tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30117345202675960682024-02-22T12:34:14.425+03:00 Ethio Law Info Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.comBlogger21125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-34157420591628261822023-12-26T12:29:00.001+03:002023-12-26T12:46:39.528+03:00Some Points on Remand
Under the Ethiopian Criminal Justice System, delivery of criminal justice is a process. It starts
from setting justice on motion. Some person or government official may give information about the
commission or omission of a crime. The person need not necessarily be the victim of a crime. He or she
may be any concerned person or whistle blower. After the police get such information, the police start
criminal investigation.
In principle and from the point of view of human rights, no one should be arrested before the
necessary investigation is done and the appropriate evidence is collected. The arrest if necessary should
follow the investigation. Thus, investigation should, in principle, precede arrest. However there may be
some cases that the suspect is under custody until the completion of the investigation.
Article 59(1) of the criminal procedure code rules “The court before which the arrested person is
brought (article 29) shall decide whether such person shall be kept in custody or be released on bail.”
Sub article 2 rules “Where the police investigation is not completed the investigating police officer may
apply for a remand for a sufficient time to enable the investigation to be completed.” Sub article 3 rules
“A remand may be granted in writing. No remand shall be granted for more than fourteen days on each
occasion.”
Oftentimes a person suspected of committing a criminal offence or omitting any duty deemed
under the law to be a crime may be held under police custody. Most of the time, the police arrests
suspects before collecting enough prima facie evidence. Article 29 (1) of the criminal procedure code of
Ethiopia rules “where the accused has been arrested by the police or a private person and handed over
to the police (art. 58), the police shall bring him before the nearest court within forty eight hours of his
arrest or so soon thereafter as local circumstances and communications permit.” This is a clear rule that
the police must bring the suspect to a court of justice within forty eight hours of the arrest. The purpose
of this is to make the arrest be known by the court of law and by so doing the police may require the
court additional time to do further criminal investigation holding the suspect under custody. During this
time, the suspect may request the court to be released on bail pending the remaining investigation.The
court may or may not allow the time requested by the police based on some conditions.
Basically, if the remaining investigation can be done without the need to keep the suspect under
arrest, the court may grant bail pending the remaining investigation. A police requests the suspect to
remain under custody doesn’t necessarily mean the court permits it. It is the discretion of the court to
permit or decline based on the conditions of the particular case. It is a common practice but one that
needs to be abandoned that police often request the suspect to remain under custody without assuring
that the remaining investigation can be obstacle if the suspect is released on bail. Howevee, there are
some investigators that frankly explain that the remaining investigation can be done even if the suspect
is released on bail. Doing so is fair as the police are deemed also to stand for fair justice but not merely
for unnecessarily arresting suspects.
The other point that requires to be taken seriously is whether the police have started investigation,
showen diligence and progress in the task of investigation. The court needs to check what has been
done so far not only by orally asking the investigator but also by ordering the investigator to bring the
investigation file and by examining its contents. This needs to be done because it should never be
forgotten that the time given for the investigator is for no other purpose but to complete the
investigation. Since the suspect is under custody, the investigator needs to show due diligence in using
the time given for investigation appropriately.
The criminal procedure code stipulates that fourteen days may be given for investigation. This
fourteen days is the maximum number of days that may be permitted for investigation. Thus, the court
need not necessarily permit all the fourteen days requested in every case. Rather, the court needs to
check the particulars of the case and permit the time flexibly based on whether the remaining
investigation is simple or complex and the number of days it may require to complete the investigation.
Thus, for example, even if the investigating police officer requests fourteen days the court may permit
only a day or two or so if the remaining investigation is simple or uncomplicated. However it may also
permit the full fourteen days requested if the investigation is somehow complex and the tasks remaining
are many or time taking. The code doesn’t limit how many times the fourteen days time may be
requested and granted. Some police officers often request the fourteen days time repeatedly. If it is so
repeatedly requested and given, it may become not only months but also years. With this regard, the
new draft criminal procedure code and the new anti terrorism proclamation has put limit on the
maximum period of time that may be given for investigating. There is a potential legal loop hole for
human rights abuse if it is not implemented carefully.
The other point often raised by investigators is that the suspect may disappear or go out of the
country if released on bail. If no other argument is raised that the suspect may interfere in the process
of the evidence collection or misapproch witnesses and the only argument is that the suspect may go
out of the country, it is possible to release the suspect on bail and to give an injunction order to the
concerned authorities temporarily prohibiting any foreign trip out of the country.
The other point that needs attention is if the court permits the suspect to be released on bail, the
amount of money that is to be secured for the bail must be proportionate with the gravity of the crime
suspected and also the capacity of payment by the suspect. Sometimes, prmittng the bail but with an
exaggerated amount of money may amount to prohibiting bail.
The other point often raised by the police is there are other suspects (accomplice) not yet arrested or
being searched .Thus, the now arrested suspect be under custody until all the remaining suspects are
arrested. From the point of view of human rights, if a court permits time based on this reason, it is unfair
because this suspect is being under custody for the sole reason that other suspects are not yet arrested.
This means the suspect may stay under custody if the other suspects are not arrested. The question that
comes to a reasonable mind is how long?
Finally, if the police informs the court that there is no sufficient evidence on the suspect or there
is lack of due diligence on the part of the police doing inestigation, oftentimes courts close the remand
file but without saying anything about bail. If no other time is permitted, bail right must be given.
Otherwise, the human rights of the suspect may be violated because there is no order that the suspect
be released on bail or there is no time given for further investigation. This is a dilemmatic situation even
for the police.Thus, there must be order either permitting bail or giving extra time for criminal
investigation. If the police frankly assure that there is not sufficient evidence on the suspect, the court
may order the release of the suspect even without bail. Thus the writer believes that a remand file
should never ever be closed without a clear order.<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-46320958439723615292023-08-31T22:25:00.003+03:002023-08-31T22:25:57.641+03:00Some points about Declaration of State of emergency Ethiopia has declared state of emergency a number of times. The Ethiopian constitution allows the declaration of state of emergency when man made or natural disasters occour.Currently,the Ethiopian government has declared a state of emergency on Amhara region. The main feature of state of emergency is that some rights may be limited to enable the restoration of law and order.Under Ethiopian constitution some rights cannot be limited or violated even during state of emergency. Furthermore,some procedures previously followed to ensure due process of law may not be followed during state of emergency. This opens a hole for a potential violation of human rights if the implementation process of the state of emergency is not done with due care. That is why a board that follows up implementation of state of emergency is established every time a state of emergency is declared. <div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-78617566435756175862019-08-03T22:29:00.000+03:002019-08-03T22:29:05.088+03:00RULE OF LAW VERSUS Rule by Law <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
</div>In both rule of law and rule by law there is rule i.e. positive law but the two are different in the purposes they serve. <br />
<br />
If a government makes laws by its legislators and the law serves for all people to bring peace and stability and if all the people are equally treated and benefited from the law, this is called Rule of Law.<br />
<br />
On the other hand if a government makes laws that benefit a certain group of people or only the ruling class disregarding the equality of people before the law, this is Rule by Law. <br />
One common example of rule by law is the rule of the nazi’s regime in Germany. <br />
Let us work together to ensure rule of law but not rule by law everywhere. <br />
<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-35833629076676804982019-03-26T00:40:00.002+03:002019-03-26T00:40:54.972+03:00A GOOD MESSAGE FOR LAWYERS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFSNuCd_BAOFtSJHuQ-Z44_8CogDt63zmTeVBpscYUHSt0dk2Jdr0GCfq8nfewTW7Gy2l1WJA5ouTXp6SRTmD8PjqlGoHBYwcVej7Jyt0i2Hhl1Wy45Hxs3oigY0O_eKxtGf5U8w_8DxTb/s1600/A+MSG+FOR+ATTORNEYS.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFSNuCd_BAOFtSJHuQ-Z44_8CogDt63zmTeVBpscYUHSt0dk2Jdr0GCfq8nfewTW7Gy2l1WJA5ouTXp6SRTmD8PjqlGoHBYwcVej7Jyt0i2Hhl1Wy45Hxs3oigY0O_eKxtGf5U8w_8DxTb/s400/A+MSG+FOR+ATTORNEYS.jpg" width="400" height="400" data-original-width="200" data-original-height="200" /></a></div><div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-71702447170791636792019-02-04T15:18:00.001+03:002019-03-12T15:32:13.360+03:00 Force Majeure and Hardship under UNCISG and Ethiopian law (By our professional guest author Yidnekachew Tadele - LL.B., LL.M (Federalism Studies) and LL.M Candidate (International Investment Law) Honourable yidnekachew is currently working as a judge at Addis Ababa City Appelate Court.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjE56_rv5rKlVJIaHy1Gi78-tuKTyt2uFr-mBA1fippZpJQbnvaq1KJwKbX2Um4jslNNcehFP45l-0hb1H4pp8FldjJsnxpulpgtd-EOJwVEdzqGdSxav4ACiB3qczLWNnsqWrj6L8oIUR/s1600/yiddddd.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="960" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjE56_rv5rKlVJIaHy1Gi78-tuKTyt2uFr-mBA1fippZpJQbnvaq1KJwKbX2Um4jslNNcehFP45l-0hb1H4pp8FldjJsnxpulpgtd-EOJwVEdzqGdSxav4ACiB3qczLWNnsqWrj6L8oIUR/s320/yiddddd.jpg" width="240" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The article that is entitled Force
Majeure and Hardship under UNCISG and Ethiopian law discusses only about UNCISG
and Ethiopian law. The paper doesn’t discuss about other UN convection or other
countries’ laws.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The article has five parts. The first
part discuss about the general concept of force majeure and hardships. The
second part discusses about the similarity and differences of force majeure and
hardship. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Third one discusses about
force majeure and hardship under UNCISG. The fourth part discusses about force
majeure and hardship under Ethiopian law. Under the fifth and the last part the
article the writer concludes the paper and gives some recommendations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><br />
<a name='more'></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1-The general concept of force majeure and hardship </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="i"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">A basic and universally
accepted principle of contract law is "<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">pacta sunt servanda</span>." This principle means that each party
to an agreement is responsible for its non-execution, even if the cause of the
failure is beyond his power and was not or could not be foreseen at the time of
signing the agreement.</span></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The principle reflects natural
justice and economic requirements because it binds a person to their promises
and protects the interests of the other party. But the concept of force majeure
and hardship is the exception of this principle.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Force majeure is a French term that
literally means "greater force." It is related to the
concept of an </span><a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/act-god.asp"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">act of God</span></a><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">, an event for which no party
can be held accountable, such as a hurricane or a tornado. Force majeure also
encompasses human actions, however, such as armed conflict. <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Generally speaking, for events to constitute force
majeure, they must be unforeseeable, external to the parties of the contract,
and unavoidable (irresistible). These concepts are defined and applied
differently by different jurisdictions. So </span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">force majeure</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
is generally intended to include occurrences beyond the reasonable control of a
party,</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hardship in a contract is intended to cover cases in which
unforeseen events occur in such a way that they fundamentally alter the
equilibrium of a contract resulting in an excessive burden being placed on one
of the parties involved. Hardship typically recognized that parties must perform
their contractual obligation even if events have rendered performance more
onerous than would reasonably have been anticipated at the time of the
conclusion of the contract.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Hardship clause</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> is a clause in a </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract" title="Contract"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">contract</span></a><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> that
is intended to cover cases in which unforeseen events occur that fundamentally
alter the equilibrium of a contract resulting in an excessive burden being
placed on one of the parties involved.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Hardship
clauses typically recognize that parties must perform their contractual
obligations even if events have rendered performance more onerous than would
reasonably have been anticipated at the time of the conclusion of the contract.
</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">However,
if continued performance has become excessively burdensome because of an event
beyond a party's reasonable control that it could not reasonably have been
expected to have taken into account, the clause can obligate the parties to
negotiate alternative </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contractual_term" title="Contractual term"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">contractual
terms</span></a><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">
to allow for the consequences of the event reasonably.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a></span><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="more"></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">2-The similarity and differences of
force majeure and hardship</span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
hardship clause is sometimes used in relation to </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force_majeure" title="Force majeure"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">force majeure</span></a><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">, particularly because they
share similar features and they both cater to situations of changed
circumstances. The difference between the two concepts is that hardship is the
performance of the disadvantaged party becoming much more burdensome but still
possible.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Force majeure</span> refers to a
party's contractual requirements have become impossible, at least temporarily.
Hardship is a reason for a change in the contractual program of the parties.
The aim of the parties remains to implement the contract. <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Force majeure</span>, however, is situated
in the context of nonperformance and deals with the suspension or termination
of the contract.</span></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">3-Force majeure and
Hardship under UNCISG</span></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Article 79 United Nation Convection
in Sales of Good States that “<span style="color: #231f20;">(1) A party is not
liable for a failure to perform any of his obligations if he proves that the failure
was due to an impediment beyond his control and that he could not reasonably be
expected to have taken the impediment into account at the time of the
conclusion of the contract or to have avoided or overcome it, or its
consequences. (2) If the party’s failure is due to the failure by a third
person whom he has engaged to perform the whole or a part of the contract, that
party is exempt from liability only if:<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">(a)
</span>he is exempt under the preceding paragraph; and <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">(b) </span>the person whom he has so engaged would be so exempt if the provisions
of that paragraph were applied to him. (3) The exemption provided by this article
has effect for the period during which the impediment exists. (4) The party who
fails to perform must give notice to the other party of the impediment and its
effect on his ability to perform. If the notice is not received by the other
party within a reasonable time after the party who fails to perform knew or
ought to have known of the impediment, he is liable for damages resulting from
such non-receipt. (5) Nothing in this article prevents either party from
exercising any right other than to claim damages under this Convention”. Then </span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="iv"><span style="color: black;">Article 79 is the provision of the CISG, that
deals with situations of changed circumstances. More precisely, it deals with
the circumstances in which the buyer or seller may be excused from performance
of his contractual obligations because of an extraneous event that is judged sufficiently
important to warrant the excuse. This is a situation which is referred to as frustration,
force majeure</span></a><span style="color: black;">.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Paragraph one of
provision sets out the conditions under which a party is not liable for a
failure to perform any of his obligations. Under the provision the expression
"failure to perform" does not specify the nature of the non-performance.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a> The term "failure to
perform" must be considered here in the broadest sense of the word.
Accordingly, the non-performance may be total or partial, delayed or defective.
Article 79 refers to any obligation, no matter which party is concerned. Thus,
the buyer and the seller are subject to the same conditions.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a> Under the provision there
is silent on the point of the time of the impediment's occurrence. Therefore,
the question arises as to whether Article 79 applies in situations where the
impediment existed at the time of the conclusion of the contract and was
unknown to both parties.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a> So, in these case must be applies
national laws<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">.
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Under paragraph two </span><span style="color: black;">the third person must be someone who has been engaged to
perform the whole or a part of the contract. It does not include suppliers of
the goods or of raw materials to the seller. There must be an "organic
link" between the main contract and the sub-contract.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="color: black;">Under paragraph four in the case of a failure of
notification, it should be noted that the damages for which the non-performing
party is liable are only those arising out of the failure of the other party to
have received the notice, and not those arising out of the non-performance.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Paragraph five <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>restrains the effects of the exemption to one
remedy alone and reserves to the party who did not receive the agreed
performance<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>all of its
remedies except damages. These remedies include the right to reduce price
(Article 50), the right to compel performance (Articles 46 and 62), the right
to avoid the contract (Articles 49 and 64) and the right to collect interest as
separate from damages (Article 78).It could be argued that paragraph (5)
entails unrealistic results.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a> It would allow an action
for specific performance in a case where the goods are destroyed and thus, the
performance is physically impossible.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Regarding to hardship in article 79 is not covered. There is no
rule contained in the CISG that specifically refers to situations, where as a
result of radically changed circumstances, the performance of one of the
parties has become much more onerous and difficult. This problem, therefore,
has to be considered in the context of Article 79. <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[13]</span></span></span></span></a>So, the problem is solved
by direct reference to domestic laws. The reference to domestic laws in
interpreting Article 79 jeopardizes uniformity in the application of the
Convention. This uniformity is the Convention's major goal, as set out in
Article 7(1). The fact that Article 79 presents problems of application might
tempt one to consider solving that problem by applying Article 7(2). Article
7(2) permits recourse to the applicable law by virtue of the rules of private
international law when questions are not expressly settled by the CISG. The
problem of hardship could thus be regulated by rules of domestic law if<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>there was a gap in the CISG regarding
the promise’s invocation of radically changed circumstances, making its
performance more onerous.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">To avoid the problem of undermining this objective of the CISG, it
has been suggested that a comparative law approach be applied in interpreting
Article 79. This approach seeks guidance from the prevailing patterns and
trends of modern domestic law insofar as they are consistent with the
necessities of international trade.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[14]</span></span></span></span></a> The approach is supported
by the fact that comparative studies, stimulated in part by the Convention, are
proceeding apace. However, the idea of a comparative law approach is subject to
criticism.</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">
<span style="color: black;">Although it may prove rewarding in other
circumstances, it would yield only limited results in the present case since no
specific overall trend may be traced.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">4-Force majeure and hardship under
Ethiopian law </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ethiopian civil code article 1791 states that<span style="color: black;"> the party who fails to perform his obligations shall be
liable to pay damages notwithstanding that he is not at fault and he shall not
be released unless he can show that performance was prevented by force majeure.
Then from the provision we can conclude that party doesn’t liable in the case
force majeure for the non performance the contract. The law could also define
the condition that happen force majeure under article 1792.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Article 1792(1) state that force majeure results
from an occurrence which the debtor could normally not foresee and which
prevents him absolutely from performing his obligations. The law also list out
the cases of force majeure and non force majeure cases under article 1773 and
1974. Pursuant to the provision the causes of force majeure are the
unforeseeable act of a third party, an official prohibition preventing the performance
of the contract, a natural catastrophe such as an earthquake, lightning or
floods, international or civil war, the death or a serious accident or
unexpected series illness of the debtor. The law also stipulate unless
otherwise expressly agreed the party some condition are not considered as a
force majeure that is strike or lock-out taking place in the undertaking of a
party or<br />
affecting the branch of business in which he carries out his activities, an
increase or reduction in the price of raw materials necessary for the
performance of the contract, the enactment of new legislation whereby the
obligation of the debtor become more onerous.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The situation of hardship
is explained under Ethiopian civil code. Article 1764 Ethiopian civil code states
that contract shall remain in force notwithstanding that the conditions<br />
of its performance have changed and the obligations assumed by a party have
become more onerous than he foresaw. The effect of such changes may be
regulated by the parties, and not<br />
by the court, in the original contract or in a new agreement. When making the
contract or there after, the parties may agree to refer to an arbitrator any
decision relating to variations which ought to be made in the contract, should
certain circumstances occur which would<br />
modify the economic basis of the contract. But there is some exception in a
case of <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">contracts<i> </i>with a public
administration. Article 1767</span> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
court may vary a contract made with a public administration where the
circumstance in which it was made have changed through an official decision in
consequence of which the obligations assumed by the party who contracted with
the administration have become more onerous or impossible.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">5-Conclusion and
Recommendation</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">As discusses hardship and
force majeure is the exception to the general and universally accepted
principle of "<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">pacta sunt servanda</span>."
Force majeure and hardship create when<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>situations
of changed circumstances happen to perform a contract. In the case of force
majeure the performance of a contract is impossible at least in temporarily but
in the case of hardship constitutes a reason for a change in the contractual
program of the parties. So in the case of hardship the aim of the parties
remains to implement the contract.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The approach of municipal
legal systems to the problem of changed circumstances varies from country to
country and law to law. In these term paper tried to compare how to solve the
changed circumstance under Ethiopian law and UNCSG. Under Ethiopian law, the
line is drawn between the impossibility of the performance on the one hand,
i.e., force majeure, and, on the other hand, circumstances which destabilize
the contract where economic conditions are such that fundamental and
far-reaching changes occur. Then in Ethiopian law properly stipulate about
force majeure and hardship but UNCISG doesn’t stipulate anything about
hardship. Under article 79 UNCISG the defense of force majeure can raise both
the buyer and seller but in Ethiopian law the debtor raise the defense of force
majeure. Article79 of UNCISG deeply explain about force majeure. UNCISG doesn’t
clear why leave out about hardship.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="ix"> The problem of hardship has thus
been considered during the drafting process of Article 79, but a provision
which specifically dealing with it has been deliberately omitted from the CISG.
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Resort to domestic laws is precluded by
Article 7(2). If the domestic law applicable under conflicts rules were applied
to fill a supposed gap, there would be a danger of the CISG's liability system
"bursting." This is due to the fact that domestic legal<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>systems differ greatly from each other
in regard to rules of hardship. Some legal systems have not accepted hardship
as an excuse for non-performance. As a result of this fact and the
unwillingness of courts and legislatures in many countries to assist parties in
modifying their contracts to fit fundamentally changed circumstances, hardship
clauses have been introduced into these contracts. The CISG has not resolved
the existing problems. So the writer recommendeds that UNCISG for the sake of
uniformity, simplicity and efficiency the contract contain only one clause
covering the problem of changed circumstances</a>.</span></div>
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<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
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<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="1"><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span style="color: black;"> </span></i></span><span style="color: black;">A.H. Puelinckx,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Frustration,
Hardship, Force majeure, imprévision, Wegfall der Geschäftsgrundlage,
Unmöglichkeit, Changed Circumstances</i>, 1986 J. Int'l Arb. 47 (1986).</span></a></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibd</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="9"><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span style="color: black;"> </span></i></span><span style="color: black;">Matsoukis v. Priestman & Co, 1 K.B. 681 (Eng. 1915).</span></a></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="14"><span style="color: black;">Returned Soldiers, etc. League of
Australia Incptd. v. Abbott, S.A.St.R. 270 (Austl. 1946).</span></a></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<h3>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; font-weight: normal;"> Ibid<span style="color: black;"></span></span></h3>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<br /></div>
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<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="75"><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span style="color: black;"> </span></i></span><span style="color: black;">Fritz Enderlin & Dietrich Maskow, United Nations
Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods 320 (1992)</span></a></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a>
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: black;"> </span></span><span style="color: black;">Denis Tallon,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>in</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Commentary on the International Sales
Law - The 1980 Vienna Sales Convention 576 (C.M. Bianca & M.J. Bonnell
eds.,1987)</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a>
<span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: black;"> </span></span><span style="color: black;">Ziegler, Leistungsstörungsrecht nach dem UN-Kaufrecht 218
(1995); Keil, Die Haftungsbefreiung des Schuldners im UN-Kaufrecht 33 (1993).</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn13" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[13]</span></span></span></span></a>
Supra note numbe 10 pp.320</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn14" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3011734520267596068#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , "sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[14]</span></span></span></span></a>
Ibid</div>
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<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-35071690675232071592017-12-11T16:12:00.002+03:002017-12-12T16:34:50.355+03:00Towards a Comprehensive Prosecution Service in Ethiopia: Noting the New Developments by Leake Mekonen Tesfay<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><i><u>Abstract</u></i></b> Although Ethiopia’s public prosecution is a recent development, continuous changes have been made since the first public prosecution department was established. While the prosecution service has been wavering between centralized prosecution department at times and specialized prosecution institutions in another, a new comprehensive prosecution department – the Federal Attorney General has been recently established in the federal government taking almost all prosecution powers to it. This article briefly reviews the historical development of the prosecution department, the ups and downs between centralized and specialized prosecution institutions and the new developments related to the establishment of the Federal Attorney General as a comprehensive prosecution institution.
Key Words
Public Prosecution, Specialized Prosecution Institutions, Centralized Prosecution, Ethiopia<br />
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<b><i><u>Introduction</u></i></b>
Ethiopia is a federation with nine regional states, and two city administrations answerable to the federal government. Government power is divided between the federal government and the regional states. Both the federal government and the regional states have their own respective legislative, executive and adjudicative powers. According to the FDRE Constitution, there are powers - including the power of taxation - assigned exclusively to the federal government, exclusively to the regional states and concurrently to both the federal government and regional states. Undesignated powers are given to states except that undesignated taxation powers are to be decided and assigned by the joint session of the House of Peoples Representatives and the House of Federation.
With respect to prosecution, the federal government and the regional governments have their own respective prosecution departments, within their executive branch of government. The prosecution at the level of the federal government was distributed in different institutions with specialized prosecution powers. Some of the regional states also seem to have followed the experience of the federal government and have developed the system of different specialized prosecution institutions. Recently, however, with a view to have a comprehensive prosecution department at the level of the federal government, there is a new law proclaimed to establish the Federal Attorney General, bringing almost all the prosecutorial works in to one government organ. This article reviews the new developments resulting from the enactment of the new law in brief. The discussion in this article is limited to the prosecution department at the level of the federal government for two reasons. First, studying the prosecution services in the regional states requires a separate study of itself for want of time and resources. And second, it is the federal government that has taken the lead in enacting a new law establishing a comprehensive prosecution service and whether the regional states will share and follow this experience is to be seen yet.
This article is arranged in four parts. The first part shortly narrates the historical developments of prosecutorial works in Ethiopia from ancient to recent times. This part highlights from the time where prosecution was left to be the private task of the crime victim or her/his representative to the time where prosecution begun to be a public concern with prosecution department established as a government organ. The second part assesses the continuous changes made to the organization and administration of the prosecution. This part discusses the era of centralized prosecution service, the era of specialized prosecution, and the way towards the establishment of the Federal Attorney General as a new development creating a comprehensive prosecution department – bringing the legacy of centralized prosecution service back. The third part examines the important provisions of the new law with respect to the organization and administration of the prosecution; the role, powers and functions of the prosecution; specialization within the prosecution; decisional independence and accountability of prosecutors; and rights, benefits and protections given to prosecutors. And the fourth part puts concluding remarks. What has to be clear from the outset is that as the study of practices needs time and resources, this article is limited to only the thematic assessment of the legal provisions, this being the main limitation of the study. Practical concerns with respect to prosecutorial works in Ethiopia are untapped areas for those who are interested to undergo their research in relation to prosecution services.<br />
<b>I. Historical Overview of Public Prosecution in Ethiopia: Ancient to Recent<i></i></b>
Although Ethiopia is an ancient country with its own ancient legal system, the development public prosecution is of recent origin in Ethiopia. Founded on the provisions of Feteha Negest - an ancient source of laws in Ethiopia - prosecution was left to be a private task, in which the injured party, his relatives or representatives may compromise with the defendant to either set the defendant free after collecting blood money - i.e. compensation - or inflict the punishment decided by a judge or community elders. The first codified criminal code was enacted in 1930, and prosecution continues to be a private task even after that because the 1930 penal code did not provide for the establishment of public prosecution office.
The first office of public prosecution was established during the reign of Emperor Haileslassie, in 1942 with a proclamation empowering the Ministry of Justice to appoint the Advocate General (head of the prosecution office), Deputy Advocate General (deputy head of the prosecution office) and all other public prosecutors. A change was made in 1952 with Proc. No. 123/1952 and the power to appoint the Advocate General and Deputy Advocate General was overtaken by the Emperor himself.
When Emperor Haileslassie was ousted and state power was taken by the Provisional Military Administrative Council - the Dergue - and after years of shadows, the prosecution office was established in 1987 according to a proclamation - Proc. No. 11/1987 - which establishes the Prosecutorial Office of the People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, which replaces the former office of the Attorney General. The Prosecutorial Office was established as an autonomous state organ no more under the control of the Ministry of Justice and it comprised the Office of Prosecutor General, the Office of Military Prosecutor, the Office of Regional Prosecutor and Office of Provincial Prosecutor. The Prosecutor General was elected by the National Shengo - the legislative council - up on the recommendation of the President of the Republic and, was accountable to the National Shengo, when the Shengo was in session and, between sessions the Prosecutor General was accountable to the State Council - the executive council - and the President. The Prosecutorial Office was given extensive powers. It was empowered, enter alia, to ensure that laws were correctly and uniformly enforced, to protect the rights and freedoms of citizens and, to follow up the legality of court decisions and even recommend the stay of execution of court decisions where it believed that the enforcement of such decisions or orders would cause irreparable damages.
Most part of the Dergue era was of civil war in Ethiopia and, the Dergue – which led the country with the power of gun and bullet for 17 years - was ousted in May 1991 by coalition of insurgents – the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). When the EPRDF took state power and after a year and half time of no formal prosecution office, Proc. No. 39 was enacted in January 1993 to establish the Office of the Attorney General which was comprising the Central Office of the Attorney General, Office of the Central Regional Attorney General, the Office of the Central Zonal Attorney and other Offices of the Central Attorney, to be established as in need by the then Transitional Government of Ethiopia. A quick change was made with Proc. No. 73/1993 and the prosecution office was merged again to be within the Ministry of Justice. After the transition period was over and the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was established, the prosecution continues to be part of the Ministry of Justice and the Ministry of Justice was entrusted with the power and duty to “represent the Federal Government in criminal cases falling under the jurisdiction of the Federal Courts.”
What is not to forget at the time of Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) is that there was especially established Special Public Prosecutor’s Office according to Proc. No. 22/1992 - i.e. prior to the establishment of the Office of the Attorney General. The Special Public Prosecutor’s Office was specially and mainly established to deal with the cases of prosecuting the officials of the Deruge regime which were prosecuted for red terror crimes.
II. Continuous Change in the Prosecution: The Background for the Establishment of Federal Attorney General<br />
<b>2.1. Specialized Prosecution Powers: The Era Before Centralization <i></i></b>
After the time for the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) was over and the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was established, the executive organs of the federal government were reorganized and their powers and duties re-determined. The prosecution, as already said above, continues to be part of the Ministry of Justice and the Ministry of Justice was entrusted with the power and duty to “represent the Federal Government in criminal cases falling under the jurisdiction of the Federal Courts.” The Ministry of Justice retained its prosecutorial powers even after the powers and duties of the executive organs of the federal government were reorganized through the passage of time. However, other government departments with special prosecution powers were established later, taking part of the prosecutorial powers away from the Ministry of Justice.
The Federal Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission was reestablished in 2005 to be the first of its kind taking the prosecutorial powers on matters related to corruption cases. It was empowered to investigate and prosecute any alleged or suspected corruption committed by public officials or public employees or other persons in Public Offices in the federal government or Public Enterprises, or in the Regional offices relating to subsidies granted by the Federal Government to the Regions. For the accomplishment of its duties, it was provided in the law that the Commission’s prosecution shall be organized and structured in such a way that ensures its professional independence. Reestablishing the commission with the power of prosecution was, at least ideally, necessitated to enable the commission to effectively fight corruption and impropriety through investigation and prosecution as part of the national commitment to combat corruption.
The Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority become the second government agency with power of prosecution on crimes against government revenues. It was empowered to investigate customs and tax offences, to institute and follow up criminal proceedings in courts and for the discharge of such responsibilities, to organize its own prosecution and investigation units and supervise their performance. The Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority was established as a merger of three government offices: the Ministry of Revenues, Ethiopian Customs Authority and Federal Inland Revenues Authority for the similarity of the powers and duties they were entrusted with, and resource utilization and organizational arrangement. The Ethiopian tax system has undergone continuous improvements as modernization campaigns since the 1990s. As continuity for the massive reforms in the tax system, the establishment of the Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority (ERCA) with investigation and prosecution powers was considered as adding strength to the tax administration system.
The prosecutorial power of the Ministry of Justice continuing to diminish, the Trade Competition and Customers Protection Authority was established with prosecution power on crimes committed against trade completion and consumer protections. Now, things are changed and the Federal Attorney General has come up with comprehensive prosecution power taking almost all the prosecution powers of all the government organs with special prosecution powers to it.
A special prosecution institution still running, not to forget, is the prosecution of military offences by public prosecutors assigned from within the military personnel. In cases of military offences which are to be decided by military courts, it is provided that after due investigation is conducted and if it is found necessary to institute a criminal charge, a public prosecutor is to be assigned to follow the case. The newly established Federal Attorney General did not take the prosecutorial powers in such cases of military offences and this shows that prosecution of military offences continues to be within the military personnel.<br />
<br />
<b><i><u>2.2. Towards a Comprehensive Prosecution</u></i></b>: The Need for
We have seen above that there were government departments with special prosecution power on specific matters but, now the Federal Attorney General has been established with comprehensive prosecutorial power. What justifies doing away with the special prosecution institutions and establishing the Federal Attorney General? One can collect some of the justifications from the preamble of Proc. No. 943/2016, and three basic points can be mentioned.
First, the establishment of the Federal Attorney General was necessary for the purpose of uniformity, effectiveness and efficiency in the prosecution service to protect public interest. It is understood that the goals of uniformity, effectiveness and efficiency are to be achieved if a comprehensive and strong prosecution institution is established. Second, it is understood that the establishment of the Federal Attorney General contributes for the prevalence of the rule of law. The Federal Attorney General is believed to contribute for the rule of law to be sustained by enforcing laws properly and making sure that laws are organized and enforced properly and government works are conducted properly according to the laws. And third, the establishment of the Federal Attorney General is necessitated in order to organize a prosecution institution with professional and institutional independence and public accountability. To this end the Federal Attorney General is expected to work in a transparent and participatory manner.<br />
<b><i><u>III. The Federal Attorney Genera</u>l: Its <u>Organization, Roles and Functioning </u></i></b><br />
<b><i><u><br /></u></i></b>
<b><i><u>
3.1. Organization and Administration of the Prosecution and Prosecutors</u></i></b><br />
<br />
The Federal Attorney General is established as an autonomous federal government ministerial office accountable to the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers, its head office in Addis Ababa - in the federal capital city - and with possibility to establish branch offices throughout the country as it may think fit. It is organized having an Attorney General appointed by the House of Peoples Representatives up on recommendation by the Prime Minister, and Deputy Attorney Generals appointed by the Prime Minister, line divisions necessary for its work, Management Committee, Federal Public Prosecutors Administration Council, public prosecutors appointed by the Attorney General upon the recommendation by the Public Prosecutors Administration Council and necessary staff. The Attorney General is the head of the prosecution and s/he leads professionally and in accordance with law. Specifically, s/he is empowered, enter alia, to exercise the powers and duties of the Federal Attorney General; appoint, administer and dismiss public prosecutors in accordance with the regulation issued by the Council of Ministers; revoke, change, modify, suspend or approve the decision of Deputy Attorney Generals or refer the case for re-examination or revision by the one that has given the decision; and represent the Federal Attorney General in its dealings with third parties. Moreover, the Attorney General can delegate part of his/her powers to relevant organs as is found necessary for effectiveness and efficiency in performance. The Federal Attorney General has also Deputy Attorney Generals to assist the Attorney General in his functions and lead the line divisions to which they are assigned. The Attorney General and Deputy Attorney Generals can be removed from their positions by the Prime Minister.
The Federal Attorney General is financed by a budget allocated to it by the Government and it is required to keep complete books of account which are to be audited annually by the Auditor General.
The administration of public prosecutors is to be determined by regulations to be issued by the Council of Ministers. And, the proclamation has stipulated for basic principles on which the administration of public prosecutors is to base. These guiding principles are related to recruitment and appointment and internal administration of prosecutors. Appointment of public prosecutors is required to be based, enter alia, on obedience to and belief in the Constitution, Constitutional order and rule of law; sense of public service; balanced representation of Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia; Ethiopian nationality; having law education and skill necessary for prosecution work; successful completion of pre-service training given for the sector; and impartiality from conditions that may influence decision making of public prosecutors.
In the internal administration of public prosecutors, the superior and subordinate relationship between public prosecutors are required to be based on systems laid down by considering cooperation and support, work legality, ensuring efficiency, knowledge and skill sharing. Promotion, demotion, salary and benefits of public prosecutors are required to be determined based on performance, effectiveness and ethical condition. The internal transfer of public prosecutors are to be decided based on the work, personal conditions, impartiality and choice of the public prosecutors. Moreover, the provision of privileges for education, training and conference participation of public prosecutors are required to be decided based on the closeness to the public prosecutor’s position and work, performance, composition of nationality, sex and disability, contribution for the enforcement of the powers and duties of the Federal Attorney General, contribution for effective and efficient service provision, and knowledge and skill value addition to the trainee. And, termination of service of public prosecutors is to be decided based on a system that is put in place by considering low performance, ethical violation, medical condition, wish and retirement.
The details of the regulations for the administration of public prosecutors are to be issued by the Council of Ministers yet. The duty to prepare a draft regulation that includes public prosecutors appointment, transfer, leave, service period, position, ethics, organization, structure, salary, benefits and similar matters is vested to a body called Federal Public Prosecutors Administration Council, which is established according to the proclamation, accountable to the Attorney General and its members working procedure are to be determined by a regulation to be issued by the Council of Ministers. Before the establishment of the Federal Attorney General, there was a regulation issued by the Council of Ministers for the administration of federal public prosecutors according to prior laws. Although the new proclamation has not made a specific reference to this regulation, it is provided that regulations, directives and manuals issued before the coming in to force of the new proclamation establishing the Federal Attorney General and relevant for the enforcement of the powers and duties of the public prosecution are applicable until replaced with new ones. Therefore, the existing regulation will continue to be in force being its substitution with a new enactment.<br />
<br />
<b>3.2. The Role, Powers and Functions of the Prosecution: Prosecution and Beyond <i></i></b>
The Federal Attorney General has general objectives of respecting and enforcing the constitution and the constitutional order; ensuring rule of law; enforcing criminal law; and enforcing civil interest of the Federal Government and the public. To achieve its objectives, it has been entrusted with extensive powers. The Federal Attorney General has the powers and duties to prepare criminal justice policy by coordinating relevant bodies and coordinate, follow up and ensure its implementation when adopted. It works as principal representative and legal advisor of the federal government. Its powers and duties range from issues related to prosecution in criminal matters and beyond. It has powers with respect to criminal matters, civil matters, legal research and drafting, and respect for human rights.
With respect to criminal matters, it has, save the powers of the police regarding criminal investigation, the power to cause the investigation of crimes falling in the criminal jurisdiction of federal courts, to order the discontinuation and restart of discontinued criminal investigation. It also has the powers, enter alia, to review complete investigation files and decide “no case” according to the provisions of the criminal procedure code; to determine guilty plea, to conducts plea bargaining and alternative actions to be taken; and to institute criminal charges.
With respect to civil matters, it represents the federal government and federal government agencies in civil litigations and gives decision for the settlement of disputes between federal government agencies in court or out of court in alternative dispute settlement mechanisms and follows the enforcement of such decision, and it represents the Ethiopian Government in international judicial and quasi-judicial bodies. An important power and duty of the Federal Attorney General in civil cases is that it has the power and duty to represent citizens who do not have financial capacity to institute civil actions in litigations especially women, children and the disabled, and victims of crimes who do not have financial means in litigations for compensation for damages emanating from such crimes.
With respect to legal drafting the Federal Attorney General prepares drafts of laws to be promulgated by the federal government, undertake legal reform studies and ensures that international agreements to be signed or adopted by Ethiopia are consistent with the Constitution and other laws and are acceptable in view of Ethiopia’s national interest. And with respect to legal research and training, it undertakes legal researches for the implementation of its tasks; it establishes a system for the collection, organization, analysis and dissemination of information regarding the criminal justice system; and it provides continuous training and education for its public prosecutors.
For human rights to be respected, the Federal Attorney General is required to design strategy for the provision of free legal aid, prepare national human rights action plan together with the concerned bodies and pay a visit to persons in custody and take measures against those found to have transgressed the law in violation of human rights.
3.3. Independence, Impartiality, Protection and Accountability of the Prosecution and Prosecutors
The Federal Attorney General, as already said above, institutionally is accountable to the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers, and the Attorney General and Deputy Attorney General can be removed from their position by the Prime Minister. From this, one cannot safely say that the Federal Attorney General is institutionally sufficiently independent; it rather is within and under the control of the executive. Individual prosecutors, however, are professionally independent. It is provided that public prosecutors are free to decide based on law without interference. The independence of public prosecutors extends to their protection from any direct or indirect harm related to their prosecutorial works. And, the Federal Attorney General institutionally and public prosecutors individually are not liable for damages resulting from their acts in due performance of their duty. However, while these protections and rights given to public prosecutors are promising, there are no provisions for public prosecutors’ right to association and expression, and the silence of the law in this respect can be viewed as a limitation on public prosecutors’ rights.
As to accountability, there is a system provided for by which the Federal Attorney General institutionally and the public prosecutors individually are to be held accountable. The Federal Attorney General institutionally is required to ensure that its works ensure public accountability and public participation. To this end it is required to prepare a public forum quarterly in which selected representatives of community organizations, business and charity organizations and associations, law schools of higher education institutions, individuals and other stakeholders participate. Though the criteria for the selection of forum participants are in the fogs, such public forums are expected to discuss plans, strategies and gaps in the performance of the Federal Attorney General to help it rectify its problems.
Similarly, the professional independence of public prosecutors does not mean that public prosecutors are not accountable in their prosecutorial works. Public prosecutors are accountable to their superior and division heads and are also legally accountable for defects in their work performance and ethics. We have said above that internal administration of public prosecutors (issues including recruitment, promotion, education and training and termination of service) is to be determined based on a system set in advance. We understand from this that the law has provided the basics of how are public prosecutors to be held accountable for their work based on a pre-established system of law. This is expected to effectively rectify certain previous problems in the administration of public prosecutors by establishing a systemic balance between independence and accountability of public prosecutors. A big blow against professional independence and job security of public prosecutors previously was a directive issued by the Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority which entitles the Director General to summarily dismiss a public prosecutor whom he suspected of corruption and against whom he losses confidence without following any legal or disciplinary procedures. It was provided in the directive also that any public prosecutor dismissed in summary losses her/his job security and cannot be returned to his/her work by the order of any court.
What can a counter argument be at this juncture is that so long as the regulations, directives and manuals issued prior to the establishment of the Federal Attorney General are applicable pending their substitution with new ones, as we have seen above, the problem of summary dismissal of public prosecutors is not rectified by the establishment of the Federal Attorney General with professional independence of public prosecutors. However, the proclamation has provided for the professional independence of public prosecutors and for disciplinary measures to be taken based on pre-established system, not on summary. It is also provided that any law which contravenes the proclamation is not applicable on matters covered by the new proclamation. Hence the problem of summary dismissal of public prosecutors cannot continue to be a threat against their professional autonomy.
A concern still however against decisional independence of public prosecutors is the prosecution of military offences by prosecutors assigned from within the military personnel. As said above, the prosecution of military offences is given to persons to be assigned from within the military. This may be considered as a compromise against objectivity and independence of public prosecutors, and need reconsideration in the future.<br />
<br />
<b><i><u>3.4. Specialization Within the Prosecution </u></i></b><br />
<b><i><u><br /></u></i></b>
Service
For the reason that technological developments and sophistication of life have created complex types of crimes, states are advised to create specialized units in the prosecution to concentrate on the investigation and prosecution of certain crimes. “Specialization of prosecution services may also involve concentrating particular types of cases in one prosecution office in order to ensure that prosecutors have physical protection and are free from external pressures.” The Federal Attorney General, having accepted the advantages of specialized public prosecution service, similarly has established specialized prosecution units. We have seen above that there are two Deputy Attorney Generals: the Litigation Affairs Deputy Attorney General and the Administrative and Legal Affairs Deputy Attorney General.
Beneath the Litigation Affairs Deputy Attorney General, there are five directorates led by a director: the Civil Justice Administration Directorate which follows issues related to civil litigation; the Anti-Corruption Directorate which follows issues related to corruption crimes; the Economic Offences Directorate which follows issues related to economic offences such as tax evasion, contraband, customs fraud and the like; the Organized, Cross Boarder and Nationally Harmful Crimes Directorate which follows issues related to terrorism and money laundering; and the Miscellaneous Crimes Directorate assigned to follow other crimes not specially categorized such as homicide, bodily injury, traffic offences and the like.
From this it is humanly to expect that the creation of special prosecution units within the prosecution will go parallel with the complexities of how corruption crimes, economic crimes, and cross boarder crimes are committed and will be a base for effectiveness in the combat against these crimes.<br />
<br />
<b>3.5. Future Implications With Respect to Prosecution </b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><i></i></b>
For the reason that it is only about a year after the establishment of the Federal Attorney General, it will be too early to judge its achievements and failures. However, the establishment of a comprehensive prosecution service can be viewed as a step forward to having a uniform, independent, strong, effective and efficient prosecution service. Having the Federal Attorney General as a unified prosecution department is expected to create uniformity not only in the enforcement of laws but also uniformity in the administration and treatment of public prosecutors which was not the case before its establishment.
A prior discriminatory entitlement of benefits to public prosecutors explains the case more. While public prosecutors in the Ministry of Justice and the Federal Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission were entitled to residential house and transport allowances pay role tax free for long, similar benefits were allowed for the public prosecutors in the Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority only since March 2015. After the Federal Attorney General was established and the public prosecutors were transferred from the Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority to Federal Attorney General, the Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority was audited by the Auditor General for the year 2014/2015 the result of which worsens the case more. As a result of such an audit the Auditor General was said to have recommended that the residential house and transport allowances to which the public prosecutors in the Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority were entitled were unduly made pay role tax free and so that the public prosecutors shall pay the amount of tax back. To this end, the finance department of the Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority wrote for each of former public prosecutors to pay the amount of tax which was claimed not paid since March 2015 – June 2016. Such an anomaly occurs due to the separation of the prosecution service in to various institutions, and the establishment of the Federal Attorney General rectifies such a discriminatory treatment between public prosecutors.
The commitment to have a strong prosecution department is revealed by provisions in the law regarding duty to cooperate and criminal liability. Any person except in cases of beyond his/her capacity is required to cooperate with the works of the Federal Attorney General and public prosecutors. Similarly, members of the police are required to respect and enforce final and legal decisions given by public prosecutors. To enforce these provisions it is provided that any interference against the independent decision making of the Federal Attorney General and its public prosecutors, disobedience to decisions thereof and failure to cooperate are criminally punishable offences. These are meant to respect the independence, powers and functions of the public prosecution. And, these imply that a base has been built for the development of a comprehensive, independent, impartial and strong public prosecution office in the future.
Concluding Remarks
Prosecution in Ethiopia was the private task crime victims for long time. And, since the first public prosecution department was established during the reign of Emperor Haileslassie I in 1942, continuous changes have been made with respect to its organization and administration. After times of wavering between a centralized prosecution department at times and between separately specialized prosecution departments in another time, a comprehensive prosecution department – the Federal Attorney General has been established in the federal government in view of having uniform, effective and efficient prosecution service contributing for the sustainment of the rule of law, respect for human rights and public interest. While it is established accountable to the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers and so not safe to say it institutionally is immune of executive control, it is provided that public prosecutors individually are professionally independent to freely decide based on law without interference. The formal powers and duties given to the Federal Attorney General are so extensive. It has powers, enter alia, to decide regarding prosecution in criminal matters, to represent the Government and other needy citizens in civil litigations, to prepare draft laws to be promulgated by the federal government and make sure international agreements entered in to by Ethiopia protect the National Interest, and to train and educate its public prosecutors. With respect to accountability, the Federal Attorney General is required to work in a manner ensuring public accountability, and to this end it prepares quarterly public forums. And, while the Federal Attorney General institutionally and public prosecutors individually are immune of liability to damages caused due to their acts in due performance of their responsibility, it is provided that public prosecutors are legally accountable for defects in their work and ethics. Internal administration of public prosecutors - including issues related to recruitment, promotion, assignment, and disciplinary measures - is to be determined based on predetermined regulations in away balancing independence and accountability. To enforce the independence, powers and functions of the Federal Attorney General and public prosecutors, it is provided that everyone except in cases of beyond capacity is required to cooperate, and interferences against the independence of the prosecution, disobedience to legal decisions thereof and failure to cooperate are punishable offences. While the practicality of these all is to be seen in the future, the establishment of the Federal Attorney General with all its powers can be viewed as a foundation for having a comprehensive, strong and independent prosecution department.
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<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-38913138370346860052017-10-16T17:25:00.001+03:002017-10-20T17:31:47.747+03:00A point about some traffic police corruption<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "nyala";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Our traffic police are not clean
handed. This doesn’t mean all traffic police are corrupt. There are many
ethical and professional and country-loving traffic police as opposed to the
corrupt ones. I have been traveling from Addis to the South region and back to
Addis many times. It is a very common practice for the drivers to give Birr 50 or 100 to the traffic police to have a ‘safe’ pass besides overloading passengers,missing
dispatch paper(‘mewicha’),driving above the speed limit, driving a technically
deficient car, overpricing the transportation fee above the tariff,etc. These
faults of the driver are ignored as seen in return to the Birr 50 or 100 bribe.The
drivers have told me that the traffic police do collect the money from each
public transport car. What an ashaming practice! If our law enforcement organs
are corrupt, then who can enforce the law? Will these corrupt ones will enforce
it? No. A serious measure has to be taken on this problem. Let you share us
your opinions on what measure should be taken to get rid of this problem.</span></div>
</div>
<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-73143149659181346342017-09-26T17:55:00.000+03:002017-10-20T17:51:33.761+03:00Forgery is a real threat to our Justice System<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
Nowadays,documents submitted to employers as evidence of education and work experience,driving licenses,ID cards,certificates of ownership,business licenses,etc are prepared in a forged way.Such forged documents are often submitted to courts and administrative tribunals as evidence resulting in miscarriage of justice.So,all of us have to fight against this threat to our justice system.The Federal Police forensic directorate documents investigation department is making a great contribution in fighting forgery. Each and every one of us should also contribute our share in fighting forgery.Otherwise,injustice will triumph over justice.What is your opinion on the issue?</div>
<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-21292166677175228372017-09-19T13:43:00.000+03:002017-10-20T17:51:05.655+03:00Unsolicited Mobile Text Messages <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Day in and day out,a lot of text messages pop into our mobile phones. These are not from family or friends. Some of the text messages are sent from the telecom operator ,Ethiotelecom;Others are sent from government offices to convey a certain message and others are sent from organizations that run ads.,etc...Whoever is the sender,there is no a request given by us to get these messages. We are rarely asked whether or not we are interested to receive such messages.Nor anyone of us has given permission to the senders to send messages to our phones. In my opinion,our phones are ours;your phone is yours.So sending unsolicited text messages may amount to infringement of our privacy rights something like somebody entering our house without permission.The problem related to this issue is that there is no a clear law which directly regulates such privacy issues. I think it needs regulation.What is your opinion on the issue?</div>
<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-60537401520455981692017-09-16T15:39:00.000+03:002017-10-20T17:35:07.806+03:00Let all police respect Human Rights in the New Year ('' ስትገረፍ፤ታወራዋለህ '' ቢቀር)...<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
It is a common complaint in Ethiopia that some police officers violate human rights of suspects and/or sentenced persons. Our FDRE constitution has clear provisions concerning the human rights of suspects and even of convicted and sentenced persons.For example,use of force to get evidence is prohibited because torture is a crime against humanity. Even evidence found by use of force has no acceptance.Ethiopia has accepted all basic international human rights treaties and incorporated them to be part and parcel of the constitution. Even though the law is clear,some police members violate it and violate human rights.Some do so out of lack of awareness;some do this out of lack of the proper criminal investigation skills and some do so just to abuse their power.Law enforcement should be done respecting constitutionally guaranteed human rights and following the legal procedures in the criminal procedure code.Otherwise,it is unconstitutional.It must be corrected in the new year!What is your opinion on the issue?
</div>
<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-58023385890861197932017-09-14T19:14:00.001+03:002017-10-20T17:35:56.578+03:00Probono Service of some Ethiopian Federal Lawyers<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
As it is well known,lawyering is not a solid for profit business.It is rather a profession by which the lawyer gives legal advice representing clients at courts of law or administrative tribunals and in return,gets remuneration or payment for the services delivered.Even though payment of money is involved in the contract of service,it doesn't mean a lawyer needs payment in every case.Since lawyering is a profession one pursues to stand for justice,lawyers must give free legal service to those who can't afford to pay.Actually,it is being done in Ethiopia too.In Ethiopia,every federal lawyer must give 50 hours of free service to those who can't pay.But the problem is not on the time or hours spent but the problem of not giving equal weight to paid and free services.If it is free service,some lawyers prepare poor statements of claim and/or defense,miss court sessions and and even if they appear,they come unprepared.This is unethical. It needs correction.What is your opinion on the issue? <i><b b="">P<b></b></b></i><br />
<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-39442934446103097112017-08-12T15:43:00.002+03:002017-10-20T17:52:31.159+03:00Opinion Versus Defamation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="_5pbx userContent" data-ft="{"tn":"K"}" id="js_4ak">
If
you say that you think somebody is a thief,it is your opinion but if
you say you saw somebody steal,you are alleging a fact. If what you
thought is proven wrong,it is not a crime because you have freedom of
thought. But if what you alleged as a fact is proven false,then this
constitutes the crime known as defamation. Have a good day!!!</div>
</div>
<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-19362147497348632972017-08-12T15:41:00.000+03:002017-10-20T17:41:42.015+03:00Concept of terrorism <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="text-align: left;">
Terrorism is related with trying to get a certain
aim succeed by means of intimidation and force,by means of making
people fear a certain actual or potential threat. The basic problem of
terrorism is that it is often indiscriminate about targets. For example,if a
bomb exploded in a public place,those who may die or be damaged are
most of the time civilians,women,and children etc...who have no thing
to do with politics. So,the effect of terrorism is harmful. That is why
countries need anti-terrorism law. That is why we also have this law.
So,the need for anti-terrorism law is vivid. </div>
</div>
<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-9574642583090626902012-03-12T12:06:00.000+03:002017-10-20T17:38:32.259+03:00Election<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQJVbR8MadFGLrfsmGTL4yzQijLhkQI8Dv7xfH4Dc-2HzHifwpsu9NUqMxUsrIULpRS8AaYf8cK0jWEersBN9RmZiMdje0lAyWxLP8eCZnB4NhBsQnaT1BvFuC5WUSFDk4Vj0SnuMRmD0/s1600/election.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQJVbR8MadFGLrfsmGTL4yzQijLhkQI8Dv7xfH4Dc-2HzHifwpsu9NUqMxUsrIULpRS8AaYf8cK0jWEersBN9RmZiMdje0lAyWxLP8eCZnB4NhBsQnaT1BvFuC5WUSFDk4Vj0SnuMRmD0/s1600/election.jpg" /></a></div>
<br /></div>
<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-86644522655649744892012-03-09T11:05:00.001+03:002017-10-20T17:39:24.361+03:00What do you think about the Independence of the Judiciary in Ethiopia?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> <span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: large;">As it is well-known the principles of separation of powers and independence of the judiciary are key to ensure a real democracy and rule of law. To that end,there must be clear legal instruments and institutions that ensure the independence of the judiciary. </span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: black;">The 1995 Constitution unequivocally declares the independence of the Ethiopian judicial branch(See article 78 of the FDRE constitution). .In and of itself ,however,the declaration of independence does not equate to the creation of independence if institutions and systems are unable or unwilling to shoulder the burdens and share the power in a practical and well-established procedure. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> The Judiciary at the Federal and Regional levels are administered by their own Judicial administration Councils.Thus, this is what we call self-regulation which by itself is a good tool for securing the independence of the judiciary.In this regard the selection,recruitment,promotion,demotion,etc...of judges in Ethiopia are handled by this council.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> While we discuss this issue there are other very important points that must be put in perspective such as the salary and benefits package of judges,the amount and the administration of court budgets, etc...which have either a direct or indirect impact on resolving the issue.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> <span style="background-color: black;"></span> You can share us facts and your own opinions on the issue at hand.</span><br />
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<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-63740002440829383532012-03-08T14:43:00.000+03:002017-10-20T17:38:11.485+03:00Women's Rights are Human Rights!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVNg-VZfswv2mjwcQDHOeGkP7jcN5V4IKWIcegTLrWNL4iVyflaRSkEKkYr7eqpZvuhZwob5ziOUWN-4RzdCJq8gvGYnj_Zs4uHKyeivFKU3T-LkK_wMHyUZimPeSOo1GCVDOTPCppv_k/s1600/ffffffkkkkk.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVNg-VZfswv2mjwcQDHOeGkP7jcN5V4IKWIcegTLrWNL4iVyflaRSkEKkYr7eqpZvuhZwob5ziOUWN-4RzdCJq8gvGYnj_Zs4uHKyeivFKU3T-LkK_wMHyUZimPeSOo1GCVDOTPCppv_k/s1600/ffffffkkkkk.jpg" /></a></div>
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<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-75315951960916136702012-03-07T12:50:00.000+03:002017-10-20T17:40:08.299+03:00Restorative Justice For All!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span class="" id="parent-fieldname-description"> </span><br />
<span class="" id="parent-fieldname-description"> In response to the ever-increasing problems such as inefficient court processes and prison crowding, countries throughout Africa are looking to revive traditional justice processes and implement restorative practices as an alternative to incarceration.Basically,customary dispute settlement mechanisms and laws play the key role in many African countries including Ethiopia.These must be systematized and used side by side with the regular state laws and institutions.There is multiplicity of laws in Ethiopia,which includes cultural laws(such as The 'Geda' System of the Oromos and the 'Kicha' and 'Yegordena Sera' of the Gurages to mention but a few) and religious laws(such as Sharia Law and the laws of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahdo Church), which needs to be wisely used for both civil and criminal cases to bring restorative justice in the country.What do you think on the issue? Feel free to share us your opinions.</span></div>
<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-41985660609342800172012-03-06T16:11:00.000+03:002017-10-20T17:46:28.000+03:00A Point about ''Freedom of Expression''<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Freedom of expression is the key for building a real democracy in any country.It is also a human right.However,there should be a limit to it as there is a limit on any right.For example,defamatory,libel,riot-provoking expressions need not be permitted by the guise of freedom of expression. In Ethiopia,there are nations and nationalities with their own identities. If one person tries to say something like "This type of nation or nationality is non-existent '' or if the person speaks something similar to this that degrades the identity of a certain nation or nationality,etc,is this something that falls within the legitimate right to freedom of expression? The right to freedom of expression should never ever be a tool for the abuse of others' rights. If abused,the legitimate right starts to constitute a crime. Nowadays,there are many posts on social media that degrade a certain ethnic,religious or political ideology groups. Constructive analysis and criticism is an encouragable culture but blatant insult is not. What do you think about this issue?</span></div>
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<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-26486156651698069002012-03-06T15:47:00.000+03:002017-10-20T17:44:36.062+03:00My view about what free and balanced press media means.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Free media is a forum where people can express their opinions unabridged and whereby the journalist is only a professional mediator to give them the forum the people need. Balanced media is the media which is unbiased;which exercises independent investigative journalism;which is always trying to collect information and present it from diverse sources and perspectives.<br />
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In my opinion,I still stick to the idea that a journalist must necessarily present ideas in a balanced way. Otherwise, we are gonna hear watch and read only one side of the coin. For example almost all the so-called free media in Ethiopia are obsessed with contents that are anti-government( opposition). But need they be so? Concerning whether a journalist doesn't need the forum for himself/herself,he/she can actually use the forum but only in unbiased way.Otherwise,if they present their mere opinions as facts,they have a great potential of misleading people in the wrong way.Thus,if a journalist wants to use the media as any person, he/she needs to separate opinions from facts; substantiate or support facts or statements with the necessary evidence and make the forum open for further comment by others.<br />
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In light of this,<span class="messageBody" data-ft="{"type":3}">"How free and balanced are the so-called FREE PRESS in Ethiopia?"</span><br />
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<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-89170447982701934862010-12-16T00:09:00.000+03:002017-10-20T17:37:39.863+03:00The constitutional basis of delegated legislation in Ethiopia<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Article 77(13) of the Ethiopian Federal constitution provides as the power and function of the Council of Minsters "It shall enact regulations pursuant to powers vested in it by the House of People's Representatives."This provision is the constitutional basis for delegated legislation in Ethiopia.It has legalized delegated legislation on the condition of a case by case delegation is expressly given by the House.The House enables the delegation by specifically mentioning in a part of the proclamations it makes that the Council of Ministers shall make regulations.Thus,the purpose of the delegation is to enable the House to make the skeleton and the Council of Ministers fills it with the flesh.</div>
<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3011734520267596068.post-23250907828510610912010-12-11T01:45:00.000+03:002017-10-20T17:36:52.065+03:00Uniformity of criminal penalities in Ethiopia<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
In Ethiopia,there is poor uniformity and predictability of criminal penalties.One of the causes for this problem is the fact that the criminal code gives the judges a wide discretion in determining the criminal penalty or imprisonment. Due to this two persons may receive different sentences for the materially the same criminal act. In order to mitigate this problem,the Federal Supreme Court has made Sentencing Guidelines. I think these guidelines has improved and also will improve the uniformity of criminal penalties in Ethiopia.</div>
<div class="blogger-post-footer">Thank you for reading ETHIOLAWINFO - Your #1 Choice for Reliable Information and discussion on Ethiopian Law and Justice System. Please give your comments or reactions freely. We have to make a contribution for the improvement of the Rule of law,supremacy of the Constitution,democracy,the equality of human beings,respect for human rights and dignity and the predictability and public trust of the Ethiopian Justice System by working together.</div>Eyassu Abebayehuhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00693967433749661997noreply@blogger.com0