Ethiopian Argument

African History

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 26 Jun 2014 11:00:00 +0000

By Wikipedia:-
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.2 million km² (11.7 million sq mi) including adjacent islands, it covers six percent of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4 percent of the total land area.^[2] With 1.1 billion people as of 2013, it accounts for about 15% of the world's human population.^[3] The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagoes. It has 54 fully recognized sovereign states ("countries"), nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition.^[4]

Africa's population is the youngest among all the continents; 50% of Africans are 19 years old or younger.^[5]

Algeria is Africa's largest country by area, and Nigeria is the largest by population. Africa, particularly central

Eastern Africa, is widely accepted as the place of origin of humans and the Hominidae clade (great apes), as evidenced by the discovery of the earliest hominids and their ancestors, as well as later ones that have been dated to around seven million years ago, including Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Australopithecus africanus, A. afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens (modern human) found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago.^[6] Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas; it is the only continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones.^[7]

Etymology

Afri was a Latin name used to refer to the Carthaginians, who dwelt in North Africa in modern-day Tunisia. This name seems to have originally referred to a native Libyan tribe; however, see Terence#Biography for discussion. The name is usually connected with Phoenician afar, "dust", but a 1981 hypothesis^[8] has asserted that it stems from the Berber ifri (plural ifran) "cave", in reference to cave dwellers.^[9] The same word^[9] may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, a Berber tribe originally from Yafran (also known as Ifrane) in northwestern Libya.^[10]

Under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of Africa Province, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya.^[11] The Latin suffix "-ica" can sometimes be used to denote a land (e.g., in Celtica from Celtae, as used by Julius Caesar). The later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name.

According to the ancient Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while "Asia" was used to refer to Anatolia and lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographer Ptolemy (85–165 AD), indicating Alexandria along the Prime Meridian and making the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge.

Other etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name "Africa":

The 1st-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (Ant. 1.15) asserted that it was named for Epher, grandson of Abraham according to Gen. 25:4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya.
Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. suggests the Latin aprica "sunny".
Leo Africanus (1488–1554) proposed the Greek aphrike (Αφρική), "without cold". Africanus suggested that the Greek phrike (φρίκη, "cold and horror"), combined with the privative prefix "a-", indicated a land free of cold and horror.^[12]
Massey, in 1881, states that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, "to turn toward the opening of the Ka." The Ka is the energetic double of every person and "opening of the Ka" refers to a womb or birthplace. Africa would be, for the Egyptians, "the birthplace."^[13]
Yet another hypothesis was proposed by Michèle Fruyt,^[14] linking the Latin word with africus "south wind", which would be of Umbrian origin and mean originally "rainy wind".
Africa's name is derived from an ancient area in modern day Tunisia known as Ifriqiya or sunny place, in Tamazight.^{[citation needed]}

History

Main article: History of Africa

Further information: History of North Africa, History of West Africa, History of Central Africa, History of East Africa and History of Southern Africa

Prehistory

Main article: Recent African origin of modern humans

Africa is considered by most paleoanthropologists to be the oldest inhabited territory on Earth, with the human species originating from the continent.^[15]^[16] During the middle of the 20th century, anthropologists fossils and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago. Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to have evolved into modern man, such as Australopithecus afarensis (radiometrically dated to approximately 3.9–3.0 million years BC),^[17] Paranthropus boisei (c. 2.3–1.4 million years BC)^[18] and Homo ergaster (c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BC) have been discovered.^[2]

Lucy, an Australopithecus afarensis skeleton discovered on November 24, 1974, in the Awash Valley of Ethiopia's Afar Depression

discovered many
After the evolution of homo sapiens sapiens approximately 150,000 to 100,000 years ago in Africa, the continent was mainly populated by groups of hunter-gatherers.^[19]^[20]^[21] These first modern humans left Africa and populated the rest of the globe during the Out of Africa migration dated to approximately 50,000 years ago, exiting the continent either across Bab-el-Mandeb over the Red Sea,.^[22]^[23] the Strait of Gibraltar in Morocco,^[24] or the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt.^[25]
Other migrations of these modern humans within the African continent have been dated to that time, with evidence of early human settlement found in Southern Africa, Southeast Africa, North Africa and the Sahara.^[26]
The size of the Sahara has historically been extremely variable, with its area rapidly fluctuating and at times disappearing depending on global climactic conditions.^[27] At the end of the Ice ages, estimated to have been around 10,500 BC, the Sahara had again become a green fertile valley, and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands in Sub-Saharan Africa, with rock art paintings depicting a fertile Sahara and large populations discovered in Tassili n'Ajjer dating back perhaps 10 millennia.^[28] However, the warming and drying climate meant that by 5000 BC, the Sahara region was becoming increasingly dry and hostile. Around 3500 B.C., due to a tilt in the earth's orbit, the Sahara experienced a period of rapid desertification.^[29] The population trekked out of the Sahara region towards the Nile Valley below the Second Cataract where they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central and Eastern Africa. Since this time, dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa and, increasingly during the last 200 years, in Ethiopia.
The domestication of cattle in Africa preceded agriculture and seems to have existed alongside hunter-gatherer cultures. It is speculated that by 6000 BC, cattle were already domesticated in North Africa.^[30] In the Sahara-Nile complex, people domesticated many animals, including the donkey and a small screw-horned goat which was common from Algeria to Nubia. In the year 4000 BC, the climate of the Sahara started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace.^[31] This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasing desertification. This, in turn, decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and helped to cause migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of West Africa.^[31]
By the first millennium BC, ironworking had been introduced in Northern Africa and quickly spread across the Sahara into the northern parts of sub-Saharan Africa,^[32] and by 500 BC, metalworking began to become commonplace in West Africa. Ironworking was fully established by roughly 500 BC in many areas of East and West Africa, although other regions didn't begin ironworking until the early centuries AD. Copper objects from Egypt, North Africa, Nubia and Ethiopia dating from around 500 BC have been excavated in West Africa, suggesting that Trans-Saharan trade networks had been established by this date.^[31]

Early civilizations

Main article: Ancient African history

The origins and spread of the Bantu languages c. 1000 BC to c. 500 AD.

At about 3300 BC, the historical record opens in Northern Africa with the rise of literacy in the Pharaonic civilization of Ancient Egypt.^[33] One of the world's earliest and longest-lasting civilizations, the Egyptian state continued, with varying levels of influence over other areas, until 343 BC.^[34]^[35] Egyptian influence reached deep into modern-day Libya, north to Crete^[36] and Canaan,^{[citation needed]} and south to the kingdoms of Aksum^{[citation needed]} and Nubia.^{[citation needed]}
An independent center of civilization with trading links to Phoenicia was established by Phoenicians from Tyre on the north-west African coast at Carthage.^[37]^[38]^[39]
European exploration of Africa began with Ancient Greeks and Romans. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great was welcomed as a liberator in Persian-occupied Egypt. He founded Alexandria in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty after his death.^{[40]

Colossal statues of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel, Egypt, date from around 1400 BC.}
Following the conquest of North Africa's Mediterranean coastline by the Roman Empire, the area was integrated economically and culturally into the Roman system. Roman settlement occurred in modern Tunisia and elsewhere along the coast. The first Roman emperor native to North Africa was Septimius Severus, born in Leptis Magna in present-day Libya—his mother was of Italian Roman extract and his father was Punic, a genetic mix of the Phoenicians and Berber.^[41]
Christianity spread across these areas at an early date, from Judaea via Egypt and beyond the borders of the Roman world into Nubia;^[42] by AD 340 at the latest, it had become the state religion of the Aksumite Empire. Syro-Greek missionaries, who arrived by way of the Red Sea, were responsible for this theological development.^[43]
In the early 7th century, the newly formed Arabian Islamic Caliphate expanded into Egypt, and then into North Africa. In a short while, the local Berber elite had been integrated into Muslim Arab tribes. When the Umayyad capital Damascus fell in the 8th century, the Islamic center of the Mediterranean shifted from Syria to Qayrawan in North Africa. Islamic North Africa had become diverse, and a hub for mystics, scholars, jurists and philosophers. During the above-mentioned period, Islam spread to sub-Saharan Africa, mainly through trade routes and migration.^[44]

9th to 18th centuries

9th-century bronzes from the Igbo town of Igbo-Ukwu, now at the British Museum^[45]

Pre-colonial Africa possessed perhaps as many as 10,000 different states and polities^[46] characterized by many different sorts of political organization and rule. These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers such as the San people of southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of the Bantu-speaking people of central and southern Africa; heavily structured clan groups in the Horn of Africa; the large Sahelian kingdoms; and autonomous city-states and kingdoms such as those of the Akan; Edo people, Yoruba and Igbo people (also misspelled as Ibo) in West Africa; and the Swahili coastal trading towns of Southeast Africa.
By the 9th century, a string of dynastic states, including the earliest Hausa states, stretched across the sub-saharan savannah from the western regions to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were Ghana, Gao, and the Kanem-Bornu Empire. Ghana declined in the 11th century, but was succeeded by the Mali Empire which consolidated much of western Sudan in the 13th century. Kanem accepted Islam in the 11th century.

African horseman of Baguirmi in full padded armour suit

In the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms grew up with little influence from the Muslim north. The Kingdom of Nri of the Igbo was established around the 9th century and was one of the first. It is also one of the oldest kingdoms in modern day Nigeria and was ruled by the Eze Nri. The Nri kingdom is famous for its elaborate bronzes, found at the town of Igbo-Ukwu. The bronzes have been dated from as far back as the 9th century.^[47]
The Ife, historically the first of these Yoruba city-states or kingdoms, established government under a priestly oba ('king' or 'ruler' in the Yoruba language), called the Ooni of Ife. Ife was noted as a major religious and cultural center in Africa, and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture. The Ife model of government was adapted at Oyo, where its obas or kings, called the Alaafins of Oyo, once controlled a large number of other Yoruba and non-Yoruba city-states and kingdoms; the Fon Kingdom of Dahomey was one of the non-Yoruba domains under Oyo control.

Ashanti yam ceremony, 19th century by Thomas E. Bowdich

The Almoravids were a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the 11th century.^[48] The Banu Hilal and Banu Ma'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the 11th and 13th centuries. Their migration resulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers, where the locals were Arabized,^[49] and Arab culture absorbed elements of the local culture, under the unifying framework of Islam.^[50]

Ruins of Great Zimbabwe (11th to 15th centuries)

Following the breakup of Mali, a local leader named Sonni Ali (1464–1492) founded the Songhai Empire in the region of middle Niger and the western Sudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Askia Mohammad I (1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought to Gao Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship.^[51] By the 11th century, some Hausa states – such as Kano, jigawa, Katsina, and Gobir – had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing caravans, and the manufacture of goods. Until the 15th century, these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east.

Height of slave trade

See also: Arab slave trade and Atlantic slave trade

Slavery had long been practiced in Africa.^[52]^[53] Between the 7th and 20th centuries, Arab slave trade (also known as slavery in the East) took 18 million slaves from Africa via trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean routes. Between the 15th and the 19th centuries (500 years), the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World.^[54]^[55]^[56] More than 1 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries.^{[57]

Arab–Swahili slave traders and their captives along the Ruvuma River (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique) as witnessed by David Livingstone.}
In West Africa, the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in the New World, increasing anti-slavery legislation in Europe and America, and the British Royal Navy's increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.^[58]

AA slave being inspected, from Captain Canot; or, Twenty Years of an African Slaver.

Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to Lagos", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.^[59] The largest powers of West Africa (the Asante Confederacy, the Kingdom of Dahomey, and the Oyo Empire) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of "legitimate commerce" in the form of palm oil, cocoa, timber and gold, forming the bedrock of West Africa's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars.^[60]

Colonialism and the "Scramble for Africa"

Main article: Colonization of Africa

Further information: Scramble for Africa

In the late 19th century, the European imperial powers engaged in a major territorial scramble and occupied most of the continent, creating many colonial territories, and leaving only two fully independent states: Ethiopia (known to Europeans as "Abyssinia"), and Liberia. Egypt and Sudan were never formally until 1922.

incorporated into any European colonial empire; however, after the British occupation of 1882, Egypt was effectively under British administration

Berlin Conference

The Berlin Conference held in 1884–85 was an important event in the political future of African ethnic groups. It was convened by King Leopold II of Belgium, and attended by the European powers that laid claim to African territories. It sought to bring an end to the Scramble for Africa by European powers by agreeing on political division and spheres of influence. They set up the political divisions of the continent, by spheres of interest, that exist in Africa today.

Independence struggles

Imperial rule by Europeans would continue until after the conclusion of World War II, when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence. Independence movements in Africa gained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956, Tunisia and Morocco won their independence from France.^[61] Ghana followed suit the next year (March 1957),^[62] becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be freed. Most of the rest of the continent became independent over the next decade.
Portugal's overseas presence in Sub-Saharan Africa (most notably in Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau and São Tomé and Príncipe) lasted from the 16th century to 1975, after the Estado Novo regime was overthrown in a military coup in Lisbon. Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom in 1965, under the white minority government of Ian Smith, but was not internationally recognized as an independent state (as Zimbabwe) until 1980, when black nationalists gained power after a bitter guerrilla war. Although South Africa was one of the first African countries to gain independence, the state remained under the control of the country's white minority through a system of racial segregation known as apartheid until 1994.

Post-colonial Africa

Today, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries, most of which have borders that were drawn during the era of European colonialism. Since colonialism, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and authoritarianism. The vast majority of African states are republics that operate presidential system of rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basis, and many have instead cycled through a series of coups, producing military dictatorships.

Mobutu Sese Seko, Zaire's longtime dictator, embezzled over $5 billion from his country.

Great instability was mainly the result of marginalization of ethnic groups, and graft under these leaders. For political gain, many leaders fanned ethnic conflicts, some of which had been exacerbated, or even created, by colonial rule. In many countries, the military was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order, and it ruled many nations in Africa during the 1970s and early 1980s. During the period from the early 1960s to the late 1980s, Africa had more than 70 coups and 13 presidential assassinations. Border and territorial disputes were also common, with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts.
Cold War conflicts between the United States and the Soviet Union, as well as the policies of the International Monetary Fund,^{[citation needed]} also played a role in instability. When a country became independent for the first time, it was often expected to align with one of the two superpowers. Many countries in Northern Africa received Soviet military aid, while many in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the United States, France or both. The 1970s saw an escalation, as newly independent Angola and Mozambique aligned themselves with the Soviet Union, and the West and South Africa sought to contain Soviet influence by funding insurgency movements. There was a major famine in Ethiopia, when hundreds of thousands of people starved. Some claimed that Marxist/Soviet policies made the situation worse.^[63]^[64]^[65] The most devastating military conflict in modern independent Africa has been the Second Congo War; this conflict and its aftermath has killed an estimated 5.5 million people.^[66] Since 2003 there has been an ongoing conflict in Darfur which has become a humanitarian disaster. Another notable tragic event is the 1994 Rwandan Genocide in which an estimated 800 000 people were murdered. AIDS in post-colonial Africa has also been a prevalent issue.
In the 21st century, however, the number of armed conflicts in Africa has steadily declined. For instance, the civil war in Angola came to an end in 2002 after nearly 30 years. This has coincided with many countries abandoning communist style command economies and opening up for market reforms. The improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from China,^[67] which has spurred quick economic growth in many countries, seemingly ending decades of stagnation and decline. Several African economies are among the world's fasted growing as of 2011. A significant part of this growth can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone.^[68]

Amharic Phrases - Part three

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 20 Jun 2014 09:16:00 +0000

A collection of useful phrases in Amharic. Click on the English phrases to see them in many other languages.

Key to abbreviations: inf = informal, frm = formal, m = said to men, f = said to women, pl = said to more than one person.

English	ኣማርኛ (Amharic)
Welcome	እንኳን ደህና መጣህ- i'nkwuan dehna metah (m) እንኳን ደህና መጣሽ- i'nkwuan dehna metash (f)
Hello	ሰላም (sälam) / ታዲያስ(tadiyass) - inf ጤና ይስጥልኝ (tena yste'lle'gn)- frm- for respecting expression
How are you?	እንደምን አለህ፧ (i'ndemin alleh?) - m እንደምን አለሸ፧ (i'ndemin allesh?) - f እንደምን አላችሁ፧ (i'ndemin allachihu?) - pl
I'm fine	ደህና ነኝ (dehna negn)
Long time no see	ረጂም ጊዜ ከተለያየን (rejim gize keteleyayen) -
What's your name? My name is ...	ስምህ ማን ነው፧ (simih man new?) - m ስምሸ ማን ነው፧ (simish man new?) - f የአርሰዎ ስም ማን ነው፧ (yärswo sim man new?) – frm - mostly for respecting expression
What's your name? My name is ...	የኔ ስም ... ነው:: (yenae sim ... new)
Where are you from?	እርስዎ ከየት ኖት፧ (i'rswo keyet not?) - frm
I'm from ...	እኔ ከ.... ነኝ፧ (i'nae ke ... negn) - frm
Pleased to meet you	ስለተዋወቅን ደስ ብሎኛል (siletewaweqin dess bilognal)
Good morning	እንደምን አደርህ? (i'ndemin aderik?) - m እንደምን አደርሽ? (i'ndemin aderish?) - f አንደምን አደሩ (əndämn adäru)- for respecting expression. [how was your night?]
Good afternoon	እንደምን ዋልክ? (i'ndemin walik?) - m እንደምን ዋልሽ? (i'ndemin walish?) - f አንደምን ዋሉ (əndämn walu) [how did you spend the day?]
Good evening	አንደምን አመሹ (əndämn amäshu)ምሽቱን እንዴት አሳለፍከው? - mishitun i'ndet asalfekew? - m ምሽቱን እንዴት አሳለፍሽው? - Mishitun i'ndet asalefeshiw?- f [how did you spend the evening?]
Good night	መልካም አዳር (Mälkam adar)
Goodbye	ቻው (chaw) - inf, ደህና ሁን (dähna hun) - m ደህና ሁኚ (dähna hungi) - f ደህና ሁኑ (dähna hunu) - pl
Good luck	መልካም እድል (me’elkam edil)
Have a nice day	መልካም ቀን ይሁንልህ። (me’elkam ken yihunilih) (m) መልካም ቀን ይሁንልሽ። (me’elkam ken yihunilish) (f) መልካም ቀን ይሁንላችሁ። (me’elkam ken yihunilachehu) (pl)
Bon appetit	መልካም ምግብ (melkam megeb)
Bon voyage	መልካም ጉዞ ይሁንልህ:: (melkam guzo yehunelih) - m መልካም ጉዞ ይሁንልሽ:: (melkam guzo yehunelesh ) - f
I don't understand	ገባኝ (gebany)
I don't understand	አልገባኝም (algebany'm)
Please speak more slowly	እባክህ ቀስ ብለህ ተናገር። (i’bakih kes bileh tenagger) - m እባክሽ ቀስ ብለሽ ተናገሪ። (i’bakish kes bilesh tenaggeri) - f
Please say that again	እባክህ ያልከዉን ድገምልኝ። (i’bakih yalekewin degemelegn!) እባክሽ ያልሽዉን ድገሚልኝ። (i’bakish yaleshiwn degemilign)
Do you speak Amharic?	አማርኛ ትችላለህ? (amarenya techelalleh?) m አማርኛ ትችያለሽ? (amarenya techiyallesh?) f
Yes, a little	አዎ፣ ትንሽ (Awe, tennish)
Excuse me	ይቅርታ (yiqirta)
How much is the price?	ሰንት ነው ዋጋው፧ (sent new wagaw?)
Sorry	አዝናለሁ። (aznallehu)
Please	እባክህ (i'bakih) - m እባክሸ (i'bakish) - f እባክዎን (i'bakwon) - frm- respect expression
Thank you	አመሰግናለሁ (ameseginalehugn) በጣም አመሰግናለሁኝ (betam ameseginalehugn)
Response (All right / OK)	ተቀብያለሁ። (te’kebeyalehu)
Where's the toilet?	መጸዳጃ ክፍል የት ነዉ? *metsedaja kifil yet new?)
This gentleman/lady will pay for everything	ለ ሁሉም ነገር ይህ/ይህች ሰዉየ/ሴትዮ/ ይከፍላል/ትከፍላለች። (le hulum neger yih/yihech sewuye/seteyo/ yikefilal/ tikefilalech)
Would you like to dance with me?	ከኔ ጋር መደነስ ትፈልጋለህ። (kene gar medenes tefelegaleh?) - m ከኔ ጋር መደነስ ትፈልጊያለሽ። (kene gar medenes tefelegiyalesh?) - f
I like you	እወድሀለሁ። (iwedihalehu) - m እወድሻለሁ። (iwedishalehu) - f
I love you	አፈቅርሻለሁ። (afekirishalehu) - f አፈቅርሀለሁ። (afekirhalehu) - m
Get well soon	ምህረቱን ያምጣልህ (mihretun yamitalih) - m ያምጣልሽ። (yamitalish) f "may god give you a speedy recover"
Go away!	ሂድ! (Hid)- m ሂጅ! (Hij) - f
Leave me alone!	ለቀቅ አርገኝ። (lekek argeng) - m ለቀቅ አርጊኝ። (lekek argign) - f
Help! Fire! Stop!	እርዳኝ (i'rdagn) - help me - m እርጂኝ (i'rejign) - help me- f እርዱኝ (i'rdugn) - help me - pl Fire! - i'sat Stope: koom - (m) kumi! (f)
Call the police!	ፖሊስ ጥራ። (police tira tiri!) - m ፖሊስ ጥሪ ። (police tira tiru!) - f ፖሊስ ጥሩ :: (poice tiru) - pl
Merry Christmas and Happy New Year	መልካም ገና (Melkam Gena) - Merry Christmas - celebrated on 7th January መልካም አዲስ አመት (Melkam Addis Amet) - Happy New Year - celebrated on 11th September
Happy Easter	መልካም ፋሲካ (me’elkam fasika)
Happy Birthday	መልከም ልደት (melkam ledet)

Source: http://www.omniglot.com, but some errors are modified by http://zethio.blogspot.com

Swahili Verbs

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 22 May 2014 14:52:00 +0000

Welcome to the 10th lesson about verbs in Swahili. We will first learn about the present tense, followed by the past tense, and future tense. We will also analyze some grammar rules, and finally practice how to ask for direction in Swahili.

Verbs are used to express an action (I swim) or a state of being (I am). The present tense in Swahili conveys a situation or event in the present time. Here are some examples:

Present Tense	Swahili
I speak English	mimi huongea kiingereza
you speak French	unaongea kifaransa
he speaks German	anaongea kijerumani
she speaks Italian	anaongea kiitalia
we speak Arabic	sisi huongea kiarabu
they speak Chinese	wao huongea kichina

The past tense in Swahili conveys a situation or event in the past time. Here are some examples:

Past Tense	Swahili
I visited France	nilitembelea ufaransa
you visited Italy	wewe alitembelea italia
he visited Morocco	alitembelea morocco
she visited China	alitembelea china
we visited Mexico	tulitembelea mexico
they visited Kenya	walienda kenya

The future tense in Swahili conveys a situation or event which is anticipated to happen in the future. Here are some examples:

Future Tense	Swahili
I will drink milk	nitakunywa maziwa
you will drink coffee	utakunywa kahawa
he will drink tea	atakunywa chai
she will drink water	atakunywa maji
we will drink apple juice	tutakunywa maji ya matunda
they will drink tea	watakunywa chai

Now let's take a break and refresh our vocabulary by learning the body parts.

ear sikio	eye jicho	mouth mdomo	nose pua
hair nywele	face uso	head kichwa	heart moyo
hand mkono	fingers vidole	leg mguu	feet miguu

Travel Phrases in Swahili

Imagine yourself in some Swahili speaking country. The following travel phrases are highly important and can help you avoid misunderstanding. Try to memorize them and practice!

English	Swahili
Can you help me?	je, unaweza kunisaidia?
Can I help you?	je, ninaweza kukusaidia?
Where is the airport?	wapi uwanja wa ndege?
Go straight	kwenda moja kwa moja
Then	basi
Turn left	upande wa kushoto
Turn right	upande wa kulia

Source: www.learn101.org

Swahili Vocabulary

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 22 May 2014 14:49:00 +0000

Welcome to the 9th lesson about the Swahili vocabulary. We're dedicating this page to the most important and most used words in Swahili. For example: clothes, languages, countries, travel, survival words, class, and house components.

shirt shati	sweater sweta	jacket koti	coat koti
socks soksi	shoes viatu	trousers suruali	pajamas pajamas
belt ukanda	underwear chupi	hat kofia	skirt skati

The following words are related to languages and countries.

Language	Swahili	Country	Swahili
Arabic	kiarabu	Morocco	morocco
Chinese	kichina	China	uchina
English	kiingereza	England	uingereza
French	kifaransa	France	ufaransa
German	kijerumani	Germany	ujerumani
Greek	kigiriki	Greece	ugiriki
Portuguese	kireno	Portugal	ureno
Hindi	kihindi	India	bara hindi
Italian	kiitaliano	Italy	italia
Japanese	kijapani	Japan	japan
Russian	kiurusi	Russia	urusi
Spanish	kihispania	Spain	uhispania
Swedish	swedish	Sweden	sweden

The following vocabulary is related to travel and survival.

Travel	Swahili	Survival	Swahili
airport	uwanja wa ndege	doctor	daktari
airplane	ndege	medicines	madawa
train	treni	pharmacy	duka la dawa
taxi	teksi	hospital	hospitali
bus	basi	ambulance	ambulansi
car	gari	poison	sumu
ticket	tiketi	help me	nisaidie
hotel	hoteli	danger	hatari
reservation	reservation	accident	ajali
passport	pasipoti	police	polisi
luggage	mizigo	headache	maumivu ya kichwa
tourism	utalii	stomach ache	maumivu ya tumbo

The following list of words is related to a class environment and the components of a house.

Class	Swahili	House	Swahili
books	vitabu	toilet	choo
pen	kalamu	bed	kitanda
dictionary	kamusi	bedroom	chumba cha kulala
library	maktaba	furniture	samani
desk	dawati	house	nyumba
student	mwanafunzi	kitchen	jikoni
teacher	mwalimu	plate	sahani
chair	kiti	refrigerator	jokofu
paper	karatasi	room	chumba
page	ukurasa	table	meza
pencil	penseli	window	dirisha
question	swali	television	televisheni

Source: www.learn101.org

Swahili Grammar

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 22 May 2014 14:43:00 +0000

Welcome to the 8th lesson about Swahili grammar. We will first learn about prepositions, negation, questions,adverbs, and pronouns including: personal, object and possessive pronouns.

We will start with prepositions. In general, they are used to link words to other words. For example: I speak Swahili andEnglish the preposition is [and] because it connects both words Swahili and English. The following is a list of the most used prepositions in Swahili.

Prepositions	Swahili
and	na
above	juu
under	chini ya
before	kabla
after	baada ya
in front of	mbele ya
behind	nyuma
far from	mbali na
near	karibu
in	katika
inside	ndani
outside	nje
with	na
without	bila
about	kuhusu
between	kati ya
but	lakini
for	kwa
from	kutoka
to	kwa

Preposition Grammar Rules

The following examples use prepositions in different ways and places to demonstrate how they behave in a sentence.

Prepositions + Rules	Swahili
I eat without a knife [preposition + noun]	mimi hula bila kisu
she lives near the church [verb + preposition]	yeye anaishi karibu na kanisa
he is taller than her [adjective + preposition]	yeye ni mirefu kumliko
he came with his small dog [preposition + pronoun]	alikuja na mbwa wake mdogo
can you come with me? [preposition + pronoun]	unaweza kuja na mimi?

Negation in Swahili

Now let's learn how to make a negative sentence (negation). For example: Saying no, I can't, I don't ... The following examples use negation in different ways and places to demonstrate how they behave in a sentence.

Negation + Rules	Swahili
I understand you [affirmative form]	ninaelewa
I don't understand you [negation + verb]	siekuelewi
this is not the correct word [negation + adjective]	hili si neno sahihi
don't leave me [imperative negation]	usiniache
no problem [negation + noun]	hakuna shida

Negative Sentences	Swahili
I don't speak French [negation + present tense]	sielewi kifaransa
she didn't visit Germany [negation + past tense]	yeye hakuenda ziara ya ujerumani
he cannot see us [negative modal verb]	hawezi kutuona
can't she play chess? [interrogative negation]	hawezi kucheza saratanji?
we will not come late [negation + future tense]	je sisi si kuja mwishoni mwa

Questions in Swahili

Now let's learn how to ask questions (interrogative). Such as: what, why, can you ...? Here are some common examples:

English	Swahili
how?	aje?
what?	nini?
who?	nani?
why?	kwa nini?
where?	wapi?

More of the interrogative form, now in a sentence:

Questions + Rules	Swahili
where do you live? [interrogative + verb]	unaishi wapi?
does she speak Chinese? [interrogative verb]	yeye huelewa kichina?
how much is this? [interrogative preposition]	ni kiasi gani hii?
can I help you? [interrogative modal verb]	ninaweza kukusaidia?
what is your name? [interrogative preposition]	jina lako ni nani?

Adverbs in Swahili

It's time to learn the adverbs in Swahili. But what is an adverb? In general, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives. For example: You speak fast. The adverb is [fast] because it describes the verb and answers the question how do you speak?. Here is a list of the most common ones:

Adverbs	Swahili
now	sasa
yesterday	jana
today	leo
tonight	usiku wa leo
tomorrow	kesho
soon	hivi karibuni
quickly	haraka
slowly	polepole
together	pamoja
very	sana
almost	karibu
always	kawaida
usually	kawaida
sometimes	mara kwa mara
rarely	mara chache
never	kamwe

The following examples use the adverbs in different ways and places to demonstrate how it behaves in a sentence.

Adverbs + Rules	Swahili
do you understand me now? [pronoun + adverb]	mnanielewa sasa?
I need help immediately [noun + adverb]	ninahitaji usaidizi mara moja
she is very intelligent [adverb + adjective]	yeye ni mwerevu sana
I will always love you [verb + adverb]	nitakupenda daima
can we learn German together? [adverb in a question]	tunaweza kujifunza kijerumani pamoja?

Pronouns in Swahili

We're almost done! This time we will learn the pronouns in Swahili. In general, a pronoun can be used instead of a noun. For example instead of saying my teacher speaks 3 languages, you can use the pronoun he, and say he speaks 3 languages. Here is a list of the most common ones:

Personal Pronouns	Swahili
I	mimi
you	wewe
he	yeye
she	yeye
we	sisi
they	wao

Object Pronouns	Swahili
me	mimi
you	wewe
him	yeye
her	yeye
us	sisi
them	wao

Possessive Pronouns	Swahili
my	yangu
your	yako
his	yake
her	yeye
our	yetu
their	yao

I think it's better to put the above example in a sentence to better assist you. The following examples use pronouns in different ways and places to demonstrate how they behave in a sentence. We will start with the personal pronouns.

Personal Pronouns	Swahili
I am your friend [1st pronoun + verb]	mimi ni rafiki yako
you speak very fast [2nd pronoun + adverb]	unaongea haraka sana
he has three dogs [3rd pronoun + verb]	ana mbwa watatu
she can speak German [3rd pronoun + verb]	anaweza kuonge kijerumani
we will not come late [1st plural pronoun]	hatutachelewa
they bought milk and bread [3rd plural pronoun]	walinunua maziwa na mkate

The object pronoun is used as a target by a verb, and usually come after that verb. For example: I gave him my book. The object pronoun here is him. Here are more examples:

Object Pronouns	Swahili
can you tell me your name? [1st object pronoun]	unaweza kuniambia jina lako?
I will give you money [2nd object pronoun]	nitakupa fedha
she wrote him a letter [3rd object pronoun]	alimwandikia barua
they visited her yesterday [3rd object pronoun]	walienda kwake jana
can she help us? [1st pl. object pronoun]	anaweza kutusaidia?
he gave them food [3rd pl. object pronoun]	aliwapa chakula

Possessive Pronouns	Swahili
my name is Maya [1st possessive pronoun]	jina langu ni maya
your brother lives here [2nd possessive pronoun]	ndugu yako anaishi hapa
her mother cooks for us [3rd possessive pronoun]	mama yake hutupikia
his hobby is reading books [3rd possessive pronoun]	starehe yake ni kusoma vitabu
our dream is to visit Paris [1st pl. possessive pronoun]	tungependelea sana kuzuru paris
their house is not far [3rd pl. possessive pronoun]	nyumba yao ni mbali

One more thing you need to know is the demonstrative pronouns. They're very easy to learn.

Demonstrative Pronouns	Swahili
this is my house	hii ni nyumba yangu
that restaurant is far	mkahawa huo uko mbali
these apples are delicious	haya tofaa ni matamu
those stars are shiny	haya nyota yang'aa

Source: www.learn101.org

Swahili Phrases

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 22 May 2014 14:39:00 +0000

Welcome to our seventh lesson about popular Swahili phrases. This page will include greetings, questions, emergency and survival expressions, asking for direction, language practice, introducing yourself, holiday wishes, and finally some travel phrases.

Holiday Wishes	Swahili
Happy birthday	furaha ya kuzaliwa
Happy new year	heri ya mwaka mpya
Merry Christmas	krismasi njema
Good luck	nakutakia kila la heri
Congratulations	hongera

Travel Phrases	Swahili
I have a reservation (hotel)	nina reservation
Do you have rooms available?	je,vyumba vinapatikana?
I would like a non-smoking room	ningependa chumba yasiyo ya sigara
What is the charge per night?	nini ni malipo kwa usiku mmoja?
Is this seat taken?	kiti hiki kimechukuliwa?
I'm vegetarian	mimi huwa sili nyama yoyote
Waiter	waiter
How much is this?	ni kiasi gani hii?
This is very expensive	ni bei ghali sana

Source: www.learn101.org

Swahili Numbers

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 22 May 2014 14:37:00 +0000

Welcome to the sixth Swahili lesson about numbers. This time we will learn about cardinal and ordinal numbers, followed by grammar rules, then animal names, finally a conversation in Swahili to help you practice your daily phrases.

Cardinal	Swahili	Ordinal	Swahili
one	mmoja	first	kwanza
two	mbili	second	pili
three	tatu	third	wa tatu
four	nne	fourth	wa nne
five	tano	fifth	wa tano
six	sita	sixth	wa sita
seven	saba	seventh	wa saba
eight	nane	eighth	wa nane
nine	tisa	ninth	tisa
ten	kumi	tenth	kumi
eleven	kumi na moja	eleventh	kumi na moja
twelve	kuma na mbili	twelfth	kumi na mbili
thirteen	kumi na tatu	thirteenth	kumi na tatu
fourteen	kumi na nne	once	mara moja
fifteen	kumi na tano	twice	mara mbili
sixteen	kumi na sita	Monday	jumatatu
seventeen	kumi na saba	Tuesday	jumanne
eighteen	kumi na nane	Wednesday	jumatano
nineteen	kumi na tisa	Thursday	alhamisi
twenty	ishirini	Friday	ijumaa
seventy one	sabini na moja	Saturday	jumamosi
one hundred	mia	Sunday	jumapili

Numbers Grammar Rules

Swahili cardinal numbers refer to the counting numbers, because they show quantity. For example: I speak twolanguages. Ordinal numbers on the other hand tell the order of things and their rank: my first language is Swahili. The examples below use numbers in different ways and places to demonstrate how they behave in a sentence.

Grammar + Rules	Swahili
I have three dogs [number + noun]	nina mbwa watatu
my daughter has two cats [number + noun]	binti yangu ana paka wawili
she speaks seven languages [verb + number]	anafahamu lugha saba
my brother has one son [number + singular noun]	ndugu yangu ana mtoto mmoja
this is my second lesson [ordinal number + noun]	hili ni somo langu la pili
did you read the third book? [ordinal number + noun]	je, ulisoma kitabu ya tatu?

We're not done yet! The following is a list of animals.

cow ng'ombe	goat mbuzi	donkey punda	horse farasi
dog mbwa	cat paka	mouse panya	bird ndege

Conversation in Swahili

Now we finally reach the last part, the practice of the daily conversations. These phrases are used to get to know new people, and break the ice.

English	Swahili
Where are you from?	unatoka nchi gani?
I'm from the U.S	mimi ninatoka amerika
I'm American	mimi ni mmarekani
Where do you live?	unaishi wapi?
I live in the U.S	ninaishi amerika
What do you do for a living?	unafanya kazi gani?
I'm a student	mimi ni mwanafunzi

Source: www.learn101.org

Swahili Gender

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 22 May 2014 14:33:00 +0000

Welcome to the fifth Swahili lesson about gender. This time we will view a list of people, feminine and masculine, followed by grammar rules, finally a list of expressions in Swahili to help you practice your daily phrases.

man mwanamme	woman mwanamke	husband mume	wife mke
boy mvulana	girl msichana	father baba	mother mama

Gender Grammar Rules

In general, gender is used to distinguish between male and female, sometimes referred to as masculine and feminine. For example: my son and daughter are students the noun [son] is masculine, while [daughter] is feminine. The following examples use gender in different ways and places to demonstrate their behavior.

Grammar + Rules	Swahili
my son is a student [masculine + noun]	mwanangu ni mwanafunzi
her daughter is a student [feminine + noun]	binti yake ni mwanafunzi
he has a tall brother [adjective + masculine]	ana ndugu mrefu
she has a tall sister [adjective + feminine]	ana dada mrefu
his brothers are young [plural masculine + adjective]	ndugu zake ni vijana
his sisters are young [plural feminine + adjective]	dada zake ni vijana

The list below will probably provide more clarification. These are family members (males and females). I think it would be wise to memorize them as part of your important vocabulary list.

son mwana	daughter binti	brother ndugu	sister dada
grandfather babu	grandmother nyanya	child mtoto	children watoto

Expressions in Swahili

Now it's time to practice expressions used in daily conversations. If you're a beginner in learning Swahili, then the phrases below are something you would want to know.

English	Swahili
What do you mean?	una maanisha nini?
I don't understand	sielewi
I don't know	sijui
What is that called in Swahili?	kile kinaitwaje kwa kiswahili
What is this?	nini hii?
What does that word mean in English?	nini maana ya neno hili kwa kiingereza?
Sorry (if you made a mistake)	pole

Source: www.learn101.org

Swahili Plural

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 22 May 2014 14:30:00 +0000

Welcome to the fourth Swahili lesson about the plural. This time we will learn about the singular form and what it looks like in the plural, followed by grammar rules, finally a list of emergency phrases.

book kitabu	books vitabu	car gari	cars magari
tree mti	trees miti	flower ua	flowers maua

Plural Grammar Rules

The plural is the form which refers to more than one object or person. For example: I speak two languages the plural here is [languages] because it refers to more than one [language]. The examples below use plurals in different ways and places to demonstrate how they look when converted from their singular form.

Grammar + Rules	Swahili
I speak one language [singular form]	ninaongea lugha moja tu
we speak three languages [plural noun]	tunaongea lugha tatu
he visits many countries [adverb + plural noun]	yeye huzuru nchi nyingi
they are happy now [plural pronoun]	wamefurahi sasa
she has five red shoes [adjective + plural noun]	yeye ana viatu vitano vyekundu
I want a sandwich without onions [preposition + plural noun]	nataka sandwich bila vitunguu

The following is a list of examples showing both the singular and plural form. This demonstrates how the plural is used with humans, objects and animals.

woman mwanamke	women wanawake	man mwanamume	men wanaume
house nyumba	houses nyumba	cup kikombe	cups vikombe
cow ng'ombe	cows ng'ombe	horse farasi	horses farasi

Emergency Phrases

Now it's time to practice your Swahili by looking at these phrases which are related to emergencies. Be prepared when traveling abroad, just in case you need help or by offering help to someone else. I recommend writing these expressions down on a notebook before traveling.

English	Swahili
Help	msaada
Call the ambulance	wito ambulansi
I need a doctor	ninahitaji daktari
Where is the closest pharmacy?	kuna duka la dawa wapi hapa?
Are you okay?	uko sawa?
I am sick	mimi ni mgonjwa
Call the police	piga simu kwa polisi

Source: www.learn101.org

Swahili Nouns

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 22 May 2014 14:14:00 +0000

Welcome to the third Swahili lesson about nouns. This time we will first learn about fruits and vegetables, followed bygrammar rules, then food items, finally a conversation in Swahili to help you practice your daily phrases.

potatoes viazi	tomatoes nyanya	onions vitunguu	carrots karoti
fruits matunda	apples tofaa	bananas ndizi	oranges machungwa

Nouns Grammar Rules

In general nouns refer to a person, an object, or abstract ideas. For example: a fast runner the noun is [runner] because it refers to a person. The examples below use nouns in different ways and places to demonstrate how they behave in a sentence.

Grammar + Rules	Swahili
do you have milk? [verb + noun]	je, una maziwa?
I have milk and coffee [preposition + noun]	nina maziwa na kahawa
he has three apples [number + plural noun]	ana tofaa tatu
she only has one apple [number + singular noun]	ana tofaa moja tu
we live in a small house [adjective + noun]	tunaishi katika nyumba ndogo
I like our breakfast [pronoun + noun]	ninapenda kiamsha kinywa chetu

The following are nouns of food items that you might be interested in learning and memorizing.

bread mkate	milk maziwa	butter siagi	cheese jibini/chizi
coffee kahawa	sandwich sandwichi	meat nyama	chicken kuku
fish samaki	breakfast kifungua kinywa	lunch chakula cha mchana	dinner chakula cha jioni

Conversation in Swahili

Now we finally reach the fun part, the practice of the daily conversations. These phrases are used to get to know new people, and break the ice.

English	Swahili
Do you speak (English/ Swahili)?	je, unafahamu kizungu, kiswahili?
Just a little	kidogo tu
I like Swahili	naupenda lugha ya kiswahili
Can I practice with you?	ninaweza kufanya mazoezi na wewe?
How old are you?	una miaka mingapi?
I'm thirty three years old	mimi nina umri wa miaka thelathini na tatu
It was nice talking to you	nimefurahi kuzungumza na wewe

Source: www.learn101.org

Swahili Adjectives

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 22 May 2014 14:12:00 +0000

Welcome to the second Swahili lesson about adjectives. This time we will first learn about colors, followed by grammar rules, then weather expressions, finally a conversation in Swahili to help you practice your daily phrases.

black nyeusi	grey kijivu	white nyeupe	blue bluu
green kijani kibichi	yellow manjano	red nyekundu	brown hudhurungi

Adjectives Grammar Rules

In general adjectives are words which describe or modify another person or object in a given sentence. For example: a beautiful flower the adjective is [beautiful] because it describes the noun [flower]. The following examples use adjectives in different ways and places to demonstrate how they behave in a sentence.

Grammar Rules	Swahili
my house is white [noun + adjective]	nyumba yangu ni nyeupe
your country is big [noun + adjective]	nchi yako ni kubwa
new books are expensive [plural + adjective]	vitabu vipya ni ghali
we are happy here [pronoun + verb + adjective]	sisi tuna furaha hapa
she has three small dogs [adjective + plural]	yeye ana mbwa watatu wadogo
this language is very easy [adverb + adjective]	lugha hii ni rahisi sana
I have a small green house [adjective + adjective]	nina nyumba ndogo rangi ya kijani kibichi

We're not done yet! The following is a list of more adjectives for you, often used when referring to weather conditions. I think it would be wise to memorize them.

cold baridi	hot joto	cloudy mawingu	rainy kunyesha
snowy kunyesha theluji	sunny jua	windy upepo	warm joto

Conversation in Swahili

Now we finally reach the most exciting part, the practice of the daily expressions used in almost every conversation. I recommend memorizing these phrases, because you will need them for sure.

English	Swahili
hi	hi
how are you?	habari gani?
I'm good, thank you	nzuri
and you?	labda wewe?
what is your name?	jina lako ni nani?
my name is Maya	jina langu ni maya
nice to meet you	nafurahi kukutana na wewe

Source: www.learn101.org

Swahili alphabet

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Thu, 22 May 2014 14:09:00 +0000

Today I will teach you the Swahili alphabet. If you follow everything provided in this page, you will be able to read, write and pronounce the Swahili letters quickly and easily. I'm providing the sound so that you can hear the pronunciation of the characters. Swahili contains 26 letters (consonants and vowels). Below you will find the letters, the pronunciation and sound.

A a	[a] like cat	E e	[e] like egg	I i	[ee] like eat	O o	[o] like off	U u	[oo] like cool
B b	[b] like bat	C c	[C] found in CH	D d	[d] like day	F f	[f] like fly	G g	[g] like give
H h	[h] like hit	J j	[j] like jump	K k	[k] like kite	L l	[l] like love	M m	[m] like man
N n	[n] like not	P p	[p] like pea	R r	[r] like ring	S s	[s] like smile	T t	[t] like time
V v	[v] like victory	W w	[w] like will	Y y	[y] like you	Z z	[z] like zoo	CH ch	[ch] like chat
DH dh	[th] like there

Source: www.learn101.org

Tigrinya verbs - part two

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Wed, 21 May 2014 11:30:00 +0000

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In order to view the Tigrinya characters in this article, you will need a Unicode Ge'ez font, such as GF Zemen Unicode.

Unless otherwise indicated, Tigrinya verbs in this article are given in the usual citation form, the third person singular masculine perfect.

Contents

[hide]

1 Roots

2 Derivation

3 Tense, aspect, and mood

4 Conjugation

5 Object suffixes

6 Negation

7 Copula and verb of existence

Roots

A Tigrinya verb root consists of a set of consonants (or "literals"), usually three, for example, {sbr} 'break' (citation form: ሰበረsäbärä), {drf} 'sing' (citation form: ደረፈ däräfä). Each three-consonant (or "triliteral") root belongs to one of three conjugationclasses, conventionally known as A, B, and C, and
analogous to the three conjugations of verbs in Romance languages. This division is a basic feature of Ethiopian Semitic languages. Most three-consonant roots are in the A class (referred to in this article as "3A"). In the citation form (perfect), these have no gemination and the vowel ä between both pairs of consonants. Examples are ሰበረ säbärä and ደረፈ däräfä. The B class (referred to in this article as "3B") is distinguished by the gemination of the second consonant in all forms. Examples are ደቀሰ däk'k'äsä 'sleep' and ወሰኸ wässäxä 'add'. The relatively few members of the C class (referred to in this article as "3C") take the vowel a between the first and second consonants. Examples are ባረኸ baräxä 'bless' and ናፈቐ nafäx'ä 'long for, miss'.

Tigrinya also has a significant number of four-consonant (or "quadriliteral") roots (referred to in this article as "4"). These fall into a single conjugation class. Examples are መስከረ mäskärä 'testify' and ቀልጠፈ k'ält'äfä 'hurry'.

The language also has five-consonant (or "quinquiliteral") roots (referred to in this article as "5"). Most, if not all, of these are "defective" in the sense described below; that is, their simplest form takes the tä- prefix. Examples are ተንቀጥቀጠ tä-nk'ät'k'ät'ä'tremble' and ተምበርከኸ tä-mbärkäxä 'kneel'.

As is common in Semitic languages, roots containing "laryngeal" (that is, pharyngeal or glottal) consonants in any position or semivowels (y or w) in any but first position undergo various modifications. These are dealt with below under Conjugation.

Derivation

Each verb root can be modified through one or more basic derivational processes. Each can be described in terms of its form and its function.

Form

Changes to the root form are of two types: prefixes and internal changes.

The prefixes are tä- and ’a- or their combination. When the prefix tä- follows ’a-, it loses its vowel and assimilates to the following consonant (that is, the first root consonant). Without ’a- its realization depends on the tense/aspect/mood of the verb.

Internal changes are of two types. One is a form of reduplication. This produces an extra syllable, consisting of a copy of the second consonant from the end of the root followed by the vowel a; this syllable appears third from the end of the verb stem. A second type of internal change inserts the vowel a, or replaces the existing vowel with a, following the third consonant from the end of the stem. For three-consonant roots, this results in a pattern similar to that of C class verbs.

The table below shows the possible combinations of prefixes and internal changes and their functions, illustrating each with the verb {sbr} (3A).

Tigrinya Verb Derivation
Prefix(es)	Internal change	Function	Examples
—	—	ACTIVE	ሰበረ säbärä 'break'
—	Reduplication	FREQUENTATIVE	ሰባበረ säbabärä 'break repeatedly'
tä-	—	PASSIVE, REFLEXIVE	ተሰብረ tä-säbrä 'be broken'
	-a-	RECIPROCAL	ተሳበረ tä-sabärä	'break one another'
	Reduplication	RECIPROCAL	ተሰባበረ tä-säbabärä	'break one another'
’a-	—	CAUSATIVE	ኣስበረ ’a-sbärä 'cause to break'
’a- + -tä-	-a-	RECIPROCAL CAUSATIVE	ኣሳበረ ’a-s-sabärä	'cause to break one another'
’a- + -tä-	Reduplication	RECIPROCAL CAUSATIVE	ኣሰባበረ ’a-s-säbabärä	'cause to break one another'

Function

For the most part, the two derivational prefixes signal grammatical voice; that is, they govern how the participants in the sentence map onto the roles in the event conveyed by the verb. With neither prefix, the verb is normally in ACTIVE voice; the subject is the agent of the event. By itself, the prefix tä- usually signals PASSIVE voice or REFLEXIVE voice. Some participant which is not the subject of the active sentence, the patient or recipient, becomes the subject; or the subject is both the agent and the patient or recipient of the event. By itself, the prefix ’a- usually signals CAUSATIVE voice; the subject of the sentence is then a causer of the event who is not the immediate agent.

Reduplication with neither of the prefixes signals FREQUENTATIVE, the repetition of the event conveyed by the verb. Together with the prefix tä-, reduplication and internal -a- both signal RECIPROCAL; the subject, most often plural, represents both the agent and patient or recipient of the event. In English, and some other languages, the reciprocal is marked by a pronoun, 'each other'. The addition of ’a- to this patterns yields the RECIPROCAL CAUSATIVE: 'cause to DO to each other'.

Here are examples of the different derivational patterns, using the roots {sbr} (3A) 'break', {ls'y} (3C) 'shave', and sḥk (3A) 'laugh'. The verbs are all in the gerundive tense/aspect form.

መስኮት ሰቢሩ mäskot säbiru 'He broke a window'; {sbr}, no prefix, no internal change, ACTIVE

መስኮት (ብተኽሉ) ተሰቢሩ mäskot (bǝtäxlu) tä-säbiru 'a window was broken (by Teklu)'; {sbr}, tä-, no internal change, PASSIVE

መስኮት ሰባቢሩ mäskot säbabiru 'He repeatedly broke windows'; {sbr}, no prefix, reduplication, FREQUENTATIVE

መስኮት ኣስቢሩ mäskot ’a-sbiru 'He caused a window to be broken (by somebody else)'; {sbr}, ’a-, no internal change,CAUSATIVE

ተላጺዩ tä-las'iyu 'He shaved (himself)'; {ls'y}, tä-, no internal change, REFLEXIVE

ተሳሒቖም tä-saḥix'om / ተሰሓሒቖም tä-säḥaḥix'om 'they (m.) laughed at each other'; sḥk, tä-, -a- / reduplication, RECIPROCAL

ኣሳሒቑዎም ’a'-s-saḥix'uwwom / ኣሰሐሒቑዎም ’a-s-säḥaḥix'uwwom 'he made them (m.) laugh at each other'; {sḥk}, ’a- + tä-, -a- / reduplication, RECIPROCAL CAUSATIVE

Defective verbs

Some verb roots are defective in the sense that they must occur with either or both of the derivational prefixes. For example, from the root {k'mt'} (3B) 'sit' there are the forms täx'ämmät'ä 'sit', ax'ämmät'ä 'cause to sit, put' but no form *k'ämmät'ä. Other examples: {ktl} (3B) täxättälä 'follow', {zrb} (3C) täzaräbä 'speak', {ggy} (3C) tägagäyä 'err'. Note that the tä- does not necessarily signify passive or reflexive with these verbs.

Tense, aspect, and mood

The pattern of vowels between the consonants of a verb root, as well as the gemination of one or more consonants in some cases, is determined in part by the verb class (3A, 3B, 3C, 4, 5) and the presence (or absence) of derivational morphemes (ACTIVE, PASSIVE, RECIPROCAL, etc.). But it also depends on the selection of the tense/aspect or mood.

Most Semitic languages make a basic two-way distinction between a tense/aspect stem that is conjugated with suffixes and another stem that is conjugated with prefixes and, in some forms, suffixes as well. In Ethiopian Semitic and in Arabic, the first, known as the perfect, is used for past tense, and the second, known as the imperfect, is used for present and sometimes future tenses. In Tigrinya the bare imperfect is used mainly for the habitual present: ኩሉ መዓልቲ መስኮት ይሰብር kullu mä‘alti mäskot yǝsäbbǝr 'he breaks a window every day'. In other present and future contexts, auxiliaries are usually used along with the imperfect.

Ethiopian Semitic and Arabic verbs also have a third possibility, which like the imperfect is conjugated with prefixes and sometimes suffixes. This form, known as the jussive/imperative, is tenseless; it is used to express the imperative mood in the second person as well as notions such as 'let him DO', 'that he DO' in the first and third persons. In Ethiopian Semitic, the affirmative imperative drops the prefix, but the negative imperative maintains it. For example, in Tigrinya ንስበር nǝ-sbär'let's break', ስበራ sǝbär-a 'break! (2p.f.pl.)', ኣየትስበራ ay-tǝ-sbär-a 'don't break! (2p.f.pl.)'.

Some Ethiopian Semitic languages, including Tigrinya, have a fourth possibility, known (somewhat confusingly) as thegerund or gerundive, which like the perfect is conjugated with suffixes only. As in Amharic, this form in Tigrinya has a tenseless, linking function: '(after) having DONE...', '...DO and (then)...'. In Tigrinya it has an additional and very important function: it is the usual way to express the affirmative past tense in independent clauses, the perfect being restricted mainly to the past negative and to verbs preceded by subordinating conjunctions and the relativizer zǝ-. Examples:

መስኮት	ሰቢሩ	ሃዲሙ
mäskot	säbiru	hadimu
window	break (3p.m.sg., GER)	escape (3p.m.sg., GER)
'He broke a window and escaped.'

እቲ	መስኮት	ዝሰበረ	ወዲ
ǝti	mäskot	zǝ-säbärä	wäddi
the	window	REL-break (3p.m.sg., PRF)	boy
'the boy who broke a window'

መስኮት	ኣይሰበረን
mäskot	ay-säbärä-n
window	NEG-break (3p.m.sg., PRF)
'He didn't break a window.'

Conjugation

Tigrinya has separate suffixes, prefixes, or combinations of prefixes and suffixes for each of the ten person/number/gender combinations that are distinguished within the personal pronoun system. These are illustrated in the table below for the verb {flt'} (3A) 'know' in its ACTIVE form, that is, without derivational prefixes or internal changes.

For the second person jussive/imperative, the tǝ- prefix appears in parentheses because it is used only in the negative. Note that for verbs in the 3A class, the second consonant is geminated in the imperfect when there is no suffix.

**Tigrinya Verb Conjugation: ACTIVE, Class 3A**
	Perfect	Imperfect	Jussive/ Imperative	Gerundive
I	ፈለጥኩ fälät'-ku	እፈልጥ ’ǝ-fällǝt'	እፍለጥ ’ǝ-flät'	ፈሊጠ felit'-ä
you (m.sg.)	ፈለጥካ fälät'-ka	ትፈልጥ tǝ-fällǝt'	(ት)ፍለጥ (tǝ-)flät'	ፈሊትካ felit'-ka
you (f.sg.)	ፈለጥኪ fälät'-ki	ትፈልጢ tǝ-fält'-i	(ት)ፍለጢ (tǝ-)flät'-i	ፈሊጥኪ felit'-ki
he	ፈለጠ fälät'-ä	ይፈልጥ yǝ-fällǝt'	ይፍለጥ yǝ-flät'	ፈሊጡ felit'-u
she	ፈለጠት fälät'-ät	ትፈልጥ tǝ-fällǝt'	ትፍለጥ tǝ-flät'	ፈሊጣ felit'-a
we	ፈለጥና fälät'-na	ንፈልጥ nǝ-fällǝt'	ንፍለጥ nǝ-flät'	ፈሊጥና felit'-na
you (m.pl.)	ፈለጥኩም fälät'-kum	ትፈልጡ tǝ-fält'-u	(ት)ፍለጡ ((tǝ-)flät'-u	ፈሊጥኩም felit'-kum
you (f.pl.)	ፈለጥክን fälät'-kǝn	ትፈልጣ tǝ-fält'-a	(ት)ፍለጣ ((tǝ-)flät'-a	ፈሊጥክን felit'-kin
they (m.)	ፈለጡ fälät'-u	ይፈልጡ yǝ-fält'-u	ይፍለጡ yǝ-flät'-u	ፈሊጦም felit'-om
they (f.)	ፈለጣ fälät'-a	ይፈልጣ yǝ-fält'-a	ይፍለጣ yǝ-flät'-a	ፈሊጠን felit'-en

The same subject agreement affixes appear in the various derivational patterns, but the verb stems are not predictable from the simple, ACTIVE stems.

The derivational prefixes tä- and ’a- undergo various changes when they are preceded by subject agreement affixes. In the imperative/jussive, tä- assimilates to the first consonant of the verb root (except when there is no prefix in the affirmative imperative). In the imperfect, tä- disappears altogether, though its presence can still be detected from the pattern of vowels and gemination in the verb stem. The first person imperfect and jussive prefix ’ǝ merges with a following ’a-, and the vowel of the other prefixes (tǝ, yǝ, nǝ) merges with a following ’a-, yielding the vowel -ä.

The perfect stem following tä- may lose the vowel between the second and third root consonants when the suffix begins with a vowel (ተፈልጠ tä-fält'-ä 'he was known'; ተፈለጥኩ tä-fälät'-ku 'I was known').

The table below shows forms for the verb {flt'} (3A) 'know' in each of the possible combinations of derivational prefixes and internal changes. Unless otherwise indicated, the forms given are the third person masculine plural for the RECIPROCALpattern and the third person masculine singular for the other patterns.

**Tigrinya Verb Conjugation: Derived Forms, Class 3A**
Derivational pattern	Perfect	Imperfect	Jussive/ Imperative	Gerundive
FREQUENTATIVE	ፈላለጠ fälalät'-ä	ይፈላልጥ yǝ-fä'lalǝt		ፈላሊጡ fälalit'-u
PASSIVE/REFLEXIVE	ተፈለጥኩ tä-fälät'-ku(1p.sg.) ተፈልጠ tä-fält'-ä	ይፍለጥ yǝ-fǝllät'	ይፈለጥ yǝ-f-fälät' ተፈለጥ tä-fälät'(2p.m.sg.)	ተፈሊጡ tä-fälit'-u
RECIPROCAL	ተፋለጡ tä-falät'-u ተፈላለጡ tä-fälalät'-u	ይፋለጡ yǝ-f-falät'-u ይፈላለጡ yǝ-f-fälalät'-u		ተፋሊጦም tä-falit'-om ተፈላሊጦም tä-fälalit'-om
CAUSATIVE	ኣፍለጠ ’a-flät'-ä	የፍልጥ y-ä-fǝllǝt' የፍልጡ y-ä-fǝlt'-u(3p.m.pl.)	የፍልጥ y-ä-flǝt'	ኣፍሊጡ ’a-flit'-u
RECIPROCAL CAUSATIVE	ኣፋለጠ ’a-f-falät'-ä ኣፈላለጠ ’a-f-fälalät'-ä	የፋለጥ y-ä-f-f'alǝt የፈላለጥ y-ä-f-fälalǝt'		ኣፋሊጡ ’a-f-f'alit'-u ኣፈላሊጡ ’a-f-fälalit'-u

The subject agreement affixes are the same for verbs in other conjugation classes, but the stems differ in some cases from what would be expected for a verb in the 3A class like fälät'ä. The table below shows the third person singular masculineACTIVE forms for verbs in other classes: {bdl} (3B) 'offend', {mrk} (3C) 'capture', {t'rt'r} (4) 'doubt'.

Verbs whose roots contain "laryngeal" (pharyngeal or glottal: ‘, ḥ, ’, h) consonants in any position or semivowels (w or y) in any position other than first deviate in various ways from the patterns shown in the tables above. For the laryngeals, most of these deviations stem from the fact that the vowel ä never occurs immediately after a laryngeal. For the semivowels, the deviations result from simplifications that occur when these consonants are preceded and followed by vowels. Some of the changes are illustrated in the following table for these seven verbs, all in the 3A class: {hdm} 'escape', {s‘m} 'kiss', {srḥ} 'do, work', {mwt} 'die', {ftw} 'like', {kyd} 'go', {sty} 'drink'. There is considerable variation in the forms; only one possibility is shown here. Third person singular masculine is given in each case, and in addition the first person singular (in the perfect) or third person masculine plural (in the imperfect) for cases where the stem changes within the paradigm.

The very common verbs {nbr} 'live, be' and {gbr} 'do' undergo simplifications in the gerundive, where the b is deleted: ነይሩnäyru, ገይሩ gäyru (3p.m.sg.); ኔርካ nerka, ጌርካ gerka (2p.m.sg.); etc.

Tigrinya has four genuinely irregular verbs: {bhl} 'say', {whb} 'give', {tḥz} 'hold', and {hlw} 'exist'. For the first three of these, which are conjugated similarly, the third personal singular masculine forms are shown in the following table. The verb of existence is discussed in a separate section.

Tigrinya Verb Conjugation: ACTIVE; Classes 3B, 3C, 4, Laryngeal and Semivowel Root Consonants, Irregular
Conjugation class	Perfect	Imperfect	Jussive/ Imperative	Gerundive
3B	በደለ bäddäl-ä	ይብድል yǝ-bǝddǝl	ይበድል yǝ-bäddǝl	በዲሉ bäddil-u
3C	ማረኸ maräx-ä	ይማርኽ yǝ-marǝx	ይማርኽ yǝ-marǝx	ማሪኹ marix-u
4	ጠርጠረ t'ärt'är-ä	ይጥርጥር yǝ-t'ǝrt'ǝr	ይጠርጥር yǝ-t'ärt'ǝr	ጠርጢሩ t'ärt'ir-u
Laryngeal	ሃደመ hadäm-ä ሰዓመ sä‘am-ä ሰራሕኩ säraḥ-ku, ሰርሔ särḥ-e	ይሃድም yǝ-haddǝm ይስዕም yǝ-sǝ‘ǝm ይሰርሕ yǝ-särrǝḥ	ይህደም yǝ-hdäm ይስዓም yǝ-s‘am ይስራሕ yǝ-sraḥ	ሃዲሙ hadim-u ስዒሙ sǝ‘im-u ሰሪሑ säriḥ-u
Semivowel	ሞተ mot-ä ፈቶኹ fäto-xu, ፈተወ fätäw-ä ከደ käd-ä ሰቴኹ säte-xu, ሰተየ sätäy-ä	ይመውት yǝ-mäwwǝt, ይሞቱ yǝ-mot-u ይፈቱ yǝ-fättu, ይፈትዉ yǝ-fätw-u ይኸይድ yǝ-xäyyǝd, ይኸዱ yǝ-xäd-u ይሰቲ yǝ-sätti, ይሰትዩ yǝ-säty-u	ይሙት yǝ-mut ይፍተው yǝ-ftäw ይኺድ yǝ-xid ይስተይ yǝ-stäy	ሞይቱ moyt-u ፈትዩ fäty-u ከይዱ käyd-u ሰትዩ säty-u
Irregular	በለ bälä ሃበ habä ሓዘ ḥazä	ይብል yǝbǝl ይህብ yǝhǝb ይሕዝ yǝḥǝz	ይበል yǝbäl ይሃብ yǝhab ይሓዝ yǝḥaz	ኢሉ ’ilu ሂቡ hibu ሒዙ ḥizu

Object suffixes

Like other Semitic languages, Tigrinya has object pronoun suffixes that can appear on verbs in any tense-aspect-mood. As discussed under personal pronouns, there are two sets of such suffixes in the language, a set used for direct objects and a "prepositional" set used for dative, benefactive, locative, or adversative meanings ('to', 'for', 'against'); only one object suffix is permitted on a given verb.

As in some other Ethiopian Semitic languages, there are separate "light" and "heavy" suffixes for all but the second person and first-person plural prepositional object forms. The light suffixes (-ni, -xa, etc.) are characterized by initial ungeminated consonants and the heavy suffixes (-nni, -kka, etc.) by initial geminated consonants. For the third person direct object suffixes, there is a third form with no initial consonant at all (-o, -a, etc.). Roughly speaking, the light suffixes are used with verbs whose subjects are second or third person plural, the third person vowel-initial suffixes are used with verbs that have no agreement suffix, and the heavy suffixes are used in other cases. In the jussive/imperative, the vowel-initial suffixes cause the gemination of the preceding consonant. When an object suffix beginning with a consonant is added to a verb ending in a consonant (either a root or a suffix consonant), a vowel is inserted to break up the cluster, the particular vowel depending on the subject and object. The details are quite complicated; most of the possibilities are illustrated in the following table for two different object and four different subject categories, using the verb fälät'ä (3A) 'know'.

**Tigrinya Object Suffix Pronouns**
Object	Subject	Perfect	Imperfect	Jussive/ Imperative	Gerundive
'me'	'you(m.sg.)'	ፈለጥካኒ fälät'ka-nni	ትፈልጠኒ tǝfält'-ä-nni	ፍለጠኒ fǝlät'-ä-nni	ፈሊጥካኒ fälit'ka-nni
	'he'	ፈለጠኒ fälät'ä-nni	ይፈልጠኒ yǝfält'-ä-nni	ይፍለጠኒ yǝflät'-ä-nni	ፈሊጡኒ fälit'u-nni
	'they(m.)'	ፈለጡኒ fälät'u-ni	ይፈልጡኒ yǝfält'u-ni	ይፍለጡኒ yǝflät'u-ni	ፈሊጦሙኒ fälit'om-u-ni
	'they(f.)'	ፈለጣኒ fälät'a-ni	ይፈልጣኒ yǝfält'a-ni	ይፍለጣኒ yǝflät'a-ni	ፈሊጠናኒ fälit'än-a-ni
'him'	'you(m.sg.)'	ፈለጥካዮ fälät'ka-yyo	ትፈልጦ tǝfält'-o	ፍለጦ fǝlät'-t'-o	ፈሊጥካዮ fälit'ka-yyo
	'he'	ፈለጦ fälät'-o	ይፈልጦ yǝfält'-o	ይፍለጦ yǝflät'-t'-o	ፈሊጡዎ fälit'u-wwo
	'they(m.)'	ፈለጡዎ fälät'u-wo	ይፈልጡዎ yǝfält'u-wo	ይፍለጡዎ yǝflät'u-wo	ፈሊጦሙዎ fälit'om-u-wo
	'they(f.)'	ፈለጣኦ fälät'a-’o	ይፈልጣኦ yǝfält'a-’o	ይፍለጣኦ yǝflät'a-’o	ፈሊጠንኦ fälit'än-ǝ-’o

Negation

Verbs are negated in Tigrinya with the prefix ኣይ ay- and, in independent tensed clauses, the suffix ን -n. The negative prefix precedes any derivational or subject agreement prefixes, and the negative suffix follows any subject agreement or object pronoun suffixes. The first person singular imperfect and jussive prefix ’ǝ is dropped following ay-. The gerundive has no negative; the negative of the perfect is used instead. Examples:

Perfect: ተዓጸወ tä‘as'äwä 'it was closed', ኣይተዓጸወን ay-tä‘as'äwä-n 'it wasn't closed'

Imperfect: ትፈልጥኒ tǝfält'ǝnni 'you (f.sg.) know me', ኣይትፈልጥንን ay-tǝfält'ǝnnǝ-n 'you (f.sg.) don't know me'

Imperative: ክፈቶ kǝfätto 'open (m.sg.) it', ኣይትክፈቶ ay-tǝkfätto 'don't open (m.sg.) it'

Gerundive: ተጋግየ tägagǝyä 'I made a mistake', ኣይተጋጌኹን ay-tägagexu-n 'I didn't make a mistake' (perfect)

Copula and verb of existence

Like other Ethiopian Semitic languages, Tigrinya has a copula ('be') and a separate verb of existence and location ('exist, be located'), neither of which is conjugated like other verbs. For the present tense, both the copula and the verb of existence use forms with subject agreement suffixes rather than anything resembling the imperfect. The present of the verb of existence can take conjunctive prefixes, in which case its initial ’a is absorbed: እንተሎ ǝntällo 'if there is', ዘለዉ zälläwu 'which there are'. The copula cannot take conjunctive prefixes; instead, forms of the regular verb ኮነ konä 'become' are used: እንተኾነǝntäxonä if he is, becomes', ዝኾነ zǝxonä 'which is, becomes'. The perfect or gerundive of the regular verb ነበረ näbärä 'live' normally serves as the past tense of both the copula and the verb of existence: ምሳና ኣይነበረን mǝsana aynäbäran 'they (f.) weren't with us'. The verbs ኮነ konä, ነበረ näbärä, and ሃለወ halläwä (a regular verb with restricted use meaning 'exist' and the historical source of allo, etc.) replace the copula and verb of existence in other grammatical roles: ይኹኑ yǝxunu 'let them (m.) be' (jussive), ኪነብር እዩ kinäbbǝr ǝyyu 'he will be (there)' (near future), ምህላውካ mǝhǝllawka 'your (m.sg.) being (there)' (infinitive).

With object pronoun suffixes, the verb of existence conveys possession; the object represents the possessor and the subject of the verb the possessed entity. Thus there are four ways to express 'have' for a given subject, depending on the number and gender of the possessed entity: ኣሎኒ allo-ni (m.sg.), ኣላትኒ allat-ǝ-nni (f.sg.), ኣለዉኒ alläwu-ni (m.pl.), ኣለዋኒ alläwa-ni(f.pl.) 'I have'. The same form is used to express obligation; the subject takes the form of an infinitive, the subject agreement is third person masculine singular, and the object suffix represents the obliged person: ምድቃስ ኣሎኒ mǝdǝqqas allo-nni, 'I have to sleep'.

The following table shows the affirmative and negative present forms of the copula and verb of existence. In the second person forms of the copula, the first vowel may be either ǝ and i.

Tigrinya Copula and Verb of Existence, Present Tense
	Copula 'am', 'are', 'is', etc.		Verb of existence 'am (located)', etc.		Verb of existence + obj. pron. 'have, must'
	Affirmative	Negative	Affirmative	Negative	Affirmative	Negative
I	እየ ’ǝyyä	ኣይኮንህኩን ’aykonkun	ኣሎኹ ’alloxu	የሎኹን yälloxun	ኣሎኒ ’allonni	የብለይን yäbǝlläyǝn
you (m.sg.)	እኻ ’ǝxa, ኢኻ ’ixa	ኣይኮንካን ’aykonkan	ኣሎኻ ’alloxa	የሎኻን yälloxan	ኣሎካ ’allokka	የብልካን yäbǝlkan
you (f.sg.)	እኺ ’ǝxi, ኢኺ ’ixi	ኣይኮንክን ’aykonkǝn	ኣሎኺ ’alloxi	የሎኽን yälloxǝn	ኣሎኪ ’allokki	የብልክን yäbǝlkǝn
he	እዩ ’ǝyyu	ኣይኮነን ’aykonän	ኣሎ ’allo	የሎን yällon, የልቦን yälbon	ኣሎዎ ’allowwo	የብሉን yäbǝllun
she	እያ ’ǝyya	ኣይኮነትን ’aykonätǝn	ኣላ ’alla	የላን yällan	ኣሎዋ ’allowwa	የብላን yäbǝllan
we	ኢና ’ina	ኣይኮንናን ’aykonnan	ኣሎና ’allona	የሎናን yällonan	ኣሎና ’allonna	የብልናን yäbǝlnan
you (m.pl.)	እኹም ’ǝxum, ኢኹም ’ixum	ኣይኮንኩምን ’aykonkumǝn	ኣሎኹም’alloxum	የሎኹምንyälloxumǝn	ኣሎኩም ’allokkum	የብልኩምን yäbǝlkumǝn
you (f.pl.)	እኽን ’ǝxǝn, ኢኽን ’ixǝn	ኣይኮንክን ’aykonkǝnǝn	ኣሎኽን ’alloxǝn	የሎኽንን yälloxǝnǝn	ኣሎክን ’allokkǝn	የብልክንን yäbǝlkǝnǝn
they (m.)	እዮም ’ǝyyom	ኣይኮኑን ’aykonun	ኣለዉ ’alläwu	የለዉን yälläwun	ኣሎዎም’allowwom	የብሎምን yäbǝllomǝn
they (f.)	እየን ’ǝyyän	ኣይኮናን ’aykonan	ኣለዋ ’alläwa	የለዋን yälläwan	ኣሎወን ’allowwän	የብለንን yäbǝllänǝn

Relativization

Tigrinya forms relative clauses by prefixing zǝ- to the perfect or imperfect form of a verb. The irregular present of the verb of existence (ኣሎ ’allo, etc.) may also take the prefix, in which case it combines with the initial ’a- to yield zä-: ዘሎ zällo 'which exists, is located', etc. The relativizing prefix precedes subject agreement, derivational, and negative prefixes. The prefix undergoes the following changes immediately preceding particular prefixes.

Imperfect and jussive subject agreement prefixes

zǝ- + ’ǝ- (1p.sg.): zǝ-, e.g., ዝገብርሉ zǝgäbrǝllu 'with which I do (it)'
zǝ- + yǝ- (3p.m.sg., 3p.pl.): zi- or zǝ-, e.g., ዚቈርጹ zix'ʷärs'u 'which they (m.) cut'
zǝ- + tǝ- (2p., 3p.f.sg.): zǝttǝ- or ’ǝttǝ-, e.g., እትርእያ ’ǝttǝrǝ’ya 'which you (f.pl.) see'
zǝ- + nǝ- (1p.pl.): zǝnnǝ- or ’ǝnnǝ-, e.g., e.g., እንጽሕፍ ’ǝnnǝs'ǝḥǝf 'which we write'

Derivational prefixes

zǝ- + ’a- (causative): zä-, e.g., ዘምጻእኩ zäms'a’ku 'which I brought (caused to come)'
zǝ- + tä- (passive): ’ǝttä- (or zǝtä-), e.g., እተሓተመ ’ǝttäḥatämä 'which was printed'

Negative prefix

zǝ- + ’ay-: zäy-, e.g., ዘይንደሊ zäynǝdälli 'which we don't want'

Relative clauses may occur without an explicit antecedent: ዝሰበርኩ zǝsäbärku 'what I broke', ዚብላዕ zibǝlla‘ 'what is eaten'

As in other Ethiopian Semitic languages very common use of relative clauses is in cleft sentences. The main verb of the corresponding unclefted sentence is replaced by a relative clause and copula, and the relative clause often comes last in the sentence.

ሓፍተይ እያ ዝኸደት ḥaftäy ’ǝyya zǝxädät 'it is my sister who left' (lit. 'she is my sister who left')

መን እዩ ዝፈለጠ män ǝyyu zǝ-fälät'ä 'who knew?' (lit. 'who is he who knew?')

Auxiliary verbs

Tigrinya has a complex set of possibilities for expressing tense and aspect distinctions .^[1] Besides the simple perfect, imperfect, and gerundive, other possibilities consist of combinations of these three with different auxiliary verbs — the copula (እዩ ’ǝyyu, etc.), the present of the verb of existence (ኣሎ ’allo, etc.), the verb ነበረ näbärä 'live, be', the verb ኮነ konä 'become, be', and the verb ጸንሔ s'änḥe 'stay' — and sometimes with particular conjunctive prefixes such as kǝ-. In most cases both the auxiliary verb and the main verb are conjugated. Some of the more common patterns are the following:

imperfect + copula

The usual present tense for emotion and sense verbs: እፈትዋ እየ ’ǝfätwa ’ǝyyä 'I like her'.

imperfect + näbärä

Corresponds to the English past progressive: ንሰቲ ነበርና nǝsätti näbärna 'we were drinking'.

gerundive + present of verb of existence or copula

Corresponds to the English present perfect: መጺኣ ኣላ mäs'i’a ’alla 'she has come'.

gerundive + näbärä

Corresponds to the English past perfect: ከይዶም ነበሩ käydom näbäru 'they (m.) had gone'

imperfect + present verb of existence

Corresponds to English present progressive: ይጻወታ ኣለዋ yǝs's'awäta ’alläwa 'they (f.) are playing'. (Note how this differs from the corresponding form in Amharic, which is the normal main clause present tense.)

kǝ- + imperfect + copula

The usual future tense: ክዕድጎ እየ kǝ‘ǝddǝgo ’ǝyyä 'I'm going to buy it'

Bibliography

Amanuel Sahle (1998) Säwasäsǝw Tǝgrǝñña bǝsäfiḥ. Lawrencevill, NJ, USA: Red Sea Press. ISBN 1-56902-096-5

Dan'el Täxlu Räda (1996, Eth. Cal.) Zäbänawi säwasəw kʷ'ankʷ'a Təgrəñña. Mäx'älä

Leslau, Wolf (1941) Documents tigrigna: grammaire et textes. Paris: Libraire C. Klincksieck.

Mason, John (Ed.) (1996) Säwasǝw Tǝgrǝñña, Tigrinya grammar. Lawrenceville, NJ, USA: Red Sea Press. ISBN 0-932415-20-2 (ISBN 0-932415-21-0, paperback)

Praetorius, F. (1871) Grammatik der Tigriñasprache in Abessinien. Halle. ISBN 3-487-05191-5 (1974 reprint)

Voigt, Rainer Maria (1977). Das tigrinische Verbalsystem. Berlin: Verlag von Dietrich Reimer.

References

Jump up
^ Voigt, Rainer M. (1977) Das tigrinische Verbalsystem. Berlin: Verlag von Dietrich Reimer.

Amharic Phrases - Part two

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 19 May 2014 14:16:00 +0000

The Amharic phrases are helpful because they are used daily. Below we picked expressions that a new learner will find useful. We included the audio as well. This is a better way to learning. Learn only what you need. We start with greetings and introduction.

Hi: hayə

What is your name?: səməhə manäwə?

Nice to meet you: ʾänətänə bämagəñäte däsə bəloñalə

How are you?: ʾənədetə nähə?

I'm good, thanks: dähəna näñə, ʾämäsägənaläwə

And you?: ʾänətäsə?

Amharic Grammar - Part two

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Mon, 19 May 2014 14:12:00 +0000

The Amharic grammar allows you to manipulate the vocabulary to obtain multiple forms of a word. The grammatical rules below are the most important in Amharic and help connect words or shape the structure. We start with the prepositions:

And: ʾəna		Under: bätačə
Before: bäfitə		After: bähala
Inside: bäwəsət'ə		Outside: wəč'ə
With: kä garə		But: nägärə gənə
For: lä		From: kä
To: lä		In: wəsət'ə

To ask questions, use the following:

What?: mənə?		Who?: manə?
How?: ʾənədetə?		Why?: lämənə?
Where?: yätə?

Some of the most important time adverbs:

Never: bäfəs'umə		Rarely: ʾäləfo ʾäləfo
Sometimes: ʾänədanədə gize		Usually: huləgize
Always: huləgize		Very: bät'amə

Most commonly used pronouns in Amharic:

I: ʾəne		You: ʾänətä
He: ʾəsu		She: ʾəሷ
We: ʾəña		They: ʾənäsu

To express the possession of something [possessive form]:

My: yäʾəne		Your: yäʾänətä
His: yäʾəsu		Her: yäʾəሷ
Our: yäʾəña		Their: yäʾənäsu

Some random verbs to show how it's being used:

I speak English: ʾənəgəlizäña ʾənagäralähu

You speak French: färäsayəña tənagäralähə

He speaks German: ǧärəmänəña yənagäralähə

She speaks Italian: t'aliyanəña tənagäraläčə

I visited France: färänəsayənə guebäñähu

I will drink milk: ʾəne wätätə ʾət'ät'alähu

Some extra grammatical structures:

I understand you: gäbətoñalə

I don't understand you: ʾäləgäbañəmə

I don't speak French: färänəsayəña ʾälənagärəmə

This is my house: yəhə yäʾəne betə näwə

That restaurant is far: ya məgəbə betə ruqə näwə

No problem: čəgərə yäläwəmə

Source: http://ilanguages.org

Tigrigna Family/ስድራ

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 May 2014 14:28:00 +0000

Source: http://www.memhr.org/

Tigrigna Body and Face

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 May 2014 14:24:00 +0000

Body/ነብሲ

head	ርእሲ
neck	ክሳድ
arm	ቅልጽም
hand	ኢድ
finger	ኣጻብዕ
chest	ኣፍ ልቢ
heart	ልቢ
stomach	ከብዲ
back	ሕቆ
hip	ምሕኩልቲ
leg	ዳንጋ
thigh	ሰለፍ
knee	ብርኪ
foot/feet	እግሪ
toe	ኣጻዕቲ እግሪ

Face/ገጽ

hair	ጸጉሪ
forehead	ግንባር
eye	ዓይኒ
ear	ኣዝኒ
nose	ኣፍንጫ
cheek	ኑንጪ
mouth	ኣፍ
lips	ከንፈር
teeth	ስኒ
tongue	መልሓስ
chin	መንከስ

Source: http://www.memhr.org/

Tigrigna Fruits & Vegetables

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 May 2014 14:22:00 +0000

apple	ቱፋሕ
banana	ባናና
beans	ባሎንኌ
cabbage	ካዉሎ ካፑቺ
carrot	ካሮት
cauliflower	ካውሎ ፊየሪ
celery	ሰዴኖ
chili pepper	በርበረ
dates	ተምሪ
fruit	ፍሩታ
garlic	ጻዕዳ ሽጉርቲ
grapes	ወይኒ
green beans	ፋጆሊ
green cabbage	ካውሎ
green collards	ሓምሊ
green mustard	ሐምሊ ኣድሪ
green onion	ዝቢኢ ሹጉርቲ

green pepper	ፐፐሮኒ
hot pepper	በርበረ
Italian parsley	ፐርሰሜሎ
jalapeño	ጒዕ
lemon	ለሚን
mushroom	ቃንጥሻ
onion	ሽጉርቲ
orange	ኣራንቺ
papaya	ፓፓዮ
peanuts	ፉል
peas	ዓይኒ ዓተር
potato	ድንሽ
pumpkin	ዱባ
raisins	ዘቢብ
spinach	ስፐናቺ
tomato	ኮሚደሮ
water melon	ብርጭቕ

Source: http://www.memhr.org/

Tigrigna School/ቤት ትምህርቲ vocabulary

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 May 2014 14:19:00 +0000

Nouns

Verbs

teacher	መምህር
student	ተመሃራይ
classmate	መማህርተይ
friend	ዓርኪ/መሓዛ
chair	መንበር
table	ጣውላ
door	ማዕጾ
map	ካርታ/ስእሊ
window	መስኮት
pen	ፐሮ
pencil	ርሳስ
paper	ወረቐት
book	መጽሓፍ

notebook	ጥራዝ
alphabet	ፈደል
a question	ሕቶ
calculator	መተሓሳሰቢ
clock	ሰዓት
computer	ካምፑትር
dictionary	መዝገብ ቃላት
eraser	መደምሰስ
exam	ምርመራ
scissors	መቐዝ
glue	ኮላ
ruler	መስመር
stapler	ስተፕረ

to listen	ሰምዐ
to speak	ተዘረበ
to read	ኣንበበ
to write	ጸሓፈ
to think	ሓሰበ
to study	ኣጽንዐ
to learn	ተማህረ
to teach	መሃረ
to sit	ኮፍ
to stand	ተንስእ

Source: http://www.memhr.org/

Tigrigna Traditional food

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 May 2014 14:17:00 +0000

እንጀራ	Thin, flat, spongy bread
ቂጫ/ጐጐ	Flat, round, unleavened, home made bread
ህምባሻ/ሕንባሻ	Thick, round, leavened, home made bread
ሀንዛ	Thin/thick home made corn-bread
ሺሮ	Chickpea flour (like hummus)
ትምቲሞ	Spiced Beans/Lentils stew with hot paprika (Berbere)
ኣልጫ	Spiced Beef/chicken/Vegetable without hot paprika
ጸብሒ/ዝግኒ	Spiced Beef/Chicken/Vegetable with hot paprika
ኣጁቦ	A soft white cheese with a distinctive lumpy texture and mild flavour; similar to cottage cheese
ማይ ጨባ	sour-tasting liquid that is left over after milk or cream has been churned to make butter; it is similar to Butter milk

Source: http://www.memhr.org/

Tigrigna Various Food items and Drinks

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 May 2014 14:07:00 +0000

Various Food items and Drinks

Various grains and items

ባኒ	bread (leavened, commercial)
ጠስሚ	butter
ሩግኦ	yogurt
ራይስ	rice
ፎርማጆ	cheese
ዓተር	chickpeas
ብርስን	lentils
ዑፉን	corn/maize
ስርናይ	wheat
ስገም	barley
ጣፍ	teff
ደርሆ	chicken
ዓሳ	fish
ዕየት	lamb

Drinks

ቡን	coffee
ሻሂ	tea
ማይ	water
ማይ ጋዝ	mineral water
ጸባ	milk
ሜስ	honey wine (mead)
ሱዋ	home-made beer
ቢራ	beer

Herbs

ባዘሊኮ	basil
ሮዝመሪ	rosemary

Source: http://www.memhr.org/

Tigrigna Animals/እንሰሳ

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 May 2014 14:03:00 +0000

Ant	ጻጸ
Bee	ንህቢ
Bird	ጩሩ
Butterfly	ጽምብላሊዕ
Elephant	ሓርማዝ
Fish	ዓሳ
Fly	ሃመማ
Fox	ወኻርያ
Giraffe	ዘራፍ
Hyena	ዝብኢ
Leopard	ነብራ
Camel	ገመል
Cat	ድሙ
Cow	ላም
Chicken	ደርሆ
Dog	ከልቢ
Donkey	ኣድጊ
Horse	ፈረስ

Lamb	ዕየት
Mouse	ኣንጭዋ
Ox	ብዕራይ
Pig	ሓሰማ
Rabbit	ማንቲለ
Sheep	በጊዕ
Turkey	ታኪን
Lion	ኣንበሳ
Locust	ኣንበጣ
Monkey	ህበይ
Mosquito	ጣንጡ
Owl	ጉንጓ
Pigeon	ርግቢ
Snake	ተመን
Spider	ሳሮት
Turtle	ጎብየ
Wolf	ተኹላ

Source: http://www.memhr.org/

Tigregna Days and Months

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 May 2014 13:59:00 +0000

Months

January	ጥሪ
February	ለካቲት
March	መጋቢት
April	ሚያዝያ
May	ግቦት
June	ሰነ
July	ሓምለ
August	ነሓሰ
September	መስከረም
October	ጥቅምቲ
November	ሕዳር
December	ታሕሳስ


Thirteenth month	ጳጕሜን

a calendar

Days

Monday	ሰኑይ
Tuesday	ሰሉስ
Wednesday	ረቡዕ
Thursday	ሓሙስ
Friday	ዓርቢ
Saturday	ቀዳም
Sunday	ሰንበት

Source: http://www.memhr.org/

Tigrigna Colours

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 May 2014 13:56:00 +0000

ጸሊም		Black
ጻዕዳ		White
ቡናዊ		Brown
ቀጠልያ		Green
ሕሙኽሽታይ		Grey
ሰማያዊ		Blue
ኣራንቺ		Orange
ሮዛ		Pink
ቀይሕ		Red
ሊላ		Violet
ቢጫ		Yellow

Source: Source: http://www.memhr.org/

Tigrigna Subject Pronouns

noreply@blogger.com (Anonymous) — Fri, 16 May 2014 13:50:00 +0000

Subject pronouns are used to substitute the names of the people or things that perform actions. Instead of saying: "John grabbed the keys"; you could say: "he grabbed the keys". Replacing "John" (a proper noun) with a pronoun ("he"). In English the subject pronouns are: 'He', 'She', 'They', 'You', 'We', and 'I'; these words are divided by person, number and gender; however there are a few exceptions.

Usage in Tigrigna
Subject pronouns are used in the exact same way as in English; however all subject pronouns are divided by person, number and gender (with no exceptions). So, you will see that Tigrigna sometimes will use a couple of words where there is only one English equvilent.

	Singular		Plural
3rd	ንሱ	he / it	ንሶም	they
3rd	ንሳ	she	ንሰን	they (f)
2nd	ንስኻ	you (m)	ንስኹም	you
2nd	ንስኺ	you (f)	ንስኽን	you (f)
1st	ኣነ	I	ንሕና	we

Here are some Tigrigna examples of subject pronouns with their English translations (the subject pronouns are underlined in each one):

ትግርኛ		Transliteration		Translation
a)	"ንሱ ሐሰዩ"	a)	"he lied	a)	"He lied"
b)	"ንሳ መጺኣ"	b)	"she came"	b)	"She came"
c)	"ንስኻ ኪድ ርከቦ"	c)	"you go meet him"	c)	"You go and meet him"
d)	"ንስኺ ምሳይ ምጺ"	d)	"you with me come"	d)	"You come with me"
e)	"ኣነ ቡን ክሰቲ ተቀርበ እለኩ"	e)	"I coffee drink ready am"	e)	"I am going to drink coffee"
f)	"ንሶም ምሳካ ይኪዱ"	f)	"they with you go"	f)	"They have to go with you"
g)	"ንሰን በሊዐን"	g)	"they ate"	g)	"They ate"
h)	"ንስኹም ከሹኑ"	h)	"you cook"	h)	"You must cook"
i)	"ንስኽን ተመለሳ"	i)	"you return"	i)	"You must return"
j)	"ንሕና ምሳኩም አለና"	j)	"we with you are"	j)	"We are with you"

Explaining grammar terms

subject pronouns

subject

John

subjects

pronoun

noun

John

noun

John

pronoun

subjects

pronouns

number

gender

person

subject

speaker

First Person

subject

speaker

Second Person

speaker

subject

Third Person

speaker

subject

Source: http://www.memhr.org/