Ethno-Medicine

Building Blocks of Chemistry part 1

2013-10-04T00:30:00.001-07:00

Hi Readers,

My name is Franz Devantier, creator of this blog. I am an Herbalist, who uses local and indigenous herbs when available, in preference to imported herbs. Because Herbalists deal with living human beings, it is important to have an understanding of Anatomy and Physiology, as well as many other related subjects.

Building Blocks of Chemistry part 1

Matter:

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. To keep things simple we can consider mass and weight to be the same. The mass of an object is equivalent to the amount of matter in the object, which is a constant definition. The weight of an object varies with the attraction of gravity, which is different at sea-level, to the weight inside an aeroplane flying at high altitude, although the mass has remained constant.

State of Matter:

Matter exists in solid, liquid and gaseous states. In the human body the teeth and bones are solids, and have a definite shape and volume which is maintained. Blood plasma is a liquid, which maintains a constant volume, but no definite shape, it takes on the shape of the inside of the blood vessels. The air that we breathe into our lungs is a gas, and has no definite shape, nor constant volume. So matter exists in all its states inside the human body.

Energy:

Energy has no mass, and does not take up space. Energy can be measured by the effects that it has on matter. You can define energy as the capacity to do work, or to move matter. The greater the amount of energy available the more work it can do. A powerful motorcar can travel a lot faster than a less powerful motorcar, because of the relative amounts of energy involved. If a cricket player batsman hits a six, he has used a lot more energy, than if he were to just block the ball with his bat. Of course the relationship of mass and energy does get a bit more interesting.

E=MC2, where E = energy, m=mass, and C = the speed of light.

Mass and energy can be considered to be two names or measurement units for the same underlying conserved physical quantity. Kinetic or radiant energy can be converted to other kinds of particles which have rest energy or rest mass. During the transformation process from mass to energy and the other way around, neither the total mass, or the total energy changes, since they are both connected to each other by a constant.

However for our purposes, we are going to consider the mass and energy as two distinct processes within the human body, because we are not dealing with any part of the body approaching the speed of light, or the effects on the human body inside the centre of a nuclear explosion. We will be considering the release of chemical energy that is stored in chemical bonds, inside the body.

Kinetic and Potential Energy:

Basically energy exists in two forms, or defined states. For example if you drop a stone that you are carrying, and it starts falling towards the ground towards your foot, that is energy in motion or Kinetic energy. As this stone hits your foot, the kinetic energy is converted into pain. The stone is now lying still, so there is no more kinetic energy in the stone.

Potential energy on the other hand is stored or inactive energy that has the potential to do work, but is not currently doing any work. The battery in your cell phone when it is switched off, represents Potential energy. As soon as you switch the cell phone on, the potential energy is released, and becomes Kinetic energy, as it starts to operate your cell-phone.

Energy is more the domain of physics, than any medically related topic, but since matter and energy are so closely related, and we are dealing with matter, we need to deal with energy as well, even if we just scratch the surface. Matter is the building block of all the substances in the in the Human Body, and energy is the mover of those substances. Living organisms that are composed of matter, need energy in order to live, grow and function. Living organisms release and use energy, and this is part of what makes up the miracle of life, or that special something that makes an organism alive or dead. So we should go just a little deeper into the different forms of energy that are present in the Human Body.

Forms of Energy:

The Human Body uses several forms of energy.

Chemical Energy is energy that is stored in the bonds of chemical substances. When the chemical bonds are broken, potential energy is released and becomes available for use in the form of Kinetic energy. Some of the food you eat would be converted directly into the energy that you use for body movements. Mainly though food fuels can’t be directly used to energize body movements. Some of the energy in the food that we eat is captured in the bonds of a chemical “Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)”. When the energy is needed then the chemical bonds of ATP are broken and the stored energy is released for use in the cells of the body. ATP is the most basic form of chemical energy in the body, and it is used to run all the functional processes in the body.

Electrical Energy is to do with the movement of charged particles. We know electrical energy best, from the use of electricity in the home. Electric lights, the geyser, kettle etc, all work on electrical energy; which consists of electrons flowing along the wiring in the household appliances.

In your body electrical currents are generated as charged particles (ions) move across the membranes of your cells. The nervous system uses electrical currents called nerve impulses, to transmit messages from one part of the body to another part of the body. For example electrical impulses moving across the heart, are what causes the heart to contract and pump blood. So it becomes easier to understand why a strong electrical shock to the body can easily upset the delicate electrical balance in the body, and even result in death.

Mechanical Energy is the energy that physically moves matter or objects. For example walking down the street, is made possible with mechanical energy. Your muscles move your bones in a complex way, and the result is that you are able to move from one place to another.

Radiant Energy, also known as Electromagnetic energy, is energy that travels in waves. These waves, have different wavelengths, and the whole range of energy in this form is known as the “electromagnetic spectrum”. The electromagnetic spectrum includes visible light, infrared waves, radio waves, ultraviolet rays, and X rays. When light strikes the retinas of our eyes, it is really electromagnetic waves in the visible light spectrum or range, that is striking the retinas of our eyes. After the light has struck, a whole chain of events or reactions result that will eventually result in us being able to see the object that the light came from. Ultimately vision is formed in a part of the brain, it is not a direct sense like the sense of touch for example. Ultraviolet waves cause sunburn, but they also stimulate our body to make vitamin D. So sunlight needs to be received in very carefully measured doses, if you have a suntan, you have had an overdose of sunlight. X rays are not part of the body’s function. X rays have shown some importance in the study of human anatomy, and medical diagnosis, although they are unhealthy for the body.

Energy can mainly easily be converted from one form to another form. Chemical energy in the form of petrol or gasoline is converted into mechanical engine, which propels your car forward. Energy conversions are always inefficient. Some of the original energy is always lost to the environment as heat energy, during the energy conversion. Note that energy cannot be lost or destroyed, but can be converted to other forms, that you may not be able to utilize. Think of this energy conversion, Electrical energy is converted into light energy in a light bulb. However the light bulb will lose a lot of energy in the form of heat energy, the light bulb may be hot enough to burn yourself on. In the body the same principles apply. The various energy conversions in the body all liberate heat. This heat makes us warm blooded animals, and is one of the reasons why human beings have a relatively high body temperature. The high body temperature has an important influence on the functioning of our bodies. The higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy, the faster the body’s chemical reactions occur. In fact there is in reality a very narrow band of temperature in which the body can function. If the body gets too hot, then the proteins begin to denature or deform, and the body can no longer function properly on a chemical level, which can lead to death. If the body gets too cold then it moves out of its optimum zone of operation, and can also eventually lead to death. When the body gets too cold to function properly, this is often referred to as Hypothermia, and leads to death if left untreated, or the temperature of the body gets too low. The body has a complex mechanism which regulates the temperature of itself.

You can say that the chemical makeup of our bodies was created or designed to function within a very specific temperature band; or that we evolved from groups of chemicals and building blocks, that function optimally in a very specific temperature band. Which one is it?

Franz Devantier,

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

2013-09-27T00:30:00.000-07:00

Hi Readers,

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

The Abdominopelvic cavity is a large cavity. It extends from below the diaphragm, right down to the cavity that is formed by the Pelvis. There are many organs contained in this cavity, so it becomes useful to divide this body cavity into smaller regions or areas to make it easier to study. There are two main methods of dividing the Abdominopelvic region, and both of them focus on the belly button or the umbilical region as an anchoring point. The first method divides it into nine abdominopelvic regions, and the second method divides it into quadrants.

Nine Abdominopelvic regions:

Imagine this, you draw two horizontal lines across the region, one a little above the Umbilical region and one a bit below it. Draw these two imaginary lines in such a way that the abdominopelvic region is more or less divided into three equal sized areas with the belly button right in the middle. So you can imagine those three areas from where the diaphragm starts, which is more or less located where the heart is, and down to the bottom of the pelvis. Move these imaginary lines around, until you have the naval more or less in the middle of three equally sized areas.

Now we are going to draw two imaginary vertical lines one on each side of the naval which should divide the region into more or less three equal sizes. What you now have is something that looks like the grid lines of a game of tic-tac-toe, drawn over the abdominopelvic cavity. This divides it into nine regions. The central region is the Umbilical region. Make sure that you have the Umbilical in the middle of the central square. Now let’s describe these nine regions, using the Umbilical region as an anchor point for determining the other eight regions. I am just going to describe the organs that are superior to the surface or the first organs that you will see once you look into these areas. Organs like the kidneys and the spleen which are deeper to the surface I will leave out for now.

Umbilical Region

This is the centremost region which surrounds the Umbilicus or Navel. In this region we have the small intestine and of course the navel.

Epigastric Region

This is the square that is located directly above or superior to the umbilical region.

Epi = upon or above

Gastric = stomach

So the epigastric region is the region upon or above the stomach. In this region you will find the lower part of the stomach, in the middle of the region. At the bottom of the region, the transverse colon of the large intestine passes through. On the right top corner of the region is the liver, and at the top of the region is the diaphragm.

Hypogastric or Pubic region

Hypo = below

This region is located below or inferior to the Umbilical region. At the top of the region we find part of the small intestine. About in the middle of the Hypogastric region on the right had side we find the appendix. At the bottom of the region you will find the urinary bladder.

So now we have defined the row of block running from the top to the bottom of the abdominopelvic cavity. All we have to do now is define the three outer regions on the right hand side, and the three outer regions on the left hand side.

Right Iliac or Inguinal region

Located lateral or to the side of the Hypogastric region, on the right hand side of the body.

Iliac = superior or the upper part of the hip bone.

So obviously we will find the hip bone, specifically the Iliac region on the right hand side of this region. More to the upper left hand corner, but occupying a large portion of the region is the ascending colon of the large intesting. You will also find the Cecum here, and in the top left corner a small amount of the small intestine.

Left Iliac or Inguinal region

Located lateral or to the side of the Hypogastric region, on the left hand side of the body.

Iliac = superior or the upper part of the hip bone.

So we will find the Iliac region of the hipbone, on the left hand side of this region. More or less in the top middle of this region we find the descending colon of the large intestine, and below that the initial part of the sigmoid colon. In the top right hand corner you will find a small amount of the small intestine.

Right Lumbar region

This is the region that lies lateral to the umbilical region, on the right hand side of the body.

Lumbus = loin. In popular literature, loin cloths would probably be more descriptive of what they cover, if they were called Pubic cloths. On the right hand side of the region you will find the Ascending colon, and the rest is made up of the small intestine.

Left Lumbar region

This is the region that lies lateral to the umbilical region, on the left hand side of the body.

Lumbus = loin. On the left hand side of the region you will find the Descending colon, and the rest of the region is made up of the small intestine.

Right Hypochondriac region

This is the region that is lateral to the epigastric region on the right hand side.

Chondro = cartilage

To the top and above this region you will find a lot of cartilage associated with the rib structures. Mainly in this region you will find the liver, covered by the ribs, and part of the large intestine and small intestine.

Hypochondriacs are named after this region of the abdominopelvic region. If you think about it, in this region you have the liver, and on the left hand side the spline, parts of the large intestine pass through, as well as parts of the small intestine. The kidneys are close to this area, and also the lungs dip down into the top area of this region, sitting just above the diaphragm. You have the ribs and on the left hand side the stomach. So problems in the hypochondriac regions could point to many possible medical conditions. The left and right hypochondriac regions are very central, as is the epigastric region. In fact the perfect region for a Hypochondriac to indicate areas of discomfort in, so that is one way to potentially recognise them.

Left Hypochondriac region

This is the region that is lateral to the epigastric region on the left hand side.

Mainly in this region you will find the stomach, covered by the ribs in this region, and part of the large intestine and small intestine. Also deeper into the body you will find the spleen.

So that puts this large and complex cavity into perspective, and if you name one of the nine areas, you will immediately know exactly what part of the body you are dealing with, and what organs are associated with it etc. However in common practice we find that medical personnel tend to make use of a simpler scheme to describe the conditions of the abdominopelvic region, the abdominopelvic quadrants.

Abdominopelvic Quadrants:

In this scheme the abdominopelvic region is divided into an upper and lower half by a transverse or horizontal line passing through the naval. Another imaginary vertical line on the median sagittal plane passes through the naval or umbilicus at right angles to the first imaginary line. This line divides the body into a left side and a right side.

So the quadrants are named: Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ), Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ), Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ), and Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ). Notice how the naval or the umbilicus has been used to anchor the position of the quadrants. I am not naming all of the organs in these areas, but just the ones that are the most obvious and closer to the surface.

In the RUQ, we find the top half of the diaphragm, most of the liver, and the ribs covering the liver, part of the lower stomach, and part of the ascending colon, and the transverse colon, as well as some of the small intestines.

In the LUQ, we find most of the stomach, the left hand side of the diaphragm, the ribs, and part of the transverse colon, and the descending colon, as well as some of the small intestines. The spleen would be located deeper into the body in this quadrant.

In the RLQ, we find a large portion of the small intestine, the ascending colon, as well as the appendix, cecum, and half of the urinary bladder.

In the LLQ, we find a large portion of the small intestine, the descending colon, sigmoid colon, and half of the urinary bladder.

Franz Devantier.

Membranes in the Ventral Body Cavity

2013-09-20T00:30:00.000-07:00

Hi Readers,

Membranes in the Ventral Body Cavity

All the walls of the ventral body cavity and the organs it contains are covered by an extremely thin, double layered membrane. This membrane is generally called the “serous membrane”. The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is called the “parietal serosa”, the part of the membrane covering the organs is called the “visceral serosa”. Actually it is one membrane the “serous membrane”, that folds double on itself, and covers both the walls of the Ventral cavity “parietal serosa” and the organs of the ventral cavity the “visceral serosa”. Visceral comes from “Viscus”, which means an organ in a body cavity. Parietal comes from “parie”, which means wall, and always refers or pertains to the walls of the cavity. So the serous membrane is divided into the parietal serosa and the visceral serosa.

Think of the serous membrane like this. Imaging that the serous membrane was a balloon that was only half inflated. Now imaging that you can take you fist and push it right into the balloon. Imagine that the part touching your fist corresponds to the visceral serosa, and the outer part that is separated by air from your fist corresponds to the parietal serosa. However there are few differences, for example: the part of the balloon that represents the parietal serosa, and lines the walls of the cavity, is always fused to the cavity. The space between the parietal serosa and the visceral serosa is not filled with air as in the balloon, but with a thin lubricating fluid called; “Serous Fluid”. This fluid is secreted by both sides of the membrane. There is a space between these two membranes, but in reality they lie very close to each other.

The slippery serous fluid allows the organs to slide without friction against the cavity walls, and one another, as the organs carry out their routine activities. This serous fluid between the two sides of the serous membrane is very important for mobile organs like the heart and the churning stomach. Think about how painful it would be to breath if this serous fluid were not between the two parts of the serous membrane to allow the movement between the lungs and the wall of the chest.

Specific serous membranes are named after the cavity and organs for which they are associated. The parietal pericardium lines the pericardial cavity. The visceral pericardium covers the heart within that cavity. So instead of parietal serosa and visceral serosa, we have parietal pericardium and visceral pericardium. The pericardium is the cavity in which the heart is located.

Now let’s turn to the lungs. The parietal pleura lines the wall of the thoracic cavity, and the visceral pleura covers the lungs. Remember that both of these are part of the serous membrane, which is folded double, one part against the walls of the cavity, and the other part covering the organ in the cavity.

Now let’s turn to the abdominopelvic cavity. The parietal peritoneum lines the walls of the abdominopelvic cavity. The visceral peritoneum covers most of the organs within that cavity.

When the serous membrane becomes inflamed, also usually has a deficit of lubricating or serous fluid. This condition can lead to excruciating pain, as the organs stick together and drag across one another. For example pleurisy, which is inflammation of the pleurae, means the person will experience pain when breathing. Peritonitis, which is an inflammation of the peritonea; in other words the person will experience excruciating stomach pain.

Of course there are other body cavities as well, in addition to the large closed body cavities. There are also several smaller body cavities. These body cavities are mainly located in the head, and open to the body exterior.

Oral and digestive cavities:

Certainly the digestive cavity is like one long pipe that starts at the mouth, and ends at the anus, where it opens to the exterior again. The digestive cavity forms part of and is continuous with the digestive organs. The Oral cavity, called the mouth, contains the teeth and the tongue.

Nasal cavity:

The nasal cavity is located within and posterior (behind) to the nose. The nasal cavity forms part of the passages of the respiratory system.

Orbital cavities:

The orbital cavities or the orbits, house the eyes. The eyes are presented on the anterior position of the head.

Middle ear cavities:

The middle ear cavities are carved into the temporal bone of the skull, and lie medial to the the eardrums. These middle ear cavities contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the organ of hearing in the inner ears.

Synovial cavities:

These are joint cavities that are enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround the freely movable joints of the body, such as the elbow and knee joints. Similar to the serous membranes of the ventral body cavity, membranes lining the synovial cavities secrete a lubricating fluid that reduces friction as the bones in the joint move across each other. Try to imagine a synovial cavity like this: imagine a soccer ball that has been deflated and squashed flat. Now inside the ball we find the membranes lining the synovial cavity, and between the two surfaces or membranes we get the lubricating fluid. Actually it is one continuous membrane, not two membranes. Also a Synovial cavity is a lot smaller than a flattened soccer ball, and is not perfectly round. I think that I might need to draw pictures to make these things easier to assimilate.

Franz Devantier.

Medical Imaging: Illuminating the body part 2

2013-09-16T13:15:00.004-07:00

Hi,

Medical Imaging: Illuminating the body part 2

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

This is a technique with a very big appeal, mainly because it produces high-contrast images of our soft tissues. This is an area where X rays and CT scans are weak. As it was designed, MRI maps the hydrogen element in our body. Most of the Hydrogen is in water. The MRI technique subjects the body to magnetic fields that are up to 60,000 times stronger than that of the earth’s magnetic field. These huge magnetic fields are used to glean information from the body’s molecules.

The patient lies in a chamber that is formed within a gigantic magnet. Hydrogen molecules spin like tops in in this magnetic field, and their energy is enhanced by radio waves. At the point where the Radio Waves are turned off, the energy released is translated into a visual image.

MRI tends to distinguish body tissues from each other on the basis of the difference in water content. An MRI can therefor distinguish between the fatty white matter in the brain and the more watery grey matter of the brain. This technique can display the delicate nerve fibres in the spinal cord.

Dense structures don’t show up at all in MRI, therefore MRI can easily look inside the skull and vertebral column. MRI is also an excellent tool for detecting tumors and degenerative diseases of various kinds. For example Multiple Sclerosis Plaques do not show up well in CT scans, however they are clear and bright in MRI scans.

MRI can also be used to tune or focus on metabolic reactions, for example processes that generate energy-rich ATP molecules.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)

MRS is a newer variation of MRI. MRS can map the distribution of elements other than hydrogen. MRS can be used to reveal more detail on how disease changes the body chemistry.

Advances in computer technology are allowing MRI scans to be displayed in three dimensions. This technology is very useful when combined to guide laser surgery. In 1992 MRI technology took a leap forward with the development of:

Functional MRI:

Functional MRI allows the tracking of blood flow into the brain in real time. Up to the development of Functional MRI; matching thoughts, deeds, and disease to corresponding brain activity, could have only been achieved with PET technology. Functional MRI does not require injections of tracer elements, it provides a safer alternative to these kinds of studies.

Despite the many advantages of MRI, there are some problems as well. MRI can “suck” metal objects such as implanted pace-makers and loose tooth fillings, through and from the body. There is as yet no convincing evidence that such strong magnetic fields can be used without risks to the human body. Currently Medical science does consider MRI to be safe.

The images produced By MRI, and enhanced by computers are stunning and accurate. They are artificially enhanced and coloured to produce clarity. So the images are several steps removed from a direct visual image, they remain accurate and useful.

CT and PET scans account for about 25% of imaging. Ultrasonography, because of its safely and relative low cost, has become one of the most widespread techniques used. MRI scans also form a large percentage of the medical scan done. However the X rays remain the workhorse of diagnostic imaging techniques. X-Rays could still be about half of the medical scans done.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Medical Imaging: Illuminating the body

2013-06-29T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Medical Imaging: Illuminating the body

Before the 1950s, the X-Ray was the only way of extracting information about the internal state of the human body. Unfortunately the images were a bit murky, but fairly useful. For the rest of it, physicians had to examine the internal organs for evidence of disease by means of exploratory surgery. Exploratory surgery subjected the patients to all the pain, shock and trauma of major surgery, but potentially without the benefit of any improvement to their condition.

An X-ray image is obtained by directing, X-rays, which are waves of a very short electromagnetic wavelength at the body. The X-ray or radiograph is a shadowy negative of the internal structures of the body. The denser structures absorb more X-rays, and so appear as lighter areas in the radiograph. Hollow air containing structures and fat, absorb the X-rays to a lesser extent, and so appear as darker areas in the radiograph. X-ray images can be viewed on a fluorescent screen or fluoroscope as they are being generated.

X-rays are best at helping to visualize hard bony structures, and at locating abnormally dense structures, such as tumors and tuberculosis nodules in the lungs.

In the 1950s the use of nuclear medicine started. Nuclear medicine uses radioisotopes to scan the body. Also in this same period, we saw the advent of ultrasound techniques for scanning the human body.

In the 1970s CT, PET, and MRI scanning techniques were introduced. These new imaging techniques were able to reveal the structure of our insides. Also using these techniques it was possible for the first time to get information about how the molecules were working inside our organs.

The best known of these three new techniques is the Computed Tomography (CT), which was originally known as Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT). The CT is a refined version of the old X-ray equipment. The patient is slowly moved through the doughnut shaped CT machine, while its X-ray tubes rotate around the body, and send beams from all directions to a specific level of the patient’s body.

At any point in time, the an-shaped beam of the CT machine is confined to a slice of the human body, about as thick as a coin. In conventional X-rays, there can be confusion because of overlapping structures. In CT, the devices computer translates this information into a detailed cross sectional picture of each of the consecutive body regions scanned. In other words the result could look similar to thin slices cut through the body for examination.

The CT scan has eliminated the need for exploratory surgery to a very large degree. CT scans are the chosen method for evaluating most problems involving the brain. CT is also fairly useful in examining the abdomen and certain skeletal problems.

Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction (DSR), is a special high speed CT device. This technique provides three dimensional images of the body organs, from any angle. This technique also allows the movements and changes in the internal volumes of the organs to be scrutinized at normal body speed. You can also see the internal body movements in slow motion, or examine them at a specific point in time. DSR can be used to evaluate the lungs and other mobile organs. The greatest value of DSR has been to visualize the heart beating, and blood flowing through the blood vessels; which allows heart defects, constricted blood vessels, and the status of a coronary heart bypass graft to be evaluated.

There is another computer assisted X-ray technique that is called Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA). Angiography refers to vessel pictures. This technique will provide an unobstructed view of diseased blood vessels. The principle is straight forward: Conventional radiographs (X-rays) are taken before and after a contrast medium has been injected into an artery. The computer subtracts the before image from the after image, which eliminates all the body structures that obscure the vessel. The result is an unobstructed view of a diseased blood vessel. DSA is very useful in identifying blockages of the arteries that supply the heart wall and the brain.

So we can see that there have been a number very useful technologies based on X-rays. In the same way nuclear medicine gave rise to a technology called Positron Emission Tomography (PET).

PET is a nuclear medical imaging technique that produces a three-dimensional image or picture of functional processes in the body. The technology works by detecting pairs of gamma rays, that are emitted indirectly from a positron emitting radionuclide or tracer. This tracer is introduced into the body on a chosen biologically active molecule. Three dimensional images of the tracer concentration is created by computer programs. In some machines a CT scan is run at the same time from the same machine.

One biologically active molecule that is chosen is an analogue of glucose. The aim with this tracer is to indicate the tissue metabolic activity, based on the concentration of the regional glucose uptake. This technology can be used to detect cancer metastasis, which is when cancer starts spreading to other areas in the body. Besides glucose, there are other radiotracers that can be used to study many types of molecules and imaging of tissue concentrations.

The gamma ray is indicated by that funny looking “y” symbol. This technology can produce vivid coloured pictures of the brains chemical activities. PET has been very useful in studying brain activity in Alzheimer’s disease, and Epilepsy. Visualizations of which part of the brain is active during talking, listening, problem solving etc, and be created with PET. Before PET this would not have been possible.

My favourite imaging technology is Sonography or Ultrasound Imaging. Firstly Sonography equipment is inexpensive, when compared to the other technologies. Secondly it is much safer when compared to X-ray or nuclear technology. The high-frequency or ultrasound waves that are used, seem to be safer than the ionizing forms of radiation used in nuclear medicine, or the X-rays used in CT technology.

In Sonography, the body is probed with pulses of sound waves that are reflected and scattered by body tissues and result in echoes being formed. A computer analyses these body echoes and creates or constructs visual images of the outlines of body organs. Often a single hand held device can be used to emit the sounds and to pick up the echoes. This device can be moved around the body, allowing sections to be scanned from many different body planes.

Sonography is relatively safe, and because of this it is the technique that is chosen for obstetrics. It can be safely used to determine the fetal position and the age of the fetas, and other information about the fetas. It is also used to locate the placenta.

On the negative side, sound waves have a very low penetrating power, and rapidly dissipate in air. Because of this Sonography is of little use in studying the structures of the lungs, or those structures that are surrounded by bone, such as the brain and the spinal cord.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Body Cavities and Membranes

2013-06-22T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Body Cavities and Membranes

Within the axial portion of the body there are two large cavities. They are called the dorsal body cavity and the ventral body cavity. Both of these cavities are closed to the outside, and each of them contains internal organs.

Dorsal Body Cavity

The dorsal body cavity is sub-divided into two cavities. The cranial cavity, the skull encases the brain. The vertebral or spinal cavity, the bony vertebral column encases the delicate spinal cord. The spinal cord issues from, and is essentially a continuation of the brain. The cranial and spinal cavities are continuous with one another. This gives some meaning to the way some people are humorously described as; “sitting on their brain”, because if you are sitting half on your back, you are sitting on the continuation of your brain, your spinal cord.

The vital and very fragile nervous system organs are both housed by the dorsal body cavity. The dorsal body cavity is well protected by the skull, and the bony vertebral column. They are known as the dorsal body cavity, because the spinal cord is on the dorsal side of the body. The brain is located more to the dorsal side of the skull, then the ventral side, to make space for the structures of the face.

Ventral Body Cavity

The ventral body cavity is larger than the dorsal body cavity, and is located more anterior in the body. Consider that the ventral body cavity is located anterior to the dorsal body cavity. The ventral body cavity has two major sub-divisions; the thoracic cavity, and the abdominopelvic cavity. The ventral body cavity houses a group of internal organs that are collectively called the viscera, or visceral organs.

The superior sub-division is called the thoracic cavity. The thoracic cavity is surrounded by the ribs and the muscles of the chest. The thoracic cavity is further subdivided into two lateral pleural cavities. Each pleural cavity houses a lung. The medial mediastinum, which is located between the two pleural cavities houses the pericardial cavity. The pericardial cavity encloses the heart, and the remaining thoracic organs or viscera such as the esophagus and trachea.

The thoracic cavity is separated from the inferior abdominopelvic cavity by the diaphragm. The diaphragm is a dome shaped muscle that is important in breathing. The abdominopelvic cavity has two parts or regions, which are not separated by a muscular or membrane wall.

The superior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity is the abdominal cavity. The abdominal cavity contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, kidneys, pancreas and etc. The inferior part or region the pelvic cavity contains the bladder, some of the reproductive organs, and the rectum. The abdominal and pelvic cavities are not aligned with each other, because the bowl shaped pelvic region is tipped forward, away from the perpendicular.

In a physical trauma such as a motor car accident, the most venerable abdominopelvic organs are those in the abdominal cavity. This is because the organs in this region are only protected by the walls of the trunk muscles, and are not re-enforced by bone, as is the thoracic cavity. Also the pelvic organs have better protection because the bony pelvis provides a degree of protection.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Orientation and Directional Terms

2013-06-15T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Orientation and Directional Terms

Term	Definition	Example
Superior (Cranial)	Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or body; above.	The forehead is superior to the nose.
Inferior (Caudal)	Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below.	The navel is inferior to the breastbone.
Anterior (Ventral)	Toward or at the front of the body; in front of. (In humans anterior and Ventral are synonymous, in four legged animals and fish, Ventral refers to the belly of a vertebrate animal and is the Inferior surface. )	The breastbone is Anterior to the spine.
Posterior (dorsal)	Toward or at the back of the body; Behind. (Posterior and dorsal surfaces are the same in humans, the term ‘dorsal’ specifically refers to an animals back. The dorsal surface of a four legged animal or fish is their superior surface.)	The heart is posterior to the breastbone. The dorsal fin of a fish, is the fin on its back.
Medial	Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of.	The groin is medial to the thigh.
Lateral	Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of.	The eye is lateral to the bridge of the nose.
Intermediate	Between a more medial and a more lateral structure.	The collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and shoulder.
Proximal	Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.	The elbow is proximal to the wrist.
Distal	Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.	The knee is distal to the thigh.
Superficial	Toward or at the body surface.	The skin is superficial to the skeleton
Deep	Away from the body surface; more internal.	The pelvis is deep to the buttock muscles.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Body Planes and Sections

2013-06-08T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Body Planes and Sections

In the study of Anatomy, the body is often sectioned or cut along a flat surface called a plane. The most frequently used planes are sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes. A section bears the name of the plane along which it is cut. So a cut along a sagittal plane produces a sagittal section.

Sagittal plane:

The sagittal plane lies vertically and divides the body into the left hand part and the right hand part. The sagittal plane that is exactly in the middle of the body is called the midsagittal plane or the median plane. All the other sagittal planes that are offset from the center, either to the left or to the right are called parasaggital planes. Para means near, so parasagital means near to the midsagittal plane.

Frontal Plane:

Frontal planes are also vertical planes, however the frontal plane divides the body into the anterior part and the posterior part. The anterior is the front and the posterior is the back, so the frontal plane divides the body into the front and back parts. A frontal plane is also called a Coronal plane. There are many frontal planes, all just a little more posterior or anterior than the previous one.

Transverse or Horizontal plane:

A transverse plane is in the same plane as the floor that the subject is standing on. It divides the body into the superior and inferior parts. Superior means above, and inferior means below. There are many possible transverse planes all the way from the head and down to the feet. A transverse section can also be called a cross section.

Cuts made along any plane that lie diagonally between the horizontal and vertical are called oblique sections. Oblique sections can be confusing and difficult to interpret, and so they are not used much.

The ability to interpret sections through the body, especially transverse sections, are very important in the clinical sciences. Medical imaging devices produce sectional images, rather than three dimensional images. It can be difficult to decipher an object’s overall shape from sectioned material. A cross section of a banana for example, looks like a circle, and gives no indication of the whole bananas crescent shape. In the same way, sectioning the body or an organ along different planes, could result in very different views.

If you took a transverse section of the body trunk at the level of the kidneys, then you would see the kidney structure in the cross section very clearly. A frontal section of the body trunk would show a different view of the kidneys. A midsagittal section would miss the kidneys altogether. The art is in relating two dimensional cross sections to three dimensional shapes.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

The Language of Anatomy

2013-06-01T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

The Language of Anatomy

Most of us are curious about our bodies, we all have one, and we deserve to understand how it works. However when you hear Anatomical terminology, it discourages most of us from going any further. Actually the terminology is designed to simplify things. For example, if you are looking at a book, “above” will always mean in that area on top of the book. The Human Body has many protrusions, bends and unique shapes. If we were to say “above” while referring to the Human Body, then the question is, above what? Above the head, or above the shoulders, or above the legs, or above the knees.

Anatomists have a universally accepted terminology that allows body structures to be located and identified precisely, with a minimum of words. This makes a reference to the Human Body very precise and efficient. It is not part of our everyday language, and so we have to learn it.

Anatomical Positions and Directional Terms

To describe body parts and position accurately, we need to start off with a point of reference. From this point of reference we can then use directions etc.

The point of reference that I refer to here is the “Anatomical Position”. Before I can explain further it is very important that you understand the Anatomical position properly. In the anatomical position, the body is standing up straight. The feet are together. The arms are hanging down at the sides. The palms of the hands are facing forward, and the thumbs are pointing away from the body. The hands are the only part of the body that have been adjusted in the anatomical position. They have been turned so that the palms face roward.

The Anatomical position is therefore like: A person standing to attention with the palms of the hands facing forward, and the thumbs facing away from the body. Strictly speaking the person would also be standing with the weight on the balls of the feet, and heels of the feet lifted slightly.

This is our reference point, the anatomical position. Before you continue, stand up for a moment in the anatomical position, to make sure that you properly understand it.

Now all of the references to the body from an Anatomists perspective are described as if the body was in the Anatomical position. Regardless of the actual position that the person may be in.

Now another important point, when you are standing in front of a person or a cadaver, the person’s right side is on your left side and vice versa. When you speak of the left or right side of the body, it is always from the reference point of the subject you are looking at. So you will need to adjust this in your mind, depending on whether the subject is facing you, or facing away from you.

Directional terms used by Anatomists, describe a body structure in relation to another body structure. In normal language we could for example say. “The ears are located on each side of the head, to the right and left of the nose”. An Anatomist would only need to say, “The ears are lateral to the nose”. Although you may use some of the Anatomical terms in everyday conversation, when these terms are used in the context of anatomy, they take on a very precise meaning.

Regional Terms

The first fundamental division of the body is into the Axial and the Appendicular parts. The axial part is the core of the body and consists of the Head, Neck and Trunk. The Appendicular part consists of the appendages or limbs, which are attached to the body’s Axis.

The regional terms that are used, are universal names that point to very specific areas of the body. Most of these anatomical areas also have a common name, that refers to more or less the same area. So what- ever language you speak or learn, the Anatomical terms are going to remain the same. “Cervical” will mean the neck regardless of your specific language.

To start with the body has an Anterior side which is the front side of the body, and a Posterior side, which is the back of the body. If we are looking at the body from the Anterior side or the front then these are the basic structures that we will see, starting at the top and working down.

-> Frontal (known as the forehead in layman’s terms)

-> Orbital (eye)

-> Nasal (nose)

-> Buccal (cheek)

-> Oral (mouth)

-> Mental (chin)

-> Cervical (neck)

-> Acromial (point of the shoulder)

-> Sternal (breastbone)

-> Axillary (armpit)

-> Thoracic (chest)

-> Mammary (breast)

-> Brachial (arm or upper arm)

-> Antecubital (front of elbow)

-> Abdominal (abdomen)

-> Umbilical (navel)

-> Antebrachial (forearm)

-> Pelvic (pelvis)

-> Inguinal (groin)

-> Pubic (genital region)

-> Coxal (hip)

-> Carpal (wrist)

-> Palmar (palm)

-> Pollex (thumb)

-> Digital (fingers)

-> Femoral (thigh)

-> Patellar (anterior knee)

-> Crural (lower leg)

-> peroneal (outside part of lower leg)

-> Tarsal (ankle)

-> Digital (toes)

-> Hallux (Great toe)

-> Pedal (refers to the whole foot)

Now let’s imagine that the subject is standing with their back to us, or more correctly we are looking at them from the posterior side. The person is standing in the anatomical position. We would see from the top of the body and down towards the feet.

-> Otic (ear)

-> Occipital (back of head or base of skull)

-> Cephalic (Head)

-> Acromial (point of shoulder)

-> Vertebral (spinal column)

-> Scapular (shoulder blade)

-> Brachial (arm)

-> Olecranal (back of elbow)

-> Upper Extremity (arm)

-> Manus (hand)

-> Dorsum or Dorsal (back)

-> Lumbar (loin)

-> Sacral (piece of spine between the hips)

-> Gluteal (buttock)

-> Perineal (Area between the anus and the external genitalia)

-> Femoral (thigh)

-> Popliteal (back of the knee)

-> Sural (calf)

-> Calcaneal (heel)

-> Plantar (sole)

-> Lower extremity (leg)

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Homeostatic Imbalance

2013-05-25T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Homeostatic Imbalance

Homeostasis is such an important factor in the Human body, that most disease is regarded as a result of the disturbance of Homeostasis. The disturbance of homeostasis is considered as a Homeostatic Imbalance.

As we age, our body organ systems and control systems show signs of sear and become less efficient. As our internal organs and control systems become less efficient, our internal environment becomes less stable. As the Homeostatic Balance becomes less perfect we are at greater risk for disease, and the changes associated with ageing take place.

An important source of Homeostatic Imbalance occurs when during certain pathological conditions or situations, in which the usual negative feedback mechanism is compromised or overwhelmed. As a result a potentially destructive positive feedback mechanism takes over. In some instances of heart failure, this was the mechanism that caused the ultimate heart failure.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Positive Feedback Mechanisms

2013-05-18T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Positive Feedback Mechanisms

Positive feedback works a little bit differently. The result or response of the mechanism enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus, so that the activity or the output is accelerated. This type of feedback mechanism is called Positive Feedback. With positive feedback the change that occurs, continues to proceed in the same direction as the original disturbance, causing the variable to deviate further and further from its original value or set point. Negative feedback mechanisms keep physiological functions for example blood chemicals within narrow ranges. Positive feedback mechanisms control episodic or infrequent events that do not need to be continuously adjusted. Positive feedback mechanisms set off a series of events that may be self-perpetuating and quite explosive.

Positive feedback mechanisms can easily race out of control, they are rarely used to control the moment to moment well being of the body, or to maintain normal homeostasis. Positive Feedback mechanisms are also referred to as cascades, cascade in Italian means to fall.

There are only a few examples of Positive feedback mechanisms in the Human Body. Two examples are blood clotting, and the enhancement of labor contractions during birth.

Blood clotting is a normal response to laceration or damage to the lining of a blood vessel. This mechanism is an important mechanism in restoring Homeostasis, through the process of the positive feedback.

1.) Break or tear in blood vessel wall.

2.) Clotting occurs as platelets adhere to the site and release chemicals

3.) Released chemicals attract more platelets. (Positive feedback mechanism)

4.) Clotting proceeds until break is sealed by newly formed clot.

Finally once the clot is formed the positive feedback mechanism shots off, and the body is back to a state of Homeostasis.

The positive feedback mechanism that intensifies labor contractions during birth of the baby works like this:

As the baby moves down into the mothers birth canal, the increased pressure on the mothers cervix, which is the muscular outlet of the uterus; excites receptors that are located in the cervix. These receptors send rapid nerve impulses to the brain, the brain responds by triggering the release of the hormone oxytocin. Oxytocin is transported in the blood to the uterus where it stimulates the muscles in the uterine wall to contract even more vigorously. This forces the baby still further into the birth canal. This cyclic series of events continues, causing the uterine contractions to become more frequent and more powerful, until the baby is finally born. Once the baby is born the stimulus for oxytocin release ends. Remember the stimulus was the pressure of the baby pressing against the cervix. So when the baby is no longer pressing against the cervix, the positive feedback mechanism shuts off. The body moves back into a state of homeostasis.

Franz Devantier,

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

2013-05-11T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

Most Homeostatic control mechanisms are “Negative Feedback Mechanisms”. A good example of a mechanical negative feedback system is a Home Cooling system, which is connected to a temperature-sensing thermostat. The thermostat houses both the receptor and the control center in this example. If the thermostat is set to a comfortable temperature such as 22 degrees celcius, then the cooling effect or the Effector is triggered when the house temperature rises above 22 degrees. As the air conditioner comes back on line and the air is cooled, it drops to below 22 degrees again, and the air conditioner is switched off again. The result is that the temperature is maintained at fairly close to 22 degrees. The set point is 22 degrees, and so the state of Homeostasis is close to 22 degrees.

In the human body you have a similar temperature control mechanism or thermostat that is located in a part of your brain called the Hypothalamus, this is your body thermostat. This mechanism would operate in a similar way. Various responses such as sweating and constricting the blood vessels close to the skin will help to control the body temperature at the ideal temperature.

There are other types of neural control mechanisms. For example the “withdrawal reflex”, in which the hand is withdrawn quickly from a painful stimuli. In the withdrawal reflex, the control center is not the brain, but the nerves structures that are present, long before the stimuli would have reached the central nervous system. The endocrine system also has very important mechanisms that it maintains, in order to maintain Homeostasis.

A good example of an endocrine or hormonal control mechanism is the negative feedback system that is in place to control the blood glucose levels, by means of the pancreatic hormones.

In order for normal body metabolism to take place, normal body cells must have access to plenty of glucose. This is the major fuel for cells to produce energy, or ATP. Blood sugar levels are normally maintained at around 90 milligrams of glucose per 100 millilitres of blood. Let’s assume that you have lost your willpower, and have eaten an entire slab of sugar packed chocolate. The chocolate is quickly broken down to sugars, by your digestive system, and the surplus sugars, flood the blood stream. As a result your blood sugar levels have spiked upwards, and that delicately balanced balance of the blood sugar level has been disrupted. Homeostasis has been disrupted.

The rising glucose levels stimulate the insulin producing cells of the pancreas, which responds by secreting insulin directly into the blood. Insulin accelerates the uptake of glucose by most body cells, and encourages the storage of excess glucose as glycogen in the liver, as well as the muscles of the body. This results in a reserve of Glucose in the larder if you like. As a result of this process blood sugar levels ebb back towards the normal set point which is around 90 milligrams of glucose per 100 millilitres of blood. As this happens the stimulus for insulin release from the pancreas decreases. The above process ended with the Negative feedback mechanism, as the body eased back into Homeostasis.

Glucagon, is the other pancreatic hormone, and it has the opposite effect to Insulin. Suppose you have missed lunch, and your blood sugar levels drop to lower levels, the release of Glucagon is triggered in the pancreas. Glucagon is secreted directly into the blood stream. Glucagon target the liver, and stimulates the release of the Glucose or glycogen to be released as Glucose into the bloodstream. As a result the blood sugar levels start to increase, back towards their Homeostatic range, and the stimuli for glucagon release diminishes.

The body’s ability to regulate its internal environment is fundamental for survival, and all negative feedback mechanisms have the same goal. To prevent sudden severe changes within the body, and to maintain the body in a state of Homeostasis. There are hundreds of negative feedback mechanisms in the body, that helps to keep the body in a state of homeostasis. Mechanisms that regulate the heart rate or heart beat, blood pressure, the rate and depth of breathing, and the blood levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and minerals.

Lets step through this process again:

Stimulus: Rising blood glucose levels.

-> message goes to the pancrease which is the control center, and can determine the set point. Insulin is secreted into the blood stream.

-> Most body cells take up more glucose, and the liver stores the surplus glucose as glycogen.

-> Blood glucose levels declines to the set point, and the stimulus for insulin decreases or ceases. (Negative Feedback Mechanism)

Homeostasis has been re-established.

Stimulus: Declining blood glucose levels:

-> message goes to pancreas or the control center, and the pancreas causes glucagon to be released into the bloodstream.

-> Liver breaks down the Glycogen stores and release glucose into the bloodstream.

-> Blood glucose level rises to set point, and the stimulus for glucagon release diminishes. (Negative feedback Mechanism)

Homeostasis has been re-established.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

General Characteristics of Control Mechanisms

2013-05-04T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

General Characteristics of Control Mechanisms

Communication within the body, between the different organ systems, organs and ultimately the trillions of cells is essential for Homeostasis or a balance to exist. There are two main type of communication within the human body, nervous system and the endocrine system. The nervous system communicates by means of electrical impulses, which are delivered to the target areas. The endocrine system uses blood-borne hormones as an information carrier. These are two complex and great regulating or communicating systems in the human body.

The basic characteristics of the control systems that promote Homeostasis are like this:

Firstly we need to define a few terms, regardless of whether they are activated by the nervous system or the endocrine system.

-> Variable: The variable is the event being regulated.

-> Receptor: This is some type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes, by sending information to the Control Center. The change in the environment is called a Stimuli.

-> Control Center: The flow of information from the receptor, flows along the Afferent pathway to the control center. The control center determines the “Set Point”, which is the level or range of values, within which a variable should be maintained. The control center analyzes the reponse and then determines the appropriate response.

-> Effector: The Effector is the third component of the Receptor – Control center - effector

Mechanism. The effector carries out the control centers response or output to the stimulis. Information flows from the control center along the efferent pathway to the effector. Then there is another factor that comes into play, as soon as the effector has delivered its message. The state of the variable is monitored further by the Receptor, which then picks up the result of the action, and sends it back to the control center. This feedback will then influence the control center, which based on this feedback, but also on additional parameters, will start to shut the response down, which is negative feedback, or continue to enhance the response which is positive feedback.

So these are the basic factors of the control mechanism for Homeostasis in a nutshell. So now lets just run through a quick example, which could end in either negative feedback or positive feedback.

Lets say we are monitoring a certain condition in the body, and the receptor or sensor monitoring this factor takes note that it has increased beyond what it should be. The receptor that picked this up, sends the information along the afferent pathway to the control center. The control center determines that it has exceeded its set point and sends the reponse to reduce the parameter. The message travels from the control center through the efferent pathway to the effector. The effector delivers the message to the parameter that is being monitored. The result is that the factor will reduce slightly and so come close to being in a perfect state of balance or Homeostasis. At the same time there is feedback along the same channels to the control center so that the magnitude of the response can be adjusted.

Or you could put this process in another way:

1.) Stimulus produces a change in the variable.

2.) Change is detected by the receptor or sensor.

3.) Input information is sent along the afferent pathway to the control center.

4.) Output information is sent along the efferent pathway to activate.

5.) Response of Effector feeds back to influence magnitude of stimulis.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Homeostasis

2013-04-27T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Homeostasis

The Human Body contains trillions of cells, which are in nearly constant activity. With these astronomical numbers of cells, it is amazing that so little normally goes wrong with the body. Your body is really an amazing machine, a piece of engineering that is absolutely superb, and a real wonder of nature.

The America physiologist Walter Cannon coined the word Homeostasis, to describe what he called the wisdom of the body, or the body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions, despite the continuous change and unstable conditions outside of the body. The literal meaning of the word Homeostasis means unchanging, but the term really refers to a dynamic state of equilibrium or balance, in which conditions are constantly changing, but remaining within narrow band of variance or limits.

When the basic needs of the body are met, and the internal functions of the body are working properly; then the body is generally in a state of Homeostasis. Almost every organ system plays a role in maintaining a state of Homeostasis. For example there must be adequate supplies of vital nutrients in the blood supply. The body must monitor and adjust the heart activity and blood pressure, so that the blood supply can reach all the body tissues, without being so high, that it causes damage.

With Homeostasis waste materials must not be allowed to accumulate in the body, but must be excreted from the body in various ways. Body temperature must be precisely controlled, because if it gets too high or too low, the Human Body will die. There is a wide variety of chemical, thermal, and neural factors that work together and interact in complex ways in order to keep the body in balance. Sometimes the body functions are bolstered and sometimes the body functions are impeded, in order to maintain a precise and almost perfect balance, in order to maintain Homeostasis.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Survival Needs

2013-04-20T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Survival Needs

Ultimately the goal of all the body systems is to maintain life. On the other side, life is extraordinary fragile and requires several factors to survive. These factors or Survival needs, include nutrients or food, oxygen, water, and the narrow band of temperature that supports life, as well as the correct atmospheric pressure. Everything needs to be in place, in order for the Human Organism to survive.

Nutrients:

Nutrients are taking in via our diet, or the food that we eat. The nutrients contain the chemical substances used for building energy containing molecules (ATP), and for building cells. Most plant derived foods are rich in carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Most animal foods are rich in proteins and fats. Keep in mind that there are small amounts of in vegetables, and there are small amounts of minerals etc in animal derived foods, like for example vitamin B12.

Proteins and to a lesser extent fats are essential for building cell structures. Fats perform a very important function by cushioning body organs, and forming insulating layers, and providing a reserve of energy rich fuel.

Selected minerals and vitamins are required for the chemical reactions that go on in cells and for oxygen transport in the blood. The mineral calcium helps to make bones hard, and is required for blood clotting.

None of the chemical reactions that release energy from foods, will work without oxygen, because almost all the chemical reactions in the body are oxidative reactions, that require oxygen. In fact this is so important, that without oxygen, most cells can only survive for a few minutes. Approximately 20% of the air that we breath is oxygen, actually with the level of pollution these days that level is substantially lower, especially in Urban areas. The Oxygen in the air is made available to the blood and the body cells, by the cooperative efforts of the respiratory system and the cardiovascular system.

Water accounts for between 60% and 80% of the body weight. Water is the single most abundant chemical substance in the body. Water provides the wet environment necessary for chemical reactions, as well as the fluid base for secretions and excretions. Water is obtained chiefly from ingested foods or liquids, and is lost from the body again by evaporation from the lungs, from the skin, and from body excretions.

Chemical reactions need to proceed in the body at life-sustaining rates. In order for this to occur, body temperature must be maintained at around 37 degrees Celsius or 98 degrees Fahrenheit. As the body temperature drops below this optimal level, chemical or metabolic reactions become slower and slower, and as the temperature gets much lower they finally stop. When the body temperature gets higher, chemical reactions proceed so rapidly, that body proteins lose their characteristic shape(they become denatured), and they stop functioning. At either extreme, death occurs. Most of the body heat is generated by the activity of the skeletal muscles. So if you are feeling a little cold, a little bit of physical activity should warm you up. If you are feeling a bit over-heated, keeping still for a while, may help to cool down.

The force exerted on the surface of the human body by the weight of the air is referred to as Atmospheric Pressure. Breathing and exchanging oxygen and carbon-dioxide in the lungs depends on appropriate atmospheric pressure. When the Human Body is placed at high altitudes, where the atmospheric pressure is lower and the air is thin, gas exchange may be inadequate to support cellular metabolism. However if you were to survive for a length of time, then the bone marrow would compensate by forming more red blood cells.

However the presence of these compensating or survival factors is not sufficient to maintain life. They must be present in appropriate amounts as well. Excesses and deficits may be equally harmful. For example oxygen is essential for survival, but extremely high levels of oxygen are also toxic to body cells. In the same way the food that you ingest must be of a high quality and in proper amounts. If you take in too much food or too little food, then you will suffer from nutritional disease, which will manifest either as obesity, or as starvation. While the needs we have spoken about now are possibly the most crucial needs, they do not encompass all of the bodies needs. For example we can if we must live without gravity. However without gravity the quality of life suffers.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Maintaining Life - Part 2

2013-04-13T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Maintaining Life

Metabolism

Metabolism which means “a state of change”, is a term that refers to all the chemical reactions that occur within body cells. Metabolism includes breaking down complex substances into their simpler building blocks; synthesizing complex cellular structures from simple substances, and also using nutrients and oxygen to facilitate or cellular respiration, and in the process create ATP molecules. ATP are molecules that store energy to be released and power cellular activities.

Metabolism depends on the digestive and respiratory systems to make to make nutrients and oxygen available to the blood and the cardiovascular system. The cardiovascular system will distribute the nutrients and oxygen to every living cell in the body that needs it.

Metabolism is regulated to a large extent by the hormones secreted by the glands of the endocrine system. So quite an interdependence.

Excretion

Excretion is the process of removing excreta, which are waste products from the body. If the body is to continue to operate efficiently, it needs to get rid of non-useful substances that are produced during digestion and metabolism. There are several organ systems that participate in the process of excretion, or elimination of wastes.

The digestive system rids the body of indigestible food residues in the form of feces. The Urinary system rids the body of nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes, in the form of urea and uric acid, in the urine. The lungs get rid of carbon-dioxide which is a by-product of cellular respiration. The carbon-dioxide is carried in the blood stream to the lungs, where it leaves the body in exhaled air.

Reproduction

Reproduction can occur in two ways, firstly at the cellular level, and secondly at the organismal level. In cellular reproduction the original cell divides, producing two identical daughter cells. Daughter cells like these are used for body growth or repair. Reproducing the whole human organism is the task of the reproduction system.

Basically when a sperm unites with an egg, a fertilized egg forms. This fertilized egg eventually develops into a baby inside the mother’s body. The reproductive system is directly responsible for producing offspring. The function of the reproductive system is exquisitely regulated by the hormones of the endocrine system.

Because males produce sperm and females produce eggs or ova, there are different functions in the male and female bodies with regard to reproduction. The reproductive organs of the males and the females are quite different from each other. The females reproductive structures provide the site for fertilization of eggs by sperm. These same structures then protect and nurture the developing fetus, until birth takes place. After birth there are still additional structures in the female that come into play.

Growth

Growth either refers to the increase in size of a body part, or the increase in size of the entire organism. Usually growth is accomplished by increasing the number of cells. Individual cells also increase in size, while they are not dividing, so this cold also manifest as growth.

For true growth to occur, anabolic or constructive activities must occur at a faster rate than catabolic or destructive activities.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Maintaining Life - part 1

2013-04-06T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Maintaining Life

Maintenance of Boundaries

Every living organism maintains its boundaries, so that its internal environment or its inside’s, remain distinct from the outside environment. In a single-cell organism, the boundary is a limiting membrane that contains the contents of the cell, and admits needed substances, while restricting the entry of potentially damaging or unnecessary substances.

In a similar way all the cells of our body are surrounded by a selectively permeable membrane. In addition to this the body as a whole is enclosed and protected by the integumentary system or the skin. The integumentary system plays an important role in protecting our internal organs and preventing them from drying out. If our internal organs were to dry out the result would be fatal to us. The integumentary system also protects us from bacterial invasion, and keeps the bacteria on our skin under control, by the skin surface being a little bit more acidic, than the rest of our bodies. The skin also protects us from all manner of chemicals that get into our environment, as well as from harmful physical factors in the environment.

Movement

By movement we look firstly at all the activities that are promoted by the muscular system of our bodies. We are able to move ourselves from one location to another, by manipulating the external environment. This may take the form of swimming, walking or running. We can also manipulate our environment in a finer way with our fingers, like playing the piano, or writing, typing on a computer etc. The muscular system relies heavily on the skeletal system, which provides the body framework for the muscles to pull on, as they perform their work.

Movement also occurs as foodstuffs are propelled through the digestive system, also with muscles tissue in the linings of the intestines, mainly by the process of peristalsis. Urine moves through the Urinary system and is propelled to outside the body. Blood is pumped around the body in the cardiovascular system.

On a cellular level, the ability of the muscle to move by shortening is called “contractility”. The blood delivers oxygen and nutrients to the cells, which move into the cells, and carbon dioxide and other waste products move out of the cells, and back into the blood stream, with some ending up in the Lymph system.

Responsiveness

Responsiveness or more correctly irritability, is the ability to sense changes or stimuli in the environment, and then once sensed, the ability to react or respond to them.

If you were for example to cut your hand on a piece of broken glass, there would occur a withdrawal reflex. You would involuntarily pull your hand from the painful stimulus, in this case the broken glass. This would have happened without you thinking about it, it is something that would just happen.

In the same way if carbon Dioxide in your bloodstream were to rise to abnormally high levels, then chemical senses would respond by sending messages to the brain centers controlling respiration, and your breathing rate is accelerated, in an attempt to normalize the carbon dioxide levels in your bloodstream. This would have happened without you being aware of it, although you may notice that you seem to be breathing faster or heavier than before.

Nerve cells are highly irritable and communicate rapidly with each other by conducting electrical impulses. Because of this the nervous system takes on the biggest part of the responsibility for responsiveness. However all of your body cells exhibit irritability to some extent. Some of the responses to stimuli are on a chemical level and controlled by hormones operating within the endocrine system.

Digestion

In a nutshell, digestion is the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs into simple molecules, that can be absorbed into the bloodstream. The cardiovascular system then distributes the blood that is loaded with the molecules from the ingested foodstuffs, throughout the body.

In a single celled organism, such as the amoeba, the cell itself is the digestive factory. Foodstuffs are ingested by the cell, and broken down into useful and simple molecules, and the used and waste products are expelled from the cell again. In the human body with trillions of cells, the digestive system performs the function of digesting the food, and the cardiovascular system performs the function of transportation throughout the body.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Maintaining Life, Functional Characteristics

2013-03-30T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Maintaining Life

Functional Characteristics

Now we have spoken of some of the structural levels of the human body. Now the question starts to rise, as to what exactly does this highly organized, highly complex Human body do? Well basically, Human beings maintain their boundaries, that is to say the skin marks the outer boundary of the body, and everything under or within the skin is the Human Being. Strictly speaking there are energy fields that go beyond the skin, but for our purposes, the skin is the outer boundary. Human beings move, and respond to environmental changes. They take in and digest nutrients, carry out metabolic processes, and dispose of waste materials. Human beings grow, and reproduce themselves.

The multicellular state of the Human body, and the specialization of tissues into various vital organs, and organ systems, results in the interdependence of all the body cells. All of the organs and organ systems in the Human being work together for the well-being of the entire body. No organ systems work in isolation.

Integumentary System

The skin forms the external body covering; protects the deeper tissues from injury. The skin synthesizes vitamin D. Site of cutaneous receptors; pain, pressure etc. Also the site of sweat and oil glands. Consists of Skin, Hair, and Nails.

Skeletal System

Protects and supports body organs. Provides the framework that the muscles use to cause body movement, like walking. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones are a storehouse of essential minerals like Calcium. Consists of bones, joints, and cartilage.

Muscular System

Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion and facial expression. Muscles maintain posture, and produce heat. Consists of skeletal muscles, and flat muscles.

Nervous System

Fast-acting control system of the body. The nervous system responds to external and internal changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory receptors and nerves.

Endocrine System

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use or metabolism, by body cells. Important glands are the Pineal, Pituitary, Thyroid, Thymus, Adrenal, Pancrease, Ovary / testis.

Cardiovascular System

Blood vessels transport blood which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes etc. The heart pumps the blood. Consists of the heart and the blood vessels, arteries, veins, and capillaries.

Lymphatic System (Immunity)

Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to the blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells or Lymphocytes, which are involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body. Consists of Red bone marrow, Thymus, Lymphatic vessels, Thoracic duct, Spleen, and the Lymph nodes.

Respiratory System

Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen, and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs. Consists of, Nasal Cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchus, and the lungs.

Digestive System

Breaks down food into absorbable units, that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. Consists of Oral cavity, Esophagus, Stomach, Liver, Small intestine, Large Intestine, Rectum, and the Anus.

Urinary System

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid base balance of the blood. Consists of the Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, and the Urethra.

Male /Female Reproductive System

Overall function is the production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone. Ducts and glands aid in the delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Overies produce eggs and female sex hormones; The remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn. Consists of male: Prostate gland, Testes, scrotum, Penis, and the DUctus deferens. Female: Mannary glands in breasts, Ovary, Uterus, Vagina, Uterine tube.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

The Hierarchy of structural Organization

2013-03-23T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

The Hierarchy of structural Organization

Chemical Level: The human body exhibits many levels of structural complexity. The simplest level of structural hierarchy is the chemical level. At the chemical level atoms combine to form molecules. For example an oxygen atom O will combine with another oxygen atom to form an oxygen molecule O2. We are looking especially at molecules like water, sugar, and proteins. Proteins are quite complex molecules.

Cellular Level: Molecules combine in very specific ways to form organelles. An organelle is a basic component or building block of a microscopic cell. Cells form the smallest unit of living things. So the second level is the cellular level. Cells can vary quite substantially in their size and shape, because each cell has a specific function in the body. All cells use nutrients and maintain their boundaries by means of a cell wall. Some cells are muscle cells, and others secrete mucus, some cells will form the highly specialized function of forming parts of the eye. The simplest living creatures consist of one single cell, such as the amoeba. But in more complex organisms like human beings, the hierarchy is more complex.

Tissue Level: Tissues consist of groups of similar cells that have a common function. The four basic tissue types in the human body are:

· Epithelium

· Muscle

· Connective

· Nervous

Each tissue type performs a characteristic role in the human body. Epithelium covers the body surface and lines its cavities. Muscle tissue causes movement. Connective tissue supports the body and protects its organs. Nervous tissue provides a means of rapid internal communication by transmitting electrical impulses.

Organ Level: An organ is a structure that is made out of at least two tissue types, although four tissue types are more common. An organ performs a specific function for the body. At the organ level, extremely complex physiological (Functional) processes become possible. In the case of the stomach; the stomach lining is an epithelium tissue that produces digestive juices; The bulk of the stomach wall is composed of muscle that churns and mixes the stomach contents or food; The stomach’s connective tissue re-enforces the soft muscular walls; Its nerve fibres increase digestive activity by stimulating the muscles to contract more vigorously, and the glands to secrete more digestive juices. If you think of the kidneys, the liver, the brain, an eyeball; they are all very different to the stomach, but they are all organs as well. Each organ of the body is a specialized functional (Physiological) centre responsible for the required activity that no other organ in the body can perform.

Organ System Level: At the organ system level, organs cooperate and work closely with one another to accomplish a common purpose; this is an Organ System. A good example are the organs of the Cardio Vascular system. The heart and blood vessels, ensure that blood containing nutrients, oxygen, and other vital substances circulate continuously to all the body cells. Organs making up the digestive system; the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestine etc; break down digested food, so that the nutrients can be absorbed into the bloodstream. The digestive system also removes indigestible food residues from the body. Besides the Cardio Vascular and the Digestive system, the other organ systems of the body are the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, respiratory, lymphatic, urinary, and reproductive systems. Some modern sources consider the stem cell mechanism, as a separate organ system.

Organismal Level: The highest level of organization is the organism or the living human being. This level represents the sum total of all the structural levels working in unison to promote life.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Principal of complimentarity of structure and function

2013-03-17T01:00:00.000-07:00

Hi,

Principal of complimentarity of structure and function

Although you can study Anatomy and Physiology in isolation from each other, you really need to study them together, because they are truly two inseparable sciences. The function always reflects the structure. What a structure can do, depends on its specific properties, and the physiological processes associated with it. Bones provide support and protection to body organs(Function), because of the hard mineral deposits they contain (structure). The blood will only flow in one direction through the heart (function), because the heart has valves that prevent backflow (structure). The lungs provide a site for gaseous exchange (Function), because the walls of the lungs air-sacs are extremely thin (structure).

Anatomy (Structure), and Physiology (Function), are so closely related that we can’t separate the two disciplines; so they will always go together, structure and function, Anatomy and Physiology.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with Stem Cell Enhancers.

Income stabilizer (win-win opportunity)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice long-term residual income for yourself.

Overview of Anatomy & Physiology

2013-03-10T09:04:00.002-07:00

Hi,

Overview of Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology help us to understand the Human Body, and are complimentary sciences to each other. Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts, and their relationship to each other. Physiology is the study of the function of the different body parts, and how they work together to carry out their life-sustaining activities. Physiology is explainable in terms of the underlying Anatomy, so Anatomy and Physiology are two sciences that are married together, and studied together. The word Anatomy is derived from the Greek words, which mean “to cut apart”.

Anatomy

Gross or Macroscopic Anatomy is the study of large body structures that are visible to the naked eye, such as for example the Heart, lungs, and liver.

Regional Anatomy is where all the structures including the muscles, bone, blood vessels, nerves, skin etc, are studied in one particular region of the body; such as the abdomen or the leg.

Systemic Anatomy the gross anatomy of the body is studied system by system; for example you would study the Cardio Vascular system, as it occurs throughout the body.

Surface Anatomy is the study of internal body structures, as they relate to the overlying skin surface. For example when you are looking at the bulging muscles of a body builder, you are using gross surface anatomy. Nurses will use it to identify the blood vessels to draw blood from.

Microscopic Anatomy concerns all the structures that are too small to be seen without the aid of a microscope. For such studies, very thin slices of body tissues are stained and mounted on slides to be examined under the microscope.

Cellular Anatomy or cytology studies the body cells.

Histology is the microscopic study of tissues.

Developmental Anatomy traces structural changes in an individual from conception through old age.

Embryology concerns only the structural changes that occur before birth.

Pathological Anatomy, studies structural changes caused in the body by disease, and are studied on both Gross and Microscopic levels.

Radiographic Anatomy, is the study of internal structures as they are visualized by X-Ray images. Radiology is a valuable diagnostic technique for bone disorders, tumours, and other conditions that cause anatomical changes.

Molecular Biology, the structure of biological molecules or chemical substances are studied. Molecular Biology is another branch of Biology, but it forms part of the study of Anatomy on the sub-cellular level, where molecules provide the fundamental links between structure and function.

The most important tools for studying anatomy are:

· Observation

· Manipulation

· Mastery of Anatomical Terminology

For example, let’s say that you are in a clinical situation, and you are observing a joint.

Firstly you observe how it looks, and then you move (manipulate) the joint; through its range of motion, while still continuing to observe. Then you describe what you have learnt through observation and manipulation with the proper Anatomical Terminology.

Physiology

The most common sub-divisions of physiology consider the operation of specific organ systems.

Renal Physiology, concerns urine production and kidney function.

Neurophysiology, explains the working of the nervous system.

Cardiovascular Physiology, examines the function of the heart and blood vessels.

While Anatomy provides the static image , physiology reveals the dynamic nature of the workings of the living body. Physiology often focuses on the events at the cellular or molecular level, because the bodies abilities depend on its individual cells; the cells abilities depend on the chemical reactions that go on inside them.

An understanding of physiology also depends on the principles of physics, which can explain electrical currents, blood pressure, and the way that muscles uses bones to cause body movements. Body functions such as nervous system activity, muscle contraction, digestion, and etc, become easier to understand in the context of chemistry and physics. Basic chemical and physics principles are needed in order to understand Physiology properly.

Franz Devantier,

How to grow old gracefully with StemCell Enhancers.

Financial Independence, Income Enhancement (win-win alternative)

Join the carefully selected and tested cash-flow generating program below to potentially create a long-term residual or annuity type income for yourself.

Traffic Wave - Free Report: The report will give you all the information you need to start making a nice residual income for yourself.