Energy Electricity and Alternative Energy

Meaning of Alkane

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Wed, 09 Oct 2013 05:44:00 +0000

Alkane

Alkane ( also called paraffin ) is a chemical compound acyclic saturated hydrocarbons . Alkanes including aliphatic compounds . In other words , alkanes is a long carbon chain with single bonds .

The general formula for alkanes is CnH2n +2 . The simplest alkane is methane with the formula CH4 . There is no limit how much carbon can be tied together . Some types of oils and waxes are examples of alkanes with atomic number of carbon atoms is large , can be more than 10 carbon atoms .

Each carbon atom has 4 bonds ( either CH or CC bond bonds ) , and each hydrogen atom must be bonded to the carbon atom ( HC bonds ) . A collection of carbon atoms strung collectively, the formula framework . In general , the number of carbon atoms is used to measure how much the size of the alkane ( eg, C2 - alkane ) .

Alkyl group , usually abbreviated with the symbol R , is a functional group , which as alkanes , consisting of a single carbon-carbon bonds and hydrogen atoms , for example methyl or ethyl group .

Meaning of Ethane

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Wed, 09 Oct 2013 05:39:00 +0000

Ethane

Ethane is a chemical compound with chemical formula C2H6 . This compound is an alkane with two carbon , and an aliphatic hydrocarbon . Under standard temperature and pressure , ethane is a colorless gas and odorless . Ethane produced in the industry in a way isolated from natural gas , and as a by-product of oil refining .

In the laboratory , ethane prepared by Kolbe electrolysis process . In this technique , an acetate salt electrolyzed . At the anode , acetate is oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and methyl radicals , and methyl radicals are highly reactive combine to produce ethane : -

CH3COO− → CH3• + CO2 + e−

CH3• + •CH3 → C2H6

Another method , acetic anhydride oxidation by peroxide , is conceptually similar .

Ethane can react with halogens s , especially chlorine and bromine , with halogenated free radicals . This reaction takes place through the deployment of ethyl radicals :

C2H5• + Cl2 → C2H5Cl + Cl•

Cl• + C2H6 → C2H5• + HCl

Because ethane halogenated halogenated free radicals can undergo further , this process produces a mixture of halogenated products .

Meaning of Natural Gas

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Wed, 09 Oct 2013 05:31:00 +0000

Natural Gas

Natural gas is often also referred to as Earth's gas or marsh gas , is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane CH4 ) .

He can be found in oil fields , gas fields and the Earth also coal mines. When the gas is rich in methane produced by anaerobic bacterial decomposition of organic materials other than fossil , then it is called biogas . Sources of biogas can be found in marshes , rubbish dumps , as well as human and animal waste storage .

The main component in natural gas is methane ( CH4 ) , which is the shortest chain hydrocarbon molecules and lightest. Natural gas also contains molecules heavier hydrocarbons such as ethane ( C2H6 ) , propane ( C3H8 ) and butane ( C4H10 ) , as well as gases containing sulfur ( sulfur ) . Natural gas is also a major source of helium gas source .

Methane is a greenhouse gas that can create global warming when released into the atmosphere , and is generally regarded as a pollutant rather than a useful energy source . Even so , the methane in the atmosphere reacts with ozone , producing carbon dioxide and water , so that the greenhouse effect of methane released into the air is relatively only lasted a moment . Source of methane derived from living things mostly from termites , livestock ( mammals ) and agriculture ( estimated emission levels around 15 , 75 and 100 million tonnes per year respectively ) .

Biochemistry

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 19 Sep 2013 09:41:00 +0000

Biochemistry

Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to, living organisms. By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of chemical energy through metabolism, biochemical processes cause the complexity of life.

Over the last 40 years, biochemistry has become so successful at explaining living processes that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine are engaged in biochemical research. Today, the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells, which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of whole organisms.

Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, which provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life. The chemistry of the cell also depends on the reactions of smaller molecules and ions. These can be inorganic, for example water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids which are used to synthesize proteins.

The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism. The findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrients, and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of disease. In nutrients, they study how to maintain health and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control.

The four main classes of molecules in biochemistry are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Many biological molecules are polymers: in this terminology, monomers are relatively small micro molecules that are linked together to create large macromolecules, which are known as polymers. When monomers are linked together to synthesize a biological polymer, they undergo a process called dehydration synthesis.

Different macromolecules can assemble in larger complexes, often needed for biological activity.

Lipids are usually made from one molecule of glycerol combined with other molecules. In triglycerides, the main group of bulk lipids, there is one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids. Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and may be saturated (no double bonds in the carbon chain) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds in the carbon chain).

Radioactive Nuclear

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 19 Sep 2013 09:35:00 +0000

Radioactive Nuclear

Radioactive decay, also known as nuclear decay or radioactivity, is the process by which a nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting particles of ionizing radiation. A material that spontaneously emits this kind of radiation which includes the emission of energetic alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays is considered radioactive.

There are many different types of radioactive decay (see table below). A decay, or loss of energy, results when an atom with one type of nucleus, called the parent radionuclide, transforms to an atom with a nucleus in a different state, or to a different nucleus containing different numbers of protons and neutrons. Either of these products is named the daughter nuclide.

In some decays the parent and daughter are different chemical elements, and thus the decay process results in nuclear transmutation (creation of an atom of a new element).

By contrast, there exist radioactive decay processes that do not result in transmutation. The energy of an excited nucleus may be emitted as a gamma ray in gamma decay, or used to eject an orbital electron by interaction with the excited nucleus, in a process called internal conversion. Highly excited neutron-rich radioisotopes (formed as the product of other types of decay) occasionally lose energy by emitting neutrons, and this results in a change in an element from one isotope to another.

Another type of radioactive decay results in products which are not defined, but appear in a range of "pieces" of the original nucleus. This decay is called spontaneous fission. This decay happens when a large unstable nucleus spontaneously splits into two (and occasionally three) smaller daughter nuclei, and generally immediately emits gamma rays, neutrons, or other particles as a consequence.

Radioactive primordial nuclides found in the Earth are residues from ancient supernova explosions which occurred before the formation of the solar system. They are the long-lived fraction of radionuclides surviving in the primordial solar nebula through planet accretion until the present. The naturally occurring short-lived radiogenic radionuclides found in rocks are the daughters of these radioactive primordial nuclides.

Another minor source of naturally occurring radioactive nuclides are cosmogenic nuclides, formed by cosmic ray bombardment of material in the Earth's atmosphere or crust. For a summary table showing the number of stable nuclides and of radioactive nuclides in each category, see radionuclide. Radionuclides can also be produced artificially e.g. using particle accelerators or nuclear reactors.

Nuclear chemistry for Energy

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 19 Sep 2013 09:28:00 +0000

Nuclear chemistry for Energy

Nuclear chemistry is the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties.

It is the chemistry of radioactive elements such as the actinides, radium and radon together with the chemistry associated with equipment (such as nuclear reactors) which are designed to perform nuclear processes.

This includes the corrosion of surfaces and the behavior under conditions of both normal and abnormal operation (such as during an accident). An important area is the behavior of objects and materials after being placed into a nuclear waste storage or disposal site.

It includes the study of the production and use of radioactive sources for a range of processes. These include radiotherapy in medical applications; the use of radioactive tracers within industry, science and the environment; and the use of radiation to modify materials such as polymers.

A combination of radiochemistry and radiation chemistry is used to study nuclear reactions such as fission and fusion. Some early evidence for nuclear fission was the formation of a short-lived radioisotope of barium which was isolated from neutron irradiated uranium (139Ba, with a half-life of 83 minutes and 140Ba, with a half-life of 12.8 days, are major fission products of uranium).

At the time, it was thought that this was a new radium isotope, as it was then standard radiochemical practice to use a barium sulfate carrier precipitate to assist in the isolation of radium. More recently, a combination of radiochemical methods and nuclear physics has been used to try to make new 'superheavy' elements; it is thought that islands of relative stability exist where the nuclides have half-lives of years, thus enabling weighable amounts of the new elements to be isolated. For more details of the original discovery of nuclear fission see the work of Otto Hahn.

Pulsed Power

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 13 Dec 2012 10:25:00 +0000

Pulsed Power

Pulsed power is the science and technology of accumulating energy over a relatively long period of time and releasing it very quickly, thus increasing the instantaneous power.

Steady accumulation of energy followed by its rapid release can result in the delivery of a larger amount of instantaneous power over a shorter period of time (although the total energy is the same). Energy is typically stored within electrostatic fields (capacitors), magnetic fields (inductor), as mechanical energy (using large flywheels connected to special purpose high current alternators), or as chemical energy (high-current lead-acid batteries, or explosives).

By releasing the stored energy over a very short interval (a process that is called energy compression), a huge amount of peak power can be delivered to a load. For example, if one joule of energy is stored within a capacitor and then evenly released to a load over one second, the peak power delivered to the load would only be 1 watt.

However, if all of the stored energy were released within one microsecond, the peak power would be one megawatt, a million times greater. Examples where pulsed power technology is commonly used include radar, particle accelerators, ultrastrong magnetic fields, fusion research, electromagnetic pulses, and high power pulsed lasers.

Rogowski Coil Frequency

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 13 Dec 2012 10:09:00 +0000

Rogowski Coil

A Rogowski coil, named after Walter Rogowski, is an electrical device for measuring alternating current (AC) or high speed current pulses. It consists of a helical coil of wire with the lead from one end returning through the centre of the coil to the other end, so that both terminals are at the same end of the coil.

The whole assembly is then wrapped around the straight conductor whose current is to be measured. Since the voltage that is induced in the coil is proportional to the rate of change (derivative) of current in the straight conductor, the output of the Rogowski coil is usually connected to an electrical (or electronic) integrator circuit to provide an output signal that is proportional to the current.

A good set of traditional and more recent designs of Rogowski coils can be found in US patent 6313623. In this patent there is a mention to an added purpose of the second wire returning through the center of the toroid, claiming that it helps reject interference from electrical fields present in the environment.

A device similar to the Rogowski coil was described by Arthur Prince Chattock of Bristol University in 1887. Chattock used it to measure magnetic fields rather than currents. The definitive description was given by Walter Rogowski and W. Steinhaus in 1912.

Rogowski Coil Frequency

More recently, low-cost current sensors based on the principle of a Rogowski coil have been developed. These sensors share the principles of a Rogowski coil, measuring the rate of change of current using a transformer with no magnetic core. The difference from the traditional Rogowski coil is that the sensor can be manufactured using a planar coil rather than a toroidal coil.

In order to reject the influence of conductors outside the sensor's measurement region, these planar Rogowski current sensors use a concentric coil geometry instead of a toroidal geometry to limit the response to external fields. The main advantage of the planar Rogowski current sensor is that the coil winding precision that is a requirement for accuracy can be achieved using low-cost printed circuit board manufacturing.

Current Transformer Electric

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 13 Dec 2012 09:55:00 +0000

Electricity Meters

Electronic metering of electrical energy requires the independent sensing of both load current and supply voltage, continuous multiplication of these two quantities to produce instantaneous load power and the integration of varying load power with respect to time to derive accumulated energy usage.

In general the sensing of supply voltage is simply effected through a potentiometric resistive divider. The sensing of load current is more problematic and can be effected by a variety of well known means.

The load current can most simply be sensed by use of a resistive "shunt" in the load current path. This does suffer from instability with respect of temperature and is particularly inconvenient when it is required to reference a number of independent circuits to a common point as may be required in designs of polyphase metering equipment.

Nevertheless, especially for single phase metering, a shunt circuit with temperature compensation such as that disclosed, for example, in French Patent 2663013 can be an effective means of current sensing.

Current Transformer Electric

The current transformer is a particularly effective means of sensing load current. Typically the whole load current passes through the center of the transformer core, thereby forming one turn, and the detected secondary current is precisely equal to the load current divided by the number of turns in the secondary winding. The secondary current is effectively driven from a constant current generator, and generates a voltage in a load resistor which is then used as a precise measure of load current so forming one of the inputs to the multiplier circuit, the other being supply voltage as already discussed.

Paralleling Current Transformers

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 13 Dec 2012 09:28:00 +0000

Current Transformers Object

This page discusses the issues of using current transformers (CTs) in parallel. Circuits with multiple conductors (common on high current circuits): Measuring Parallel Conductors. To add the power and energy readings of multiple branch circuits and measure them with one WattNode.

When paralleling CTs, the effective CT rated amps CtAmps is equivalent to the sum of the individual CT rated amps. So if you parallel two 100A CTs, the effective CtAmps is 200A. If you parallel three 50A CTs, the effective CtAmps is 150A.

Current Transformers

All parallel CTs must be exactly the same model: same amp rating, same frame size, and same style. Different CT models have different internal burden resistors, so combining them in parallel will not work correctly.

Add one set of CTs at a time, checking the WattNode output each time, to ensure none of the CTs are reversed or incorrectly phased.

Foundation Pneumatic

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 13 Dec 2012 09:14:00 +0000

Pneumatic Air

Pneumatic is a theory or knowledge of moving air, air equilibrium conditions and the conditions of equilibrium. Greek derived word pneumatic "pneuma" which means "breath" or "air". So the air-filled or pneumatic means is driven by compressed air.

Pneumatic is a branch of fluid mechanics theory or flow and not only covers the study of air flows through a duct system, which consists of tubing, hose, but also action and the use of compressed air.

Pneumatic aeromechanic use laws, which determine the state of the balance of gases and vapors (especially atmospheric air) in the presence of external forces (aerostatic) and flow theory (aerodynamics). Pneumatic compressed air in the implementation of the technique in the industry is a science of the mechanical process whereby air moving a style or movement.

Pneumatic Component

So it includes all the components of pneumatic machinery or equipment, which occurs in pneumatic processes. In the field of vocational pneumatic technique in a more narrow sense is the technique of compressed air (compressed air).

Protection System

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 13 Dec 2012 09:01:00 +0000

Wiring Rele

Reliability and the ability of a power system to serve the consumer depends on the protection system used. Therefore, in design an electric power system, should be considered interference conditions that may occur in the system, through the analysis of interference.

power system protection is the protection system mounted on the electrical equipment of a power system, such as generators, transformers, and other tissues, the abnormal conditions of operation of the system itself.

Abnormal conditions it may be, among others: short circuit, over voltage, over load, low-frequency systems, asynchronous and others. (for details see the article: "Reliability and Power Quality")

In other words, the protection system is useful for:

avoid or to reduce the damage to the equipment due to disturbances (abnormal conditions of operation system). The faster reaction protection devices are used, the less the influence of disturbance to the possibility of damage to equipment.
quickly localize the area have been affected, as small as possible.
can provide electrical services with high reliability to customers and the quality of the electricity.
securing people against the dangers posed by electricity.

Knowledge of currents arising from different types of interference on a site is very essential for the effective operation of the protection system. If an interruption in the system, the operator who feel the disorder is expected to soon be able to operate circuit-circuit Breaker right to remove the compromised system or a separate power of the affected tissue. It is very difficult for an operator to monitor disturbances that may occur and to determine which CB operated to isolate the interference manually.

History Wind Energy

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 26 Nov 2012 11:50:00 +0000

Wind Plant

Wind can be used to do work. The kinetic energy of the wind can be changed into other forms of energy, either mechanical energy or electrical energy. When a boat lifts a sail, it is using wind energy to push it through the water. This is one form of work.

Farmers have been using wind energy for many years to pump water from wells using windmills like the one on the right. In Holland, windmills have been used for centuries to pump water from low-lying areas. Wind is also used to turn large grinding stones to grind wheat or corn, just like a water wheel is turned by water power.

The blades of the turbine are attached to a hub that is mounted on a turning shaft. The shaft goes through a gear transmission box where the turning speed is increased. The transmission is attached to a high speed shaft which turns a generator that makes electricity.

If the wind gets too high, the turbine has a brake that will keep the blades from turning too fast and being damaged.

Wind Component

In order for a wind turbine to work efficiently, wind speeds usually must be above 12 to 14 miles per hour. Wind has to be this speed to turn the turbines fast enough to generate electricity. The turbines usually produce about 50 to 300 kilowatts of electricity each. A kilowatt is 1,000 watts (kilo means 1,000). You can light ten 100 watt light bulbs with 1,000 watts. So, a 300 kilowatt (300,000 watts) wind turbine could light up 3,000 light bulbs that use 100 watts!

As of 1999, there were 11,368 wind turbines in California. These turbines are grouped together in what are called wind "farms," like those in Palm Springs in the picture on the right.

Process Landfill Gas

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 Nov 2012 12:12:00 +0000

Landfill Gas Process

"Landfill gas" is not the same thing as "natural gas" or "methane." They are three separate terms which mean different things. They should not be used interchangeably. The term "landfill methane" is deceiving as it's usually used to imply that landfill gas is simply methane.

Landfill gas is about 40-60% methane, with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide (CO2). Landfill gas also contains varying amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, sulfur and a hundreds of other contaminants most of which are known as "non-methane organic compounds" or NMOCs. Inorganic contaminants like mercury are also known to be present in landfill gas. Sometimes, even radioactive contaminants such as tritium (radioactive hydrogen) have been found in landfill gas.

Burning landfill gas is dirtier than burning natural gas. Whether using an internal combustion engine or a gas turbine, burning landfill gas to produce energy emits more pollution per kilowatt hour than natural gas does.

Landfills should install gas collection systems to prevent the problems with gas migration. Once collected, landfills can do any of the other options. These options are focused around handling the methane (usually by burning it) and are not focused around addressing the toxics issues.

Landfill Gas Plant

Regardless of what is ultimately done with the gas, the gas should be filtered so that the halogenated compounds are segregated. Once filtered out, these compounds should not be combusted (as that doesn't tend to improve the situation, but may make it worse).

They should be handled as hazardous waste and isolated from the environment as best as is possible until there is a proven technology which can neutralize the toxics by converting the halogens to relatively harmless chemicals like salts.

The general options for dealing with landfill gas (once collected) are as follows:

flare it

boiler - makes heat

internal combustion engine - makes electricity

gas turbine - makes electricity

fuel cell - makes electricity

convert the methane to methyl alcohol

clean it up enough to pipe it to other industries or into the natural gas lines

Crops Make Biomass

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 Nov 2012 11:50:00 +0000

Crops

While displacing relatively small percentages of fossil fuel use with biomass energy crops may not sound like much, it is very significant when recognizing the tremendous size of electricity generation facilities.

For example, co-firing energy crops at just one medium size power plant would be the equivalent of installing over 41,000 large solar panels or in reducing CO2 emission levels, by removing approximately 17,000 cars off the road.

Instead of building new power generating facilities, which would ultimately result in higher costs to the consumer, we are working with scientists and engineers to change the fuel blend. It’s a novel approach to creating Renewable Energy, and if it works, there’s potential for immediate commercial use by electric utilities offering their customers a low cost option to purchase "Green Energy".

Biomass Crops Process

In biomass co-firing, there are three primary approaches to biomass fuel delivery into the existing power plant: Solid Fuel Blending; Solid Fuel Direct Injection; and External Gasification.

Production Tax Credit (PTC): Section 45 of the Internal Revenue Code provides a tax credit of up to ~2¢ per kWh for electricity generation from biomass feedstock. It must be noted however that since the PTC is a direct dollar-for-dollar reduction in taxes (versus a deduction to taxable income) the tax credit's value must be adjusted to reflect its true economic value (e.g., dividing 2¢ by 1 minus the corporate tax rate of 35%). Thus, the true production cost value of the PTC is up to ~3¢ per kWh. Making this "gross-up" in the PTC stated value is extremely important in order to make an apples-to-apples comparison of the production cost (per MMBtu, kWh) of biomass energy versus other fuel options (oil, natural gas, coal, nuclear).

Rice Husk Make Biomass

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 Nov 2012 11:29:00 +0000

Rice Husk

If we go back to history, we will realize that briquetting technology was only accessed in Europe and the United States. However, over the years, other countries have joined in with Japan taking part in the invention of screw press technology, one of the technologies highly used in the briquetting processes.

Briquetting machine rice huskapplication and procedure involves the use of either of the common machines in the briquetting process. In developing countries especially those known as world producers of rice, they have grown reluctant in transforming residues from rice after harvesting like rice husks to better use.

If you want to process briquettes from rice husks you will need briquetting machine rice husk technology whereby the machine will be able to compress those agro waste products to commodities of use.

Rice Husk Briquette

These commodities can be used in the burning and heating procedures at home making you save other energy resources as well as keeping your home warm during winter. As time went by, Japan and other countries in Asia including China, India have also spoken of success of the briquetting technology and how it has helped improve status in rural areas where fuel could be a huge problem to the people.

With technology that helps you transform rice husks to better use, there is no such word as certain things going to waste like before although rice husks were used in to enrich soil quality thus improving its viability during the planting season.

Formula Current Voltage Solar Cell

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 12 Nov 2012 10:05:00 +0000

Current Voltage Solar Cell

Materials with a pn -junction show a nonlinear, rectifying characteristic, since it is much easier to move electrons from the electrode through the p -type region and through the junction than from the n -type region over the junction barrier into the p -type region.

A pn junction with light, showing the quasi-Fermi levels and their connection to the electrodes, with V the applied voltage and V bi the built-in voltage. Close to the metal surface enhanced surface recombination will cause both quasi-Fermi levels to collapse.

Whenever the current-voltage characteristic extends into the fourth quadrant, electric power can be extracted. Its maximum value is given by the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in the characteristic. This identifies the maximum power current, j mp and the maximum power voltage V mp .

Formula Panel Solar

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 12 Nov 2012 09:55:00 +0000

Panel Solar

To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to create a model which is electrically equivalent, and is based on discrete electrical components whose behavior is well known.

An ideal solar cell may be modelled by a current source in parallel with a diode; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so a shunt resistance and a series resistance component are added to the model. The resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown on the left. Also shown, on the right, is the schematic representation of a solar cell for use in circuit diagrams.

Just as electrical devices are rated by the power that they use while they are running, solar panels are rated by the amount of power that they produce. If you look at the back of a solar panel, you will see a plate that lists the panel’s maximum power rating (usually abbreviated Wmp). You will see other things listed there too: One of them is the Vmp (the voltage of the panel at maximum power), and another is the Imp (the current of the panel at maximum power). Equation 1: ENERGY = POWER X TIME

Energy Transferred = Power (Watts) x Time (secs).Power Energy

Not wanting to seem TOO helpful, the units used in these maps are “kWh/m2.day”. Don’t worry about it, you can read the color-coded numbers as “Hours of Peak Sun per day”, and plug them into Equation 1 with your solar panel rating to calculate the amount of energy (in watt-hours) that a particular solar panel can produce in a day: Wmp * Peak Sun Hours/day = watt-hours/day

Photo Electronic Effect

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 12 Nov 2012 09:39:00 +0000

Photo Electronic Effect

The photoelectric effect is the release event electrons from the metal surface (called as electron images) when the metal is exposed with light.

Energy formula based on the theory quantum is E = NHF. Thus, the light emitted as small particles called photons. If the tube is a tube placed in the dark room, there would be no electric current (I) flow.

But when the light with frequency are directed to the plates / panels, there will be a flow of electricity. When examined further, the photoelectric effect is then there are two important properties of light waves light intensity and frequency. some properties important is happening on photoelectric effect.

To enable the flow of electricity (migration electrons) from the surface of the solar cell, it is necessary minimum working W0 (called the work function or energy threshold) to detach an electron from the surface solar cells. The amount depends on the type of metal W0 used as a solar cell material. to occur continuous electrical current then the frequency (f), which emitted by the light must be such so hf> W0,

Wo = Work function or threshold energy (Joule) Unit

W0 often written in eV, 1 eV = 1,602.10-19 J

h = Planck's constant (6,626.10-34 J.s)

m = period of the electron (9,11.10-31 kg)

v = electron velocity (m / s)

f0 = threshold frequency (Hertz)

Process Biomass Briquettes

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 08 Nov 2012 10:31:00 +0000

Object Biomass Briquettes

Biomass briquettes are a biofuel substitute to coal and charcoal. They are used to heat industrial boilers in order to produce electricity from steam. The most common use of the briquettes are in the developing world, where energy sources are not as widely available.

There has been a move to the use of briquettes in the developed world through the use of cofiring, when the briquettes are combined with coal in order to create the heat supplied to the boiler. This reduces carbon dioxide emissions by partially replacing coal used in power plants with materials that are already contained in the carbon cycle.

Manufacturers mainly use three methods to create the briquettes, each depending on the way the biomass is dried out. Although biomass briquettes are usually manufactured, biomass has been used throughout history all over the world from simply starting campfires to the mass generation of electricity.

Process Biomass Briquettes

Compaction is another factor affecting production. Some materials burn more efficiently if compacted at low pressures, such as corn stover grind. Other materials such as wheat and barley-straw require high amounts of pressure to produce heat. There are also different press technologies that can be used. A piston press is used to create solid briquettes for a wide array of purposes.

Screw extrusion is used to compact biomass into loose, homogeneous briquettes that are substituted for coal in cofiring. This technology creates a toroidal, or doughnut-like, briquette. The hole in the center of the briquette allows for a larger surface area, creating a higher combustion rate.

Process Biohydrogen

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 08 Nov 2012 10:17:00 +0000

Generation Biohydrogen

Biohydrogen is defined as hydrogen produced biologically, most commonly by algae, bacteria and archaea. Biohydrogen is a potential biofuel obtainable from both cultivation and from waste organic materials.

Refineries are large-volume producers and consumers of hydrogen. Today 96% of all hydrogen is derived from fossil fuels, with 48% from natural gas, 30% from hydrocarbons, 18% from coal and about 4% from electrolysis.

Oil-sands processing, gas-to-liquids and coal gasification projects that are ongoing, require a huge amount of hydrogen and is expected to boost the requirement significantly within the next few years. Environmental regulations implemented in most countries, increase the hydrogen requirement at refineries for gas-line and diesel desulfurization.

It would take about 25,000 square kilometres to be sufficient to displace gasoline use in the US. To put this in perspective, this area represents approximately 10% of the area devoted to growing soya in the US.

The US Department of Energy has targeted a selling price of $2.60 / kg as a goal for making renewable hydrogen economically viable. 1 kg is approximately the energy equivalent to a gallon of gasoline. To achieve this, the efficiency of light-to-hydrogen conversion must reach 10% while current efficiency is only 1% and selling price is estimated at $13.53 / kg.

Process Biohydrogen

According to the DOE cost estimate, for a refueling station to supply 100 cars per day, it would need 300 kg. With current technology, a 300 kg per day stand-alone system will require 110,000 m2 of pond area, 0.2 g/l cell concentration, a truncated antennae mutant and 10 cm pond depth.

Areas of research to increase efficiency include developing oxygen-tolerant FeFe-hydrogenases and increased hydrogen production rates through improved electron transfer.

Work Anaerobic Digestion

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 19 Oct 2012 11:26:00 +0000

Plan Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. It is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste and/or to release energy.

Much of the fermentation used industrially to produce food and drink products, as well as home fermentation, uses anaerobic digestion. Silage is produced by anaerobic digestion.

The digestion process begins with bacterial hydrolysis of the input materials to break down insoluble organic polymers, such as carbohydrates, and make them available for other bacteria. Acidogenic bacteria then convert the sugars and amino acids into carbon dioxide, hydrogen, ammonia, and organic acids.

Acetogenic bacteria then convert these resulting organic acids into acetic acid, along with additional ammonia, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. Finally, methanogens convert these products to methane and carbon dioxide. The methanogenic archaea populations play an indispensable role in anaerobic wastewater treatments.

Many microorganisms are involved in the process of anaerobic digestion, including acetic acid-forming bacteria (acetogens) and methane-forming archaea (methanogens). These organisms feed upon the initial feedstock, which undergoes a number of different processes, converting it to intermediate molecules, including sugars, hydrogen, and acetic acid, before finally being converted to biogas.

Work Anaerobic Digestion

As with aerobic systems, the bacteria, the growing and reproducing microorganisms within anaerobic systems, require a source of elemental oxygen to survive, but in anaerobic systems, there is an absence of gaseous oxygen. Gaseous oxygen is prevented from entering the system through physical containment in sealed tanks. Anaerobes access oxygen from sources other than the surrounding air, which can be the organic material itself or may be supplied by inorganic oxides from within the input material.

When the oxygen source in an anaerobic system is derived from the organic material itself, the 'intermediate' end products are primarily alcohols, aldehydes, and organic acids, plus carbon dioxide. In the presence of specialised methanogens, the intermediates are converted to the 'final' end products of methane, carbon dioxide, and trace levels of hydrogen sulfide. In an anaerobic system, the majority of the chemical energy contained within the starting material is released by methanogenic bacteria as methane

Working Algae Fuel

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 19 Oct 2012 11:11:00 +0000

Process Algae Fuel

Algae fuel or Algal biofuel is an alternative to fossil fuel that uses algae as its source of natural deposits.

Several companies and government agencies are funding efforts to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae fuel production commercially viable. Harvested algae, like fossil fuel, release CO2 when burnt but unlike fossil fuel the CO2 is taken out of the atmosphere by the growing algae.

Algae cost more per unit mass (as of 2010, food grade algae costs ~$5000/tonne), due to high capital and operating costs, yet are claimed to yield between 10 and 100 times more fuel per unit area than other second-generation biofuel crops. The United States Department of Energy estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require 15,000 square miles (39,000 km2) which is only 0.42% of the U.S. map, or about half of the land area of Maine.

Working Algae Fuel

This is less than 1⁄7 the area of corn harvested in the United States in 2000. However, these claims remain unrealized, commercially. According to the head of the Algal Biomass Organization algae fuel can reach price parity with oil in 2018 if granted production tax credits.

The lipid, or oily part of the algae biomass can then be extracted and converted into biodiesel through a process similar to that used for any other vegetable oil, or converted in a refinery into "drop-in" replacements for petroleum-based fuels. The algae's carbohydrate content can be fermented into bioethanol and biobutanol.

AC generator

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Tue, 04 Sep 2012 13:02:00 +0000

AC Generator Object

In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electric charge (usually carried by electrons) to flow through an external electrical circuit.

It is analogous to a water pump, which causes water to flow (but does not create water). The source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air, or any other source of mechanical energy.

An AC generator converts mechanical energy into alternating current electricity. Because power transferred into the field circuit is much less than power transferred into the armature circuit, AC generators nearly always have the field winding on the rotor and the armature winding on the stator.

AC generator

AC generators are classified into several types. In asynchronous or induction generators, stator flux induces currents in the rotor. The prime mover then drives the rotor above the synchronous speed, causing the opposing rotor flux to cut the stator coils producing active current in the stator coils, thus sending power back to the electrical grid. In synchronous generators or alternator, the current for the magnetic field is provided by a separate DC current source.

Direct Current

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Tue, 04 Sep 2012 12:42:00 +0000

Types of Current

Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current is produced by sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type.

Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. The electric charge flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC). A term formerly used for direct current was galvanic current.

Direct current may be obtained from an alternating current supply by use of a current-switching arrangement called a rectifier, which contains electronic elements (usually) or electromechanical elements (historically) that allow current to flow only in one direction. Direct current may be made into alternating current with an inverter or a motor-generator set.

Direct Current

Direct current is used to charge batteries, and in nearly all electronic systems, as the power supply. Very large quantities of direct-current power are used in production of aluminum and other electrochemical processes. Direct current is used for some railway propulsion, especially in urban areas. High-voltage direct current is used to transmit large amounts of power from remote generation sites or to interconnect alternating current power grids.