English for Biology

Grammar Lessons That Most Often Forgotten

2013-02-18T15:58:00.000-08:00

What is the forgotten lesson Grammar?

Grammar lessons or structure is often a scourge for students in schools. Apparently after learning English intense and serious, I found no material that is forgotten when newbies want to learn English.

I do not intend to get in the criticism of the English language materials that already exist. But I just want to share what I have experienced when first learning English. And hopefully you can take benefit.

Here are the materials I mean. THE PART OF SPEECH "Portions word in the English language". Sometimes as a beginner, many people instantly learn about tenses or grammar to another. While the parts of speech they do not know.

Immediately, Parts of speech are divided into 8 pieces collected in PANCAVI P.

Pronoun: pronouns examples: I, You, they, we, she, he, it
Adjective: adjective examples: smart, beautiful, diligent, lazy, etc.
Noun: a noun example: chair, wall, floor, table
Conjunction: an example conjunctions: and, when, but
Adverb: an adverb example: here, there, yesterday
Verb: a verb example: go, eat, drink, blink
Interjection: interjection examples: Oh My God!, Watch Out! (Awas!)
Preposition: example prepositions: in, on, at

May be useful

English Grammar

2013-02-11T15:56:00.000-08:00

Need to Learn English Grammar

GrammarBelajar English English Grammar for the novice or beginner who needs to learn early is:

1. Parts Of Speech
2. English tenses

There are 2 above grammar lesson was the need to excel at beginners.

In Parts of speech you will know what it Pronoun, Adjective, Noun, conjunction, adverb, Verb, Interjection, and preposition. When you've mastered Parts of speech, then you will know the parts of a word in a sentence or paragraph.

The second is about the tenses, tenses talking synonymous with time. Yes, when the time or the time it happened, would go into the past tense (past tense), or time (present tense), or the future (future tense). By understanding tenses properly, then your sentence structure would be better and perfect.

"Grammar" is you need to master, but the important thing is you have to PRACTICE. PRACTICE AND PRACTICE!!!

Practice makes perfect, with practice / practice will make perfect. Frequently working on grammar problems, until one day english grammar skills are better than ever.

Plural Noun Rules irregular - irregular Noun

2013-02-04T15:55:00.000-08:00

Plural Noun Rules irregular

From the name alone means irregularly irregular, hence the plural nouns do not have a rule called irregular Noun. If you want to know the rules of regular noun, please read my post entitled "Plural Noun Rules regularity - Regular Noun"
There are some irregular noun:

1. Noun (noun) a different form singularnya plural.

example:
foot - feet (ft)
tooth - teeth (tooth)
mouse - mice (mice)
man - men (boys)
woman - women (woman)
child - children (children)
ox - oxen (bulls)

2. Noun singular and plural are the same.

example:
swine (pigs)
sheep (lamb)
deer (deer)
fish (fish)
salmon (salmon)

3. Noun derived from the Latin or Greek, using the plural in the original.

example:
Media - Medium
datum - data
radius - radii
thesis - Theses
agendum - agenda

Note: the word left = singular noun (singular noun)
right word = plural noun (plural noun)

May be useful

Symbol Parts of speech by John M Echols dictionary and Oxford Dictionary

2013-01-28T15:54:00.001-08:00

Symbol Parts of speech

Parts of speech in the English language is very important. Parts of speech are also known as word classes or parts of words.
There are some parts of speech symbols by two dictionaries:

1. John M Echols Dictionary
2. Oxford Dictionary

Parts of speech (parts of words):

1. Noun (noun)
John M Echols Dictionary: Kb
Oxford Dictionary: n [C], [U]

2. Pronoun (pronoun)
John M Echols Dictionary: Kg
Oxford Dictionary: pron

3. Adjective (adjective)
John M Echols Dictionary: ks
Oxford Dictionary: adj

4. Verb (verb)
John M Echols Dictionary: KKT / kki
Oxford Dictionary: v [i], v [T]

5. Adverb (adverb)
John M Echols Dictionary: kt
Oxford Dictionary: adv

6. Conjunction (conjunctive)
John M Echols Dictionary: K.sam
Oxford Dictionary: conj

7. Interjection (interjection)
John M Echols Dictionary: k.seru
Oxford Dictionary: interj

8. Preposition (preposition)
John M Echols Dictionary: kd
Oxford Dictionary: prep

May be useful

ECOSYSTEM

2013-01-05T05:20:00.000-08:00

food chain

Everything in the natural world is connected. An ecosystem is a community of living and non-living things that work together. Ecosystems have no particular size. An ecosystem can be as large as a desert or a lake or as small as a tree or a puddle. If you have a terrarium, that is an artificial ecosystem. The water, water temperature, plants, animals, air, light and soil all work together. If there isn't enough light or water or if the soil doesn't have the right nutrients, the plants will die. If the plants die, animals that depend on them will die. If the animals that depend on the plants die, any animals that depends on those animals will die. Ecosystems in nature work the same way. All the parts work together to make a balanced system.

An ecosystem is a biologicalenvironment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving, physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight. It is all the organisms in a given area, along with the nonliving (abiotic) factors with which they interact; a biological community and its physical environment.

The entire array of organisms inhabiting a particular ecosystem is called a community. In a typical ecosystem, plants and other photosyntheticorganisms are the producers that provide the food.Ecosystems can be permanent or temporary. Ecosystems usually form a number of food webs.

Ecosystems are functional units consisting of living things in a given area, non-living chemical and physical factors of their environment, linked together through nutrient cycle and energy flow.

    Natural
        Terrestrial ecosystem
        Aquatic ecosystem
            Lentic, the ecosystem of a lake, pond or swamp.
            Lotic, the ecosystem of a river, stream or spring.
    Artificial, ecosystems created by humans.

Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms interact with every other element in their local environment. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, stated: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms (ie: the "community") in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined tropic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e.: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system is an ecosystem.

Gerunds

2012-12-29T05:12:00.000-08:00

Etymology

The word 'gerund' in English comes from the Latin term gerundium, of the same meaning. Gerundium itself comes from the gerundive of the Latin verb gero, gerundus, meaning "to be carried out".
Gerunds in English

In English, the gerund is identical in form to the present participle (ending in -ing) and can behave as a verb within a clause (so that it may be modified by an adverb or have an object), but the clause as a whole (sometimes consisting of only one word, the gerund itself) acts as a noun within the larger sentence. For example: Eating this cake is easy.

In "Eating this cake is easy," "eating this cake," although traditionally known as a phrase, is referred to as a non-finite clause in modern linguistics. "Eating" is the verb in the clause, while "this cake" is the object of the verb. "Eating this cake" acts as a noun phrase within the sentence as a whole, though; the subject of the sentence is the non-finite clause, specifically eating.

Other examples of the gerund:

    I like swimming. (direct object)
    Swimming is fun. (subject)

Not all nouns that are identical in form to the present participle are gerunds.[3] The formal distinction is that a gerund is a verbal noun – a noun derived from a verb that retains verb characteristics, that functions simultaneously as a noun and a verb, while other nouns in the form of the present participle (ending in -ing) are deverbal nouns, which function as common nouns, not as verbs at all. Compare:

    I like fencing. (gerund, an activity, could be replaced with "to fence")
    The white fencing adds to the character of the neighborhood. (deverbal, could be replaced with an object such as "bench")

Double nature of the gerund

As the result of its origin and development the gerund has nominal and verbal properties. The nominal characteristics of the gerund are as follows:

    The gerund can perform the function of subject, object and predicative:
        Smoking endangers your health. (subject)
        I like making people happy. (object)
    The gerund can be preceded by a preposition:
        I'm tired of arguing.
    Like a noun the gerund can be modified by a noun in the possessive case, a possessive adjective, or an adjective:
        I wonder at John's keeping calm.
        Is there any objection to my seeing her?
        Brisk walking relieves stress.

The verbal characteristics of the gerund include the following:

    The gerund of transitive verbs can take a direct object:
        I've made good progress in speaking Basque.
    The gerund can be modified by an adverb:
        Breathing deeply helps you to calm down.
    The gerund has the distinctions of aspect and voice.
        Having read the book once before makes me more prepared.
        Being deceived can make someone feel angry.

Verb patterns with the gerund

Verbs that are often followed by a gerund include admit, adore, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, contemplate, delay, deny, describe, detest, dislike, enjoy, escape, fancy, feel, finish, give, hear, imagine, include, justify, listen to, mention, mind, miss, notice, observe, perceive, postpone, practice, quit, recall, report, resent, resume, risk, see, sense, sleep, stop, suggest, tolerate and watch. Additionally, prepositions are often followed by a gerund.

For example:

    I will never quit smoking.
    We postponed making any decision.
    After two years of deciding, we finally made a decision.
    We heard whispering.
    They denied having avoided me.
    He talked me into coming to the party.
    They frightened her out of voicing her opinion.

Verbs followed by a gerund or a to-infinitive
With little change in meaning

advise, recommend and forbid:

These are followed by a to-infinitive when there is an object as well, but by a gerund otherwise.

    The police advised us not to enter the building, for a murder had occurred. (Us is the object of advised.)
    The police advised against our entering the building. (Our is used for the gerund entering.)

consider, contemplate and recommend:

These verbs are followed by a to-infinitive only in the passive or with an object pronoun.

    People consider her to be the best. – She is considered to be the best.
    I am considering sleeping over, if you do not mind.

begin, continue, start; hate, like, love, prefer

With would, the verbs hate, like, love, and prefer are usually followed by the to-infinitive.

    I would like to work there. (more usual than working)

When talking about sports, there is usually a difference in meaning between the infinitive and gerund (see the next section).
[edit]With a change in meaning

like, love, prefer

In some contexts, following these verbs with a to-infinitive when the subject of the first verb is the subject of the second verb provides more clarity than a gerund.

    I like to box. (I enjoy doing it myself.)
    I like boxing. (Either I enjoy watching it, I enjoy doing it myself, or the idea of boxing is otherwise appealing.)
    I do not like gambling, but I do like to gamble."

dread, hate and cannot bear:

These verbs are followed by a to-infinitive when talking subjunctively (often when using to think), but by a gerund when talking about general dislikes.

    I dread / hate to think what she will do.
    I dread / hate seeing him.
    I cannot bear to see you suffer like this. (You are suffering now.)
    I cannot bear being pushed around in crowds. (I never like that.)

forget and remember:

When these have meanings that are used to talk about the future from the given time, the to-infinitive is used, but when looking back in time, the gerund.

    She forgot to tell me her plans. (She did not tell me, although she should have.)
    She forgot telling me her plans. (She told me, but then forgot having done so.)
    I remembered to go to work. (I remembered that I needed to go to work.)
    I remembered going to work. (I remembered that I went to work.)

go on:

    After winning the semi-finals, he went on to play in the finals. (He completed the semi-finals and later played in the finals.)
    He went on giggling, not having noticed the teacher enter. (He continued doing so.)

mean:

    I did not mean to scare you off. (I did not intend to scare you off.)
    Taking a new job in the city meant leaving behind her familiar surroundings. (If she took the job, she would have to leave behind her familiar surroundings.)

regret:

    We regret to inform you that you have failed your exam. (polite or formal form of apology)
    I very much regret saying what I said. (I wish that I had not said that.)

try:

When a to-infinitive is used, the subject is shown to make an effort at something, attempt or endeavor to do something. If a gerund is used, the subject is shown to attempt to do something in testing to see what might happen.

    Please try to remember to post my letter.
    I have tried being stern, but to no avail.

stop, quit:

When the infinitive is used after 'stop' or 'quit', it means that the subject stops one activity and starts the activity indicated by the infinitive. If the gerund is used, it means that the subject stops the activity indicated by the gerund.

    She stopped to smell the flowers.
    She stopped smelling the flowers.

Or more concisely:

    She stopped walking to smell the flowers.

    He quit working there to travel abroad.

Gerunds preceded by a genitive

Because of its noun properties, the genitive (possessive case) is preferred for a noun or pronoun preceding a gerund.

    We enjoyed their [genitive] singing.

This usage is preferred in formal writing or speaking. The objective case is often used in place of the possessive, especially in casual situations:

    I do not see it making any difference.

Really, 'I do not see its making any difference' is the correct option.

This may sound awkward in general use, but is still the correct manner in which to converse or write. And this form of gerund is applicable in all relative cases, for instance:

    He affected my going there.
    He affected your going there.
    He affected his/her/its going there.
    He affected our going there.
    He affected their going there.

This is because the action, of doing or being, belongs, in effect, to the subject/object (direct or indirect) practising it, thus, the possessive is required to clearly demonstrate that.

In some cases, either the possessive or the objective case may be logical:

    The teacher's shouting startled the student. (Shouting is a gerund, and teacher's is a possessive noun. The shouting is the subject of the sentence.)
    The teacher shouting startled the student. (Shouting is a participle describing the teacher. This sentence means The teacher who was shouting startled the student. In this sentence, the subject is the teacher herself.)

Either of these sentences could mean that the student was startled because the teacher was shouting.

Using the objective case can be awkward, if the gerund is singular but the other noun is plural. It can look like a problem with subject-verb agreement:

    The politicians' debating was interesting.

One might decide to make was plural so that debating can be a participle.

    The politicians debating were interesting.

Gerunds and present participles

Insofar as there is a distinction between gerunds and present participles, it is generally fairly clear which is which; a gerund or participle that is the subject or object of a preposition is a gerund, if it refers to the performance of an action (but present participles may be used substantively to refer to the performer of an action), while one that modifies a noun attributively or absolutely is a participle. The main source of potential ambiguity is when a gerund-participle follows a verb; in this case, it may be seen either as a predicate adjective (in which case it is a participle), or as a direct object or predicate nominative (in either of which cases it is a gerund). In this case, a few transformations can help distinguish them. In the table that follows, ungrammatical sentences are marked with asterisks, per common linguistic practice; it should be noted that the transformations all produce grammatical sentences with similar meanings when applied to sentences with gerunds but either ungrammatical sentences, or sentences with completely different meanings, when applied to sentences with participles.

Transformation	Gerund use	Participle use
(none)	John suggested asking Bill.	John kept asking Bill.
Passivization	Asking Bill was suggested.	*Asking Bill was kept.
Pronominal substitution	John suggested it.	*John kept it.
Use as a noun	John suggested the asking of Bill.	*John kept the asking of Bill.
Replacement with a finite clause	John suggested that Bill be asked.	*John kept that Bill be asked.
Use with an objective or possessive subject	John suggested our asking Bill.	*John kept his asking Bill.
Clefting	Asking Bill is what John suggested.	*Asking Bill is what John kept.
Left dislocation	Asking Bill John suggested.	*Asking Bill John kept.

None of these transformations is a perfect test, however.

English gerund-like words in other languages

English words ending in -ing are often transformed into pseudo-anglicisms in other languages, where their use is somewhat different from in English itself. In many of these cases, the loanword has functionally become a noun rather than a gerund. For instance, camping is a campsite in Bulgarian, Dutch, French, Greek, Italian, Romanian, Russian, and Spanish; in Bulgarian, Dutch, French, Polish, and Russian parking is a car park; lifting is a facelift in Bulgarian, French, German, Italian, Polish, Romanian, Hebrew, and Spanish. The French word for shampoo is (le) shampooing.

Exercise for "genetics" text

2012-12-22T05:08:00.000-08:00

Exercise for "genetics" text

exercis

Answer the question bellow according to the text!

1. What is genetics?
2. With what genetics deal?
3. Can genetics applied to all living system? If can, mention it!
4. Since when inherit traits from their parents has been used?
5. What is the benefit of learning genetics science?
6. Who is the modern scientific which seeks to understand the process of inheritance?
7. When began Gregor Mendelwith his work?
8. Din Mendel knows the physical basis for heredity?
9. What is genes?
10. What molecule composed to?
11. How many stranded form DNA naturally occurs?
12. a new partner strand is created by?
13. How is the physical method for making copies of genes?
14. A change to the DNA in a gene can change other part. What is it?
15. The combination of genetics with what an organism experiences that determines the ultimate outcome. Give the example!

Complete the text bellow according to the text!

1.Genetics is a discipline of ………. is the science of genes, …….., and …….. in living organisms
2.Genetics deals with the molecular structure and function of genes, with gene behavior in the context of a ……..or……….
3.genetics can be applied to the study of all living systems, from …………… and …………, through ………….. (especiallycrops) and domestic animals, to ………..
4.The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through ………… …………..
5.modern science of genetics, which seeks to understand the process of ……….
6.began with the work of ………. ………. in the…………. Century
7.Although he did not know the physical basis for ………. , Mendel observed that organisms inherit traits via ………. units of inheritance, which are now called ………
8.Genes correspond to regions within …………., a molecule composed of a chain of four different types of……………the sequence of these nucleotides is the genetic information organisms inherit
9.DNA naturally occurs in a ………. stranded form
10.Each strand can act as a template for ………. a new partner ………..
11.The sequence of nucleotides in a gene is ………..by cells to produce a chain of …….. ………
12.creating…………the order of amino acids in a protein corresponds to the order of nucleotides in the ……..
13.relationship between nucleotide sequence and amino acid sequence is known as the …….. ………
14.A change to the DNA in a …….. can change a protein's ……… ………. , changing its shape and function
15.while genes play a role in determining an organism's ……, the ……. and health it experiences after inception also have a large effect

Genetics

2012-12-15T05:02:00.000-08:00

What is Genetics?

DNA

Genetics (from Ancient Greekγενετικόςgenetikos, "genitive" and that from γένεσιςgenesis, "origin"), a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms.

Genetics deals with the molecular structure and function of genes, with gene behavior in the context of a cell or organism (e.g. dominance and epigenetics), with patterns of inheritance from parent to offspring, and with gene distribution, variation and change in populations. Given that genes are universal to living organisms, genetics can be applied to the study of all living systems, from viruses and bacteria, through plants (especially crops) and domestic animals, to humans (as in medical genetics).

The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of genetics, which seeks to understand the process of inheritance, only began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century.Although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, Mendel observed that organisms inherit traits via discrete units of inheritance, which are now called genes.

Genes correspond to regions within DNA, a molecule composed of a chain of four different types of nucleotidesthe sequence of these nucleotides is the genetic information organisms inherit. DNA naturally occurs in a double stranded form, with nucleotides on each strand complementary to each other. Each strand can act as a template for creating a new partner strand. This is the physical method for making copies of genes that can be inherited.

The sequence of nucleotides in a gene is translated by cells to produce a chain of amino acids, creating proteinsthe order of amino acids in a protein corresponds to the order of nucleotides in the gene. This relationship between nucleotide sequence and amino acid sequence is known as the genetic code. The amino acids in a protein determine how it folds into a three dimensional shape; this structure is, in turn, responsible for the protein's function. Proteins carry out almost all the functions needed for cells to live. A change to the DNA in a gene can change a protein's amino acids, changing its shape and function: this can have a dramatic effect in the cell and on the organism as a whole.

Although genetics plays a large role in the appearance and behavior of organisms, it is thecombination of genetics with what an organism experiences that determines the ultimate outcome. For example, while genes play a role in determining an organism's size, the nutrition and health it experiences after inception also have a large effect.

Vocabularies :

Genetic : Genetika atau ilmu keturunan
Heredity : hereditas atau keturunan
Gene : plasma pembawa sifat (didalam keturunan)
Inheritance : warisan
Trait : ciri, sifat atau karakter (ciri pembawaaan)
Crop : hasil panen
Breed : memelihara atau mengembangbiakan
Discrete : mempuyai ciri-ciri sendiri atau berlainan.
Chain : rantai-rantai
Sequence : rangkaian , urutan atau rentetan
Determine : menentukan atau menetapkan
Whole : keseluruhan
Appearance : rupa atau muncul

Exercise for Degree Of Comparison

2012-12-08T04:50:00.000-08:00

Exercise :

A. Read the text bellow!

In the biology classroom there are 5 boys :Andi, Pefi, Purnama and Mahmudin. Mahmudin is taller than Pefi, but Mahmudin is shorter than Andi. And Pefi is taller than Purnama.

Look at the picture and Fill the blank with the right words !

1. Purnama is ……. Than Mahmudin.

2. Andi is …… than all.

3. Mahmudin is …. Than Purnama

4. Purnama is ….. than al

5. Pefi is ….. than Mahmudin and Andi.

B. Fill the blank with positive, comparative or superlative degree!

1. Tiger is ….. ….. danger animal in the jungle

2. Untirta is … …….. University in Banten

3. Biology lesson is ……. Than physic

4. We surf … fast … they did.

5. Car is …. …… than Motorcycle

6. Human reproduction tools is …. …… than fish

7. We need proteins …. …… vitamins

8. The population of cows is …… ……. Than pinguin’s population.

9. Our English teacher is ….. than all

10. We have many time …. Them to reach our dreams

Grammer time: Degree Of Comparison

2012-12-01T04:50:00.001-08:00

Degree Of Comparison

In English grammar the degree of comparison of an adjective or adverbthat describes the relational value of one thing with something in another clause of a sentence. An adjective may simply describe a quality, (the positive); it may compare the quality with that of another of its kind (comparative degree); and it may compare the quality with many or all others (superlative degree). In other languages Degrees of Comparison are used when we compare one person or one thing with another.

There are three Degrees of Comparison in English.
They are:
1. Positive degree.
2. Comparative degree.
3. Superlative degree.

Let us see all of them one by one.

1.Positive degree.

When we speak about only one person or thing, We use the Positive degree.

Examples:

• This house is big.
In this sentence only one noun “The house” is talked about.
• He is a tall student.
• This flower is beautiful.
• He is an intelligent boy.
Each sentence mentioned above talks about only one noun.

2.Comparative degree.

When we compare two persons or two things with each other, We use both the Positive degree and Comparative degree.

Examples:

-This house is bigger than that one. (Comparative degree)
-This house is not as big as that one. (Positive degree).

The term “bigger” is comparative version of the term “big”. Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

-This flower is more beautiful than that. (Comparative)
-This flower is not as beautiful as that. (Positive) .

The term “more beautiful” is comparative version of the term “beautiful”. Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

-He is more intelligent than this boy. (Comparative)

-He is not as intelligent as this boy. (Positive).

The term “more intelligent” is comparative version of the term “intelligent”.Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

-He is taller than Mr. Hulas. (Comparative)
-He is not as tall as Mr. Hulas. (Positive).

The term “taller” is comparative version of the term “tall”. Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

3.Superlative degree:

When we compare more than two persons or things with one another, We use all the three Positive, Comparative and Superlative degrees.

Examples:

a. This is the biggest house in this street. (Superlative)
This house is bigger than any other house in this street. (Comparative)
No other house in this street is as big as this one. (Positive). The term “biggest” is the superlative version of the term “big”. All the three sentences mean the same meaning.

b. This flower is the most beautiful one in this garden. (Superlative)
This flower is more beautiful than any other flower in this garden. (Comparative)
No other flower in this garden is as beautiful as this one. (Comparative) The term “most beautiful” is the superlative version of the term “beautiful”. All the three sentences mean the same meaning.

c. He is the most intelligent in this class. (Superlative)
He is more intelligent than other boys in the class. (Comparative). No other boy is as intelligent as this boy. (Positive). The term “most intelligent” is superlative version of the term “intelligent”. Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

d. He is the tallest student in this class. (Superlative)
He is taller than other students in this class. (Comparative)
No other student is as tall as this student. (Positive) The term “tallest” is superlative version of the term “tall”. Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

Degrees of Comparison are applicable only to Adjectives and Adverbs, Nouns and verbs do not have degrees of comparisons

He is the tallest student in the class.Theterm “tallest” is an adjective.

Among the members of the group, Mr. Clinton speaks most effectively.The term “effectively” is an adverb.

All the terms used in the above-examples are either adjectives or adverbs.We have seen all the three Degrees of Comparison.
Let us see their models.

Model -1: “The best”:

Examples:

1. This is the best hotel in this area.

No other hotel is as better as this on in this area.No other hotel is as good as this one in this area.

2. Unemployment is the most serious problem facing our country.

Unemployment is more serious than any other problem facing our country.No other problem facing our country is as serious as unemployment.

Model-2: “One of the best”:

Examples:

1. Calcutta is one of the largest cities in India.

Calcutta is large than most other cities in India.,Very few cities in India are as large as Calcutta.

2. . Satin Tendulkar is one of the best batsmen in the world.

Satin Tendulkar is better than most other batsmen in the world.No other batman in the world is as good as Satin Tendulkar.

Model-3: “Not the best”:

Examples:

1. This is not the best solution to the problem.
2. This is not better than few other solutions to this problem.
3. Other solutions to this problem are not as good as this one.

4.New York is not the largest city in America.

New York is not bigger than many other cities in America. Few other cities in America are at least as large as New York.Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting “more” before them.And their superlative terms, by getting “most” before them.

Examples:

Beautiful..........more beautiful..........most beautiful

Effective……….more effective………most effective

Effectively………more effectively……….most effectively

Enjoyable………….more enjoyable……….most enjoyable

Useful……………….more useful………..most useful

Different………..more different…………most different

Honest………..more honest…………..most honest

Qualified…………more qualified…………most qualified

Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting “er” after them and their superlative terms, by getting “est” after them.

Examples:

Hard……………..harder……………..hardest

Big……………….bigger…………….biggest

Tall……………..taller……………tallest

Long………………longer………………longest

Short……………..shorter……………….shortest

Costly…………………costlier……………costliest

Simple………………….simpler………….simplest

Degrees of Comparison add beauty and varieties to the sentences.

Exercises for "Dinosaurs" text

2012-12-01T04:42:00.001-08:00

Exercises for "Dinosaurs" text

a.Answer the questions bellow according to the text above!

1.What is dinosaurs?
2.When was dinosaurs life?
3.Are there some group of dinosaurs survive till now?
4.Dinosaurs are a diverse and varied group of animals, how many species of birds, fishes and non avian dinosaurs?
5.Some of dinosaurs are herbivore and other are carnivore, give the example both of them!
6.When was the term of dinosaurs coined?
7.What was most of scientific believe about dinosaurs?
8.When were the first fossil of dinosaurs recognized?
9.What is the word “dinosaurs” used to describe?
10.What is your opinion about dinosaurs?

b.Complete the text bellow according to the text!

1.Dinosaurs are a diverse group of animals that were the dominant terrestrial…… for over 160 million years
2.The fossil record indicates thatbirds evolvedwithin ........dinosaurs during the ……. period
3.Dinosaurs are a diverse and varied group of animals; birds, at over 9,000 species, are the most diverse group of vertebrate besides ……… fish
4.Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both …… species and fossil remains
5.Many dinosaurs, including birds, have been …….., though many extinct groups were ………
6.Many species possess elaborate display structures such as horns or crests, and some prehistoric groups developed even more elaborate skeletal modifications such as ……..
7.Avian dinosaurs have been the planet's dominant flying vertebrate since the extinction of the ………
8.The term "dinosaur" was coined in 1842 by the English paleontologist ……. ………
9.Through the first half of the 20th century, most of the scientific community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish, unintelligent …… …….. animals
10.Most research conducted since the 1970s, however, has indicated that dinosaurs were active animals with elevated ………. and numerous adaptations for social interaction.

Dinosaur

2012-12-01T04:38:00.004-08:00

What is Dinosaurs?

Dinosaurs are a diverse group of animals that were the dominant terrestrialvertebrates for over 160 million years, from the late Triassic period (about 230million years ago) until the end of the Cretaceous (about 65 million years ago), when the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event led to the extinction of most dinosaur species at the close of the Mesozoic era. The fossil record indicates thatbirds evolved within theropod dinosaurs during the Jurassic period. Some of them survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, including the ancestors of all modern birds. Consequently, in modern classification systems, birds are considered a type of dinosaur—the only group of which that has survived to the present day.

Dinosaurs are a diverse and varied group of animals; birds, at over 9,000 species, are the most diverse group of vertebrate besides perciform fish. Paleontologists have identified over 500 distinct genera and more than 1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs.Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both extant species and fossil remains. Some dinosaurs are herbivorous, others carnivorous. Many dinosaurs, including birds, have been bipedal, though many extinct groups were quadrupedal, and some were able to shift between these body postures. Many species possess elaborate display structures such as horns or crests, and some prehistoric groups developed even more elaborate skeletal modifications such as bony armor. Avian dinosaurs have been the planet's dominant flying vertebrate since the extinction of the pterosaurs. Although generally known for the large size of some species, most Mesozoic dinosaurs were human-sized or even smaller. All known dinosaurs are known to have built nests and laid eggs.

The term "dinosaur" was coined in 1842 by the English paleontologist Richard Owen, and derives from Greek (deinos) "terrible, powerful, wondrous" + (sauros) "lizard". Through the first half of the 20th century, most of the scientific community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish, unintelligent cold-blooded animals. Most research conducted since the 1970s, however, has indicated that dinosaurs were active animals with elevated metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social interaction.

Since the first dinosaur fossils were recognized in the early 19th century, mounted fossil dinosaur skeletons or replicas have been major attractions at museums around the world, and dinosaurs have become a part of world culture. They have been featured in best-selling books and films such as Jurassic Park, and new discoveries are regularly covered by the media. In informal speech, the word "dinosaur" is used to describe things that are impractically large, obsolete, or bound for extinction, reflecting the outdated view that dinosaurs were maladapted monsters of the ancient world.[citation needed]

Key words :

The Triassic is a geologic period that extended from about 250 to 200 Mya (million years ago). As the first period of the Mesozoic Era, the Triassic follows the Permian and is followed by the Jurassic.

Vertebrates are members of the subphylum Vertebrata, chordates with backbones and spinal columns. Vertebrates are the largest group of chordates with currently about 58,000 species described.[2] Vertebrates include the jawless fishes, bony fishes, sharks and rays, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds.

Cretaceous is a geologic period and system from circa 145.5 ± 4 to 65.5 ± 0.3 million years (Ma) ago.

The Mesozoic Era is an interval of geological time from about 250 million years ago to about 65 million years ago. It is called the Age of Dinosaurs because of its association with non-avian dinosaurs

Fossils (from Latin fossus, literally "having been dug up") are the preserved remains or traces of animals (also known as zoolites), plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous (fossil-containing) rock formations and sedimentary layers (strata) is known as the fossil record.

Evolution (also known as biological or organic evolution) is the change over time in one or more inherited traits found in populations of organisms. Inherited traits are particular distinguishing characteristics, including anatomical, biochemical or behaviouralcharacteristics, that are passed on from one generation to the next.

Theropods (theropod suborder name Theropoda meaning "beast feet") is both a suborder of bipedal saurischian dinosaurs, and a clade consisting of that suborder and its descendants (including modern birds).

The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about 199.6± 0.6 Mya (million years ago) to 145.5± 4 Mya, that is, from the end of the Triassic to the beginning of the Cretaceous. The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic Era, also known as the Age of Reptiles

The Perciformes, also called the Percomorphi or Acanthopteri, is one of the largest orders of vertebrates, containing about 40% of all bony fish. Perciformes means perch-like. They belong to the class of ray-finned fish and comprise over 7,000 species found in almost all aquatic environments.

Palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life, including organisms' evolution and interactions with each other and their environments (their paleoecology). As a "historical science" it tries to explain causes rather than conduct experiments to observe effects. Paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC.

In biology, a genus (plural: genera) is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist. The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, and hence different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. In the hierarchy of the binomial classification system, genus comes above species and below family.

Extant is a term commonly used in biology to refer to taxa, such as species, genera and families that are still in existence, meaning still alive.

Bipedalism is a form of terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs, or legs. An animal or machine that usually moves in a bipedal manner is known as a biped meaning "two feet".

Quadrupedalism is a form of land animal locomotion using four limbs or legs. An animal or machine that usually moves in a quadrupedal manner is known as a quadruped, meaning "four feet".

Armour (or armor, see spelling differences) in animals is external or superficial protection against attack by predators, formed as part of the body (rather than the behavioural use of protective external objects), usually through the hardening of body tissues, outgrowths or secretions.

Pterosaurs from the Greek pterosauros, meaning "winged lizard") were flying reptiles of the clade or order Pterosauria. They existed from the late Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous Period (220 to 65.5 million years ago). Pterosaurs are the earliest vertebrates known to have evolved powered flight.

Sir Richard Owen, KCB (20 July 1804 – 18 December 1892) was an English biologist, comparative anatomist and palaeontologist.

A poikilothermis an organism whose internal temperature varies considerably. It is the opposite of a homeotherm, an organism which maintains thermal homeostasis. Usually the variation is a consequence of variation in the ambient environmental temperature

Metabolism (from Greek (metabolismos), "outthrow") is the set of chemical reactions that happen in living organisms to maintain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories. Catabolism breaks down organic matter, for example to harvest energy in cellular respiration. Anabolism uses energy to construct components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids.

Exercie for PRONOUN

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Exercise :

a. Change all singulars sentences pronoun into plural!

1. This is a notebook

2. This an eraser

3. That is a ball

4. That is a building

5. This is a square

6. This is a hat

7. That is black tie

8. That is flag

9. This is hand phone

10. That is computer

b. Change all plural sentences pronoun into singulars!

1. These are flowers

2. These files are hidden

3. Those towers are tall

4. Those numbers are big

5. Those are beautiful butterfly

6. These books are expensive

7. Those are my notes

8. Those birds are flying

9. These websites are catching

10. These lines are white

Grammer time: PRONOUN

2012-12-01T04:27:00.001-08:00

PRONOUN

There are several words that are used to replace nouns. They are called

pronouns. /Pro/ in Greek means "for" or "in place of".

KINDS OF PRONOUNS :

Pronoun is divided into Personal pronouns, Demonstrative pronoun, Indefinite pronouns, Relativeand Interrogative pronouns.

1. Personal pronouns

Some pronouns are called personal pronouns because they take the place of specific names of persons, places, or thing, as in: Has Fred arrived? Yes, he is here. Here he is the personal pronoun that replaces Fred. As indicated in the table, there are both subject andobject personal pronouns as well as those that show possession. InHishouse is the white and green one, his is a personal possessivepronoun.

Singular :

	Subject	Object	Possesive
	Subject	Object	As subject	As object
First Person	I	Me	My	Mine
Second Person	You	You	Your	Yours
Third Person	He She It (one)	Him Her It (one)	His Her It (one)	His Hers Its (one’s)

Plurar :

	Subject	Object	Possesive
	Subject	Object	As subject	As object
First Person	We	Us	Our	Ours
Second Person	You	You	Your	Yours
Third Person	They	Them	Their	Theirs

2. Demonstrative pronouns

Some pronouns ( this, that, these, those) refer to particular people or things: This is mine, and that is yours. These are demonstrativepronouns. The demonstrative words can also be used as adjectives:

this house, those cars.

Singular (This/That)	Plural (These/Those)
This is a mobile	These are mobiles
This is a desk	These are desks
This is a bag	These are bags
That is a door	Those are doors
That is a house	Those are houses
That is a cycle	Those are cycles

3. Indefinite pronouns

Pronouns that refer to people or things in general are called indefinite pronouns. Like the demonstrative pronouns, they can be used as adjectives: another day, both animals, many weeks.

4. Relative and interrogative pronouns

The words who, whose, whom, that, which, and what are called relative pronouns. (The word that can be a demonstrative or a relativepronoun.) They create relative clauses in a sentence: The committee,which met last night, discussed your report. The words which met lastnight/ form a relative clause that describes the subject of the main clause, the committee.

Sometimes a relative pronoun is used as the subject of a question such as Who ate the pizza? Here it is classed as an interrogative pronoun. Interrogate means "ask" (questions).

Vocabularies and exercises for 'Virus' text

2012-12-01T04:23:00.002-08:00

Vocabularies :

Infectious :menular

Agent :alat

envelope : amplop/sampul

helical :sepertibentukskrup

evolve :menyusun

aphid :kumbangkecilpenghisap

provoke :menimbulkan

immune :kebal/bebas

confer :member/berbuat

acquire :memperoleh

viral :disebabkanoleh virus

evade3 :menghindarkan

A. Answer the questions bellow!

1. What is virus based on the text above?

2. How is the way to see the viruses?

3. What kind of organisms infected by viruses?

4. What is virology and microbiology?

5. Describe the structure of virus!

6. How can the virus infects an organism? Explain it!

7. What is the function of protein in the virus?

8. Viruses spread in many ways, please mention it!

9. Where from HIVis viruses transmitted?

10. What is host range?

11. How we can protect our body from viruses?

12. How is immune protects us from viruses?

b. Complete the text bellow according to the text!

1.      A virus is a small .... ……. that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms

2.      Viruses infect all types of …… , from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea

3.      Viruses are found in almost every ……… on Earth and are the most abundant type of biological entity

4.      Virus particles (known as virions) consist of two or three parts: the genetic material made from either ….. or ……

5.      The shapes of viruses range from simple …… and ……. forms to more complex structures.

6.      The average virus is about …….. the size of the average bacterium.

7.      In evolution, viruses are an important means of ……… …….. …….., which increases …… ……..

8.      Viruses in plants are often transmitted from plant to plant by ……… that feed on the …… of plants, such as aphids.

9.      viruses in animals can be carried by …………….. insects

10. …….. is one of several viruses transmitted through sexual contact and by exposure to infected blood.

11. Viral infections in animals provoke an ………. ………. that usually eliminates the infecting virus

12. Immune responses can also be produced by ……….. , which confer an artificially acquired immunity to the specific …….. infection

13. some viruses including those causing AIDS and …… ……. evade these immune responses and result in …….. infections

virus

2012-12-01T04:15:00.003-08:00

A virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Most viruses are too small to be seen directly with a light microscope. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea. Since the initial discovery of the tobacco mosaic virus by MartinusBeijerinck in 1898, about 5,000 viruses have been described in detail,although there are millions of different types. Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most abundant type of biological entity. The study of viruses is known as virology, a sub-speciality of microbiology.

Virus particles (known as virions) consist of two or three parts: the genetic material made from either DNA or RNA, long molecules that carry genetic information; a protein coat that protects these genes; and in some cases an envelope of lipids that surrounds the protein coat when they are outside a cell. The shapes of viruses range from simple helical and icosahedral forms to more complex structures. The average virus is about one one-hundredth the size of the average bacterium.

The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids – pieces of DNA that can move between cells – while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity.

Viruses spread in many ways; viruses in plants are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on the sap of plants, such as aphids; viruses in animals can be carried by blood-sucking insects. These disease-bearing organisms are known as vectors. Influenza viruses are spread by coughing and sneezing.

Norovirus and rotavirus, common causes of viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the faecal-oral route and are passed from person to person by contact, entering the body in food or water. HIV is one of several viruses transmitted through sexual contact and by exposure to infected blood. The range of host cells that a virus can infect is called its "host range". This can be narrow or, as when a virus is capable of infecting many species, broad.

Viral infections in animals provoke an immune response that usually eliminates the infecting virus. Immune responses can also be produced by vaccines, which confer an artificially acquired immunity to the specific viral infection. However, some viruses including those causing AIDS and viral hepatitis evade these immune responses and result in chronic infections. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but several antiviral drugs have been developed.

Handout for biology university student

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KATA PENGANTAR

Hal yang paling pertama dan patut untuk diutamakan kami bersyukur kepapada Allah SWT, Allah-lah yang memberikan kita semua yang kita butuhkan. Selanjutnya kami berterima kasih kepada Bu Hikma yang telah mengajar dan membimbing kami dalam penyusunan catatan Handout for biology university student berisi tentang pelajaran Bahasa Inggris untuk Mahasiswa Biologi. Dan yang terakhir kami berterima kasih kepada semua teman-teman yang mendukung dan ikut membantu dalam proses pembuatan catatan pelajaran Bahasa Inggris untuk Mahasiswa Biologi.

PREFACE

First of all we thanks a lot to Allah the lord of the world, the god who gives us all we need. Second of all thank you very much to missHikma who has been teaching and guidance us to make this task for English lesson. Finalanly we thanks to all of our friends for supporting and giving their encourage to us.

We hope this module will be useful for the next biology’s students at Sultan AgengTirtayasa University. We knew that our module isn’t perfect of all, we need your critics and suggestions to renew our module in the text opportunity.