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How to Make a Sundial in Your Yard - Printable activity sheet for kids

2026-09-23T13:26:07.504-07:00

How did people tell time before clocks and watches were invented? They looked to the sky!

Long before modern clocks, people used the Sun and shadows to keep track of the time. In this simple outdoor science activity, you can make your very own sundial using just a stick, a few rocks, and a sunny day.

It's a fun way to learn about the movement of the Sun, shadows, Earth's rotation, and ancient timekeeping. Even better, you can watch your sundial change throughout the day and make predictions about where the shadow will appear next.

What You'll Need

You don't need any special science equipment for this experiment.

Materials

☀️ A sunny day
A flat, open area outdoors
A straight stick
Several small rocks
A clock or watch

That's it! The Sun does most of the work.

How to Make Your Sundial

Step 1: Find a Sunny Spot

Choose a flat, open area where the Sun will shine for several hours.

Make sure there aren't too many trees, buildings, or other objects that will block the sunlight and cover your sundial with shade.

Step 2: Place the Stick

Push the stick firmly into the ground.

Try to make it stand as straight up and down as possible. This stick will act as the main part of your sundial. The shadow it creates will help you track the time.

Step 3: Mark the First Shadow

Look at your clock and write down the current time.

Now look at the shadow made by the stick. Place a small rock at the tip of the shadow to mark its position.

You can also draw a line from the base of the stick to the rock.

This is your first time marker.

Step 4: Watch the Shadow Move

Now comes the fun part!

Return to your sundial every hour and check the shadow.

Each time you visit, place another rock at the tip of the shadow and write down the time.

Try predicting where the shadow will be before you check!

Will it be longer or shorter? Will it move to the left or the right?

Step 5: Create Your Time Markers

After several hours, you'll have a collection of rocks showing where the shadow appeared at different times.

Connect each mark to the base of the stick with a line. Write the corresponding time next to each mark.

Congratulations — you've made a sundial!

How Does a Sundial Work?

You might be wondering: Why does the shadow move if the stick isn't moving?

The answer has to do with Earth's rotation.

As Earth rotates, the Sun appears to move across the sky during the day. Because the Sun's position changes, the shadow cast by the stick also changes its direction and length.

In the morning, the shadow is usually quite long. As the Sun climbs higher in the sky, the shadow becomes shorter. Later in the afternoon, the shadow becomes longer again as the Sun appears to move toward the horizon.

The shadow can therefore act like the hand of a clock.

Can You Predict the Shadow?

Turn your sundial into a prediction game!

Before checking your sundial, ask:

Where will the shadow be in one hour?
Will the shadow be longer or shorter?
Which direction will it move?
When will the shadow be shortest?
What do you think will happen tomorrow?

Write down your predictions and then check whether you were right.

Try This Experiment Again

A sundial can teach you even more if you observe it on different days.

Try making observations:

In the morning
Around midday
In the afternoon
On different days of the week
During different seasons

Keep a shadow journal and record the time, the length of the shadow, and where it appears.

You can even measure the shadow with a ruler and make a simple graph showing how its length changes during the day.

A Fun Historical Connection

People have been using shadows to understand and measure time for thousands of years. Ancient civilizations developed different types of sundials to track the movement of the Sun.

By making your own sundial, you're using the same basic idea: watch the Sun, observe the shadow, and use what you see to measure time.

A Quick Tip About Noon

Around solar noon, the Sun reaches its highest point in the sky for that location, so the stick's shadow is generally at or near its shortest length for the day.

However, solar noon isn't always exactly 12:00 on your clock. Your clock time can differ because of your location, time zones, and daylight-saving time.

So don't worry if your sundial doesn't perfectly match your watch. The goal of this experiment is to observe the pattern and understand why the shadow changes.

What Did You Discover?

A simple stick and a few rocks can turn your backyard into a science laboratory!

By making a sundial, you've explored astronomy, timekeeping, shadows, and Earth's rotation — all with materials you can find around your home.

Next time you see a shadow moving across the ground, stop and think:

What time could it be? And where will the shadow be next?

Egg Drop Challenge: Can You Save the Egg? - fun activities for kids and grown ups

2026-09-23T13:06:41.162-07:00

Can you build a contraption that keeps an egg from cracking when it falls from a height? There’s only one way to find out!

The Egg Drop Challenge is a fun STEM activity that combines science, creativity, and engineering. Kids get to design, build, test, and improve their own egg-protection system while learning about important scientific ideas such as gravity, force, motion, and impact.

The best part? There is no single “right” design. Kids can experiment with different materials and see what happens when their creations are put to the test.

It’s also a fantastic group activity. Invite a few friends or classmates and turn it into an exciting egg-drop competition!

What You'll Need

You don't need fancy laboratory equipment for this experiment. Gather some everyday materials and let the kids decide how they want to use them.

Materials

🥚 Eggs — have a few extras ready!
Tape
Scissors
Bubble wrap
Balloons
Cardboard
Drinking straws
Sponge
Cotton balls
Rubber bands

Tip: You don't have to use every material. In fact, using fewer materials can make the challenge even more interesting!

How to Do the Egg Drop Challenge

Step 1: Plan Your Design

Before touching the materials, ask the kids to think about their design.

How will you protect the egg?

Will you surround it with soft materials? Build a box around it? Create a frame with straws? Use balloons as cushions?

Encourage kids to draw a quick sketch of their idea before they start building. This is the first step of the engineering process: plan before you build.

Step 2: Build Your Egg Protector

Place the egg in the center of your chosen materials and start building your protective structure.

Make sure the egg is protected from different directions. You can use tape and rubber bands to hold everything together.

Try to leave enough space between the egg and the outside of your structure. That extra space can help absorb some of the force when the egg hits the ground.

Step 3: Check Your Creation

Before the big test, give your egg protector a careful inspection.

Is the egg secure?

Can it move around too much?

Are there any parts that might fall off?

Trim any extra cardboard, tape, or other materials with scissors. Always have an adult help with scissors when needed.

Step 4: Choose a Safe Drop Zone

Now comes the exciting part!

Find a suitable place for your experiment. An outdoor area is usually best. Choose a clear space away from people, pets, windows, cars, and anything that could be damaged.

Have an adult help choose the drop height and supervise the experiment.

Hold your egg protector above the chosen spot and...

3... 2... 1... DROP!

Step 5: Check the Egg

Carefully pick up your creation and open it.

Did the egg survive?

If it cracked, don't worry! A failed test is actually a very useful part of the engineering process.

Ask:

What worked well?
Where did the egg crack?
Which materials helped protect it?
Was the egg too close to the outside?
Could the structure be stronger or softer?
What would you change next time?

Then make a new design and try again!

What's the Science Behind the Egg Drop?

So, what's actually happening when the egg falls?

Gravity Pulls the Egg Down

When you let go of the egg, gravity pulls it toward the ground. The longer it falls, the faster it moves.

The Egg Experiences an Impact

When the egg hits the ground, its motion changes very quickly. That sudden change creates a large force, which can crack the fragile shell.

Your job is to design a structure that helps reduce the effect of that impact.

Materials Can Absorb the Impact

Soft and flexible materials such as sponges, bubble wrap, and cotton balls can cushion the egg.

Other materials, such as cardboard, straws, and rubber bands, can be used to create a structure that keeps the egg away from the ground and spreads the force around the egg.

Some designs can also slow the egg down before it reaches the ground.

That's engineering in action!

Become an Egg-Drop Engineer

Want to make the challenge even more exciting?

Try changing one thing at a time and see whether it makes a difference.

For example:

Drop the egg from different heights.
Try using only three materials.
Give everyone the same materials.
Test two completely different designs.
Add a parachute to slow the fall.
Give each team a limited amount of tape.
Keep track of which designs survive the most drops.

You can even create an egg-drop scorecard and record your results.

How many types of international cuisine are there?

2023-05-30T15:12:00.004-07:00

There is no definitive number of types of international cuisine, as it can be challenging to categorize and define cuisines strictly. Culinary traditions and flavors vary greatly from one country to another, and within countries, there can be significant regional variations. Moreover, globalization and cultural exchange have led to the emergence of fusion cuisines that blend elements from different culinary traditions.

That being said, international cuisine can be broadly classified into various categories based on geographical regions or cultural influences. Some common categories include:

Asian Cuisine

This includes Chinese, Japanese, Thai, Korean, Indian, Vietnamese, Malaysian, Indonesian, and many other Asian cuisines.

European Cuisine

This encompasses cuisines from countries like Italian, French, Spanish, Greek, German, British, Scandinavian, Russian, and others.

Middle Eastern Cuisine

This includes cuisines from countries like Lebanese, Turkish, Persian, Israeli, Moroccan, and others.

Latin American Cuisine

This includes cuisines from countries like Mexican, Brazilian, Argentinian, Peruvian, Colombian, and others.

African Cuisine

This includes cuisines from various regions of Africa, such as Ethiopian, Moroccan, South African, Nigerian, and others.

North American Cuisine

This includes the cuisines of the United States and Canada, as well as Indigenous and regional cuisines within these countries.

Oceanic Cuisine

This encompasses the cuisines of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands, such as Hawaiian, Polynesian, and Maori cuisines.

These are just general categories, and within each category, there are numerous subcategories and regional variations. Additionally, there are also fusion cuisines that combine elements from different culinary traditions. The diversity of international cuisine is vast and continually evolving as culinary traditions interact and adapt to new influences.

"Top" cuisines - What are the Top 10 International Cuisine

2023-05-30T14:58:00.003-07:00

The concept of "top" cuisines can be subjective and may vary depending on personal preferences and cultural contexts. However, here are ten popular international cuisines that are widely recognized and celebrated:

Italian Cuisine: Known for its pasta, pizza, risotto, gelato, and a variety of flavorful sauces and cheeses.

Italian Cuisine

Image by zuzana gazdikova from Pixabay

French Cuisine: Renowned for its rich sauces, delicate pastries, cheeses, and classic dishes like coq au vin and escargots.

Image by takedahrs from Pixabay

Chinese Cuisine: Diverse regional styles, including Sichuan, Cantonese, and Hunan, featuring stir-fries, dim sum, noodles, and Peking duck.

Image by Lindsey White from Pixabay

Japanese Cuisine: Known for sushi, sashimi, tempura, ramen, and the art of washoku (traditional Japanese cuisine).

Thai Cuisine: Known for its vibrant flavors, balance of sweet, sour, salty, and spicy, featuring dishes like pad Thai, green curry, and tom yum soup.

Indian Cuisine: Rich in spices and flavors, with a variety of regional cuisines such as North Indian, South Indian, and Mughlai, offering dishes like curry, biryani, and dosas.

Mexican Cuisine: Famous for its tacos, burritos, enchiladas, guacamole, and diverse flavors stemming from corn, chili peppers, and beans.

Image by Erika Tanith from Pixabay

Spanish Cuisine: Tapas, paella, gazpacho, and a wide range of cured meats and cheeses are some highlights of this cuisine.

Greek Cuisine: Featuring fresh Mediterranean ingredients like olive oil, feta cheese, lamb, and dishes such as moussaka and souvlaki.

Lebanese Cuisine: Known for its mezze (small dishes), kebabs, falafel, hummus, and the use of ingredients like chickpeas, tahini, and parsley.

These cuisines represent a small fraction of the rich culinary diversity found around the world, and there are many more exceptional international cuisines worth exploring.

What does International Cuisine Mean

2023-05-30T14:50:00.005-07:00

International cuisine refers to the diverse range of culinary traditions, dishes, and flavors from around the world. It encompasses the foods and cooking styles associated with different countries and regions, reflecting their cultural, historical, and geographical influences.

International cuisine celebrates the unique ingredients, spices, techniques, and presentation styles used in various cultures.

Macedonian Cuisine Photo source...

With globalization and increased travel, international cuisine has become more accessible and popular in many parts of the world. It includes a wide variety of culinary traditions, such as Italian, French, Chinese, Japanese, Thai, Indian, Mexican, Greek, Middle Eastern, and many others. Each cuisine has its own distinctive ingredients, cooking methods, and flavor profiles that are deeply rooted in the traditions and customs of the respective cultures.

International cuisine offers a rich tapestry of flavors, textures, and aromas, allowing people to explore and appreciate the diverse culinary heritage of different countries. It often involves the use of local and traditional ingredients, as well as regional cooking techniques, which contribute to the uniqueness and authenticity of each cuisine. International cuisine has greatly influenced and enriched culinary practices worldwide, leading to fusion cuisines and the blending of flavors from different parts of the globe.

Traditional methods of food preservation - How to Preserve Food at home

2022-02-18T03:54:00.003-08:00

All food products, on exposure to air, undergo certain changes which unfit them for use as food. It was once thought that these changes were due to oxidation, but they are now known to be caused by minute living organisms present in the air, in the water, in the ground, and in the food itself.

To preserve food two things are necessary; first, to either kill or render harmless those organisms already present; and second, to exclude others from entering.

The first we usually accomplish by cooking, and the second by sealing.

Excerpt from the book: MOTHER'S' REMEDIES / Over One Thousand Tried and Tested Remedies from Mothers of the United States and Canada. By DR. T. J. RITTER / PUBLISHED BY G.H. FOOTE PUB. CO. DETROIT MICH 1921

Photo: Pixabay.com...

In order to live these organisms require three conditions;

first, a particular temperature;
second, a certain amount of moisture;
third, the right kind of food.

By taking away all or any one of these requirements we may stop the growth or, in other words, we may preserve the food.

For example: with the familiar method of cold storage the factor of temperature is removed; in the drying of the fruits and vegetables the factor of moisture is removed; by salting the factor of food is taken away.

The fruits and vegetables, commonly preserved in the home, are divided into five classes:

l.--Canning.

2.--Jellies.

3.--Jams.

4.--Marmalades and Butters.

5.--Pickles.

CANNING - food preservation - Canning Food at Home

Under this head there are four common methods:

1. Steaming

By this method the fruit is put into the sterilized jars, the jars filled with boiling water and the covers loosely set on. Then the jars are set on small blocks of wood in a pan of cold water. Cover this pan and let the water come to a boil and boil for 15 minutes. Remove the jars and fill them with boiling water, if necessary. Seal tightly. Small berries, such as strawberries and raspberries, retain their color and are especially good done in this manner. Whole tomatoes done in this way are especially attractive for winter salads, and corn will keep indefinitely.

2. Boiling in Syrup

This is the common household method of preserving fruits, such as peaches and pears. A syrup is prepared of sugar and water, into this the fruit is dropped and cooked until soft; it is then put into sterile jars, sufficient syrup added to fill jar and the jar then sealed.

3. Preserving

This is the same as boiling in syrup, except that equal quantities of sugar and fruit are used. Small fruits such as berries are usually done in this way.

4. Cold Water Process

This is a simple and easy method to use and is especially desirable for vegetables such as rhubarb. Great care must be taken to use only perfect fruit, because in this method of canning bacteria are merely excluded, not destroyed, and if any are present in the food there is nothing to prevent it from spoiling. If fruit is over-ripe, or not perfectly fresh one of the other methods, such as boiling or steaming, is preferable.

To Can by the Cold Water Process

Pack the fruit in a sterilized jar; pour over it water that has been boiled and cooled, seal your jar and keep it in a cool place. Sometimes a solution of salt and water is used in place of pure water. When saltwater is used food will need to be freshened by being allowed to stand in cold water for some time before using. Vegetables, such as beans, put up in this way are very similar to the fresh product.

Utensils

Among the utensils most necessary for use in preserving foods in the home are scales, measuring cups, porcelain or agate ware sauce pans; earthen or agate ware bowls; silver, agate or wooden spoons; an agate colander; small dipper and funnel; new rubbers and perfect covers for the jars.

How to Sterilize Jars

Wash the jars, fill with cold water, place them on rests, such as small blocks of wood on the bottom of the kettle or boiler and surround them with cold water. If blocks of wood are not obtainable the jars may be wrapped in brown paper to prevent them knocking against each other. Be sure the mouths of the jars are uncovered. Heat gradually until the water boils, boil 15 minutes or until ready to fill them. Sterilize the covers of the jars also, and dip the rubber bands in boiling water just before using.

Directions for Filling Jars

Remove the jars from the boiling water--the handle of a wooden spoon is good to use in removing them. Wring cloth out of hot water and place it on a plate, put the jar to be filled on the hot cloth, put a silver spoon in it,--silver being a good conductor of heat absorbs the heat from the fruit and lessens the danger of breakage. Fill the jar with fruit and then add enough syrup or boiling water, as the case may be, to fill the jar to overflowing. Run a silver knife or spoon down the sides of the jar to allow any enclosed air to escape; add more syrup or water, if necessary. Put on the sterilized rubber and seal tightly.

Tomatoes Canned Whole by Steaming

Select medium sized, firm, ripe tomatoes. Wash and peel. Pour boiling water over the tomatoes and they will peel easily. Pack in sterilized jars, fill with boiling water and put on the lid lightly. Set in cold water on rests and let boil about fifteen minutes. If necessary, fill the jar with boil¬ing water to overflowing. Put on the sterilized rubbers and seal tightly. These tomatoes are especially good for winter salads.

Canning Corn

Cut the corn from the cob while fresh, pack in sterilized jars, and fill with boiling water. Put the cover on lightly and set on a rest, such as small blocks of wood, pieces of thick paper or the corn husks, in a pan of cold water. Let boil from two to three hours. Remove the can, fill to overflowing with boiling water and seal tightly.

Canning String Beans

Select medium-sized beans and string. Pack in a sterilized jar, fill to overflowing with a brine and seal tightly. This brine may be made in two ways: First, by mixing cold water and salt; second, by mixing salt and boiling water and then letting it cool before pouring over the beans. This method is best as the salt dissolves more readily in boiling water than in cold water. One part salt to two parts water makes a strong brine. Keep in a cold place and freshen before using by letting the beans stand in cold water for an hour. In winter these beans make an acceptable substitute for fresh ones.

Canning Rhubarb

Select medium stalks, skin and cut either into one-inch pieces, or eight-inch lengths. Pack in sterilized jars, fill to overflowing with cold water and seal. Rhubarb put up in this way has been known to keep for over a year, and is especially good for pies and sauce.

Steamed Strawberries

Wash and hull the strawberries, and for every quart of strawberries use one cup of sugar. Pack the berries in a sterilized jar, cover with sugar and fill with boiling water. Cover the jar lightly, put in a pan of cold water, on a rest and let the water boil for about fifteen minutes. Remove, seal tightly, and keep in a cool place.

Canning Strawberries

Wash and hull the berries. Make a syrup of sugar and water, using one cup of sugar to every three of water. Boil 10 minutes. Drop the berries in the boiling syrup and cook until soft. This will require only several minutes. Fill the jars to over¬flowing with fruit and syrup, then seal.

Canning Cherries

Follow the method for strawberries. Cherries can be pitted or not, as desired. If pitted, add a few stones for flavor.

Canning Raspberries

Use the same method as for strawberries. The large number of seeds in raspberries are objectionable, and the berries are more often made into jam than canned.

Canned Pears

The pears should be ripe and of fine flavor. Wipe and pare the fruit. If the pears are large they may be cut in halves. Make a syrup of sugar and water, using one cup of sugar to one cup of water. Boil 10 minutes. Put in the pears, cook until soft. Fill sterilized jars and seal.

Canned Peaches

Follow the directions for pears. Peaches may be canned by the steaming method by cutting them in two and removing the stones.

Strawberry Preserves

Wash and hull the berries, then weigh. Make a syrup by boiling three-quarters of their weight in sugar with water, allowing one cup of water to each pound of sugar. Cook syrup 15 minutes, fill glass jars with the berries, add the syrup to overflow the jars. Let stand 15 minutes. By this time the fruit will have shrunk; add enough more fruit to fill the jar. Put on a cover; set on a rest in a pan of cold water, heat to the boiling point, and keep just below boiling for one hour. Raspberries may be done in the same way.

Raspberry and Currant Preserves.

3 lbs. Currants.

3 lbs. Sugar.

4 qts. Raspberries.

Pick over, wash and drain the currants. Put into a preserving kettle and mash. Cook one hour and strain through cheesecloth. Return to the kettle, add the sugar, heat to the boiling point, cook 20 minutes. Add the raspberries and cook until soft. Fill jars to over¬flowing and seal. If the seeds of the currants are not objectionable the mixture need not be strained.

JELLIES - How to make homemade Jelly

Fruits to be used in making jelly should be under¬ripe, rather than over-ripe. Green fruit contains two substances, called "pectase" and "pectose" and, by the action of the sun in ripening, these substances change into pectin which makes fruit jelly.

If the fruit is over-ripe the pectin breaks down into pectosic acid which has not the power of jellying; and as a result the fruit does not jell. If the fruit is a little under-ripe pectin is formed through cooking, and it is often advisable to add some green fruit to the ripe fruit in making jelly. Nearly all failures in jelly making are due either to over-ripe fruit or to the use of too much heat, because in both cases the pectin is lost.

How to Prepare Glasses for Jelly

Wash the glasses, put in a kettle of cold water, heat the water gradually to the boiling point, and boil for fifteen minutes. Remove the glasses and drain; place, while filling, on a cloth wrung out of hot water. If the glasses are wrapped in brown paper with the mouths uncovered they will not break.

How to Cover Jelly Glasses

First: with paraffin. Melt the paraffin over hot water and pour over the jelly when cold about one-fourth inch thick. Be sure to use hot water in melting the paraffin, as it is apt to explode if heated to too high a degree.

Second.--Cut two pieces of white paper, one just the size of the glass and the other larger; dip the first cover in brandy or alcohol and press down tightly over the jelly. White of egg or water may be used, but it is not so good. Then cover with the second paper, sealing edges with white of egg. A tin cover could be used in place of the last paper.

How To Make a Jelly Bag

Take a piece of flannel about three quarters of a yard long, fold the opposite corners together and sew in the shape of a cornucopia, rounding at the end; if the seam is felled it will be more secure. Bind the top with tape and finish with two or three heavy loops by which it may be hung.

Good Fruits for Making Jelly

Crab apples, snow apples, early summer apples, grapes, currants, blackberries, raspberries, quinces, barberries are the fruits most commonly used for making jellies.

General Directions for Making Jelly

Wash the fruit, remove the stems and imperfections. Cut large fruit into pieces. With fruit such as apples or quinces add enough water to cover them, but with watery fruits, such as grapes and currants, omit any water. Cook the fruit, until the juice flows, keeping it just below the boiling point. Remove from the fire and strain through a pointed bag, hung at some height. Allow all the juice possible to drip through before squeezing the bag and keep this juice by itself. Then squeeze the bag and use the juice thus obtained for second grade jelly, which, while it is not as clear as the first lot, can be used for jelly cakes, etc. Measure the juice, bring to the boiling point, boil slowly two or three minutes, then add an equal quantity of heated sugar. Boil until the jelly thickens when dropped upon a cold plate. Pour slowly into sterilized jelly glasses and set away to harden. The jelly bags should be sterilized before using.

How to Make Apple Jelly

Wipe the apples, remove the stem and blossom ends and cut into quarters. Put into granite or, porcelain lined preserving kettle and add enough cold water to come nearly to the top of the apples. Cook slowly until the apples are soft. Mash and strain through a coarse sieve. Allow the juice to drip through a jelly bag. Boil slowly for about 20 minutes, add an equal quantity of heated sugar, cook for about five minutes or until the jelly will harden when dropped on a cold saucer. Pour into sterilized jelly glasses and seal when cold. If the apples are pared a very light colored jelly is obtained.

How to Make Crab Apple Jelly

Follow the recipe for apple jelly and use red cheeked crab apples, if possible.

How to Make Quince Jelly

Follow the recipe for apple jelly, substituting quinces for apples. Remove the seeds from the fruit. Sometimes apples and quinces are used in combination and make an excellent jelly.

How to Make Grape Jelly

Pick over the grapes, wash and remove stems. Heat to the boiling point, mash and boil 30 minutes. Strain through a jelly bag, return the juice to the kettle and boil slowly for about five min¬utes. Add an equal quantity of heated sugar. Boil three minutes or until it hardens on a cold plate. Skim if necessary. Pour into sterilized jelly glasses; seal when cold. Be very sure the grapes are not over-ripe. It is very desirable to add a few green grapes. Wild grapes make excellent jelly to serve with game.

How to Make Barberry Jelly

This is considered quite a delicacy, and is made the same as grape jelly, except that a very little water,--about one cup to one peck of berries--is sometimes added.

How to Make Currant Jelly

Pick over the currants but do not remove the stems, wash and drain. Put into a preserving kettle and mash. Cook slowly for about 20 to 30 minutes. Strain through a coarse strainer and then through a jelly bag. Follow directions for grape jelly.

A combination of currants and raspberries makes a good jelly.

How to Make Raspberry Jelly

Follow the directions for grape jelly. Raspberry jelly is hard to make and should not be tried if the fruit is not perfectly fresh or if it is at all over-ripe.

HOMEMADE JAMS

The pulp, seeds and skins are all retained in jams; often material that is left from jellies, and so on, can be used in this way by adding spices and nuts to give flavor. Sterilization and the exclusion of air are not quite so important in this class of preserving on account of the large amount of sugar used which takes away food from the bacteria. Equal amounts of sugar and fruits are used in making jams.

How to Make Raspberry Jam

Pick over the raspberries, mash in a preserving kettle with a wooden masher. Heat slowly to the boiling point, and add an equal quantity of heated sugar. Cook slowly for about 45 minutes. Put into sterilized jars.

How to Make Strawberry Jam

Wash and hull the berries. Add the sugar gradually so that the juice of the berries will dissolve it. Boil about 20 minutes, or until it will harden when dropped on a cold plate. Pour into sterilized glasses.

How to Make Grape Jam

8 Cups of Grapes
4 Cups of Sugar.

Wash the grapes, remove the stems and squeeze the pulp from the skins into a preserving kettle. Put the skins on a granite plate and save them. Boil the pulp until the seeds separate easily, stirring constantly. Strain through a sieve, add the skins to the strained mixture, measure, return to the kettle, and add an equal amount of sugar. Boil gently for 15 minutes or until the jam is very thick. Pour into sterilized glasses and seal when cold. The mixture needs careful watching and stirring, as it will burn easily, especially after the sugar is added.

Rhubarb Conserve

2 lbs. rhubarb.
2 oranges.
3 lbs. sugar.
1 lb. shelled nuts.
Juice of 3 Lemons.

Remove the leaves and pieces of root from the rhubarb and wash the stalks in cold water. Cut into one-inch pieces. Do not remove the skin unless it is fibrous. If the skin is removed do this before cutting in pieces. Wash the oranges and either grate the rind or cut the yel¬low into strips thin enough to be seen through. Wash the lemons and use only the juice. A little rind may be used, if desired, but it will take away from the orange flavor. The nuts need not be blanched, but should be broken into pieces of medium size. Any nut may be used, but walnuts are especially good. Mix all the materials, except the nuts, with the sugar. Cook slowly, stirring constantly, until the mixture is thick,--about three-quarters of an hour. After the first half hour's cooking, add the nuts. Pour into sterilized jelly glasses and seal when cold.

MARMALADES AND BUTTERS

Marmalades and butters are really strained jams and the same rules hold true as for jams.

How To Make Apple Marmalade

Pare and core the apples. Cook until tender with just enough water to keep from burning. Force through a fine sieve, return to the fire with a scant pound of sugar and the juice and rind of one lemon for each pound of pulp. Cook, stirring with a wooden spoon until the marmalade is thick when dropped on a cold saucer. Pour into sterilized glasses.

How To Make Peach Marmalade

Follow the recipe for apple marmalade, adding spices, such as cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves.

How To Make Crab Apple Marmalade

When making crab apple jelly, core the apples and after straining, use the pulp that is left to make marmalade. Various seasonings can he added. Among the best are cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, grated rind and juice of oranges and lemons. When seasoned according to taste, add sugar to the pulp, and cook until of the desired consistency. Seal in sterilized jars.

How To Make Rhubarb Marmalade

2 lbs. rhubarb.
3 lbs. sugar.
Rind and pulp of 6 oranges.

Boil the ingredients together until thick. The rind of the orange may be grated and cooked by itself until tender before adding to the rest of the materials. Pour into sterilized glasses and seal.

Pineapple

Pare and remove the eyes from pineapple, then grate. Weigh the pulp and heat two-thirds of its weight in sugar. Cook the pineapple in an uncovered dish for some time. Then add the juice of one lemon for each pound of fruit. Then add the sugar and boil until thick,--about five minutes. Pour into sterilized jelly glasses.

PICKLES

Under this heading are classified pickles and relishes, such as chili sauce, chow chows and catsups. Pickling is preserving in salt or acid liquor. Pickles do not contain much nutritive value, but add much to a meal in making it attractive. Cucumber pickles should never look as green when pickled as the fruit on the vine; if they do it is almost certain that some preservative has been used.

Sweet Pickled Pears or Peaches.

1 peck peaches.
4 lbs. brown sugar.
1 quart vinegar.
2 ozs. stick cinnamon.
Cloves.

Boil sugar, vinegar and cinnamon for 20 minutes. Dip peaches quickly in hot water and rub off fur with a towel. Stick each peach with three or four cloves, put into syrup and cook until soft. Cook only enough fruit at a time to fill one jar. Seal in sterilized jars. Pears may be prepared in the same way.

How to make Chili Sauce

25 ripe tomatoes (medium sized).
1/2 cup brown sugar.
4 large white onions.
6 peppers. (chopped fine)
4 teaspoons of ginger.
4 teaspoons of allspice
1 teaspoons of cloves.
2 tablespoons of salt.
1 qt. vinegar.

Mix these materials and cook for one hour, stirring occasionally. The consistency should be quite thick and more than an hour's cooking may be necessary. Strain or not as desired, but if strained put back in the kettle and bring to the boiling point before scaling. Use tall wide necked bottles and fill to overflowing, using the same precautions as you would in canning fruit. The chili sauce is quite "hot," but this can be remedied by altering the number of peppers and onions. In preparing, the tomatoes should be washed; scalded and peeled. The peppers should be washed in cold water, the stems removed and the peppers chopped finely. Chop the onions finely in the same bowl as the peppers.

How to make Olive Oil Pickles.

8 qts. sliced cucumbers.
1 teaspoon cloves.
1 cup olive oil.
1 teaspoon allspice.
1 cup sugar.
1 teaspoon celery seed.
1 teaspoon mustard seed.
4 teaspoons cinnamon.
One dozen onions.

Slice the cucumbers thin and let stand over night in a weak brine. In the morning drain, add the onions sliced thin. Mix the ingredients given. Put the cucumbers and onions in a crock, pour over the mixture and add enough vinegar to cover. Mix well.

How to make Sweet Cucumber Pickles

Select small cucumbers. Wash well but do not peel. Put into a crock one cup of salt and 4 quarts of cucumbers. Cover with boiling water and let stand over night. In the morning remove from the brine, put in a granite kettle, cover with vinegar to which has been added mustard seeds, whole cloves, stick cinnamon, two cups of sugar and other desired seasonings. Let it come to the boiling point, but not boil. Seal while hot.

How to make Green Tomato Pickles

Remove a thin slice from each end of the green tomatoes. Slice and sprinkle one peck of tomatoes with one cup of salt and let stand over night. Drain, boil 15 minutes in two quarts of boiling water and one quart of vinegar. Drain again. Cook for 10 minutes the following: one gallon of vinegar, 2 pounds or less of sugar, 1 red pepper, 10 teaspoon mustard seed, 3/4 cup cinnamon bark, and any other seasonings desired. Add the tomatoes and simmer for about one hour, stirring occasionally. The spices should be removed; this is easily accomplished if they are tied in a muslin bag. Pack in sterilized jars.

How to test the purity of honey at home

2022-02-18T02:46:00.001-08:00

Honey producers should list all the ingredients the honey contains. If the honey is not pure natural, it should be written on the label, including the percentage of real honey, if any. However, there are many frauds, so here are 10 tricks that can help you determine if the honey is pure natural honey.

Photos: Apiary101.com...

1. Rub a little honey between the forefinger and thumb until it falls apart. Some honey may be absorbed into the skin, which is good since pure honey is good for the skin. Natural honey is not sticky. If what you rub is sticky, then it has sugar or artificial sweeteners in it.

2. Place a few drops of honey on a paper or paper towel. Pure honey will not get through the paper for a long time..

3 Mix a little honey with egg yolk. If the honey is pure, when you whisk the egg yolk, it will seem like it's cooked.

4 Fill a glass with water and add 1 tablespoon of honey. Pure honey will coagulate and drop to the bottom. Fake honey will begin to melt.

5 Spread honey on a slice of bread. Natural honey will harden the bread in a few minutes. Artificial honey will moisten the bread because of the water content.

6 Real honey will give you a stinging sensation in the mouth just before swallowing. Fake honey can’t achieve this.

7 Look at whether the honey will crystallize over time. Imitation honey will stay as smooth as syrup, no matter how long it stood.

8 Dip in honey top of a match and try to ignite. Fake honey contains water so that a match can’t ignite.

9 Put in the microwave two to three tablespoons of honey. Preheat over high heat. Natural honey will soon caramelize and does not become foamy. Fake honey will be difficult to caramelize and will be full of bubbles.

Why do the leaves of the trees change color in autumn?

2021-12-22T06:06:00.002-08:00

As we know, in autumn the leaves of the trees turn red and yellow and later fall off. But do we know why this is happening?

Basically, plants only grow when there is sunlight, which appears as white light, but is made up of rainbow colors. In summer, the leaves of most plants are green due to the high levels of sunlight. They have the dye chlorophyll, which reflects the green part of the sunlight, which is why the leaves appear green. The other parts of the sunlight are absorbed, ie "swallowed" by the plant and used to convert light into starch (photosynthesis). In addition to chlorophyll, there are other color pigments, namely carotenes (orange), anthocyanins (red), or xanthophylls (yellow). In summer, however, these are usually completely covered by the green chlorophyll.

In autumn the solar radiation is weaker, the days become shorter, and the temperatures are lower. As a result, the rate of photosynthesis also reduces. The yellow, red, and orange components of the light are not consumed, and less chlorophyll is needed and thus less is produced. As a result, less green light is reflected, instead, the red, yellow, and orange light components are now also reflected.

Since the plants now carry out less photosynthesis, they pull the nutrients out of the leaves in order to store them in the trunk, branches, and roots as reserve materials. After the leaves have served as places of energy production over the summer and all nutrients have been removed, only some of the yellow-red coloring matter remains.

In this way, the tree prepares itself for winter rest, since the leaves fall off as protection against evaporation.

Why Leaves Fall from Trees in Autumn?

Deciduous plants lose their leaves to protect themselves. There are many factors that make it difficult for plants to retain their foliage and photosynthesize in winter. One reason is the ground frost: Because of it, no water can be absorbed from the earth into the roots. If a tree were to keep its leaves in winter, they would allow a lot of water to evaporate. However, no new water could be absorbed by the plant from the frozen ground.

In addition, pausing life processes in winter is a good way to save energy. The effectiveness of photosynthesis is greatly reduced in the cold - so the tree could hardly gain the energy for all the complex measures for frost protection.

A bare tree also has the advantage that it can withstand a possible snow load better. Hardly any snow remains on the thin branches and twigs, which makes them less likely to break off.

What is the purpose of leaf shedding?

The mechanism behind the leaf shedding is relatively simple and effective at the same time. A thin layer of cork forms at each leaf base. This serves as protection because it closes the ducts. This layer also protects against frost and pathogens. If the layer is completely formed, the leaf loses its connection to the branch and falls down with the slightest gust of wind.

How are evergreen trees able to keep their leaves?

Evergreen plants have leaves that are better protected against frost. Building such a stable foliage is time-consuming, which is why it is not worth shedding. The design of the leaves results in a lower photosynthesis output, but the plant can also use its leaves in winter if the conditions allow it for a short time.

Why did the Soviet Union collapse?

2021-12-16T23:51:00.008-08:00

It can be said that the main reason for the collapse of the Soviet Union was the major economic problems, due to the high spending on the arms race.

The centrally controlled economy threatened to collapse, and the member states of the Union of Soviet Republics (USSR) demanded more independence and demanded an opening to the West.

"Solidarność" union

In the 1980s, protests against the economic situation and the dictatorship of the Communist Party increased in the states of the Eastern Bloc.

In Poland, the Solidarność union (Polish for “solidarity” full name - Independent Self-Governing Trade Union "Solidarity") was formed at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk, Poland. It was the first independent trade union in a Warsaw Pact country to be recognized by the state, and its leader was Lech Wałęsa, awarded with Nobel Peace Prize in 1983.

Lech Wałęsa, August 1980

Solidarność was banned in 1981, but continued to exist underground and campaigned for social rights, democracy, and freedom of expression. It is widely recognized as having played a central role at the end of Communist rule in Poland.

Soviet Union-United States summit arrival ceremony with President H.W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev, 31 May 1990

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev, (born March 2, 1931), Soviet official, general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) from 1985 to 1991, and president of the Soviet Union in 1990–91

With the election of Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1985, the policy of the Soviet Union changed. He proclaimed a "new way of thinking" that would henceforth dominate Soviet foreign policy. Since April 1986, in several public speeches, he has granted every socialist country the freedom to "go its own way". This abandonment of the Brezhnev Doctrine is generally considered to be the beginning of the end of the Eastern Bloc. Gorbachev recognized the economic and political weaknesses of the communist system and tried to save it through reforms. The two most important were perestroika and glasnost.

Perestroika (Russian for “restructuring”) describes the economic and political change within the USSR towards more freedom and democracy.

Perestroika program aimed to restructure Soviet economic and political policy. The communist central economy was loosened and elements of the free-market competition were allowed. The Soviet Union took up more economic ties with the West. In 1989 the first free elections were held in the Soviet Union.

Glasnost, (Russian for “openness”) was a Soviet policy of open discussion of political and social issues.

The Soviet government tried to make political decisions more transparent and allowed its citizens more freedom of expression and freedom of the press.

In 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev and US President Ronald Reagan signed a treaty to disarm certain nuclear weapons. This was an important step in defusing the Cold War. In 1989 Gorbachev proclaimed freedom of religion for all Soviet citizens and granted the Eastern Bloc states more political independence.

In the Warsaw Pact states, the previously brutally suppressed protest movements were now gaining massive support, and at the end of 1989 the protests in the capitals and provinces of the Eastern bloc intensified to such an extent that the communist governments were overthrown everywhere.

In October 1989 the Republic of Hungary was proclaimed.

Fall of the Berlin Wall

The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 was a pivotal event in world history that marked the fall of the Iron Curtain and the start of the fall of communism in Eastern and Central Europe. From September 1989, so-called Monday demonstrations took place in Leipzig and other East German cities, in which tens of thousands of people took part.

Berlin Wall graffiti

In a peaceful revolution, the SED regime (Socialist Unity Party of Germany) was overthrown and a parliamentary democracy was established. On the night of November 10th, all border posts within Berlin were opened. Crowds climbed the wall and occupied it. In the days that followed, all border crossings in the GDR were opened for free travel. The demolition of the Berlin Wall began.

The end of the Eastern Bloc and the Soviet Union (USSR)

The opening of the Iron Curtain accelerated the collapse of the Eastern Bloc. In the states of the Eastern Bloc, political and economic upheavals took place, mostly in a peaceful manner. The states freed themselves from Soviet domination and oriented themselves towards Western models:

On November 17, 1989, only nine days after the fall of the Berlin Wall, students gathered in Prague, Czechoslovakia to protest against the communist regime. In the course of the so-called Velvet Revolution, which was largely peaceful, the Czechoslovak Federal Republic was founded in December 1989.

In December 1989 the Republic of Poland was proclaimed. The first partially free parliamentary elections since 1945 had already been held in June.

In Bulgaria, the head of state and party leader Todor Zhivkov (Bulgarian: Тодор Живков) resigned on November 10, 1989, and Andrey Lukanov (Bulgarian: Андрей Луканов won the elections on February 3, 1990.

In Romania, parliamentary democracy was established after a violent uprising against the communist regime. On December 21, the Romanian secret service "Securitate" attacked a mass demonstration in Bucharest and caused a bloodbath with estimated 689–1,290 dead. In the following days, the dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu was overthrown and after an unsuccessful attempt to escape. He and his wife Elena were shot dead on December 25th, 1989.

On October 3, 1990, the two German states were reunified. This day is celebrated today as the Day of German Unity.

The political changes in the Eastern European states also had an impact on the Soviet Union. The republics of the Soviet Union also demanded their independence. After sometimes violent protests and the August coup in 1991 against the Soviet government, the USSR disintegrated into individual states.

With the Soviet Union in 1991, the Council for Mutual Economic Aid (Economic alliance of the Eastern Bloc countries) and the Warsaw Pact (Military alliance of the Eastern Bloc countries) dissolved.

The last president of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev resigned on Christmas Day 1991

Why Is Salt Used to Melt Ice on the Roads in Winter?

2021-12-16T15:17:00.008-08:00

We are used to seeing trucks dumping salt on the road during periods of extreme cold that we almost forget to wonder why.

Salt helps fight snow and ice, and so, to secure the roads. But how is this done?

When the temperature drops below 0° C, water in liquid form turns into a solid-state (ice). Same we observe when we put water in a freezer. The fundamental difference between liquid water and solid water (ice) is how individual water molecules organize themselves.

In liquid water, molecules (made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom - H2O) are free to move relative to each other.

When the temperature drops below 0 °, these movements slow down until they stop. The water molecules then bind together in a sufficiently durable manner, symmetrically, freezing in the form of ice, solid water.

If the cooling process is slow, magnificent ice crystals are created, as the bonds between individual molecules have time to form very symmetrically on a large scale.

Now let's analyze the kitchen salt (sodium chloride). When trucks put salt on icy roads, the salt molecules break down into their sodium and chloride ions, just like when you put kitchen salt in a glass of water. Due to their proximity, these ions locally disturb the arrangement of water molecules.

The process then propagates deep into the rest of the ice, and slowly, solid water turns into liquid and salty water.

You might think that when the ice melts with the help of salt, the temperature rises above 0°, but actually, the contrary happens.

If pure, water freezes at 0°C, and changes from liquid to a solid-state. If water is impure, its melting point drops below 0°C. Depending on the nature of the impurities and their quantity, the melting point is different. The salt spread on the roads is capable of lowering the melting temperature of the water, depending on the amount that is added. The more salt is added, the more the melting point drops below zero.

But when temperatures drop very low, table salt is no longer effective enough to melt ice. Other salts can be used, but they are more aggressive for the environment.

To melt ice on the roads, cooking salt can be replaced by another type of salt (eg. calcium chloride or magnesium chloride); where the same dissolution process is observed. But the result is a little different since one molecule of calcium chloride or magnesium chloride produces two chloride ions for one calcium or magnesium ion. In this case, the presence of a greater number of ions makes it possible to accelerate the melting of the ice.

Why do people talk in their sleep, and Can you reveal secrets while sleep talking?

2021-12-15T14:57:00.006-08:00

In general, sleep talking is not very common, since it’s estimated that only five percent of adults are regularly affected by somniloquy. Children talk much more often in their sleep. As they get older, however, the phenomenon usually resolves itself.

Photo: Pixabay.com...

It is very rare that we speak clear words or even entire sentences in our sleep, since the speech muscles are actually completely relaxed during sleep. This is why we tend to utter incomprehensible scraps of words or individual sounds when we sleep.

Thus revealing secrets from someone who talks in their sleep is more of a popular film trick.

Why do people talk in their sleep?

Sleep-talking usually occurs during the dream phases. It can happen that people simply pronounce dreamed sentences aloud. But even when the different phases of sleep are changed, those affected sometimes experience the phenomenon of speaking while sleeping. What we tell in sleep does not necessarily have to correspond to the truth or reveal inner needs and long-kept secrets, but, like dreaming itself, is a processing of our everyday life. Exactly which scraps of words emerge and how much is mixed up with the dream cannot be assigned with absolute certainty.

There are some factors that actually make it more likely that you will speak while you sleep. These include:

Stress
Fever
Poor sleep
Certain drugs
Different diseases
Consumption of nicotine or alcohol

What can I do about sleep-talking?

Although sleep-talking does not have any negative consequences for our health, it could lead to problems if you talk more often in your sleep and your partner feels disturbed by it. Following tips can be helpful if you want to reduce or stop sleep-talking.

Relax: Yoga helps your body and mind to shut down and relax before going to sleep.
Light meals: It’s recommended to eat light meals at least three hours before bed.
Stop smoking/drinking: alcohol, cigarettes and caffeine should be avoided in the evening because they can have a negative effect on sleep.
Establish a routine: bedtime rituals such as reading a few pages every evening or drinking a certain tea help your body to adjust for sleeping.

Why is breakfast the most important meal of the day?

2021-12-14T15:53:00.003-08:00

We have all heard countless times that breakfast is the most important meal of the day. But there are also people who cannot eat anything in the morning until they are hungry at some point. There is a public debate about whether it is healthy to have breakfast in the morning.

Photo: Pixabay.com...

A morning booster

Breakfast is the first meal that will regulate the whole day. We come from a night we spent on an empty stomach. The body therefore needs energy and to stimulate the absorption of dopamine, which is, so to speak, the starter in the morning. To do this, it must be supplied with the necessary nutrients in sufficient quantity and quality.

People who do not consume protein in the morning and are prone to hypoglycemia can quickly experience a drop in concentration and difficulty memorizing in the morning. The first instinct, then, will be to consume sugar and this is a gesture that should absolutely be avoided if you do not want your energy to drop completely afterwards.

Photo: Pixabay.com...

This also applies to children, who tend to have a very sweet breakfast. The problem is, just two hours later, they'll likely experience a drop in blood pressure, yawning, and a new sense of hunger.

Breakfast is therefore the most important meal of the day, but on condition that it supplies the body with a high quality supplies.

Does the body really need a morning meal?

If we analyze the topic from an evolutionary point of view, it turns out that humans are by no means dependent on morning food intake. For example, primitive people generally had nothing to eat when they woke up. Instead, they had enough energy to hunt and “earn” their breakfast. The blood sugar level is quite high a few hours after waking up - which means that performance in the form of energy consumption could actually be achieved during this period. So that you need a decent breakfast in order to be able to do something in the morning is wrong from a scientific point of view.

We can say that there isn't a straightforward answer to whether or not breakfast is healthy, but it doesn't really matter. Ultimately, everyone can decide for themselves what and how much to eat.

The importance of healthy breakfast

We are talking about the most important “meal” of the day. So, like with lunch or dinner, it's important to take the time to sit down at the table instead of quickly swallowing it at a corner of the table. A moment that is all the more valuable for people with very stressful days to allow themselves 20 minutes to eat in peace.

The breakfast menu should be based on our needs, physical activity, but also the digestive system. It's called the King's meal because anything is possible at this time of day. In fact, morning is the only time of day the body synthesizes cholesterol, so we can eat fatty foods without affecting our health and weight.

As for hydration, opting for a hot drink is ideal as the body needs to warm up when you wake up. Therefore, cold drinks should be avoided to avoid thermal shock to the body. Lukewarm drinks at room temperature are preferred.

Next, we should provide a source of vitamins with a fruit, compote with no sugar, or even dried fruit. If you prefer juices, be sure to choose a fruit juice with no added sugar.

For grain intake, choose whole grain bread, oat flakes, spelled, chestnuts or buckwheat kernels puffed with honey. Here, too, it is important to limit the excess sugar.

A source of fatty acids is also interesting for breakfast. We can opt for oil seeds like walnuts, hazelnuts, almonds .

To avoid Hypoglycemia (Low Blood sugar), you can also have a protein intake with eggs, oily fish, cheese (ideally made from sheep or goat milk), turkey breast, or bacon.

Why do we have daylight savings time and when did it start?

2021-12-14T05:16:00.001-08:00

As its name suggests, the purpose daylight savings time (changing the time) is to make better use of daylight and therefore save energy. Benjamin Franklin, one of America's founding fathers, mentions the time change in a letter from 1784 "The Cost of Light." Franklin humorously criticized the consumption of candles and suggested waking people up at sunrise to make better use of sunlight.

Photo: Pixabay.com

For the first time, official daylight saving time was first introduced in Germany in 1916. In addition to saving raw materials, workers in the arms industry should be able to make better use of the days. After the end of the war, the government of the Weimar Republic abolished the time change. In the meantime, countries like France and Great Britain have also imposed daylight saving time on their populations.

The National Socialists reintroduced daylight saving time to support the war economy from 1940 to 1945. In the postwar years with the division of Germany into occupation zones, things became even more complicated because in the West and the East, different times or summer times applied. The changeover was suspended again in 1950, until the oil crisis of the 1970s.

With a decision by the European Union, since 1996 uniform dates for the time change to summer time have been in effect throughout the European Union:

On the last Sunday in March, the clock is put forward one hour from 2 am to 3 am
On the last Sunday in October, the clock is set back from 3 am to 2 am

Effects of summer and winter time

The assumption that the clock change could have a positive effect on energy consumption has not been confirmed. Less electricity for lightning is actually used in the evenings during summer, but on the other side, more heating power is used in the morning in spring and autumn.

Thus the increased consumption of heating energy compensates for the electricity saved. Also with the introduction of energy-saving lamps, time change has lost its original purpose.

Does daylight Savings affect mental health?

There are many research papers that warn about the massive effects of the time change. The time change affects the body like a little jet lag, from which people with sleep disorders and organic disorders suffer particularly. The reason for this lies in the disruption of the internal biological clock, which is disrupted by the time change. It also causes problems for domestic animals, especially those raised on farms. For example, by changing the working hours of farmers, the biological clock of breeding animals, such as cows, or sheep’s is disturbed, and certain period of adjustment is needed.

Why do people say "bless you" when you sneeze?

2021-12-14T02:05:00.001-08:00

During the first wave of plagues in the 6th century, Pope Gregory the Great ordered that anyone who sneezed should be blessed immediately, as sneezing was often the first sign of plague infection.

Soon "God bless you" became a custom for occasional sneezes and its still used today.

If we analyze the physiological process of sneezing, it stimulates sudden contraction of the exhalation muscles and thus the expulsion of nasal secretions as well as dust and foreign bodies through the nose and mouth. Due to the large number and high speed of the droplets emitted, possible infection can be spread to a distance up to five meters.

So it's no wonder that we wish each other “good health”.

Photo: Pixabay.com

Sneezing is a defense reaction against potentially harmful stimuli. Stopping the urge to sneeze is a bad idea for several reasons.

How to sneeze properly

The speed of a sneeze can easily match a hurricane. The suppression of sneezing can lead to increased pressure in the draining cerebral vein and thus in the head, similar to pressing. For this reason alone, suppressing sneezing is not recommended.

You should stop your nose when sneezing either. This builds up pressure and presses nasal secretions into the sinuses.

Until now, it was a good practice to hold your hand over your mouth when sneezing. But not only since the outbreak of the corona pandemic some say that this does more harm than good, since viruses spread quickly through the hands.

Its recommended do sneeze in clean paper handkerchief held in front of your mouth, or the crook of the arm should only be used as the second option.

6 reasons why do cats hate water

2021-12-13T14:44:00.007-08:00

Domestic cats have a strong aversion to water. The main reason for this is their fur. Cats can instinctively swim and actually pretty well. If a cat accidentally falls into the water, it will swim straight to the nearest solid surface after a quick orientation.

An old Chinese proverb says "All cats love fish but fear to wet their paws".

Even before cats became pets, bathing or swimming in nature was not a behavior that was beneficial for cats. On the contrary: wet fur even gives cats several disadvantages.

Photo: Pixabay.com

1 - Cats use their sense of smell to orientate themselves strongly. A wet fur disturbs this and so restricts the orientation.

2 - Cats protect their fur from water. If their thick fur gets wet, the weight increases, which means that the cat is severely disturbed in its balance and flexibility and that it is hindered in the event of a possible escape from danger.

3 - Cats are very clean animals and spend several hours a day grooming their fur. If the fur gets wet, the hygiene is over.

4 - Their fur protects them from the cold. A wet fur, on the other hand, loses its insulating effect and thus also the protection against the cold. Due to the high density of hair, the fur also takes a long time to dry.

Photo: Pixabay.com

5 - Cats lose their scent through water. Thanks to intensive grooming, cats get their very own personal scent, which other cats can also perceive from a distance. Once the fur has gotten wet, it takes a long time for its own scent to restore itself.

6 - There is also the shock factor. For example, accidentally falling into a full bathtub can be a frightening experience for a cat and they may fear water for the rest of their life.

Photo: Shutterstock...

Do all domestic cats hate water?

An aversion to water is one of the most well-known traits of domestic cats. However, this does not apply to all cats. Certain breeds of domesticated cats, such as the Maine Coon, Bengal, and Turkish Van, are less afraid of water and occasionally swim. What makes these breeds unique is the texture of their fur, which makes them more water resistant than other breeds.

Why is Neptune blue and Why is Neptune the coldest planet?

2021-12-13T04:30:00.003-08:00

Why is Neptune blue? - Due to the composition of its atmosphere, Neptune appears blue, although there is no liquid water on its surface. Therefore its name “Neptune”, god of the sea in Roman mythology, is misleading.

Methane in the atmosphere gives Neptune its color.

Neptune is almost four times the size of the earth, and has an extensive atmosphere consisting primarily of hydrogen and helium. At the low temperatures at the visible upper cloud limit of minus 215 degrees, methane freezes, creating haze particles. That is why the planet appears blue.

Photo: Pixabey.com...

Neptune is the furthest planet from the Sun in our solar system. While the earth orbits the sun in 365 days, it takes Neptune 165 years. Neptune has a diameter of 49.528 kilometers and although is much bigger, it rotates faster on its own axis than the earth: in 16 hours and 7 minutes instead of 24 hours.

When was Neptune discovered?

Neptune was the first planet discovered through mathematical calculations. In 1846, John Couch Adams (5 June 1819 – 21 January 1892), a British mathematician and astronomer, determined the position of Neptune using only mathematics.

Around the same time, the French astronomer Urbain Le Verrier (11 March 1811 – 23 September 1877) calculated the position of the planet independently of Adams.

Le Verrier shared his findings with the German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle (9 June 1812 – 10 July 1910), who identified Neptune in the Berlin observatory on September 23, 1846 and increased the number of known planets to eight.

Voyager 2's flyby in 1986 and 1989 has been the only visit by a space probe to date.

How far is Neptune from the Earth?

Photo: Pixabey.com...

As Neptune and Earth move through space, the distance between them changes constantly. When the planets are closest together, they are 4.3 billion km away. Neptune is 4.7 billion kilometers from Earth. Due to its extreme distance from our planet, Neptune became the last planet in the solar system to be discovered.

Neptune is the windiest planet in the solar system: the winds reach speeds of around 2,100 km / h. Because Neptune is a great distance from the Sun, its outer atmosphere is one of the coldest places in the solar system.

Neptune's moons

Neptune fits into the rank of the gas planets, surrounded by rings and has 14 moons named for minor water deities in Greek mythology. By far the most interesting is the Neptune moon Triton, with a diameter of 2760 kilometers. It is smaller than the Earth's moon, but shows a variety of surface structures. Other confirmed moons on Neptune are: Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, Galatea, Larissa, Hippocamp, Proteus, Nereid, Halimede, Sao, Laomedeia, Psamathe, Neso

Neptune's rings

Neptune has five main rings named after the astronomers who studied this blue planet. They were discovered in 1984 and finally captured by Voyager 2 in 1989.

Why Are Some Eggs Brown and Others White? The Science Behind Eggshell Color

2021-12-13T02:16:00.007-08:00

Why are some chicken eggs brown while others are white? Does it depend on the chicken’s breed, its diet, or even the color of its feathers? Although brown and white eggs may look quite different on the outside, the reason for their color is surprisingly straightforward: genetics and pigments produced by the hen.

All chicken eggshells are made primarily of calcium carbonate, a naturally white mineral. White is therefore the basic color of an eggshell. Brown eggs become brown because certain pigments are deposited onto the shell during the final stages of egg formation.

But there is more to the story. Eggshell color is determined largely by the chicken’s genetics, and the color of the hen itself isn't always a reliable clue. Diet, meanwhile, can affect the color of the yolk, but generally does not determine whether an eggshell is brown or white.

So, are brown eggs healthier than white eggs? And do they taste different?

Photo: Pixabey...

What determines the color of a chicken egg?

The color of a chicken’s eggshell is primarily genetically determined. Different breeds of chickens have different genes that control whether pigments are added to the developing eggshell.

Some breeds produce eggs with little or no shell pigment, resulting in white eggs. Other breeds produce pigments that give the shell shades ranging from light tan to deep brown.

This means that egg color is a characteristic of the chicken breed, rather than something caused by the chicken's diet.

It is also a common misconception that a chicken's feather color determines the color of its eggs. Although certain breeds may have a typical combination of feather and eggshell colors, the two traits are not directly linked. A brown or reddish chicken can lay white eggs, while some chickens with lighter feathers can lay colored eggs.

Why are brown eggs brown?

Brown eggshells contain pigments that are deposited on the shell while the egg is being formed inside the hen.

One of the important pigments involved is protoporphyrin IX, which is related to the breakdown of hemoglobin. Depending on the breed and the concentration of pigments produced by the hen, the eggshell can develop different shades of brown.

The intensity of the color can vary considerably. Some eggs may be pale cream or tan, while others can be a much deeper reddish-brown.

The pigment is primarily deposited on the outside of the shell, which is why the inside of a brown egg can look much whiter than its exterior.

When does an egg get its color?

An egg takes roughly a day to form inside a hen. Most of the egg's development occurs before the final stage when the shell receives its characteristic pigmentation.

The shell itself is formed mainly from calcium carbonate. Near the end of the process, pigment is deposited onto the shell in breeds that produce colored eggs.

This explains why an egg can spend much of its development without its final color and acquire its recognizable brown coloration relatively late in the process.

Why do some chickens lay white eggs?

White eggs are produced by chicken breeds that do not deposit significant amounts of pigment onto the eggshell.

The eggshell is naturally white because its primary mineral component, calcium carbonate, is white. When little or no pigment is added during shell formation, the egg remains white.

So, in simple terms:

White eggs: little or no pigment is deposited on the shell.
Brown eggs: pigments are deposited onto the shell.
Different shades: the amount and type of pigment can vary between breeds and individual hens.

Does a chicken's diet determine egg color?

No, not usually. A chicken's diet can have a noticeable effect on the color of the egg yolk, but it does not normally determine whether the shell will be brown or white.

For example, feed containing ingredients rich in natural pigments, such as corn or certain plants, can contribute to a deeper yellow or orange yolk.

This is why yolks can vary from pale yellow to a much richer orange color.

However, changing a hen's feed does not normally turn a white-shelled egg brown or a brown-shelled egg white. The shell color is primarily controlled by the hen's genetics.

Does the color of the chicken tell you what color egg it will lay?

Not necessarily.

Many people assume that brown or reddish chickens lay brown eggs and white chickens lay white eggs. While this can sometimes be a useful general rule for particular breeds, it is not a universal rule.

The genes responsible for feather color and those responsible for eggshell color are different. As a result, chickens with similar appearances can lay eggs of different colors.

The most reliable way to know what color eggs a particular chicken will produce is to know its breed or observe the eggs it lays.

Are brown eggs healthier than white eggs?

No. Brown eggs are not automatically healthier than white eggs.

Because many organic or premium eggs sold in supermarkets are brown, consumers sometimes assume that the darker shell means the egg contains more vitamins, minerals, or other nutrients.

This is largely a misconception.

The color of the eggshell itself does not determine the nutritional value of the egg. Brown and white eggs can have very similar nutritional profiles when they come from hens raised under comparable conditions and given comparable diets.

Factors such as the hen's diet, age, living conditions, and overall health can be much more relevant to the nutritional characteristics of an egg than the color of its shell.

Do brown eggs taste different from white eggs?

There is no inherent reason for a brown egg to taste different simply because its shell is brown.

If you notice differences in taste between eggs, they are more likely to be related to factors such as:

the hen's diet;
freshness;
how the hens were raised;
storage conditions; and
how the eggs are cooked.

Shell color itself is not a reliable indicator of flavor.

Are brown eggs more expensive?

Brown eggs are sometimes more expensive than white eggs, but this is not because brown eggs are inherently better or more nutritious.

The price difference can be influenced by the breed of chicken used, production costs, farming practices, marketing, and consumer demand.

In some markets, brown eggs are associated with free-range, organic, or premium products, which can contribute to a higher price. But the shell color alone does not make an egg nutritionally superior.

Are brown eggshells stronger than white eggshells?

Eggshell strength is influenced by several factors, including the hen's breed, age, nutrition, and the structure and thickness of the shell.

Brown eggs are sometimes perceived as having thicker or harder shells. However, shell color itself is not what determines strength.

A brown egg and a white egg can both have strong or fragile shells depending on the characteristics of the hen that produced them.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why are some eggs brown and others white?
The main reason is genetics. Different chicken breeds produce different eggshell pigments. White eggs have little or no pigment, while brown eggs receive pigments during shell formation.

Does a chicken's diet determine whether its eggs are brown or white?
Generally, no. Diet can influence the color of the yolk, but eggshell color is primarily determined by genetics.

Are brown eggs healthier than white eggs?
Not necessarily. Brown eggs are not inherently more nutritious than white eggs. Nutritional differences are more closely related to factors such as the hen's diet and production conditions.

Do brown eggs taste better?
Not because of their color. Taste can be affected by freshness, diet, storage, and cooking, but shell color itself does not make an egg taste better.

Do white chickens always lay white eggs?
No. Feather color does not reliably determine eggshell color. Different genetic traits control these characteristics.

Why are brown eggs sometimes more expensive?
Price can be influenced by breed, production costs, farming practices, marketing, and consumer demand. Brown shell color itself does not make an egg more nutritious.

Read more:

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Why does your nose run when it's cold?

2021-12-12T11:55:00.002-08:00

The human nose works a bit like thermostatic heater: when it gets cold, warm blood rushes through the nose.

Cold triggers a stimulus similar to that of dust. The nose therefore also reacts with stuffiness. Cold reactions also fall under the responsibility of the nose, which has to fulfill a total of three tasks: filtering air, humidifying it and also warming it when it is cold.

This system is similar to thermostatic heating. When the air is cold, temperature sensors in the nose report an under-temperature to the brain. The control center then sends a heating command, and warm blood flows into the so-called turbinates that run through the inside of the nose. They swell and warm the air so that it doesn't reach the lower airways as icy.

Photo: Pixabey.com...

At the same time as the turbinates swell, the secretion production in the nose increases. The fluid, which is formed even under normal conditions to keep the mucous membranes moist, usually flow backwards - the nose "runs backwards" without you noticing it. In the case of high production and a swollen nose, this no longer works sufficiently, the nasal secretion flows forward - the nose runs.

The increased mucus production has an important function: It protects and cleans the nose. The nasal secretions prevent foreign particles from getting stuck in the nose.

Why does your nose run when you cry?

2021-12-12T11:44:00.006-08:00

The eyes and nose are connected by the tear duct. Even when we are not crying, the tear glands produce tear fluid all the time. They do this to keep the eyes moist and clean, but also to supply nutrients to the cornea.

What runs out of the nose is tear fluid.

Photo: Pixabey.com...

This tear fluid flows from the outside to the inside, which means that our lacrimal glands supply fluid to the eye. This liquid partially evaporates; on the other hand, it flows off inside, via the tear duct - and this duct ends in the nose.

Normally we do not notice this because only small amounts of fluid disappear there and these are lost, so to speak, in the expanses of the nasal mucous membranes.

But when we cry we produce a large excess of tear fluid; the eye then has "high water": a part overflows - these are the tears that flow down the face; but larger amounts of tear fluid also flow away through the tear duct and come out of the nose as salty dripping wetness.

Why Do Plants Need Nitrogen? How Nitrogen Affects Plant Growth, Leaves & Crop Yield

2021-12-12T11:25:00.003-08:00

Nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients plants need to grow. Although the atmosphere contains a huge amount of nitrogen gas, plants cannot normally use atmospheric nitrogen directly. Instead, they depend largely on nitrogen compounds available in the soil.

Why do plants need nitrogen? Nitrogen is essential for making amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA, chlorophyll, and many other molecules involved in plant growth and metabolism.

When a plant receives enough available nitrogen, it can develop healthy leaves, stems, roots, and reproductive structures. When nitrogen is deficient, growth can slow dramatically and older leaves often become pale or yellow.

But more nitrogen isn't always better. Excess nitrogen can cause overly vigorous leafy growth, delay flowering or maturity in some crops, and contribute to environmental pollution when nitrogen escapes into waterways.

So, how does nitrogen affect plant growth? Let's explore the science behind this essential nutrient.

What Is Nitrogen?

Nitrogen is a chemical element represented by the symbol N. It is one of the most abundant elements in Earth's atmosphere, where it occurs primarily as nitrogen gas (N₂).

Nitrogen is also an essential nutrient for plants.

Plants generally absorb nitrogen from the soil mainly in the forms of:

Nitrate (NO₃⁻)
Ammonium (NH₄⁺)

Microorganisms in soil play an important role in converting nitrogen between different chemical forms, making it available to plants.

Once absorbed by plant roots, nitrogen can be incorporated into organic molecules that plants use for growth and development.

Why Do Plants Need Nitrogen?

Plants need nitrogen because it is a fundamental component of many molecules required for life.

The most important roles of nitrogen include:

Building amino acids and proteins
Supporting DNA and RNA production
Helping plants produce chlorophyll
Supporting photosynthesis
Promoting leaf and stem growth
Supporting plant metabolism and development
Contributing to flower, fruit, and seed development
Helping determine crop productivity when nitrogen availability is adequate

Let's look at each role in more detail.

1. Nitrogen Helps Plants Make Proteins

One of nitrogen's most important jobs is helping plants produce amino acids.

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Plants use proteins for an enormous range of functions, including:

Building and maintaining cells
Enzymatic reactions
Transporting substances
Photosynthesis
Growth and development
Responding to environmental conditions

Without sufficient nitrogen, plants cannot efficiently produce the proteins they need for normal growth.

This is one reason nitrogen deficiency can cause plants to become small and develop poorly.

2. Nitrogen Is Essential for DNA and RNA

Nitrogen is also found in nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA.

DNA stores genetic information, while RNA plays important roles in using that information to make proteins.

Because plants need to produce new cells as they grow, they need nitrogen to support the biological processes associated with cell division and development.

In simple terms:

Nitrogen → nucleic acids → cell growth and reproduction

This is another reason nitrogen is considered a fundamental plant nutrient.

3. Nitrogen Helps Plants Make Chlorophyll

Nitrogen is an important component of chlorophyll, the green pigment that enables plants to capture light energy for photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll absorbs light, particularly in the blue and red portions of the visible spectrum, allowing plants to use sunlight as an energy source.

When nitrogen availability is too low, plants often produce less chlorophyll. Their leaves can therefore become pale green or yellow.

This condition is known as chlorosis.

A common visual pattern of nitrogen deficiency is yellowing that begins with older leaves because nitrogen is relatively mobile within plants. The plant can move nitrogen from older tissues toward younger, actively growing tissues when nitrogen is scarce.

4. Nitrogen Supports Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis allows plants to use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates, while releasing oxygen.

A simplified version of the process is:

Carbon dioxide + water + light energy → sugars + oxygen

Nitrogen supports photosynthesis in several ways.

It is required to produce chlorophyll and is also found in many proteins and enzymes involved in photosynthetic processes.

When nitrogen availability is adequate, plants can develop and maintain photosynthetically active leaves.

When nitrogen is severely deficient, reduced chlorophyll and leaf development can limit the plant's ability to capture light and produce carbohydrates.

5. Nitrogen Promotes Leaf and Stem Growth

Nitrogen is strongly associated with vegetative growth—the development of leaves, stems, and other non-reproductive plant tissues.

Adequate nitrogen can support:

Larger leaf area
Healthy green foliage
Stem development
New shoot growth
Overall plant biomass production

This is particularly important for crops where leaves or stems are the harvested product.

For example, leafy vegetables require sufficient nutrients to develop the foliage that ultimately becomes the crop.

However, nitrogen is only one part of plant nutrition. Plants also require phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, and micronutrients, along with water, light, and suitable growing conditions.

6. How Does Nitrogen Affect Root Growth?

Nitrogen has an important relationship with root growth, but the relationship isn't simply "more nitrogen = more roots."

When nitrogen is deficient, overall plant growth is restricted, which can reduce root development as well as shoot growth.

When nitrogen is supplied adequately, plants have the resources needed to support healthy growth and development.

However, the plant's response depends on factors such as:

Plant species
Growth stage
Nitrogen concentration
Soil conditions
Water availability
Other nutrients
Temperature
Root environment

Balanced nutrition is therefore more important than maximizing nitrogen alone.

7. Nitrogen Supports Flower, Fruit, and Seed Development

Nitrogen is required throughout a plant's life cycle, including reproductive development.

Plants need nitrogen to produce proteins, nucleic acids, enzymes, and other compounds involved in developing:

Flowers
Fruits
Seeds
Reproductive tissues

However, the amount and timing of nitrogen matter.

For some crops, excessive nitrogen late in the growing season can encourage continued vegetative growth rather than the desired reproductive development. The exact response varies substantially among plant species and growing conditions.

This is why farmers and gardeners generally aim for appropriate nitrogen availability at the appropriate growth stage, rather than simply applying as much nitrogen as possible.

How Does Nitrogen Affect Plant Growth?

Nitrogen can have a major effect on plant growth because it influences both the plant's structure and its ability to carry out essential biological processes.

A simplified relationship looks like this:

Adequate nitrogen → protein + chlorophyll + nucleic acid production → healthy growth

Nitrogen deficiency → reduced growth + reduced chlorophyll → pale leaves and lower productivity

But the relationship has limits:

Excess nitrogen → excessive vegetative growth + possible nutrient imbalance + environmental losses

The goal is therefore not maximum nitrogen. The goal is sufficient nitrogen without excessive application.

What Happens When a Plant Does Not Get Enough Nitrogen?

Nitrogen deficiency can cause several recognizable symptoms.

Common signs include:

Older leaves becoming pale green or yellow
Slower growth
Smaller leaves
Thin or weak-looking plants
Reduced overall plant size
Premature yellowing of foliage
Reduced yield in many crops

One of the most characteristic symptoms is general yellowing of older leaves.

Why does this happen?

Nitrogen is relatively mobile within plants. When nitrogen is scarce, plants can relocate some nitrogen from older leaves to younger tissues where it is needed for active growth.

As older leaves lose chlorophyll, they may become yellow.

What Does Nitrogen Deficiency Look Like?

Imagine two otherwise similar plants.

Plant with adequate nitrogen

Green leaves
Active growth
Healthy leaf development
Strong vegetative growth
Good potential for flowering, fruiting, or seed production

Plant with nitrogen deficiency

Pale or yellowing older leaves
Slow growth
Reduced leaf area
Smaller overall plant
Potentially lower yield

However, yellow leaves do not automatically mean nitrogen deficiency.

Yellowing can also result from problems involving iron, magnesium, water, root health, disease, pests, temperature, or other environmental conditions.

Diagnosis should therefore consider the pattern of symptoms and the growing conditions rather than relying on leaf color alone.

What Happens When Plants Get Too Much Nitrogen?

Too much nitrogen can be just as problematic as too little.

Excess nitrogen may cause:

Excessive leafy growth
Soft or weak vegetative growth in some plants
Delayed flowering or maturity in some crops
Reduced allocation to reproductive structures in certain situations
Greater susceptibility to some pests or diseases under certain conditions
Nutrient imbalances
Nitrogen losses to the environment

The exact effects depend on the plant species, nitrogen source, dose, timing, soil, climate, and other nutrients.

Applying additional nitrogen when a plant already has enough does not necessarily make it healthier.

Can Too Much Nitrogen Harm the Environment?

Yes.

Plants can only use a certain amount of available nitrogen. When more nitrogen is applied than the crop or ecosystem can absorb, some can remain in the soil or move into the environment.

Nitrate can leach through soil into groundwater. Nitrogen can also reach rivers, lakes, and coastal waters.

Excess nutrient pollution can contribute to eutrophication, a process in which excessive nutrients stimulate algal growth and can ultimately reduce oxygen availability in aquatic ecosystems.

Nitrogen compounds can also be lost to the atmosphere through biological processes and other pathways.

This is why efficient nitrogen management matters in agriculture and gardening.

Where Do Plants Get Nitrogen?

Plants obtain nitrogen from their environment, primarily through their roots.

Important sources include:

Soil organic matter

Dead plants, animals, and microorganisms contain nitrogen. As organic matter decomposes, microorganisms transform nitrogen into forms that can eventually become available to plants.

Fertilizers

Synthetic and organic fertilizers can supply nitrogen in forms that plants or soil microorganisms can use.

Animal manure

Manure contains nitrogen and other nutrients. Microbial decomposition gradually releases some of its nitrogen.

Compost and organic materials

Compost can contribute nitrogen and other nutrients, although the amount and availability depend on the material and its decomposition.

Biological nitrogen fixation

Some microorganisms can convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into biologically usable forms.

The best-known examples involve legume plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with their roots.

How Do Legumes Get Nitrogen?

Plants such as beans, peas, lentils, and other legumes have a special relationship with certain bacteria.

These bacteria live in structures called root nodules and can perform biological nitrogen fixation.

The bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into nitrogen-containing compounds that can enter biological nutrient cycles.

In return, the plant provides the microorganisms with carbohydrates and a suitable environment.

This relationship is an important part of natural and agricultural nitrogen cycling.

What Is the Nitrogen Cycle?

The nitrogen cycle describes how nitrogen moves through the atmosphere, soil, organisms, and water.

Some of the major processes include:

Atmospheric nitrogen → nitrogen fixation → soil nitrogen → plant uptake → animals → decomposition → soil nitrogen → atmospheric nitrogen

Soil microorganisms play central roles in this cycle.

They help transform nitrogen between different chemical forms through processes including:

Nitrogen fixation
Ammonification
Nitrification
Denitrification

Plants participate in this cycle by absorbing available nitrogen and incorporating it into organic molecules.

Nitrate vs. Ammonium: Which Form Do Plants Use?

Plants commonly absorb nitrogen as nitrate (NO₃⁻) and ammonium (NH₄⁺).

The preferred form can vary among plant species and environmental conditions.

Nitrate

Nitrate is highly mobile in soil water and is readily taken up by many plants.

Ammonium

Ammonium can also be absorbed directly by plants. In soil, microorganisms can convert ammonium into nitrate through nitrification.

Neither form should simply be considered universally "better." Plant response depends on species, soil chemistry, concentration, and environmental conditions.

Why Is Nitrogen Called a Macronutrient?

Plants require certain nutrients in relatively large quantities. These are called macronutrients.

The primary macronutrients are:

Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus (P)
Potassium (K)

Other macronutrients include:

Calcium
Magnesium
Sulfur

Nitrogen is especially important because of its role in proteins, nucleic acids, chlorophyll, and many other essential compounds.

Nitrogen vs. Phosphorus vs. Potassium

Nitrogen is not the only nutrient plants need.

Nutrient	Major roles
Nitrogen (N)	Proteins, chlorophyll, nucleic acids, vegetative growth
Phosphorus (P)	Energy transfer, nucleic acids, membranes, development
Potassium (K)	Water regulation, enzyme activation, stomatal function, stress responses

Plants need these nutrients in appropriate amounts and proportions.

A deficiency of one nutrient cannot always be fixed simply by adding more of another.

Healthy plant growth depends on balanced nutrition.

Does Nitrogen Make Plants Grow Faster?

Nitrogen can increase plant growth when nitrogen availability is limiting.

If a plant lacks nitrogen, supplying an appropriate amount can stimulate growth by allowing the plant to produce more proteins, chlorophyll, and other nitrogen-containing compounds.

But once nitrogen is no longer the limiting factor, adding more may provide little additional benefit.

This is an important principle in plant nutrition:

More fertilizer does not automatically mean more growth.

Plant growth is controlled by many interacting factors, including:

Light
Water
Temperature
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Other nutrients
Soil conditions
Plant genetics
Pests and diseases

The most limiting factor can determine how strongly a plant responds to additional nitrogen.

How Does Nitrogen Affect Crop Yield?

Nitrogen can have a major effect on agricultural productivity.

When nitrogen is deficient, crops may produce less leaf area and biomass, reducing their ability to capture sunlight and potentially reducing the amount of harvestable product.

Providing adequate nitrogen can therefore improve yield when nitrogen is the limiting nutrient.

However, the relationship between nitrogen and yield isn't unlimited.

Applying nitrogen beyond the crop's requirements can result in diminishing returns and increased environmental losses.

Modern agriculture therefore focuses on nitrogen-use efficiency—getting as much useful crop production as possible from the nitrogen supplied.

When Should Nitrogen Be Applied?

There is no universal nitrogen application schedule that works for every plant.

The ideal timing depends on:

Crop species
Soil nitrogen supply
Growth stage
Climate
Irrigation
Expected yield
Fertilizer type
Local growing conditions

For agricultural crops, nitrogen is often managed around periods when plant demand is high.

Gardeners should similarly avoid applying large amounts of nitrogen simply because a plant appears to be growing slowly. The underlying problem may be something else.

A soil test can help determine whether nitrogen or another nutrient may be limiting growth.

Organic vs. Synthetic Nitrogen Fertilizers

Both organic materials and manufactured fertilizers can provide nitrogen.

Organic sources

Examples include:

Compost
Manure
Plant residues
Certain plant-based fertilizers

Organic nitrogen often needs to be decomposed or transformed by microorganisms before a significant portion becomes available to plants.

Synthetic fertilizers

Manufactured fertilizers can provide nitrogen in relatively concentrated forms, including nitrate, ammonium, or compounds that soil microorganisms convert into plant-available nitrogen.

The important issue is not simply whether nitrogen is "organic" or "synthetic," but how much nitrogen is supplied, when it becomes available, and how efficiently plants can use it.

How Can You Tell If a Plant Needs Nitrogen?

Look for a combination of symptoms rather than a single sign.

Possible indicators of nitrogen deficiency include:

Leaves: Older leaves become pale or yellow.

Growth: The plant grows slowly and may remain smaller than expected.

Foliage: Leaves may be smaller and less abundant.

Overall appearance: The plant may look thin, pale, and less vigorous.

For reliable diagnosis, consider soil testing, plant species, recent fertilizer applications, watering, and other environmental conditions.

Does Every Plant Need the Same Amount of Nitrogen?

No.

Different plants have different nutritional requirements.

A rapidly growing leafy vegetable may require substantial nitrogen, while a plant adapted to nutrient-poor conditions may need considerably less.

Nitrogen requirements can also change throughout a plant's life cycle.

Factors influencing nitrogen demand include:

Species
Variety
Plant age
Growth stage
Soil fertility
Climate
Water availability
Expected yield

This is why fertilizer recommendations should be based on the particular crop and growing conditions.

Why Is Nitrogen Important for Food Production?

Plants form the foundation of most terrestrial food webs.

Crops use nitrogen to produce proteins, enzymes, chlorophyll, and other compounds required for growth.

When crops receive adequate nitrogen, they can develop enough foliage to capture sunlight and produce biomass.

That biomass eventually supports humans and animals through food and feed.

Nitrogen is therefore important not only for individual plants but also for agriculture, ecosystems, and global food production.

The Relationship Between Nitrogen and Plant Growth

The simplest way to understand nitrogen's role is to follow the chain:

Nitrogen availability

↓

Amino acids + proteins + nucleic acids + chlorophyll

↓

Healthy cellular processes

↓

Leaf and stem development

↓

Photosynthesis and biomass production

↓

Growth and, when other conditions are suitable, reproductive development

This explains why nitrogen deficiency can have such a visible effect on plants.

Frequently Asked Questions About Nitrogen and Plants

Why do plants need nitrogen?

Plants need nitrogen to produce amino acids, proteins, DNA, RNA, chlorophyll, and other essential compounds. Nitrogen is therefore necessary for normal growth, photosynthesis, and development.

What happens if plants don't get enough nitrogen?

Nitrogen deficiency commonly causes slow growth and pale or yellowing older leaves. Severe deficiency can reduce plant size and crop yield.

Does nitrogen make leaves greener?

Adequate nitrogen can promote chlorophyll production and healthy green foliage. However, leaf color can be affected by many other factors, so yellow leaves do not necessarily indicate nitrogen deficiency.

Can plants get nitrogen from the air?

Most plants cannot directly use atmospheric nitrogen gas (N₂). They generally obtain nitrogen from compounds in the soil, especially nitrate and ammonium. Some plants benefit indirectly from nitrogen fixation carried out by microorganisms.

Do plants need nitrogen for photosynthesis?

Yes. Nitrogen is required for chlorophyll and for many proteins and enzymes involved in photosynthetic processes.

Is too much nitrogen bad for plants?

Yes. Excess nitrogen can promote overly vigorous vegetative growth, contribute to nutrient imbalances, and cause problems with flowering or maturity in some crops. Excess nitrogen can also increase environmental pollution.

Which plants need the most nitrogen?

Nitrogen requirements vary by species and growth stage. Fast-growing leafy crops often have relatively high nitrogen demand, but the exact requirement depends on growing conditions.

What are the signs of nitrogen deficiency?

Common signs include pale green or yellow older leaves, slow growth, reduced leaf development, and smaller plants.

Key Takeaway

Nitrogen is essential for plant growth because it provides the raw material plants need to build proteins, nucleic acids, chlorophyll, and many other important molecules.

Adequate nitrogen helps plants develop healthy green leaves and supports photosynthesis, vegetative growth, and reproduction.

But nitrogen must be available in the right amount. Too little can cause yellowing and stunted growth, while too much can produce excessive foliage, interfere with normal development in some crops, and contribute to environmental pollution.

The goal isn't simply to give plants more nitrogen.

The goal is to give plants the right amount of nitrogen, at the right time, as part of balanced nutrition.

From the smallest leaf to an entire agricultural field, nitrogen plays a fundamental role in turning sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into the living plant material that supports ecosystems and food production.

Why is the ozone layer important in sustaining life on Earth?

2021-12-10T12:00:00.008-08:00

The ozone layer blocks a large part of the sun's rays and prevents too much ultraviolet radiation from reaching the earth. This is vital, because the high-energy ultraviolet rays of the sun can destroy the cells of animals and plants and damage human skin. If the ozone layer in the stratosphere is intact, it acts like a huge protective screen against aggressive UV radiation.

The ozone layer in the atmosphere protects the earth's surface from dangerous radiation. However, this protective shield is endangered by chemical compounds, especially CFCs from refrigerators and spray cans.

Sunlight and Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation

Sunlight is essential for human health because, among other things, it regulates the daily and annual rhythm and helps supply the body with vitamin D.

However, if you expose your body to excessive solar radiation, damage to health, which is mainly caused by the shorter wavelength ranges, can occur. These include skin cancer, skin aging, eye diseases and the weakening of the immune system.

The skin protects itself from UV radiation by storing the complex molecule melanin. With longer and more intensive radiation, the skin becomes reddened by the high energy of UV-B radiation and sunburn occurs. As the disease progresses, severe burns and blistering occur and the tissue dies. As a result, more often Long exposure to UV radiation results in irreversible changes in the skin such as wrinkles and permanent vasodilatation.

The most serious long-term consequence is skin cancer, which is caused by changes in the genetic make-up in the skin cells caused by UV-B.

“

Ultraviolet radiation is divided into three wavelength ranges according to its biological effect.

UV-A radiation - 315–400 nm (UV-A radiation and visible light hit the earth's surface practically unfiltered)
UV-B radiation - 280-315 nm (more energetic, dangerous - Ozone and oxygen molecules absorb over 90 percent of the incident UV-B radiation)
UV-C radiation - 190–280 nm (Highly energetic radiation, completely absorbed by ozone and oxygen molecules in the stratosphere and therefore does not reach the earth's surface).

How is ozone formed in the atmosphere?

Ozone is a natural component of the earth's atmosphere, but only occurs in very low concentrations. Near the ground it reaches a proportion of around 30 molecules in one billion air molecules. However, the ozone concentration in the stratosphere increases significantly with altitude. The maximum of the ozone layer is measured in the middle stratosphere in an altitude range between 15 and 30 kilometers, where the mixing ratio of ozone to air can be 300 times the value close to the ground.

Stratospheric ozone is formed naturally in photochemical reactions with the participation of molecular oxygen and ultraviolet solar radiation.

Photochemical ozone production is most effective where the sun shines longest and most intensely, in the tropics and subtropics. From there the ozone is transported with the large-scale circulation to higher geographical latitudes.

The ozone is formed in the stratosphere from molecular oxygen in two steps: In the first step, diatomic oxygen molecules O2 are split into two oxygen atoms each by the sun's UV radiation. These are very reactive. In the second step, these oxygen atoms react with oxygen molecules to form three-atom ozone O3. The energy released in the process has to be absorbed by a third reaction partner (usually nitrogen or oxygen) by collision.

The stratospheric ozone not only represents an effective UV-B protective shield, but also releases the absorbed solar energy in the form of heat to the surrounding atmosphere. In this way, ozone significantly determines the vertical temperature structure of the stratosphere and thus also shapes the large-scale air currents.

What is causing the ozone hole?

If the ozone layer didn't exist, the sun's rays would literally roast us on the ground. Life in its current form would not be possible at all without this protective screen.

But the ozone layer has dangerously large holes. The reason for this are chemical substances that humans have blown into the atmosphere. The greatest enemy of ozone is chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs. For a long time this gas was used as a coolant in refrigerators and as a propellant in spray cans. Itself odorless and non-toxic, CFCs are only dangerous to humans when they rise in the stratosphere, reacting with ozone, thus attacking and destroying the ozone layer.

Because of their inertia, they were considered harmless substances for a long time. In fact, CFCs do not pose a threat in the troposphere, but because of their extreme longevity, they can slowly make their way into the stratosphere above. In the stratosphere, the higher intensity of high-energy UV radiation then breaks down the CFC molecules. The chlorine released in this way then acts as a catalyst in destroying the ozone molecules.

Who discovered the ozone hole?

In 1985 a research team led by the British geophysicist Joseph Charles Farman, documented a drastic and progressive decrease in the ozone layer of up to 60 percent over the Antarctic. This phenomenon is known as the ozone hole and resulted with serious international negotiations on the issue of emission control.

Strong chemical ozone depletion is also observed in the arctic polar regions in spring. The ozone losses there are typically 20-25 percent, but can sometimes increase to up to 60 percent if the stratospheric temperatures are extremely low. Lesser but significant stratospheric ozone depletion is observed today over numerous other, also more densely populated areas of the earth.

What is being done to repair the ozone layer?

To protect the ozone layer, the Montreal Protocol was passed in 1987, an international agreement that came into force in 1989 and with which the signatory states committed themselves to a gradual reduction and finally to the complete abolition of the emission of chemicals containing chlorine and bromine that destroy stratospheric ozone.

The ozone-depleting substances are increasingly being replaced by fluorocarbons (PFCs). Although these HFCs protect the ozone layer, they are not climate-friendly. Depending on their structure, they contribute to global warming for each amount of gas introduced than the most important greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2).

Photo: NASA.gov...

The increasing warming of the troposphere simultaneously leads to a decrease in temperature in the stratosphere, which in turn accelerates the chemical ozone depletion. In addition to nitrous oxide, methane and, of course, carbon dioxide, PFCs are among the emissions that are to be monitored for climate protection under the Kyoto Protocol.

Since many processes, such as the connection between climate change and ozone depletion, are still largely not understood, it is difficult for scientists to make reliable predictions for the future of ozone depletion or build-up.

Why does alcohol make you drunk?

2021-12-09T05:50:00.011-08:00

When we drink alcohol, some of it gets into the blood through the mucous membrane in the mouth. Then it goes on to the stomach, where another part is absorbed. The main intake of alcohol takes place in the small intestine. It is conducted into the blood via the mucous membranes there.

The blood carries alcohol throughout the body. The concentration in the blood peaks 30 to 60 minutes after drinking.

This means that if we drink a glass of wine, for example, the alcohol concentration in the blood through this one glass is highest after half an hour to an hour.

After that, the alcohol will slowly break down again. Provided we stop drinking after the glass. Those who continue to drink keep the level or increase it.

Photo: Pixabey...

When the body can no longer handle large amounts of alcohol, it is called alcohol intoxication. Vomiting, breathing problems, and a possible coma are dangerous consequences.

Alcohol changes perception and behavior

The intoxication ultimately arises in the brain. Here, too, the alcohol arrives in the blood just a few minutes after the first sip - and influences various processes there:

On the one hand, it upsets the balance of certain messenger substances that are used to transmit stimuli between nerve cells. As the dose increases, alcohol ensures that the stimuli are inhibited and our nerve cells are less active.

In short: alcohol has a depressant effect on our brain.

On the other hand, it favors the secretion of certain hormones in the brain, which make us more relaxed, more exuberant, more talkative, and increase our thirst for action.

Under the influence of alcohol, it is then more difficult to correctly estimate distances. The concentration decreases, as does the ability to react. Since alcohol removes water from the body, it often leads to fatigue and higher amounts cause confusion and disorientation.

Long-term effects of alcohol on the brain

Brain matter does not die immediately. First of all, there is a communication problem in the brain, but not immediately to a death of brain mass. That can change in the long run. Because alcohol is a cell poison that does not stop at nerve cells.

People, who regularly drink a lot, suffer from brain damage - but there is no specific limit above which this happens. These are expressed, for example, in changes in character, concentration, and memory loss.

The Effects of Alcohol On Your Body

From a biochemical point of view, ethanol is a cell poison. Because of this, the body tries to defuse it as quickly as possible afterward. The liver, which detoxifies the body with special enzymes, breaks down the ethanol into its components. But while carbon dioxide and acetic acid are obtained from alcohol, the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase forms an extremely toxic intermediate product on the way there: acetaldehyde. This molecule damages the mucous membrane cells and is even carcinogenic according to the World Health Organization.

The breakdown of alcohol in the liver also encourages the production of fatty acids, which over time build up in the liver. The liver is fatty. Often this liver change, albeit reversible, later leads to chronic liver damage such as cirrhosis of the liver. In the process, nodules form in the liver tissue, the liver hardens and the cells lose their function. This state can only be stopped, but not reversed.

Although the human liver is very resilient, it is not sensitive to pain. What is happening to the liver cells in the meantime is not noticed by humans - or only when severe symptoms appear. Once there is liver damage, other organs are also affected. In the long term, a destroyed liver can lead to inflammation of the pancreas.

In the brain, long-term alcohol consumption causes both brain mass and volume to decrease. Each alcohol consumption destroys brain cells. This is often only noticeable in alcohol addicts who subsequently suffer from memory problems and who find it more difficult to move and coordinate. They are also more likely to suffer from mental disorders such as depression.

Many experts assume that quantities of around 24 grams of alcohol per day can cause greater health damage in adults in the long term - that's the equivalent of just two glasses of beer.

What does it depend on how quickly we get drunk?

How quickly and massively alcohol develops its effect depends primarily on the following factors:

Amount of alcohol consumed

Drinking speed: It is not the same if you drink two glasses of wine in 10 minutes or in 3 hours. A higher concentration of alcohol in less time makes you get drunk faster.

Stomach contents: Drinking on an empty stomach can increase the intoxicating effects of alcohol. On the other hand, a high-fat meal in advance can delay the absorption of alcohol into the body.

Individual physical and mental condition: Bodyweight, for example, has a major influence. A man who weighs 90 kilograms can tolerate more alcohol than a slender sexual companion because he has more blood in his body and the alcohol is more widely distributed throughout the body.

Drinking habits: Those who regularly consume alcohol can tolerate more and do not get drunk as quickly.

Gender: alcohol affects females more than males

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Why does alcohol affect females more than males?

Women tolerate less alcohol. This is not only reflected in a faster intoxication, the physical damage is also significantly greater than with men with the same consumption. One reason for this is obvious: women are on average smaller and weigh less.

Even in slim women, the body fat percentage is higher than in slim men. With healthy body weight, it is around ten percent higher for women. This means that the proportion of body fluid that alcohol can distribute to is lower in women. With the same weight and alcohol consumption, their blood alcohol concentration is higher than that of men. In addition, the liver works differently in men and women.

The liver needs the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase to break down alcohol. Women produce less of it than men. The result: blood alcohol is broken down more slowly in them than in men.

Alcohol is a cell poison that can damage all organs. In addition to the liver, the heart and blood vessels, digestive tract, pancreas, nerves and even the brain also suffer. For example, the risk of dementia is greater if you consume more alcohol. Since the alcohol levels of women are higher than men with the same consumption, the risk of damage is correspondingly higher for them.

The risk of cancer also increases with alcohol consumption: It has been proven for tumors of the oral cavity, throat, esophagus, intestine and liver. In women there is also breast cancer: alcohol promotes the production of estrogen, which promotes breast cancer.

How much is too much

There is no risk-free alcohol consumption for either women or men. The limit for low-risk alcohol consumption for healthy adult women is a small glass of beer or wine a day - for men, it can be twice that amount.

Men and women should refrain from alcohol altogether for at least two days a week. This reduces the risk of addiction.

For most people, alcohol initially has a positive effect. If this were not the case, no one would consume it voluntarily. In small doses it acts:

Mood-lifting
Relaxing
Stimulating
Anxiety-relieving
Disinhibiting

What is the function of vitamin D in the human body?

2021-12-09T04:00:00.003-08:00

Vitamin D is essential for our body. It strengthens the immune system, the bones and supports our muscles. Many people underestimate their physical needs and unknowingly suffer from vitamin D deficiency.

The human body produces vitamin D mainly from exposure to the sun. Without this, we would not be able to produce enough of this vitamin. Vitamin D can also be obtained through a healthy diet such as fish, mushrooms, or dairy products.

Since the sun is our greatest source of vitamin D, a vitamin D deficiency can be found in many people in the northern hemisphere, especially in winter. Extreme deficiency can lead to bone damage and increase the risk of bone loss (osteoporosis) and bone deformation. The immune system is also weakened so that those affected can become more susceptible to infections.

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What is the function of vitamin D in the human body

The main vitamin D function in the body is in the area of the bones. Vitamin D promotes the formation and development of bone stem cells. It also regulates the absorption of calcium in the intestine and promotes the incorporation of calcium and phosphate into the bones (mineralization) - the bones become hard and strong.

In addition, calcium and phosphate are also part of strong teeth.

Other, but not yet scientifically proven effects of vitamin D:

Strengthening the immune system
Reduction of vascular disease
Strengthening the muscles
Protection against rickets (softening and weakening of bones in children) - this is why the administration of vitamin D is so important in babies
Protective effect for the nerve cells in the brain
Positive effect on the cardiovascular system
Protective effect against cancer
Positive effect on the psyche

A vitamin D deficiency diagnosis can be made with the help of a blood test.

Vitamin D controls the absorption and utilization of calcium in the body. It is an extremely important part of our bones. However, calcium is also the reason why vitamin D supplements can be dangerous.

Continued overdose of vitamin D can lead to an excessive intake of calcium. In certain cases, this so-called hypercalcemia can lead to calcification of organs and vessels, which can, for example, promote the development of kidney stones and heart attacks.

Therefore it’s recommended to consult with a doctor before taking vitamin D supplements.

Photo: Pixabay...

What is the safe amount of vitamin D to take daily?

If we assume that a person gets virtually no vitamin D from sunshine and that this person gets adequate amounts of calcium, according to IOM committee the following amounts of vitamin D from diet or supplements are recommended:

Infants age 0 to 6 months: adequate intake, 400 IU/day; maximum safe upper level of intake, 1,000 IU/day
Infants age 6 to 12 months: adequate intake, 400 IU/day; maximum safe upper level of intake, 1,500 IU/day
Age 1-3 years: adequate intake, 600 IU/day; maximum safe upper level of intake, 2,500 IU/day
Age 4-8 years: adequate intake, 600 IU/day; maximum safe upper level of intake, 3,000 IU/day
Age 9-70: adequate intake, 600 IU/day; maximum safe upper level of intake, 4,000 IU/day
Age 71+ years: adequate intake, 800 IU/day; maximum safe upper level of intake, 4,000 IU/day

Why is the Black Sea called the Black Sea

2021-12-09T00:38:00.002-08:00

The ancient Greeks were the first to name the Black Sea, and they called it "Inhospitable Sea", since the sea was difficult to navigate, and also at the time, hostile tribes inhabited its shores. With the settlement of Greek colonists at the shore of the sea, its name became “Eύξεινος Πόντος”, or "Hospitable Sea". This name is still used in some Greek sources, but also the name “Μαύρη Θάλασσα” or "Black Sea" is common in many sources.

Photo: Pixabey...

It has not been established exactly to which of the explanations the name of the Black Sea can be traced back, but is certain that the name comes from the Turkish vocabulary.

When Anatolia was conquered by the Ottomans, they kept the names used by the Genoese and Venetians. They called the Black Sea the "Mare Maggiore", or the "Great Sea".

"Mare Maggiore" translated into the language of the Ottomans, means "KaraDeniz". Deniz stands for sea. The word Kara in Turkish has several meanings, like big, dark, and cloudy. Over the years the meaning of the word "kara" changed into the word "dark" or Black, and Slavic people like the Bulgarians and Russians kept this expression.

But why the sea is called - Black

The water of the Black Sea is so opaque that it is almost impossible to see through more than 2 feet (60 cm) of the upper water layer. The sea is more than 150 meters deep and its water is filled with hydrogen sulphide, therefore, there are no living beings in the deepest layers of its water, except for sulphur bacteria. Metal objects from ships, dead plants and animal matter that had sunk over 150 meters deep for a long time were covered in black mud due to the high concentration of hydrogen sulphide in the sea.

From the point of view of seafarers, the sea has been black due to severe winter storms which make the water so dark it looks black.

What other names are used for the Black Sea?

Current names of the sea are usually equivalents of the English name "Black Sea", including these given in the countries bordering the sea: (Wikipedia.org...)

Abkhazian: Амшын Еиқәа, romanized: Amʂən Eikʰʷa
Adyghe: Хы шӏуцӏэ, romanized: Xı ṩʔutsʔə
Armenian: Սեւ ծով, romanized: Sev tsov
Bulgarian: Черно море, romanized: Cherno more
Crimean Tatar: Къара денъиз, romanized: Qara deñiz
Georgian: შავი ზღვა, shavi zghva
Laz and Mingrelian: უჩა ზუღა, romanized: Ucha Zugha, IPA: [utʃɑ zuɣɑ], or simply ზუღა
Romanian: Marea Neagră, pronounced [ˈmare̯a ˈne̯aɡrə]
Russian: Чёрное мо́рe, romanized: Chyornoye more
Turkish: Karadeniz
Ukrainian: Чорне море, romanized: Chorne more

Why are metals good conductors of heat and electricity?

2021-12-08T00:02:00.002-08:00

Thermal conduction is a type of heat transfer in which heat is transferred through the body from areas of higher temperature to areas of lower temperature. The thermal conductivity of substances is different. There are good and bad conductors of heat.

Metals are good conductors of heat.

Heat conduction takes place in a body only when areas of different temperatures are present. The heat is always transferred from areas of higher temperature to areas of lower temperature. If a body is left to its own, the temperature will gradually equalize. The heat transmitted through a body depends of the:

Substance of which the body is made,
The cross-sectional area of the body,
Temperature difference,
Length (dimensions) of the body,
Time.

The thermal conductivity is a material constant. Depending on the value of these material constants, a distinction is made between good and bad heat conductors.

All metals, especially silver, copper, gold and aluminum, are good heat conductors.

Almost all plastics, wood, water, glass and, above all, air are poor heat conductors.

Water is a poor conductor of heat.

Heat conduction can also take place from one substance to another. The heat then passes from one substance to another. This is known as heat transfer. Heat is transferred, for example, from the surface of an immersion heater to the surrounding water. Another example is the transfer of heat from the bottom of a saucepan to the food in it.

Have you ever taken a spoon out of a mug of hot cocoa or tea or some other hot drink?
Did you find that the spoon was too hot to hold, so that you had to drop it?
Did you burn your fingers?

If you have never done this, don’t try it now.

But if you have done this, then you found out the hard way that heat can travel through some solid materials, such as metals. When heat travels in this way, we say that the heat is conducted. In the hot drink, the heat is conducted from the liquid into the metal spoon.

Why was the handle of the spoon so hot?

Atoms in the bowl of the spoon move faster and bump harder into each other as they heat up. The faster the atoms vibrate the hotter the spoon becomes. The atoms in the lower part of the spoon then bump into the metal atoms a little farther up the spoon. These atoms then bump against their neighbors even farther up and start them vibrating. Soon, all the atoms in the spoon are vibrating faster.

When the handle of the spoon is cold, the atoms in the metal vibrate slowly.

Why do metals conduct heat and electricity so well?

Metals are the best conductors of heat and electricity because they contain an abundance of free electrons. It is known that the positive nucleus binds the negative electrons to the atom. The force with which this is achieved is called Coulomb force.

The Coulomb force becomes weaker with increasing distance.

Thus we can conclude that the force that the electrons occupy increases when the closings become weaker, and of course weakest when the electrons are drawn into the outermost or so-called valence shell.

These electrons are so weakly attracted that they manage to escape and free themselves from the atom.

They are therefore called free electrons.

What is responsible for a metal's tendency to lose its valence electrons is its large atomic size and its own lack of valence electrons. Each metal atom produces one or two free electrons, and a piece of any metal contains a huge number of atoms. Sheet metal is full of free electrons, and it is these free electrons that propagate heat and the current flowing through it.

How Free Electrons Propagate Electricity and Heat

For example, if we connect a copper wire to a battery, the positive pole attracts the negative free electrons. The sudden force exerted by the electric field makes them spin and crash violently at tremendous speed. A domino effect follows.

In the same way, heat is conducted through a metal. A source of thermal energy is nothing more than a source of kinetic energy. When we apply a source of heat to a material, it transfers kinetic energy to the atoms of the material. This kinetic energy energetically puts the atoms in their place. The higher the heat, the stronger the tremor.

Ionic compounds also conduct heat when ions wobble in their positions. Ionic compounds, however, are characterized by a highly symmetrical geometric arrangement or structure. They wobble, but their movement is severely limited by this structure.

Pure metals, on the other hand, are superlative conductors because their atoms are restricted by their structure, but their electrons are not. They are free. The electrons move randomly when the source gives them kinetic energy. They then collide with neighbouring electrons and transfer their kinetic energy during the process. Collisions emulate a domino effect and heat is transferred from the hot area, the area closest to the source, to the cold area.