their total system cost.
The Open AT Operating System is an execution environment for industrial applications. It enables easy management of wireless communications, can integrate any metering protocol, and adds advanced security features (such as encryption and jamming detection) into the wireless module with no additional cost. Its set of software plug-ins and development tools provides developers with a unique application framework for machine-to-machine applications.
Sierra Wireless Solutions for Energy
Sierra Wireless has more than a decade of experience in wireless data communications for utilities and energy infrastructures. Our seasoned engineering team is experienced in large-scale wireless deployments for utilities around the world in countries including Australia, Canada, China, France, India, Italy, New Zealand, Thailand, the United Kingdom and the United States. For customers looking to deploy wireless solutions for the energy market, Sierra Wireless offers:

All the components required for end-to-end solutions, from ruggedized embedded modules, gateways and routers, software suites, and development tools to services platforms.
Simplified integration and deployment, with proven technologies that allow rapid design and easy integration, as well as a services platform that enables fast deployment and cost-effective maintenance and support.
A rugged and secure product line designed for long life spans and challenging environmental conditions, tested to military specifications to ensure reliability under extreme temperatures, humidity, and vibration.
Strong relationships with network operators worldwide to assist customers and partners with network connections and certifications.

For more information about Sierra Wireless Solutions for Energy, please visit us at Metering Europe 2010, held September 22 to 24 at the Reed Messe Wien in Vienna, Austria, or find out more at http://www.sierrawireless.com/energy. To contact the Sierra Wireless Sales Desk, call +1 (604) 232-1488 or email sales@sierrawireless.com.

Note to editors:
To view and download images of Sierra Wireless products, please visit http://www.sierrawireless.com/newsroom/productimages.aspx.
About A.P. Systems
A.P. Systems is one of the leaders of the M2M market and very highly skilled in multimetering managing systems. It operates with a working team of more than 130 employees, 5 offices in Italy and 2 abroad, boasting a group turnover of 12 million Euros at the end of 2009. A.P. Systems is organized into three technical divisions, each skilled in a specific kind of IT specialization: PAL providing IT systems for the public sector; MIT which develops M2M systems for remote managing of pipeline meters; and SECURITY, in charge of delivering systems of video surveillance and security of the territory. www.apsystems.it
About Sierra Wireless
Sierra Wireless (NASDAQ: SWIR – TSX: SW) is expanding the wireless world with a comprehensive offering of hardware, software, and connected services for mobile lifestyles and machine-to-machine communications. Our customers count on us to help them succeed with early access to new wireless technologies and innovative, reliable, high-performing solutions for a broad range of applications. For more information about Sierra Wireless, visit www.sierrawireless.com.
“AirPrime” and “Open AT” are trademarks of Sierra Wireless. Other product or service names mentioned herein may be the trademarks of their respective owners.
Forward Looking Statements
This press release contains forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. These forward-looking statements relate to, among other things, plans and timing for the introduction or enhancement of our services and products, statements about future market conditions, supply conditions, channel and end customer demand conditions, revenues, gross margins, operating expenses, profits, and other expectations, intentions, and plans contained in this press release that are not historical fact. Our expectations regarding future revenues and earnings depend in part upon our ability to successfully develop, manufacture, and supply products that we do not produce today and that meet defined specifications. When used in this press release, the words "plan", "expect", "believe", and similar expressions generally identify forward-looking statements. These statements reflect our current expectations. They are subject to a number of risks and uncertainties, including, but not limited to, changes in technology and changes in the wireless data communications market. In light of the many risks and uncertainties surrounding the wireless data communications market, you should understand that we cannot assure you that the forward-looking statements contained in this press release will be realized.

3I INFOTECH COMPANY PROFILE

2010-12-12T04:02:00.001-08:00

3i Infotech is one of the India's leading IT Companies and among the top 4 Indian Software products companies. They provide complete end-to-end outsourcing solutions for various industries. It has a comprehensive set of solutions for the banking, finance, insurance, manufacturing, retail & distribution and contracting sectors.
The company's Global Delivery Model provides for the best resources to be drawn from its vast talent pool across the globe to offer optimal solutions.

3i Infotech has worked with over 700 customers worldwide, including Dow Jones, GlaxoSmithKline, Panasonic, American Insurance Group, OCBC Bank, QBE Insurance and Emirates Bank. Promoted by the $25 billion NYSE-listed ICICI Bank, 3i Infotech serves customers in 30 countries and has presence across 4 continents. The company offers the following range of enterprise services and solutions to meet varying customer requirements.
3i Infotech is SEI CMMI Level 5 compliant for its Software services and ISO 9001:2000 certified for its IT Infrastructure and Transaction services.

Services

IT Outsourcing
IT Infrastructure Management
IT Security Consultancy
Product Re-engineering
Packaged Application Implementation
EAI
e-Governance
Business Process Management

3i Infotech has five delivery centers in India spread over 150,000 square feet in Mumbai, Bangalore and Chennai. Each delivery center is well networked with built in redundancies and can work as an independent unit as well as backup for other units.

Recruitment

Resume collation and filtering
Initial screening
Preliminary screening and short listing
Flexible staffing administration
Reporting & documentation

To know about the careers with the company you may contact with the HR Department or can mail at opportunities@3i-infotech.com

CSC COMPANY PROFILE

2010-12-12T04:01:00.001-08:00

CSC (Computer Sciences Corporation) is a leading information technology (IT) services company. CSC’s mission is to be a global leader in providing technology-enabled business solutions and services. The company is one of the leading outsourcing solutions providers in the world. It has a strong position in providing IT services to government customers.
CSC also provides business process outsourcing, managing key functions for clients, such as procurement and supply chain, call centers and customer relationship management, credit services, claims processing and logistics. I/T and professional services include systems integration, consulting and other professional services. Systems integration encompasses designing, developing, implementing and integrating complete information systems. Consulting and professional services includes advising clients on the strategic acquisition and utilization of I/T and on business strategy, security, modeling, simulation, engineering, operations, change management and business process reengineering.

The solutions provided by CSC include systems design and integration; IT and business process outsourcing; applications software development; Web and application hosting; and management consulting.

Specialties
Consulting, IT, Systems Integration, Outsourcing
CSC India offers applications services, product development and support services, infrastructure services, IT outsourcing and BPO services to clients worldwide. With a winning combination of strong functional knowledge, in-depth technological expertise, uncompromised process rigour and world class industry standards and compliance in place, CSC India has consistently built upon its experience to deliver business results in the global information technology marketplace, thus earning the trust of some of the world’s biggest organisations.
The company is hiring freshers as well as experienced hands. Nearly 10-15 per cent of the recruitments are freshers. Indian centres: Hyderabad, Chennai, Bangalore, Mumbai, Noida, Indore, Vadora etc

CSC Test Pattern:
The paper contains 100 questions which you need to complete them in 25 min.
No negative marking for that, but don't try to put all random answering for the unknown one... because even that will be judged.
And there is no general knowledge based questions, and it would be totally of 2 parts like Maths, English grammar and you will find the alternative questions from these two parts, like 1st English, 2nd Maths, 3rd English, 4th Question Maths etc.

CAREEIAR WITH ORACLE

2010-12-12T03:59:00.002-08:00

Oracle Corporation is a multinational computer technology company that specializes in developing and marketing enterprise software products - particularly database management systems. Headquartered in Redwood City, California, United States of America, Oracle has more than 1, 01,950 employees worldwide as of January 2010. Larry Ellison, is playing a crucial role as CEO, recently he announced that oracle is going to recruit 2000 new employees.

Recruitment Process:
Oracle follows both online and offline recruitment process. The Company’s HR team Shortlists candidate’s based on their CVs. Candidates have to go through 2-3 rounds of technical and one round of HR interview.

On campus interview:
In a 30-minute interview, the company wants to know about the candidate’s academic achievements, awards and his personality traits. Company also focuses on candidate's interests, his creativity and what is it that a candidate cares about most? Interviewer may also ask technical questions related to specific projects and products.

Career:
Oracle provides excellent career opportunities. It also provides supportive environment to foster career and self-management. Oracle recognizes and rewards employees for growing either as a "knowledge leader “or as a "people leader" (manager role).

Cognizant Technology COMPANY

2010-12-12T03:59:00.000-08:00

Introduction:
Cognizant Technology Solutions (NASDAQ: CTSH) is an information technology services company with headquarters in New Jersey USA and with significant operations in Chennai, India. Cognizant started in 1994, as Dun & Bradstreet Satyam Software - the in-house technology development center for the Dun & Bradstreet Corporation (D&B) and its operating units.

Cognizant provides application maintenance services, data warehousing, software development and integration, and reengineering services for legacy systems, primarily to medium-sized and large businesses.

Company Profile
Year of Inception: 1994
Headquarter Address: Teaneck, New Jersey
Employees Worldwide: 60000+
Entry level salaries: 8-10 LPA for Management Trainees & 3.01 LPA for SE
Placement Procedure: Written Test(Aptitude), Interview (Tech+ HR )
Campuses Visited: All good engineering college across India
Locations placed: All over India (Chennai, Kolkata, Pune, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Coimbatore, Mumbai, Kochi and Gurgaon)

LIFE @ CTS
Technology, Domain & Quality of work: Java / JS / J2EE / Struts / Servlet, MS.Net / C# / VB / XML / VC++ / Ajax, Oracle Apps, PL / SQL, ERP, Software Testing, Business Analyst

Learning Opportunities: Well planned training program

Career Growth Ladder: Associate >> Sr. Associate >> Team Lead >> Consultant >> Project Manager

Recommendations: Good company for fresher’s who are just looking in to a job in current recession.

Views about CTS:
CTS offer three months of initial program of rigorous training for all those who do not have industry experience. Looking at current situation onsite opportunities are still better than its counterparts. Work environment do not considered to be too good. Offices have more local aspects rather being global.

Views about the company:
The training program offered by CTS is quite renowned in industry. Fair and politics free environment prevails in CTS. But Salary for freshers is an issue at CTS. They pay low. Appraisals are also low. It lacks quality of work. But some domain knowledge may be useful in future.

Recommendations:
CTS is average learning place and for people who just want a career in IT, TS is quite a good place to work. If you have other options like TCS, Infosys, IBM, Wipro than CTS is not that good place.

Website: www.cognizant.com

INFOSYS COMPANY PROFILE

2010-12-12T03:58:00.001-08:00

Infosys is credited with pioneering the use of talent in India to compete in consulting and IT services in the US and Europe. Based in Electronics City, an industrial park in Bangalore, the firm has nine development centers in India and over 40 offices in 17 countries.

Company Profile
Year of Inception: 1981
Headquarter Address: Electronics City, Bangaluru, India
Employees Worldwide: 104000+
Entry level salaries: 5-7 LPA for Management Trainees & 3.25 LPA for SE
Placement Procedure: Written Test(Aptitude), Interview (Tech, HR )
Campuses Visited: All good engineering college across India

Locations placed: All over India (Bangalore, New Delhi, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad, Bhubaneswar, Chandigarh, Jaipur, Mangalore, Mysore, Pune, Thiruvananthapuram).

Technology, Domain & Quality of work: Oracle, Mainframe, .Net/XML/Ajax, J2EE/Java/Struts/Servlet, VB/VC++,People soft, PL/SQL, CRM, ERP, C/C++,Data warehousing and other database Technologies

Learning Opportunities: Well planned training program

Career Growth Ladder: Associate >> Sr. Associate >> Team Lead >> Consultant >> Project Manager

Recommendations: Good company for fresher’s as learning curve for technical perspective is very step in first few years. Paid well to employees have prior work experience.

Views about Infosys: Infosys offers three months of initial program of rigorous training for all those who do not have industry experience. Infosys facilitates learning by providing on job training to meet the job requirements. Infosys is value driven and is a paper and plastic free office. The training program offered by INFOSYS is quite renowned in industry. Fair and politics free environment prevails in Infosys that separate organization from rest. Infosys respect leaders and help achievers in high career growth.

Recommendations: For people who like to join big names ‘strong yes’. INFOSYS is average learning place and for people who just want a career in IT INFOSYS is quite a good place to work.

Website: www.Infosys.com

NATIONAL THERMAL COMPANY PROFILE

2010-12-12T03:57:00.001-08:00

NTPC Limited, India's largest power company with an installed capacity of 31,134 MW is presently operating 15 coal based, 7 gas based power stations and 4 joint ventures. NTPC contributed around 1/3rd of the country's entire power generation during the year 2008-09 and plans to become a 75,000 MW power company by 2017. NTPC has moved ahead by diversifying its portfolio to emerge as an integrated power major with presence across the entire energy value chain. NTPC has been allocated 6 coal mine blocks which are expected to produce 48 million tons per annum. NTPC has been ranked No. 1 in 'Best Workplaces for Large Organizations' and eighth overall in 2008 by Great Places to Work in collaboration with the Economic Times. With its excellent practice in Human Capital Management, NTPC is the most admired organization in public sector. Powered by dynamic and dedicated workforce, NTPC has ambitious growth plans and to make it happen, NTPC is looking for promising, energetic young Graduate Engineers & Finance and HR professionals with brilliant academic record to join the organization.

Company Profile
Company: National Thermal Power Corporation Limited
Founded Year:1975
Headquarter: Delhi, India
Location: all India
Website: www.ntpc.co.in

Recruitment: NTPC believes in the philosophy ‘Grow your own timber’. NTPC hire from campuses. NTPC's ‘Executive Trainee’ Scheme was introduced in the year 1977 with the objective to raise a cadre of home grown professionals. First Division Graduate Engineers/Post Graduates are hired through nation wide open competitive examination and campus recruitments. Hiring is followed by 52 weeks induction training (fully paid) consisting of theoretical input, on job training, personality development & management modules.

The test pattern: For the off campus recruitment it conducts written test. The written test consists of two papers-Technical and Aptitude. The questions of the technical test depend on the discipline chosen.

Campus placements: Every year NTPC visits for the recruitment of fresh engineering graduates. NTPC generally recruits from Electronics Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Instrumentation Engineering, and Mechanical Engineering. NTPC campus recruitment procedure contains no written test. Generally it conducts Technical Interview and HR interview. Technical Interview contains questions on Particular Specializations. HR Interview contains questions about candidates aims and aspirations, company information etc

Salary: Selected candidates will be placed in the pay scale of Rs. 11225-4%-17250 at the basic pay of Rs. 11225/- during one-year training. These candidates will be absorbed after successful completion of training as Engineer / Officer in the pay scale of Rs.12000-4%-17500 at a basic pay of Rs. 12000/-

Bond: Bond of 3yrs or 2.5 lakh

Career Paths: A formal career path and development process exists in NTPC. All career paths have an underlying management structure. Promotions within each career path are aligned with the needs of the organization. Succession criteria for leadership positions in each career path have been identified, which provide basis for job rotation. Anyone joining the organisation can choose to pursue a business, function or staff career path and will be put through specific training interventions and job rotation path towards becoming a business, function or staff head.

Work culture: Company is a PSU. Its commitment is required as completion of projects is top priority. In addition to providing beautiful and safe work places, NTPC encourages a culture of mutual respect and trust amongst peers, superiors and subordinates.

Employee Development Centers- Employee Development Centers (EDCs) are located at all NTPC projects and stations and take care of training needs of employees at the unit. They have similar infrastructure as that of PMI and have full time dedicated staff of 150 employees across NTPC. EDCs serve to meet the training needs that can be catered to locally.

L&T COMPANY PROFILE

2010-12-12T03:56:00.001-08:00

L and T is India’s leading technology, engineering, and construction and manufacturing company in the private sector. It is scouting for engineering graduates with a love for engineering, a passion for excellence and a positive outlook. EVERY year L&T visits approximately 80 engineering campuses across the country to hire enthusiastic young engineers. The company recruits around 1,200 engineering graduates - 400 for specialized work such as construction and design, and the remaining for its Manufacturing and Projects Divisions.

COMPANY PROFILE:
Turnover: Rs 36,996 crore
Employee strength: 38,785
No. of offices: 60
No. of plants: 20

Campus hiring
Areas: Most engineering disciplines.

Eligibility: First division or 60% in class 10, 12 and graduation. Students with only one ATKT (allowed to keep term)/backlog are accepted. Company representatives visit campuses and make a pre-placement presentation. Interested students contact the placement officer or placement in-charge, who sends details to L&T, which then shortlists applications and informs the college placement officer of short-listed students who then appear for a paper-pencil entrance exam.

Written test: The difficulty level of test isn’t as high as GRE or GMAT. Typically, exam results are announced on the same day and successful candidates called for the interview. The exam papers are set internally with professional help, and the duration is approximately one hour. The test comprises three sections: numerical, verbal and analytical, and no negative marking.

Personal interview: This level is tougher as compared to the examination, and candidates are assessed in several areas. A sound knowledge of concepts and their applications is paramount. In a company such as L&T, knowledge of all engineering concepts is necessary as most of the projects at L&T draw expertise from all the engineering fields. It is better to focus on practical application of engineering. The interview panel judges the candidate’s technical knowledge, reasoning ability, leadership qualities, and communication skills.

The finishing school: Soon after joining, young engineering recruits undergo a one-month training programme, held at different locations across India. This programme gives an overview of the company, its various divisions, the on-going projects from close quarters so that engineering graduates also understand how they could efficiently contribute. Engineers are provided accommodation and are given full salaries. The package in 2010 will be Rs 3.3 lakhs in the first year.

Skills: A strong technical base, love for engineering, positive attitude, a passion for excellence and leadership skills.

Post graduation is encouraged: Employees can pursue part-time management courses or a PG in technical education. L&T has tie-ups with several institutes such as IIM, Ahmadabad, XLRI and SP Jain Institute of Management & Research, Mumbai, and with IIT Bombay and Warwick University for technical education. The company bears two-thirds of the fee, while the employee pays one-third. If the academic record during the postgraduate programme is good, then the company reimburses the employee’s contribution.

BSNL COMPANY PROFILE

2010-12-12T03:55:00.001-08:00

Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. formed in October, 2000, is World's 7th largest Telecommunications Company providing comprehensive range of telecom services in India: Wire line, CDMA mobile, GSM Mobile, Internet, Broadband, Carrier service, MPLS-VPN, VSAT, VoIP services, IN Services etc. Within a span of five years it has become one of the largest public sector units in India.
BSNL has more than 2.5 million WLL subscribers and 2.5 million Internet Customers who access Internet through various modes viz. Dial-up, Leased Line, DIAS, Account Less Internet(CLI). BSNL has been adjudged as the NUMBER ONE ISP in the country.
BSNL has set up a world class multi-gigabit, multi-protocol convergent IP infrastructure that provides convergent services like voice, data and video through the same Backbone and Broadband Access Network. The company has vast experience in Planning, Installation, network integration and Maintenance of Switching & Transmission Networks and also has a world class ISO 9000 certified Telecom Training Institute.
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. [BSNL] will recruit Management Trainees (External) through competitive examinations to be held on All India basis, on different dates to fill up position of Deputy Manager in Telecom. Operations, Marketing, Finance, HRM & IT.

Placement pattern:
1st round: written technical test
2nd round: personal interview

TEST PATTERN:
BSNL Junior Telecom Officers (JTO)
BSNL JTO exam consists of a 3 hour objective exam, consisting of three sections:
Section: 1 & Section:2 contains questions from Engineering stream with 50 questions each Section-3 contains 20 questions on general English & GK.
Total 120 questions

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