exidetech

how to add sitemap to your blog

2012-11-21T22:02:00.001-08:00

Sitemap is a way to learn a search engines about pages scattered in your blog. A sitemap will list down all URLs in your blog and it will make it easy for search engines to find your pages. Else search engines need to come and crawl your pages to grasp updates on your pages. So you may have heard of the word "Sitemap" if you are using tools such as Google Webmaster Tools, Bing Webmaster Tools to notify about your blog updates to search engines. They will ask for sitemap address from you whenever you wanna submit URLs. Eventhough you have heard of it, you may have no idea how to obtain or generate sitemap address for your blog. Wanna find out your sitemap address?

Blogger maintain a unique address as blog's sitemap address. You don't need to generate a new address for it. All you just need to do is finding relevant sitemap address for your blog and provide it whenever you need to submit your sitemap. Generally, your sitemap includes recently updated posts only. So if you update an old post and submit default sitemap, your post update won't notify for search engines. So you may have to alter sitemap address to populate all of your blog page addresses. Let's discuss how to find default sitemap address and alter it to grab all of your post URLs. You might think this is a advanced scenario to find your sitemap. But its neither advanced nor hard to find.

Steps:

1. Type your blog URL in the address bar of your web browser.

2. At the end of your URL, append /robots.txt and hit Enter.

i.e: http://www.mayura4ever.com/robots.txt

3. It will open up a simple page with text. As you see at the end, you can find your default sitemap address for your blog.

Also you can make use of below:

[Your Blog URL]/atom.xml?redirect=false

Note: But this default sitemap address will submit or notify about your recent page URLs (approximately 25). If you need to include all your page URLs in the sitemap, you need to use below modified sitemap address,

[Your Blog URL]/feeds/posts/default?redirect=false&max-results=[Number of Posts]

or

[Your Blog URL]/atom.xml?redirect=false&start-index=1&max-results=[Number of Posts]

Color Indication Information

- Your Blog URL

Add your blog URL here with preceding http://

- Number of Page/Post URLs to Submit

Here this refers to maximum number of pages that will be submitted to the Sitemap. Mostly this could be equivalent to the number of posts on your blog. Use a number which exceeds the count of number of posts published on your blog.

i.e: If you have 21 posts published on your blog, use a number larger than 21. It may be 22, 30, 100, 500, 1000 or even 100000. It will include all available page URLs with your specified limit.

5. Now you can submit your sitemap to relevant services.

for ur blogger blog...................goto dashboard-setting-search preferences-costum robot.txt
click yes and paste ur sitemap

for website.......goto google webmaster.....optimisation...sitemaps.........addsitemaps and done!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

hide ip

2012-11-04T06:39:00.004-08:00

Surf Anonymously with Real Hide IP
Protect your identity and privacy while you surfing Internet with Real Hide IP, you can hide your real IP address, surf anonymously, send emails anonymously through any web based mail system, un-ban yourself from forums sites or blocked websites, It keeps your personal information safe from identity thieves and hackers .
Real Hide IP allows you to change fake IP addresses which can be from different countries such as United States, United Kingdom, France, etc. This utility works perfectly with Internet Firefox, Google Chrome, Explorer, Opera, Maxthon and its compatible with all types of home networks, firewalls, routers, wireless networks and any other kind of Internet.

How It Works?

Click "Start Hide" to hide your IP.
You can change location by clicking "Change location"

download-hide ip-full-version-free

Add Snow Falling Effect In Mouse Cursor for Blogg

2012-11-04T06:30:00.000-08:00

Hello friends!, here i am again with another great trick. Snow falling in mouse cursor. You can decorate with this script. You can Spice up your blog in Winter, Christmas , It'll bring more joy to your visitors. ok lets have the code

1.Copy the code below:

2.Page element --> Add a Gadget --> HTML/JavaScript --> Paste the code and Save

Enjoy it.......!

How to Increase uTorrent, BitTorrent Download Speed

2012-11-04T01:55:00.002-07:00

follow these steps before you know how to Increase torrent Download Speed.

1.Speed Up Internet with Open DNS [Win 7]

2.Speed Up Internet with Open DNS [Win XP]

Finally

Download Tcpip Patch and patch tcpip.sys to Increase Half open connections

after performing these information open utorrent

Click on "Option"

Go to "Preferences

Click on "Bandwidth

Click on "Advanced"

Look for "bt.connect_speed" Set it to "80"

Look for "net.max_halfopen" Set it to "100"

apply changes and enjoyyyyyyy!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

speed up your internet with open dns

2012-11-04T01:26:00.000-07:00

Open DNS serve 30 billion DNS requests to 20 million customers every day, with plenty of capacity to spare. You're probably using DNS service from your Internet Service Provider (ISP) today, but ISPs have notoriously unreliable and slow service. OpenDNS is the best DNS service available and its the best solution for slow internet Connections.
how to set open dns??????

first of all goto control panal and click on network and internet

then click on network and sharing

now change adapter setting

Then Right click on your current internet connection and choose “Properties”.

Select the “TCP/IPv4” service in the list, then click the “Properties” button.

In the DNS section fill with this numbers
Preferred DNS Server : 208.067.222.222
Alternate DNS Server : 208.067.220.220

thats all its done

how to speed up your cdma,3g,wireless internet

2012-11-04T00:56:00.002-07:00

first of all collect some straight wires and 2 way usb port as shown in figure.then rub one end of wire with the help of sandpaper.

then connect these straight wires with the port wires,which can be obtained by peelint plastic of port wire as shown in figure

now insert the 3g,cdma or other wireless modem into one end and connect it to computer from other end.

now enjoy superfast internet

next tip:
find out any circular metal piece or a metallic dinner plate. keep your modem perpendicular to the metal and enjoy speedupd internet......!!!!!

structure of kidney

2012-11-03T01:02:00.002-07:00

In humans, the excretory system consists

of a pair of kidneys, one pair of ureters, a

urinary bladder and a urethra . Kidneys are reddish brown, bean

shaped structures situated between the

levels of last thoracic and third lumbar

vertebra close to the dorsal inner wall of

the abdominal cavity. Each kidney of an

adult human measures 10-12 cm in

length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in

thickness with an average weight of 120-

170 g. Towards the centre of the inner

concave surface of the kidney is a notch

called hilum through which ureter, blood

vessels and nerves enter. Inner to the hilum

is a broad funnel shaped space called the

renal pelvis with projections called calyces.

The outer layer of kidney is a tough

capsule. Inside the kidney, there are two

zones, an outer cortex and an inner

medulla. The medulla is divided into a few

conical masses (medullary pyramids)

projecting into the calyces (sing.: calyx).

The cortex extends in between the

medullary pyramids as renal columns called

Columns of Bertini.

Each kidney has nearly one million

complex tubular structures called nephrons which are the functional units.

Each nephron has two parts – the

glomerulus and the renal tubule.

Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by

the afferent arteriole – a fine branch of renal

artery. Blood from the glomerulus is carried

away by an efferent arteriole.

The renal tubule begins with a double

walled cup-like structure called Bowman’s

capsule, which encloses the glomerulus.

Glomerulus alongwith Bowman’s capsule, is

called the malpighian body or renal

corpuscle . The tubule

continues further to form a highly coiled

network – proximal convoluted tubule

not to be republished. A hairpin shaped Henle’s loop is the

next part of the tubule which has a

descending and an ascending limb. The

ascending limb continues as another highly

coiled tubular region called distal

convoluted tubule (DCT). The DCTs of many

nephrons open into a straight tube called

collecting duct, many of which converge and

open into the renal pelvis through medullary

pyramids in the calyces.

The Malpighian corpuscle, PCT and DCT

of the nephron are situated in the cortical

region of the kidney whereas the loop of Henle

dips into the medulla. In majority of

nephrons, the loop of Henle is too short and

extends only very little into the medulla. Such

nephrons are called cortical nephrons. In

some of the nephrons, the loop of Henle is

very long and runs deep into the medulla.

These nephrons are called juxta medullary

nephrons.

The efferent arteriole emerging from the glomerulus forms a fine

capillary network around the renal tubule called the peritubular

capillaries. A minute vessel of this network runs parallel to the Henle’s

loop forming a ‘U’ shaped vasa recta. Vasa recta is absent or highly

reduced in cortical nephrons.

QUANTUM UNIVERSE The Revolution in 21st-Century Particle Physics

2012-07-05T05:49:00.002-07:00

QUANTUM UNIVERSE

The Revolution in 21st-Century Particle Physics

What is the nature of the universe and what is it made of?
What are matter, energy, space and time?
How did we get here and where are we going?
Throughout human history, scientific theories and experiments of increasing power and sophistication
have addressed these basic questions about the universe. The resulting knowledge has led to
revolutionary insights into the nature of the world around us.
In the last 30 years, physicists have achieved a profound understanding of the fundamental particles and
the physical laws that govern matter, energy, space and time. Researchers have subjected this “Standard
Model” to countless experimental tests; and, again and again, its predictions have held true. The series of
experimental and theoretical breakthroughs that combined to produce the Standard Model can truly be
celebrated as one of the great scientific triumphs of the 20th century.
Now, in a development that some have compared to Copernicus’s recognition that the earth is not the
center of the solar system, startling new data have revealed that only five percent of the universe is made
of normal, visible matter described by the Standard Model. Ninety-five percent of the universe consists
of dark matter and dark energy whose fundamental nature is a mystery. The Standard Model’s orderly
and elegant view of the universe must be incorporated into a deeper theory that can explain the new
phenomena. The result will be a revolution in particle physics as dramatic as any that have come before.
Questions for the Universe
A worldwide program of particle physics investigation is underway to explore the mysterious new
scientific landscape. Nine interrelated questions define the path ahead.
Einstein’s Dream of Unified Forces
1. Are there undiscovered principles of nature: new symmetries, new physical laws?
The quantum ideas that so successfully describe familiar matter fail when applied to cosmic
physics. Solving the problem requires the appearance of new forces and new particles signaling
the discovery of new symmetries—undiscovered principles of nature’s behavior.
2. How can we solve the mystery of dark energy?
The dark energy that permeates empty space and accelerates the expansion of the universe must
have a quantum explanation. Dark energy might be related to the Higgs field, a force that fills
space and gives particles mass.
3. Are there extra dimensions of space?
String theory predicts seven undiscovered dimensions of space that give rise to much of the
apparent complexity of particle physics. The discovery of extra dimensions would be an epochal

event in human history; it would change our understanding of the birth and evolution of the
universe. String theory could reshape our concept of gravity.
4. Do all the forces become one?
At the most fundamental level all forces and particles in the universe may be related, and all the
forces might be manifestations of a single grand unified force, realizing Einstein’s dream.
The Particle World
5. Why are there so many kinds of particles?
Why do three families of particles exist, and why do their masses differ so dramatically? Patterns
and variations in the families of elementary particles suggest undiscovered underlying principles
that tie together the quarks and leptons of the Standard Model.
6. What is dark matter? How can we make it in the laboratory?
Most of the matter in the universe is unknown dark matter, probably heavy particles produced in
the big bang. While most of these particles annihilated into pure energy, some remained. These
remaining particles should have a small enough mass to be produced and studied at accelerators.
7. What are neutrinos telling us?
Of all the known particles, neutrinos are the most mysterious. They played an essential role in the
evolution of the universe, and their tiny nonzero mass may signal new physics at very high
energies.
The Birth of the Universe
8. How did the universe come to be?
According to cosmic theory, the universe began with a singular explosion followed by a burst of
inflationary expansion. Following inflation, the universe cooled, passing through a series of
phase transitions and allowing the formation of stars, galaxies and life on earth. Understanding
inflation requires breakthroughs in quantum physics and quantum gravity.
9. What happened to the antimatter?
The big bang almost certainly produced equal amounts of matter and antimatter, yet the universe
seems to contain no antimatter. How did the asymmetry arise?
Opportunities for Discovery
We live in an age when the exploration of great questions is leading toward a revolutionary new
understanding of the universe.
“Opportunities have emerged for discovery about the fundamental nature of the universe that we never
expected,” Presidential Science Advisor John Marburger said recently. “Technology places these
discoveries within our reach, but we need to focus efforts across widely separated disciplines to realize
the new opportunities.”

This report is a response to that challenge. It serves as a guide to where the search for understanding has
taken us so far, and to where it is going. The chapters that follow articulate how existing and planned
particle physics experiments at accelerators and underground laboratories, together with space probes
and ground-based telescopes, bring within reach new opportunities for discovery about the fundamental
nature of the universe.

I. Introduction
What is the nature of the universe and what is it made of?
What are matter, energy, space and time?
How did we get here and where are we going?
The quest to answer the most basic questions about the universe has reached a singular moment. As the
21st century begins, physicists have developed a commanding knowledge of the particles and forces that
characterize the ordinary matter around us. At the same time, astrophysical and cosmological space
observations have revealed that this picture of the universe is incomplete—that 95 percent of the cosmos
is not made of ordinary matter, but of a mysterious something else: dark matter and dark energy. We
have learned that in fact we do not know what most of the universe is made of.
Understanding this unknown “new” universe requires the discovery of the particle physics that
determines its fundamental nature. Powerful tools exist to bring the physics within reach. With
astrophysical observations, we can explore the parameters of the universe; with accelerator experiments
we can search for their quantum explanation. Energies at particle accelerators now approach the
conditions in the first instants after the big bang, giving us the means to discover what dark matter and
dark energy are—and creating a revolution in our understanding of particle physics and the universe.
To answer the fundamental questions about the nature of the universe, astrophysical observations of the
relics of the big bang must agree with data from physics experiments recreating the particles and forces
of the early universe. The two ends of the exploration must meet. We will answer these challenging
questions by combining what we learn from the most powerful and insightful observations and
experiments in each of these approaches.
The following chapters take up in successively greater depth nine key questions that define the field.
Chapter II elucidates the meaning of the questions and their implications for 21st century particle
physics; Chapter III defines the scientific program to address and answer them. The tables in Chapter V
summarize the U.S. facilities whose primary physics programs respond most directly to the questions.

II: The Fundamental Nature of Matter and Energy, Space and Time
Current and future particle physics experiments around the world give us the capability to address a
well-defined set of questions about the basic physical laws that govern the universe. These questions, at
the same time eminently familiar and profoundly revolutionary, define the path for particle physics in the
21st century.
Einstein’s Dream of Unified Forces
Since Einstein, physicists have sought a unified theory to explain all the fundamental forces and particles
in the universe. The result is a stunningly successful theory that reduces the complexity of microscopic
physics to a set of concise laws. But these same quantum ideas fail when applied to cosmic physics.
Some fundamental piece is missing; gravity, dark matter and dark energy must have quantum
explanations. A new theoretical vision is required, one that embraces the Standard Model and general
relativity, while resolving the mystery of dark energy. Particle accelerators provide the means to reach a
unified theoretical perspective in experiments characterized by four well-defined intellectual thrusts.
1. Are there undiscovered principles of nature: new symmetries, new physical laws?
Our quest to discover the fundamental laws of nature has led to the revelation that the laws of physics,
and the particles they govern, exist because of underlying symmetries of nature, some of them lost since
the big bang. One such lost symmetry might be supersymmetry. Just as for every particle there exists an
antiparticle, supersymmetry predicts that for every known particle there also exists a superpartner
particle. Part of the strong theoretical appeal of supersymmetry, an essential part of string theory, is its
possible connection to dark energy and the fact that it provides a natural candidate for dark matter, the
neutralino.
The discovery of supersymmetry is an immediate experimental challenge of particle physics, followed by
the exploration of its structure and the properties of the superpartner particles. Particle accelerator
experiments will uncover the role of supersymmetry in a unified theory and reveal whether the
neutralino superpartner accounts for dark matter.
2. How can we solve the mystery of dark energy?
Recent measurements with telescopes and space probes have shown that a mysterious force—a dark
energy—fills the vacuum of empty space, accelerating the universe’s expansion. We don’t know what
dark energy is, or why it exists. On the other hand, particle theory tells us that, at the microscopic level,
even a perfect vacuum bubbles with quantum particles that are a natural source of dark energy. But a
naïve calculation of the dark energy generated from the vacuum yields a value 10120 times larger than the
amount we observe. Some unknown physical process is required to eliminate most, but not all, of the
vacuum energy, leaving enough left to drive the accelerating expansion of the universe. A new theory of
particle physics is required to explain this physical process.
Particle physics data point to another mysterious component of empty space, the Higgs field, that gives
particles the property of mass. Without the Higgs field, electrons would fly at the speed of light, and
atoms would instantly disintegrate. Are dark energy and the Higgs field related? The discovery of
supersymmetry would provide crucial evidence of a possible connection. Supersymmetry provides both
a natural context for the Higgs field and a possible explanation for the small but finite value of dark
energy.

3. Are there extra dimensions of space?
The revolutionary concept of string theory is a bold realization of Einstein's dream of an ultimate
explanation for everything from the tiniest quanta of particle physics to the cosmos itself. String theory
unifies physics by producing all known forces and particles as different vibrations of a single substance
called superstrings. String theory brings quantum consistency to physics with an elegant mathematical
construct that appears to be unique.
Do superstrings exist? The strings themselves are probably too tiny to observe directly, but string theory
makes a number of testable predictions. It implies supersymmetry and predicts seven undiscovered
dimensions of space, dimensions that would give rise to much of the mysterious complexity of particle
physics. Testing the validity of string theory requires searching for the extra dimensions and exploring
their properties. How many are there? What are their shapes and sizes? How and why are they hidden?
And what are the new particles associated with the extra dimensions?
4. Do all the forces become one?
At the most fundamental level, particles and forces may converge, either through hidden principles like
grand unification, or through radical physics like superstrings. We already know that remarkably similar
mathematical laws and principles describe all the known forces except gravity. Perhaps all forces are
different manifestations of a single grand unified force, a force that would relate quarks to leptons and
predict new ways of converting one kind of particle into another. Such a force might eventually make
protons decay, rendering ordinary matter unstable.
The Particle World
Physicists have identified 57 distinct species of elementary particles and have determined many of their
properties in exquisite detail. What are their roles? How will we know when we have found them all?
Perhaps these particles are just different notes on a single superstring. Perhaps they are related by grand
unification, or other hidden symmetries, in ways that we have yet to decipher. Unification may provide
the key, the simple principle that gives particles their complex identities.
5. Why are there so many kinds of particles?
We have discovered three families of quarks and leptons, families of fundamental particles that differ
only in their masses, which range from less than a millionth of the mass of an electron to the mass of an
atom of gold. Just as quantum mechanics led to an understanding of the organization of the periodic
table, we look to new theories to explain the patterns of elementary particles. Why do three families of
particles exist, and why do their masses differ so dramatically?
Current investigations focus on developing a detailed picture of the existing patterns in the particle
world. Remarkable progress has been made, especially in characterizing the quarks. But why are the
patterns for leptons and quarks completely different? Detailed studies of quarks and leptons at
accelerator experiments will provide the clearest insight into these issues.
6. What is dark matter? How can we make it in the laboratory?
Most of the matter in the universe is dark. Without dark matter, galaxies and stars would not have
formed and life would not exist. It holds the universe together. What is it?
Although the existence of dark matter was suggested in the 1930s, only in the last 10 to 15 years have
scientists made substantial progress in understanding its properties, mostly by establishing what it is not.

Recent observations of the effect of dark matter on the structure of the universe have shown that it is
unlike any form of matter that we have discovered or measured in the laboratory. At the same time, new
theories have emerged that may tell us what dark matter actually is. The theory of supersymmetry
predicts new families of particles interacting very weakly with ordinary matter. The lightest
supersymmetric particle could well be the elusive dark matter particle. We need to study dark matter
directly by detecting relic dark matter particles in an underground detector and by creating dark matter
particles at accelerators, where we can measure their properties and understand how they fit into the
cosmic picture.
7. What are neutrinos telling us?
Ubiquitous, elusive and full of surprises, neutrinos are the most mysterious of the known particles in the
universe. They interact so weakly with other particles that trillions of them pass through our bodies each
second without leaving a trace. The sun shines brightly in neutrinos, produced in the internal fusion
reactions that power the sun. These reactions produce neutrinos of only one kind, but they mysteriously
morph into two other kinds on their way to earth. Neutrinos have mass, but the heaviest neutrino is at
least a million times lighter than the lightest charged particle.
The existence of the neutrino’s tiny nonzero mass raises the possibility that neutrinos get their masses
from unknown physics, perhaps related to unification. Detailed studies of the properties of neutrinos—
their masses, how they change from one kind to another, and whether neutrinos are their own
antiparticles—will tell us whether neutrinos conform to the patterns of ordinary matter or whether they
are leading us toward the discovery of new phenomena.
The Birth of the Universe
What started the big bang? How did space, time, matter and energy take the forms that we see today?
Can we work backward to unravel the history of the universe?
After the big bang exploded with enormous energy, the universe began the cool-down that has lasted
until our own time. The resulting chain of events is a cosmic drama with many acts, dramatic transitions
and a host of actors appearing and disappearing along the way. The early scenes played out at
unimaginable temperatures and densities, the stage set by the fundamental properties of particle physics.
These processes had to be finely tuned to yield a universe capable of forming the galaxies, stars and
planets we observe today. Did some undiscovered fundamental laws determine the conditions that
allowed us to exist?
To reconstruct the cosmic story, telescopes and space probes detect the relics from the early universe,
and particle accelerators recreate and study the extreme physics that characterized the stages of
development and the transitions between them. As we begin to understand the cosmic past, we can look
to the future of the universe and predict its ultimate fate.
8. How did the universe come to be?
According to modern theories of cosmic evolution, the universe began with a singular explosion,
followed by a burst of inflationary expansion. To understand inflation requires breakthroughs in our
understanding of fundamental physics, of quantum gravity, and of the ultimate unified theory. Although
inflationary conditions are too high in energy to reproduce on earth, we can observe their signatures,
transmitted over the eons by their imprint on the relic matter we can still detect from that era.

Following inflation, the conditions of the early universe were still so extreme they could combine
elementary particles into new phases of matter. As the universe expanded and cooled, transitions took
place as matter changed from one phase to another, like steam condensing into water. Some of these
phase transitions may have been the most dramatic events in cosmic history, shaping the evolution of the
universe and leaving relics observable today. Cosmic phase transitions could be recreated in high-energy
accelerator experiments.
9. What happened to the antimatter?
Experiments teach us that for every fundamental particle there exists an antiparticle. The big bang and its
aftermath almost certainly produced particles and antiparticles in equal numbers. However, for as far out
in the universe as we can probe, our observations indicate that we live in a universe of matter, not
antimatter. What happened to the antimatter? A tiny imbalance between particles and antiparticles must
have developed early in the evolution of the universe, or it all would have annihilated, leaving only
photons and neutrinos. Subtle asymmetries between matter and antimatter, some of which we have
observed experimentally in the laboratory, must be responsible for this imbalance. But our current
knowledge of these asymmetries is incomplete, insufficient to account for the observed matter
domination.
There must be some other undiscovered phenomenon that makes matter and antimatter behave
differently. We may discover it in quarks—or in neutrinos. Its source may lie in the properties of the
Higgs boson, in supersymmetry or even in extra dimensions.
The Goal
The nine questions we have asked are the questions that define the science of particle physics today.
Answering these questions is the goal of the worldwide program of investigation, driving current and
future experiments and the planning for new scientific facilities. In the next section we describe the
experiments designed to answer these questions.

III: Tools for a Scientific Revolution
The particle physics community is embarked on an ambitious experimental program that takes the next
step toward a revolution in understanding the fundamental nature of matter and energy, space and time.
Insights from experiments at particle accelerators, from cosmological observations and from
underground experiments have focused the investigation. Further advances require a vigorous program
of exploration. Chapter III maps the experimental program onto the questions that define 21st-century
particle physics, articulating the strengths of the different approaches and the scientific goals they are
designed to achieve.
At the end of this report, we present two tables that list selected facilities of the U.S. program. The
primary physics goals of each of these facilities align most directly with the nine questions of this report.
In the text of Chapter III, we also discuss certain other facilities that have the potential to make major
contributions to the physics presented here.
Einstein’s Dream of Unified Forces
Superstrings and grand unification are currently the most promising ideas for fulfilling Einstein’s dream
of an ultimate theory. To understand string theory requires experimental tests of its predictions of
supersymmetric particles and extra dimensions of space. To understand unification requires experiments
sensitive to extremely rare particle decays. To confront the discrepancy between the theory of the large
and the theory of the small requires a better understanding of fundamental quantum physics.
1. Are there undiscovered principles of nature: new symmetries, new physical laws?
The laws of nature derive from the nature’s symmetries; searching for new particles and forces means
searching for new symmetries. One such symmetry might be supersymmetry, which predicts that for
every known particle there exists a superpartner particle of the same mass. Experiments have not yet
detected any of the superpartners; thus, if supersymmetry exists, it must be broken by unknown physics
that makes superpartner particles heavy. Superpartner masses may be related to the Higgs field;
supersymmetry provides a natural dark matter candidate, the neutralino. Experiments are searching for
supersymmetry now; directly at the Tevatron and indirectly at the B-factories Belle and BaBar.
The Tevatron may have enough energy to produce detectable signals of the lightest superpartners. The
LHC should have enough energy to produce all or most of the superpartner particles, either directly or
through the decays of other superpartners, to determine the pattern of superpartner masses and decays.
A Linear Collider would measure the properties of the superpartners very precisely, showing that they
are indeed the superpartners of known particles; it could study the properties of the lightest superpartner
(most likely the neutralino) with great precision. Do neutralinos behave like dark matter? Studies of the
neutralino at a Linear Collider, combined with precision measurements of other superpartners, would
produce a prediction for the cosmic relic density of neutralinos to determine whether the predictions are
consistent with the dark matter hypothesis.
Theoretical models for the physical mechanism that breaks supersymmetry are already constrained by
data from Belle and BaBar. Future precision studies at Belle and BaBar, as well as from the future
hadron B-factories BTeV and LHC-b will allow physicists to disentangle the flavor structure of
supersymmetry through subtle changes to decays of B mesons. The MECO experiment will provide

unprecedented sensitivity to the direct conversion of muons into electrons in nuclei; and some models of
supersymmetric grand unification predict rates for this process that MECO can observe.
2. How can we solve the mystery of dark energy?
The dramatic discovery of dark energy showed that empty space is filled with a mysterious energy that
increases as the universe expands. While Einstein initially proposed a cosmological constant that could
explain the dark energy, it is the amount of dark energy that is difficult to understand. The natural source
of such a dark energy field, quantum fluctuations of the vacuum, gives a density of dark energy 10120
times larger than observed levels.
A far-reaching program is in place to study the properties of dark energy. Measurements of the
amplitude and fluctuations of the cosmic microwave background from WMAP, combined with data
from worldwide astronomical facilities, especially supernova measurements, suggest that dark energy is
consistent with a cosmological constant. Future measurements of supernovae, gravitational lensing and
clusters of galaxies from a Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, LSST, and the Joint Dark Energy Mission,
JDEM, will reveal definitively whether dark energy behaves like Einstein’s cosmological constant or
like some new substance that changes with time as the universe evolves.
To determine what dark energy is and why it exists requires connecting the cosmic reality of dark energy
to a better fundamental understanding of microscopic quantum physics. At the microscopic scale,
physicists have long known that “empty” space is not empty; it is filled by a field that gives quarks and
leptons their mass. In the Standard Model, this field is called the Higgs; experiments at the LHC will
find the corresponding Higgs particle..
At present, we expect the Higgs to be accompanied by a whole new sector of fundamental physics. This
Higgs sector may involve many new particles and interactions. Initial Higgs discoveries will occur at the
LHC; a Linear Collider will be essential to explore the landscape of Higgs physics.
Dark energy may have relationships to both supersymmetry and the Higgs sector, implying a new
emphasis on the quantum consistency of Higgs physics, including Higgs self-interactions. Such
measurements will present additional challenges for the experimental program of the Linear Collider and
may provide a foundation to explore the origin of dark energy.
3. Are there extra dimensions of space?
The physical effects of extra dimensions depend on their sizes and shapes, and on what kinds of matter
or forces can penetrate them. The sizes of the extra dimensions are unknown, but they should be related
to fundamental energy scales of particle physics: the cosmological scale, the density of dark energy, the
TeV electroweak scale, or the scale of ultimate unification. It may be possible to infer extra dimensions
of macroscopic size from inconsistencies in cosmological observations, or from precision tests of shortrange
gravitational forces. More likely, the extra dimensions are microscopic, in which case high-energy
particle accelerators and cosmic ray experiments are the only ways to detect their physical effects.
The LHC and a Linear Collider will address many questions about extra dimensions: How many extra
dimensions are there? What are their shapes and sizes? How are they hidden? What are the new particles
associated with extra dimensions? Through the production of new particles that move in the extra space,
the LHC will have direct sensitivity to extra dimensions 10 billion times smaller than the size of an
atom. A Linear Collider would determine the number, size and shape of extra dimensions through their
small effects on particle masses and interactions. There is also a chance that, due to the existence of
extra dimensions, microscopic black holes may be detected at the LHC or in the highest energy cosmic
rays.

Ultimately particle physics seeks to know if dark energy, dark matter and cosmic inflation are affected
by the physics of extra dimensions. Collider data will provide insight into the exploration of these deep
connections.
4. Do all the forces become one?
High-energy particle physics experiments are exploring the unification of the weak and electromagnetic
forces. Does the unification continue? At the most fundamental level, particles and forces may be
related, either through hidden symmetries like grand unification, or through radical physics like
superstrings. Essential clues can come from laboratory observations of extremely rare particle decays
and other rare processes, as well as from precision measurements at the highest energies. Such breadth of
approach is necessary because we do not know where the clues will appear.
Models of grand unification predict that protons may eventually decay, rendering ordinary matter
unstable. The Super Kamiokande detector already has sensitivity to proton decay in the range
suggested by models of grand unification. The next generation of proton decay experiments will
require larger detectors in an underground laboratory.
Unification physics represents a natural mechanism to provide Majorana masses for neutrinos, in
which case neutrinos are their own antiparticles. This possibility could be verified by a positive
signal in the next generation of neutrinoless double beta decay experiments, for example EXO or
Majorana, at an underground laboratory.
The precision measurements of the force strengths at LEP and SLC provided circumstantial
evidence for grand unification. Similarly the precision measurement of (super)particle masses at
a Linear Collider will permit multiple quantitative tests of grand unification.
Ultimately, unification of all the fundamental forces requires an understanding of quantum gravity and
the associated exotic phenomena, such as black hole evaporation. Progress could come serendipitously
from a discovery of extra dimensions at the LHC, or of anomalous gravity wave sources with LIGO, or
of unexpected events in ultra-high-energy cosmic rays, including cosmic neutrinos.
The Particle World
Physics has revealed that the elementary particles play many roles. The quarks and leptons, the
fundamental bits of matter, bind into protons, neutrons and atoms and form the basis of life on earth. The
so-called gauge particles give rise to forces, including electricity, magnetism and gravity. Recent
discoveries indicate that still more elementary particles make up the dark matter that fills the universe.
In particle physics, elementary particles are the messengers of new phenomena, including new forces and
new forms of matter. Quantum mechanics dictates that even hidden dimensions show up as elementary
particles. By measuring their properties, physicists can infer the shapes and sizes of the hidden
dimensions.
5. Why are there so many kinds of particles?
Physicists have so far identified 57 species of elementary particles. In particular, the Standard Model
contains quarks and leptons, grouped into three families that differ only in their masses. Why the pattern
of particles is repeated three times with enormous variations in mass but with other properties seemingly
identical is an open question. Quantum physics has shown that three families are the minimum necessary
to accommodate CP violation in the Standard Model. Such CP violation is necessary for matter to
predominate over antimatter in the universe, but its effects observed so far are insufficient to explain this

predominance. The current program of experiments focuses on developing a detailed understanding of
the existing patterns and searching for signs that the patterns of the three families are not identical.
The CDF and D0 experiments at the Tevatron are measuring the properties of the top quark to see if its
enormous mass gives it a special role in the particle world. The BaBar and Belle experiments at SLAC
and KEK are using their data samples, containing millions of b and c quarks, as well as leptons, to
make precision measurements of the masses and decay modes of all of these objects, in order to look for
subtle deviations from the predicted patterns of their decays. The third-generation particles—top, bottom
and tau—offer the best hope for discovery, because their large masses allow them to couple most
effectively to undiscovered physics.
BaBar and Belle can study only two types of B mesons, bound states of the bottom quark with up or
down quarks. However, many theories suggest significant effects in the bound state with the strange
quark, Bs. Physicists are currently studying the properties of the Bs meson at the Tevatron. The future
hadron B-factories, BTeV and LHC-b, will explore the Bs meson with far greater precision.
Properties of individual quarks are experimentally difficult to study, because they are always bound to
other quarks. Lattice Computational Facilities offer great promise for the calculation of the effects of the
strong interactions. As an example, lattice calculations will provide sufficient precision to extract quark
parameters, such as those that describe flavor mixing, from the experimental data. Experimental studies
with CLEO-c will establish and validate the precision of the lattice calculations for use in heavy quark
systems.
Neutrinos have opened a surprising new window on the physics of lepton generations, since neutrino
masses are not necessary in the Standard Model. The presence of neutrino masses may be telling us
something about physics beyond the Standard Model. The decay properties of the light leptons, the
electron and the muon, may also hold surprises. The MECO experiment proposes to look for a
conversion of a muon to an electron and is sensitive to very-high-mass physics that might affect that
process.
6. What is dark matter? How can we make it in the laboratory?
Most of the matter in the universe is dark. Early evidence for dark matter came from the rotation curves
of galaxies, which showed that galaxies contain more mass than is contained in the stars. More recently,
direct evidence for dark matter has come from the discovery and characterization of gravitational lenses,
regions of space where mass bends light. These astronomical constraints do not directly distinguish
between nonbaryonic models for dark matter (WIMPs) and other possible ideas involving more massive
objects (MACHOs) such as Jupiter-sized planets and mini-black holes. However experiments in the
1990s established that MACHOs do not make an appreciable contribution to the dark matter content of
our galaxy.
The tightest constraints on the amount of dark matter in the universe come from cosmological
measurements. The frequency and amplitude dependence of the fluctuations in the cosmic microwave
background (CMB) measured by WMAP (and in the future by Planck) are sensitive to both the total
matter density and the baryon density. The baryon density is also constrained by the nucleosynthesis
models of the early universe. All of these methods suggest that normal baryonic matter can only account
for a small fraction, about five percent, of the total matter density.
Scientists are measuring the distribution of dark matter in the universe in a variety of ways: (a) by
studying the large-scale distribution of galaxies, as with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS); (b) by

constraining the dark matter mass power spectrum through weak lensing studies, as by a future Large
Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) and the Joint Dark Energy Mission (JDEM); and (c) by cataloguing
massive clusters of galaxies as a function of redshift, using the Sunyaev-Zeldovitch effect, by the South
Polar Telescope and the Atacama Cosmology Telescope.
What is dark matter? Particle physics models suggest that dark matter is either axions (hypothetical new
particles associated with QCD), or WIMPs (hypothetical new particles with weak interactions and TeVscale
masses, natural by-products of theories of supersymmetry or extra dimensions). If dark matter
particles are relics from the near-total annihilation in the early universe, simple dimensional analysis
suggests that the particles originate from physics at the TeV scale. The particle nature of dark matter can
be verified by finding the rare events they would produce in a sensitive underground dark matter detector
such as CDMS. Such experiments may see products of dark matter particles in our galaxy. Annihilation
of TeV-scale dark matter particles might be detected as line radiation in high-energy gamma ray
telescopes such as GLAST and VERITAS, or possibly in astrophysical neutrino detectors such as ICE
CUBE. Antiparticles produced in these annihilations might also be detectable by AMS. If dark matter
particles are much more massive, they might produce signals in the ultra-high-energy cosmic rays.
However, to understand the true nature of dark matter particles, particle physics experiments must
produce them at accelerators and study their quantum properties. Physicists need to discover how they fit
into a coherent picture of the universe. Suppose experimenters detect WIMPs streaming through an
underground detector. What are they? Are they the lightest supersymmetric particle? The lightest
particle moving in extra dimensions? Or are they something else?
Searches for candidate dark matter particles are underway at present-day colliders. If these particles
have masses at the TeV scale, they will surely be discovered at the LHC. However, verifying that these
new particles are indeed related to dark matter will require the Linear Collider to characterize their
properties. The Linear Collider can measure their mass, spin and parity with precision. These results will
permit calculation of the present-day cosmic abundance of dark matter and comparison to cosmological
observations. If the values agree, it will be a great triumph for both particle physics and cosmology and
will extend the understanding of the evolution of the universe back to 10-10 seconds after the big bang.
7. What are neutrinos telling us?
The discovery that neutrinos have mass opens a window on physics beyond the Standard Model. The
Standard Model cannot accommodate neutrino masses without the introduction of new particles, which
themselves raise new questions. In fact, the size of the neutrino masses is consistent with expectations
from unified theories that require the new particles for the unification itself.
The most pressing question about neutrinos involves how many different kinds there are. Results from
the LSND experiment suggest that there may be more than the canonical three families. If so, that would
require a major revision of current understanding. The Mini-BooNE experiment, now running at
Fermilab, will settle this issue by mid-2005.
Even if there are only three kinds of neutrinos, questions remain. What generates the neutrino masses
and what are their values? Are neutrinos their own antiparticles? How do different kinds of neutrinos
mix? Answering these questions requires precision measurements of the neutrino masses and mixings.
Physicists are now studying neutrino mixing at the SNO, KamLAND, K2K and SuperKamiokande
experiments. A big step will occur in 2005, when the NuMI/MINOS program at Fermilab begins to
probe nu-mu/nu-tau neutrino mixing in a controlled accelerator experiment. In 2006, the CERN-to-Gran
Sasso long-baseline neutrino program will begin. The neutrino beam at JPARC is being developed in

Japan. In the longer-term future, these experiments and their upgrades, possibly using an off-axis beam,
or dedicated reactor neutrino experiments may tell us if a measurement of CP violation in the neutrino
sector is feasible. Then researchers might use a neutrino superbeam or neutrino factory to search for it.
The detector in such an experiment could also search for proton decay, if located deep underground in a
facility such as a National Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory.
Accelerator and reactor oscillation experiments measure mass differences. The masses themselves must
be determined by different methods. Neutrinoless double beta decay experiments such as EXO and
Majorana can be used to measure the electron neutrino mass to ~0.01eV, if neutrinos are their own
antiparticles. The observation of neutrinoless double beta decay would have far-reaching consequences,
raising the possibility that the matter and antimatter could have transformed to each other in the early
universe.
The Birth of the Universe
The understanding of the history and future of the universe is deeply entwined with questions of the
fundamental nature of matter, energy, space and time. Today the strong connections between the largest
and smallest domains are clearly apparent.
8. How did the universe come to be?
According to current theories of cosmic evolution, the universe begins with an “initial singularity,” a
point where all known laws of physics break down. This singularity produced a delicately balanced
universe, like a pencil so precisely balanced on its point that it stays upright for 14 billion years. How did
the universe reach such a state? How did it get to be so old? Why has it not blasted even further apart,
or collapsed back on itself?
For the last two decades, the theory of cosmic inflation has offered a compelling explanation of the start
of the big bang. According to this theory, an early phase of accelerated expansion gave rise to the
balanced universe we see today. Cosmic inflation is the hand that balanced the pencil on its point. As a
by-product, it also produced the seeds that evolved into stars, galaxies, clusters of galaxies and other
structures in the universe.
Cosmic inflation presents challenges related to the fundamental questions in this report. One possibility
is that cosmic inflation originated with a form of dark energy, akin to the dark energy observed today. If
so, what kind of matter produced it? Does this form of matter play a role in unification? How does it
relate to extra dimensions? Even more radical is the possibility that space and time changed their nature
at the start of the big bang. Does string theory smooth the initial singularity? Which model did nature
really choose?
At present, measurements of fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background, especially from WMAP,
provide the best evidence in favor of inflation. Constraints on cosmic parameters, such as the curvature
of the universe, and the nature of the cosmic structure, are in broad agreement with the predictions of
inflationary theory. Eventually, measurements of the polarization of the CMB may permit the detection
of the signatures of gravitational waves produced during the epoch of inflation, which could provide
information about the nature of the scalar field that produced inflation.
After the big bang, the universe expanded and cooled to reach its present state. Along the way, the
universe passed through a series of phase transitions in which various particles froze out, as water turns
to ice as it cools. These phase transitions drove some of the most important epochs of cosmic history.

For example, a phase transition may be what drove cosmic inflation. Phase transitions might produce
“cosmic defects,” such as strings and texture and other exotic forms of matter, that could explain ultrahigh-
energy cosmic rays, dark matter and perhaps even dark energy.
The LHC will illuminate the electroweak phase transition, where most of the known particles acquired
their masses. Better understanding of this phase transition will allow scientists to push closer to the big
bang itself. Indeed, it is likely that the electroweak phase transition is the ultimate source of the matterantimatter
asymmetry we see in the universe today. Discoveries of new particles and new interactions
will illuminate this story and determine if it is correct. Moreover, the account of cosmic evolution must
incorporate any discoveries of new symmetries or new dimensions.
Currently, the most intensely studied cosmic phase transition is connected with quantum
chromodynamics (QCD), the theory of the nuclear force. During the QCD phase transition, the baryonic
matter in the present universe condensed from a plasma-like state of quarks and gluons. The Relativistic
Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) facility at BNL is currently creating collisions of heavy ions to study quarkgluon
plasma; the laboratory plans upgrades to enhance these studies. The Lattice Computational
Facilities will enable calculations furthering the understanding of the RHIC data and the conditions
during this epoch in the evolution of the early universe.
The synthesis of all the elements in the world involves nuclear reactions. Given the temperatures and
particle densities in stellar objects and in cataclysmic stellar explosions, these reactions often occur in
unstable nuclei. The Rare Isotope Accelerator, RIA, will provide the tool for the terrestrial study of the
nuclear reactions that drive these events will help us understand how and where in the universe nature
synthesizes the elements.
9. Where did the antimatter go?
A fundamental question in the evolution of the universe is What happened to the antimatter? Matter and
antimatter were almost certainly produced equally at the birth of the universe. However, as the soup of
the hot early universe cooled, equal amounts of matter and antimatter would have combined and
annihilated. Instead, an excess of matter has remained to form the galaxies and stars that constitute the
universe. To preferentially remove antimatter in the universe, CP symmetry must be violated, causing
antimatter to behave slightly differently from matter. Experimenters discovered CP violation in the
neutral K mesons in 1964, and in the B mesons in 2001.
The Standard Model can accommodate the phenomenology of CP violation in quarks, because there are
at least three generations of quarks; and because there is mixing between the quark flavors when they
interact via the weak interaction. The CP violation measured in the B mesons at BaBar and Belle, along
with a wealth of studies on quark flavor mixing over the past 20 years, are all consistent with this
phenomenology. However current knowledge of CP violation is incomplete and insufficient by many
orders of magnitude to account for the primordial matter-antimatter asymmetry of the universe. Present
and planned accelerator experiments are aimed at discovering other sources of CP violation that make
matter and antimatter behave differently. It may appear in quarks—or in neutrinos. Its source may lie in
the properties of the Higgs boson, in supersymmetry or even in extra dimensions.
CP violation in reactions that change the flavor of quarks is being measured with strange quarks (K
meson decays) and bottom quarks (B meson decays). Ongoing and planned experiments include K0PI0
at BNL (K decay); BaBar at SLAC, Belle at KEK (Bd decay), BTeV at Fermilab and LHC-b at CERN
(Bd and Bs decay). Pinning down precisely the role of CP violation in the quarks is a critical step in

solving the puzzle of the fate of primordial antimatter. Experiments have so far shown that, by itself, CP
violation in quarks from flavor mixing in the Standard Model is probably not the sole source of the
matter-antimatter asymmetry observed in the universe. Current and future B physics experiments will be
sensitive to sources of CP violation beyond the Standard Model.
The discovery that neutrinos have mass opens up the search for CP violation in lepton reactions.
Neutrino mass can, in principle, turn matter into antimatter and back, and can change the balance
between them. Experiments are required to discover the role of neutrinos in the antimatter question. The
MINOS experiment at Fermilab and reactor-based neutrino oscillation experiments will measure the
parameters of neutrino oscillation. If the oscillation parameters are favorable, a neutrino superbeam
facility with a large underground experiment will detect CP violation in neutrinos. Such a large detector,
if sufficiently far underground, for example at a potential Deep Underground Science and Engineering
Laboratory, could also serve as a next-generation proton-decay experiment.

IV: Conclusions
What is the nature of the universe and what is it made of? What are matter, energy, space and time?
How did we get here and where are we going?
Particle physics is in the midst of a great revolution. Modern data and ideas have challenged long-held
beliefs about matter, energy, space and time. Observations have confirmed that 95 percent of the
universe is made of dark energy and dark matter unlike any we have seen or touched in our most
advanced experiments. Theorists have found a way to reconcile gravity with quantum physics, but at the
price of postulating extra dimensions beyond the familiar four dimensions of space and time.
As the magnitude of the current revolution becomes apparent, the science of particle physics has a clear
path forward. The new data and ideas have not only challenged the old ways of thinking, they have also
pointed to the steps required to make progress. Many advances are within reach of our current program;
others are close at hand. We are extraordinarily fortunate to live in a time when the great questions are
yielding a whole new level of understanding. We should seize the moment and embrace the challenges.

cell phone hacking

2012-07-05T05:43:00.005-07:00

The recent allegations against British tabloid reporters accused of hacking into peoples' voicemail boxes to get a scoop on a story stunned the public.

But computer hackers have known about a surprisingly easy method to access voice mails for years. If fact, the illegal use of a perfectly legitimate business tool makes it possible for anybody to access someone else digital voicemails that are not password-protected.

One method is commonly called caller ID spoofing. It's nothing new, but the Internet has made it easy for even a technophobe to do it.

There are several companies on the Internet that offer services that essentially change your phone number into any number you want. We used one of these services to pretend that a cell phone was calling itself. If you call your cell phone's number, using your cell phone, it traditionally goes directly into the voice mail commands if its not password protected.

We used a desk phone on a traditional land line but used a caller ID spoofing service to cloak the desk phones true phone number. The number we gave the desk phone was a cell phone number. And when the desk phone called that cell phone, the cell phone thought it was calling itself and the call went directly into the voice mail commands.

Using these services, a person just needs a phone number to possibly access someone's voice mail illegally. Once in the voicemail command structure a hacker can do anything they want - listen to messages, delete messages or re-record an outgoing message.

Detecting the intrusion can be hard. The person on the other end can check their caller ID logs, but the log will only show they received a call from themselves.

Last year, Congress passed the Truth in Caller ID Act of 2010. It does not outlaw caller ID spoofing, but does make it illegal to use caller ID spoofing to "defraud or deceive." Each act is punishable by a fine up to $10,000 with a maximum total of $1 million.

The best way to prevent yourself from falling prey to a voice mail hacker is to put a password on your voicemail. The password you may have on your phone to unlock it and make calls is different than a voicemail password. The voicemail password is separate from your phone password.

And use a unique password because most default passwords that carriers set up with a new phone such as "0000" or "1234" are published on the Internet for anyone to find.

Download Facebook Photo Album at once

2012-07-05T05:33:00.001-07:00

Download Facebook Photo Album Easily in One click

We all use Facebook and we all share many things in Facebook. We update our status, upload videos and photos and share all these with friends. But have you ever tried to download those photos which you liked? Facebook had given the option to download the photo but not the photo album, if u stat downloading photos from Facebook then you have to open each photo and click the DOWNLOAD button and it’s really a time wastes and time-consuming work.

So what to do? How to Download all the photos or photo album at once? So today we are here with one online tool or web-based tool that will help you to download photos album from Facebook easily without opening any photo. This online tool or web-based tool is called Facebook2zip. It’s very easy to use it. You don’t even need high-speed internet connection to use this online tool. This Facebook2zip will download your as well as your friend’s photos album also and you even don’t need to get permission from friend. You can either download a single photo or a full album. But to use this service you need to login with your Facebook account and it will ask permission to access your profile like other apps on Facebook do. So there is nothing to worry ,just allow the access and enjoy the service.

To use this service go to Facebook2zip.com

online earning without website

2012-07-05T05:29:00.000-07:00

the best way to earn money online; get paid for watching advertisement

Are you tired of searching online job or tired of finding the way to make money online? Or had you been trapped by the fake online job or fake way of earning money online? Now you don’t need to worry about that all.

Do you really want to make money online? Here today I am going to share information which will help you to earn money online easily. After knowing the way of earning money, you will be shocked. You just need to click and watch the advertisements and get paid for that and to do so you just need to go to ptcnepal.com and register there. You won’t be charged for registering, it’s absolutely free and to now to the way of earning money there is that you just need to watch advertisements there and click the advertisements. Don’t worry It’s not fake. You will really be paid for watching advertisements and giving your valuable time and attention.

What is PTC?

PTC Nepal is an online business which draws online traffic from people aiming to earn money from their home or office. It plays the role of middle man between advertiser and consumer. The advertiser pays for displaying ads and the payments goes to viewer’s bank account. But in order to view any ads the visitor must be registered. Now don’t wait any more, go and register in ptcnepal.com and get paid for your time and attention.

So now it’s so simple to earn money online sitting at your home. You don’t need to run here and there. You just need to move your hands on your computer’s keyboard and open the website ptcnepal.com and use mouse to click and watch advertisements. Just click and watch the advertisements and get paid for your time and attention. Simply, the best way of earning.

To use this service go to ptcnepal.com
thankyou!!!!!!!

Backup your website for free

2012-07-05T05:25:00.001-07:00

Backup your website in One click for free

Are you a blogger or webmaster? If yes, than here is the most important thing for you; the free Backup service. The most painful thing for a blogger or webmaster is to lose their data and having no backup of their data. If your website got hacked or mistakenly you cleaned your website than you have only one option and that is to restore if from external backup otherwise your all labor will go in vain.

So what to do? Where to get the free backup service? So today am here with a free service that will backup your website in one click for free and its very easy to use it. The free backup service is provided by Snatchcode.

It is a very great website to back up your website for free in just a single click and its easy to use. Snatchcode not just only backup your website, it also monitors your website for changes in source code and alerts you about all that changes. It also scans your website for virus and other unwanted potentially unwanted malware and helps to keep your website safe. You can manage the way it backup your website. You can back up your website monthly or daily as per your wish. One of the great features of this website is UNDO. This service fix the broken codes immediately in single click and again make your website loads correctly without any mistake.

Visit http://snatchcode.com to use this service. And let us know your views about this tool.

Free and Best web Hosting Companies or websites

2012-07-05T05:16:00.002-07:00

Free and Best web Hosting Companies or websites

There are many companies or websites that provide free web hosting but all the free web hosting companies are not good and some of them are not even the well. Free and best web hosting companies or websites has always been the first choice for the newbie or for the learners before they invest their money in paid hosting plan. If you go to Google and search their for free and best web hosting companies or websites than you will get many results but it will not tell you which is the free and best web hosting companies or websites suitable for you. So how to know which is the free and best web hosting companies or websites ? where can we find such hosting companies or websites ?

So today i am here with a few but free and best web hosting companies or websites that will give you free hosting plan to host your website. They are good for the newbie or learners and also suitable for small websites. The list of such companies are given below with their features for free web hosting:

1.Awardspace.com

250 MB Disk Space
5 GB traffic
1 Domain Hosting
3 Sub domains
1 MYSQL (v.5) database
100% No ADS
PHP5 , Perl/CGI-BIN
FTP Access
1 Email, SMTP, WebMail, POP3
1 Email/Spam Filter

2. 50webs.com

500 MB Disk Space
5 GB Bandwidth
10 Domain Hosting
$0.00 Setup Fee
FTP Access
24/7 Customer Support

3. Zymic.com

600 MB Disk Space
50 GB data transfer (monthly)
Cpannel
Unlimited Domain Hosting
FTP Access
No Ads
PHP
MYSQL Database
SQL Buddy
Sub-Domains
Community based Supports

4. 000webhost.com
1.5 gb massive free space
Cpannel
Unlimited Domain Hosting
FTP Access
No Ads
PHP
MYSQL Database
SQL Buddy
Sub-Domains
Community based Supports

So these were some of the free and best web hosting comapnies or websites that is just not well but its good or say it better. These above mentioned companies or websites provide you web hosting free of cost and they don’t even charge hidden fees.So Hurry up, go and register and enjoy and learn.

BASIC TERMINOLOGY USED IN ELECTRONIC communication

2012-06-24T09:31:00.001-07:00

BASIC TERMINOLOGY USED IN ELECTRONIC

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

By now, we have become familiar with some terms like information source,

transmitter, receiver, channel, noise, etc. It would be easy to understand

the principles underlying any communication, if we get ourselves

acquainted with the following basic terminology.

(i) Transducer: Any device that converts one form of

energy into another can be termed as a transducer.

In electronic communication systems, we usually

come across devices that have either their inputs

or outputs in the electrical form. An electrical

transducer may be defined as a device that converts

some physical variable (pressure, displacement,

force, temperature, etc) into corresponding

variations in the electrical signal at its output.

(ii) Signal: Information converted in electrical form

and suitable for transmission is called a signal.

Signals can be either analog or digital. Analog

signals are continuous variations of voltage or

current. They are essentially single-valued

functions of time. Sine wave is a fundamental

analog signal. All other analog signals can be fully

understood in terms of their sine wave components.

Sound and picture signals in TV are analog in

nature. Digital signals are those which can take

only discrete stepwise values. Binary system that

is extensively used in digital electronics employs

just two levels of a signal. ‘0’ corresponds to a low

level and ‘1’ corresponds to a high level of voltage/

current. There are several coding schemes useful

for digital communication. They employ suitable

combinations of number systems such as the

binary coded decimal (BCD)*. American Standard

Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)** is a

universally popular digital code to represent

numbers, letters and certain characters.

(iii) Noise: Noise refers to the unwanted signals that

tend to disturb the transmission and processing

of message signals in a communication system.

The source generating the noise may be located

inside or outside the system.

(iv) Transmitter: A transmitter processes the incoming

message signal so as to make it suitable for

transmission through a channel and subsequent

reception.

(v) Receiver: A receiver extracts the desired message

signals from the received signals at the channel

output.

(vi) Attenuation: The loss of strength of a signal while

propagating through a medium is known as

attenuation.

* In BCD, a digit is usually represented by four binary (0 or 1) bits. For example

the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 in the decimal system are written as 0000, 0001, 0010,

0011 and 0100. 1000 would represent eight.

** It is a character encoding in terms of numbers based on English alphabet since

the computer can only understand numbers . Jagadis Chandra Bose

(1858 – 1937) He

developed an apparatus

for generating ultrashort

electro-magnetic waves

and studied their quasioptical

properties. He

was said to be the first to

employ a semiconductor

like galena as a selfrecovering

detector of

electromagnetic waves.

Bose published three

papers in the British

magazine, ‘The

Electrician’ of 27 Dec.

1895. His invention was

published in the

‘Proceedings of The Royal

Society’ on 27 April 1899

over two years before

Marconi’s first wireless

communication on 13

December 1901. Bose

also invented highly

sensitive instruments for

the detection of minute

responses by living

organisms to external

stimulii and established

parallelism between

animal and plant

tissues.

(vii) Amplification: It is the process of increasing the amplitude (and

consequently the strength) of a signal using an electronic circuit

called the amplifier Amplification is

necessary to compensate for the attenuation of the signal in

communication systems. The energy needed for additional signal

strength is obtained from a DC power source. Amplification is

done at a place between the source and the destination wherever

signal strength becomes weaker than the required strength.

(viii) Range: It is the largest distance between a source and a destination

up to which the signal is received with sufficient strength.

(ix) Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the frequency range over which

an equipment operates or the portion of the spectrum occupied

by the signal.

(x) Modulation: The original low frequency message/information

signal cannot be transmitted to long distances because of

reasons. Therefore, at the transmitter,

information contained in the low frequency message signal is

superimposed on a high frequency wave, which acts as a carrier

of the information. This process is known as modulation. As

will be explained later, there are several types of modulation,

abbreviated as AM, FM and PM.

(xi) Demodulation: The process of retrieval of information from the

carrier wave at the receiver is termed demodulation. This is the

reverse process of modulation.

(xii) Repeater: A repeater is a combination of a receiver and a

transmitter. A repeater, picks up the signal from the transmitter,

amplifies and retransmits it to the receiver sometimes with a

change in carrier frequency.

paypal fraud

2012-06-22T11:11:00.001-07:00

hacking calling cards

2012-06-21T04:45:00.002-07:00

hacking calling cards

hhhmmmmmmmmmm yesss hacking calling cards!!!!1

Phreak codes are fast running out,
and people are getting caught. Its
time to pioneer a brand new industry.
So far I think this file is original,
so I am writing it.

Most, if not all people have calling
cards from AT&T. They can be used from
any phone to dial long distance and
charge it to your AT&T bill. The
objective, to use someone elses card to
get free long distance service. These
codes are not traced, and they are only
FOUR digits! The nice part is you can
hack the code for anyone you like and
attack a specific person, not a random
name like when hacking MCI. Take your
worst enemy, when you know his phone
number, its the end...

Format:
a. Dial 0.
b. Dial phone number with area code.
c. Wait for tone.
d. Dial billing number with or without
area code.

If your code is correct, the fone
will ring. If it is not correct a
recording will say "Please dial your
card number again, the card number you
have dialed is invalid". You can try
another four digits but after that it
will tell you to call AT&T if it is
still invalid.

This is more of a pain to hack
because there are a thousand possible
codes for each phone number. Just
make a short basic program to do the
job of dialing all the codes. its
best to do a random scan instead of
sequential in my opinion.

CABLE TV SCRAMBLING TECHNIQUES

2012-06-20T23:12:00.002-07:00

CABLE TV SCRAMBLING TECHNIQUES
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
There are 4 major methods of pay-channel security and each has different
consequences for cable ready receivers. The 4 systems are jamming, trapping
out-of-band scrambling and in-band scrambling.

Jamming:
A jamming signal is placed between the picture carrier and and the aural
carrier of the secured channels. The cable operator supplies a filter for
each customer for each paid channel. This type of security is easily defeated
by homemade notch filters.

Trapping:
In these systems frequency filters are installed in line with the cable
drops on telephone poles. The traps are removed for customers paying for the
premium channels. Cable-ready TV's work fine in these systems.

Scrambling - The gated Sync Methods:
Scrambling in the cable TV business still generaly means pulsed sync
suppression. In its simplist form, amplitude of the picture carrier is reduced
by 6 db during the horizontal blanking intervals and sometimes during the
vertical blanking intervals. The resulting video signal has sync tips between
the black and white levels. Sync seperators in the set cannot operate properly
with this signal, nor can AGC and color circuts, so the picture is scrambled.
The decoder compensates by antennuating the signal during the time in which
the transmited signal was not antennuated. In order to accomplish this, the
logic controlled gain switch must get timing information. In-band systems
transmit pulses as amplitude modulation of aural carrier or a seperate carrier
in out of band systems.

Out of band scrambling:
The usual setup is that the decoder is connected directly to the cable
ahead of the channel converter. Decoding is done at the pay channel frequency.
The decoder is likely to be in a seperate box, added to an old system to
provide pay channels. The box consists of a simple receiver (90-120mhz) for the
out-of-band data carrier and a broad band 6db gain switch. There is provision
for several scrambled channels, each which has a different data carrier.
This system is directly compatable with cable ready receivers. Without the
cable converter, the decoder is connected to the TV. Tuning and remote features
of the TV are preserved with the only inconvience being the need to operate the
switch on the decoder when changing to and from any scrambled channel. Out-of-
band systems tend to last until the operators using them rebuild to provide for
a large increase in the number of channels.

In Band Scrambling:
In this system any number of the available channels can be scrambled.
Because the data carrier for each scrambled channel is its own aural carrier,
only one data receiver, at the aural carrier frequency (eg. ch 3) is required.
The decoder detects the presence or absense of data automaticly switching
itself in or out. The converter-decoder box can be hardwired to decode just the
channels ordered, using a prom like device. Alternatively, the transmitted
channels can be "tagged" by time division multiplexing binary tag (program
identification) data with the sync data on the aural carrier. The decoder
boxes can be wired for "tiers" (groups of programs the cable operator sells
togeather) rather than fixed channels, giving the operator more flexibility.
The decoder boxes can be "addressable". These boxes have a seperate out of band
data channel for data from the head end. Each box has a serial number burned
into its logic or otherwise available to its logic circutry, and its channel
or tier authorization stored in volatile ram. A computer at the headend
periodicaly addresses all decoders in the system individualy and loads each
with the channel or tier capacity ordered by the customer. The need for house
calls is reduced, PPV (Pay per view) is possible, and missing boxes cam be
turned off, rendering them useless for premium channel viewing. Some but not
all of these features can be programmed into out-of-band systems.

Aside form their ability to generate sync pulses, thus foiling the scrambling
system, cable ready TV's have presented another dificult problem for in-band
systems. Because the decoder operates at the converted channel, a channel
converter is required ahead of it. Wheather the TV receiver is cable-ready or
not, it operates only at the converted channel, wasting the tuning and remote
control features.

meditation

2012-06-19T12:16:00.000-07:00

Meditaion is infact concentrating on the self .The term is used in general sense to denote practise of any technique for interiorizing the attention and focusing it on some aspects of self.It is the seenth step of the eightfold path of yogaBehind the light in every little buld is a grat dynamic current :bebneath every litle wave is the vast tdynamic current .SImilarly behind his succesful human lies his infinite self.Realization of self is what we call enlightment and the process to gain it is what we call simply MEDITITATION.Remember taht YOU is the profilic source of all the pwer and the everyday YOU is only a fragment of that which can b manifested..The reall you is infinte inits potentilaity.by concentratioin within you can dfell teh divine bliss of your soul within.You cannot se your real image in ruffled water ot in moving water properly but when water surafe is calm you can see the real you.Through meditiaon we draw restless thoughts from the lake of mind ralizr that we are infinite.

Focus your attntion within.You will fell a new power ,a new strengt a new peace -in the body mind and spirit.Mines of poer lies unexplore withinyou.Hey my frens try to explore it.Sleep is on unconsious meditation but meditiaon is consios sleep.In Sleep you have limited cosmic energy but in meditioan you have abundant cosmic enrgy.

Meditation makes you rise above suffering . A real meditator never really hangs on to the questoin>>Why should this happen to me? Instead he thinks every trieal as pickax with wihch to dig tinto soil of your conssiouness and release the foundation of the strenght of within.

You heighten your misery by imagintaion.Worrying or feleling sorry for yourself wont ease your pain but rather increase it.The more yout hink on it the more you magnify it.But if you are a meditator then you dont peek on the situtaion yu infactdirectly getmixed to your self.And beleive me your slef is infinte.You know it wahtever added to ininte is infinte nad whatever goes out og it is still an infinte .SO u become abocve the sufferingsbecause you are infinite.Th

The joy of god is boundless unceasing ll theitme .Body,mind nothing can disturb you when you are in consiosness

Meditation is the vision of your inner being ,the sight of your soul the telescope of your heart .Meiditation is a balance of calm ntelligence and purity of heart.Emotion is the distorted feelings that will lead you wrong way.ourr heart is our power but today we have become slave of it.Our heart wants we must to id.Our consciece saysits wrong butstill we do it because we are slave of heart.Who doesnt kno killin is wrong?Who doesnt know hate is bad.But still why people kill or why we hate..because we are still under heart.Imagine if you win the world you may not b the real emperor but if you win yourself you are the real emperor.

Be silent abd calm every night for at leat an hour preferably much longer before you retire and again in the norning before starting the days activity.Thia will produce an undaunted unbreakable inner habit of happiness that will make you able to meet all the tryoing situtation of the everyday batle of life.

Well during medititation you clsoe your eyes but our heart will flow.Today you go and try you will realize how much layers of thoughts you have in you mind which has finnaly covered your realness.When a rocket is lauched into space a more extra energy is required to penetrate the earth gravitation field but after it crosses it the gravittion of the moon slowly but automatically pulls you.Similarly when you are meditind you are jsumping from body pheripheri to mind and from mind to inteellect At each state fo crossing the field of body r mind you will need an sxtra effort cause you mind and heart feeds you at that time with unknown questions and useless thinkings.You apply extra force penetratee it .after you cross the level the mind consioness auotmatically attratcs you.

Meditation is not a concentration .You may have a question if there is any difference between meditiaon and concentration.well concentration is done being withd the senses and medittiaon is done being beyond the senses.One should know the scientific meaning of concentraion.By the power of concentraion man can use theunhold power of mind to accomplish that waht he desires and he cna guard all doors through whihc failures may enter.many people think to acheive they must do act slowly but know you give your full to it you can achieve it.

always centre you whole mind on wahtever you do,however small thinfg it may be/Also leanr to b flexible so that you can act immediately if needed.But do things with hundred perscent attention.

Most ppl think hafl heartedly.They only us e half heart. so that you dont have ower or succed.attain hundred percent to waht you do .that fulness is attained only through meditioan.

how to optimise blog for higher ranking in search engines.

2012-06-19T11:42:00.000-07:00

blogging can be a measure to use up free time,gain knowledge and earn money.

Any newbies having a Gmail account can easily start a new blog using blogger platform and they can have their blog up and running within a minutes. blogger also provide you many templates for your blog. You can use either of the templates. All of them are free. You can post contents to it and can make it popular. Starting a new blog is not a difficult task but the real problem is getting traffic and for that you need to SEO ( Search Engine Optimization ). If you are completely new to the blogging world then you might not have heard about this word. However they are many bloggers who knows about SEO but still don’t know how to optimize the post in their blog. So if you are also one of them then this post might be useful to you.

What is SEO ?

SEO is acronym to Search Engine Optimization or Search Engine Optimizer. It is the process of improving the visibility of you blog in search engine results page

How to make your blog come on first page or top page on search engines

at first goto www.blogger.com and login your account. goto your dashboard and click category button which seems like this as indicated by yellow arrow:

then click on settings and here you go...........!!! you will see the page as follows:

now when you see this page click on search preferences and you will see next page like this:

Now click on edit button next to description option and click on yes button to enable the search description . Search description means a short description about your blog. When any people searches about your blog then it will be appeared in the search engine result page. Give a suitable and short description about your blog and click on save changes button.

it is done now...........your blog is optimized. Google will rank your blog in top pages when search category meets your blog contains.

Now click on create a new post button. In this post title , enter the title name of the post you are going to write. Next you need to write the contents about your post. The contents should be related to the post title name and it should be not less than 300 words. You should write quality content and it should be unique. If you do so you won’t be ranked in search engine page. Now in the right side click on labels button. Here you have to give the label name i.e category to which your post belongs to. It should be single word or sometimes two words and should be meaningful. After giving the label name click on done button. Now click on search description button. Here you need to write a short and suitable description about your blog post which you are going to post. After finishing giving a suitable description click on done button.

Now click on publish button and you have published your post which is fully optimized for better ranking in search engine result page.

You can also watch this video for more detail information.

FREE .COM.NP, .EDU.NP, .NET.NP .....................ALL .NP DOMAINS

2012-06-19T06:18:00.000-07:00

HERE YOUR search ENDS!!!!!!!!!!!!!

TODAY I AM GOING TO TEACH YOU HOW TO GET THESE DOMAINS ABSOLUTELY FREE.

hmmmmmmmmmm yes for freeeeeeeeeee
merchantile communication,which is a leading company of nepal provides you free .np domains.
for this first of all goto http://register.mos.com.np then select the domain you want to. remember, you can only make domain name from your citizenship name or from company name.
now the screen appears like this:

when you choose a domain, you get notice of availability .remember that you can only make domain name of your name,then click register and again this page comes and you heve to fill the application form :

fill the form accurately and that must match with your citizenship document or business document.

In primary name server and secondary name server you have to enter the hostname provided by your host provider. Tertiary name server is optional. Note if you are going to host your domain in www.000webhost.com and www.host1free.com then you can enter the name servers as given below.

Name Servers for www.000webhost.com

Primary name server

Hostname : ns01.000webhost.com

IP Address : 208.43.152.32

Secondary name server

Hostname : ns02.000webhost.com

IP Address : 64.120.10.10

Name servers for www.host1free.com

Primary name server
Hostname : ns1.host1free.com
IP Address : 208.43.152.32 (Alternatively you can get IP address by pinging above hostname)

Secondary name server
Hostname : ns2.host1free.com
IP Address : 64.120.10.10

note that 000.webhost.com gives free hosting upto 1 gb space...........isn't is great guys???

if you donot know about hosting,then you can host in google blogger .

after you provide all information click in submission button and then you are doneeee!

Now check your mail with the email you just used in the form. You will get mail from hostmaster@mos.com.np. Now you will need to submit a few documents in order to activate the domain.it may also take some days to get reply...be patience.

your email appears like this::

If you are running a Company or Organization then you will need

1. A scanned copy of an application letter written in the company/organization’s letter-head pad, stamped and signed by an authorized officer.
2. A scanned copy of the company/organization registration certificate issued by Office of the Company Registrar, Nepal.
3. A scanned copy to verify that annual tax of the company is being maintained.

If you want it for personal usage then you will need
1. An application letter in PDF or DOC format.
2. A scanned copy of the applicant’s citizenship or passport

After your documents are ready , reply to the same email from where you just got the message. Note : You should attach these documents before replying them and after attaching the documents reply them. It may take at least three working days to activate your domain. Please note that your request for this domain will be rejected if you are unable to provide all the necessary documents as stated above in this email. Once a request is rejected, you will have to follow the same procedure again to register for the same domain or a new domain. You should keep this email for your records.

enjoy your new domain!!!!!!!!!!

hydro electricity

2012-06-07T05:25:00.001-07:00

The Hydropower Resource:
On Earth, water is constantly moved around in various states, a process known as the hydrologic cycle. Water evaporates from the oceans, forming into clouds, falling out as rain and snow, gathering into streams and rivers, and flowing back to the sea. All this movement provides an enormous opportunity to harness useful energy.

The United Nations estimates that the total "technically exploitable" potential for hydropower is 15,090 terawatt-hours per year, or 15 trillion kilowatt-hours, equal to half of projected global electricity use in 2030. Only about 15 percent has been developed so far. While much of the remaining potential may not be economically or environmentally suitable to develop, there are still significant opportunities for new development in regions like the former Soviet Union, South Asia, and South America.

Hydropower provides one-fifth of the world's electricity, second only to fossil fuels. Worldwide capacity is 776 gigawatts (GW), with 12 percent in the United States, nine percent in Canada, and eight percent in Brazil. When completed, China's Three Gorges Dam, poised to become the largest hydroelectric project in the world with 18.2 GW of capacity, will move China ahead of Brazil. Globally, hydroelectric capacity has more than doubled since 1970, and another 100 GW is currently under construction.

In the United States, hydropower has grown steadily, from 56 GW in 1970 to more than 95 GW today. As a percentage of the U.S. electricity supply mix, however, it has fallen to 10 percent, down from 14 percent 20 years ago, largely as a result of the rapid growth in natural gas power plants. In terms of electricity production, hydropower plants account for about seven percent of America's current power needs.

In some parts of the country, hydropower is even more important. For example, the Pacific Northwest generates more than two-thirds of its electricity from 55 hydroelectric dams. The Grand Coulee dam on the Columbia River is one of the largest dams in the world, with a capacity of nearly 6,500 megawatts (MW).

In addition to very large plants in the West, the United States has many smaller hydro plants. In 1940 there were 3,100 hydropower plants across the country, but by 1980 that number had fallen to 1,425. Since then, a number of these small plants have been restored; there are currently 2,378 hydro plants (not including pumped storage) in operation. These plants account for only a tiny fraction of the 80,000 dams that block and divert our rivers. As a result, there is a significant opportunity for growth according to the National Hydropower Association, which estimates that more than 4,300 MW of additional hydropower capacity can be brought online by upgrading existing facilities.

Worldwide there is a great deal of growth in small hydro projects. The World Energy Council estimates that under current policies, installed capacity of small hydro will increase from about 48 GW today to 55 GW by 2010, with the largest increase coming from China.More than half of the current global small hydropower installed capacity is in China, with plans to develop a further 10,000 MW in the next decade

Converting Moving Water to Electricity
In order to generate electricity from the kinetic energy in moving water, the water has to be moving with sufficient speed and volume to turn a generator. Roughly speaking, one gallon of water per second falling one hundred feet can generate one kilowatt of electrical power.

To increase the force of moving water, impoundments or dams are used to raise the water level, creating a "hydraulic head," or height differential. When water behind a dam is released, it runs through a pipe called a penstock, and is delivered to the turbine.

Hydroelectric generation can also work without dams, in a process known as diversion, or run-of-the-river. Portions of water from fast-flowing rivers, often at or near waterfalls, can be diverted through a penstock to a turbine set in the river or off to the side. The generating stations at Niagara Falls are an example of diversion hydropower. Another run-of-the-river design uses a traditional water wheel on a floating platform to capture the kinetic force of the moving river. While this approach is inexpensive and easy to implement, it doesn't produce much power. The entire Amazon River, if harnessed this way, would produce only 650 MW of power.

Another type of hydropower, though not a true energy source, is pumped storage. In a pumped storage plant, water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir during off-peak times, using electricity generated from other types of energy sources. When the power is needed, it is released back into the lower reservoir through turbines. Inevitably, some power is lost, but pumped storage systems can be up to 80 percent efficient. There is currently more than 90 GW of pumped storage capacity worldwide, with about one-quarter of that in the United States. Future increases in pumped storage capacity could result from the integration of hydropower and wind power technologies. Researchers believe that hydropower may be able to act as a battery for wind power by storing water during high wind periods.

There are a variety of turbines employed at hydropower facilities, and their use depends on the amount of hydraulic head at the plant. The most common are Kaplan, Francis, and Pelton wheel designs. Some of these designs, called reaction and impulse wheels, use not just the kinetic force of the moving water but also the water pressure.

The Kaplan turbine is similar to a boat propeller, with a runner (the turning part of a turbine) that has three to six blades, and can provide up to 400 MW of power. The Kaplan turbine is differentiated from other kinds of hydropower turbines because its performance can be improved by changing the pitch of the blades. The Francis turbine has a runner with nine or more fixed vanes. In this turbine design, which can be up to 800 MW in size, the runner blades direct the water so that it moves in an axial flow. The Pelton turbine consists of a set of specially shaped buckets that are mounted on the outside of a circular disc, making it look similar to a water wheel. Pelton turbines are typically used in high hydraulic head sites and can be as large as 200 MW.

The ability to meet power demand fluctuations is an advantage of hydro plants with reservoirs. Unlike run-of-the-river plants, which produce power around the clock, hydro plants with dams are typically used only when the power is most needed. Utilities save up the water, letting it loose only during peak times. Hydro plants, especially the large older plants built from the 1930s to the 1950s, are commonly the least-expensive source of electricity.