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KONSEP METODOLOGI PEMBELAJARAN BAHASA INDONESIA

2011-04-03T02:30:00.000-07:00

Banyak yang tidak paham dengan perbedaan antara pendekatan, metode, dan teknik. Sebelum kita membahas mengenai perbedaan tiga hal di atas, terlebih dahulu kita membahas pengertian model pembelajaran. Model pembelajaran adalah bentuk pembelajaran yang tergambar dari awal sampai akhir yang disajikan secara khas oleh guru di kelas. Dalam model pembelajaran terdapat strategi pencapaian kompetensi siswa dengan pendekatan, metode, dan teknik pembelajaran. Nah, berikut ini ulasan singkat tentang perbedaan istilah tersebut.
Pendekatan dapat diartikan sebagai titik tolak atau sudut pandang kita terhadap proses pembelajaran. Pendekatan yang berpusat pada guru menurunkan strategi pembelajaran langsung (direct instruction), pembelajaran deduktif atau pembelajaran ekspositori. Sedangkan, pendekatan pembelajaran yang berpusat pada siswa menurunkan strategi pembelajaran discovery dan inkuiri serta strategi pembelajaran induktif (Sanjaya, 2008:127).
Metode merupakan jabaran dari pendekatan. Satu pendekatan dapat dijabarkan ke dalam berbagai metode. Metode adalah prosedur pembelajaran yang difokuskan ke pencapaian tujuan. Teknik dan taktik mengajar merupakan penjabaran dari metode pembelajaran. Teknik adalah cara yang dilakukan seseorang dalam rangka mengimplementasikan suatu metode. Misalnya, cara yang bagaimana yang harus dilakukan agar metode ceramah yang dilakukan berjalan efektif dan efisien? Dengan demikian sebelum seorang melakukan proses ceramah sebaiknya memerhatikan kondisi dan situasi. Taktik adalah gaya seseorang dalam melaksanakan suatu teknik atau metode tertentu.
Strategi digunakan untuk memperoleh kesuksesan atau keberhasilan dalam mencapai tujuan.
Strategi pembelajaran dapat diartikan sebagai perencanaan yang berisi tentang rangkaian kegiatan yang didesain untuk mencapai tujuan pendidikan tertentu (J.R. David dalam Sanjaya, 2008:126)
Selanjutnya dijelaskan strategi pembelajaran adalah suatu kegiatan pembelajaran yang harus dikerjakan guru dan siswa agar tujuan pembelajaran dapat dicapai secara efektif dan efisien (Kemp dalam Sanjaya, 2008:126).
Istilah strategi sering digunakan dalam banyak konteks dengan makna yang selalu sama. Dalam konteks pengajaran strategi bisa diartikan sebagai suatu pola umum tindakan guru-peserta didik dalam manifestasi aktivitas pengajaran (Ahmad Rohani, 2004 : 32). Sementara itu, Joyce dan Weil lebih senang memakai istilah model-model mengajar daripada menggunakan strategi pengajaran (Joyce dan Weil dalam Rohani, 2004:33).
Nana Sudjana menjelaskan bahwa strategi mengajar (pengajaran) adalah “taktik” yang digunakan guru dalam melaksanakan proses belajar mengajar (pengajaran) agar dapat mempengaruhi para siswa (peserta didik) mencapai tujuan pengajaran secara lebih efektif dan efisien (Nana Sudjana dalam Rohani, 2004: 34) . Jadi menurut Nana Sudjana, strategi mengajar/pengajaran ada pada pelaksanaan, sebagai tindakan nyata atau perbuatan guru itu sendiri pada saat mengajar berdasarkan pada rambu-rambu dalam satuan pelajaran.
Berdasarkan pendapat di atas, dapat diambil kesimpulan bahwa strategi pembelajaran harus mengandung penjelasan tentang metode/prosedur dan teknik yang digunakan selama proses pembelajaran berlangsung. Dengan perkataan lain, strategi pembelajaran mempunyai arti yang lebih luas daripada metode dan teknik. Artinya, metode/prosedur dan teknik pembelajaran merupakan bagian dari strategi pembelajaran. Dari metode, teknik pembelajaran diturunkan secara aplikatif, nyata, dan praktis di kelas saat pembelajaran berlangsung.
Sumber: BBM Suplemen KKG Bermutu

Alur Pelaksanaan Sertifikasi Guru 2011

2011-04-03T02:27:00.000-07:00

Berikut alur pelaksanaan sertifikasi guru tahun 2011 yang memang berbeda dengan pelaksanaan tahun-sebelumnya. Memang terdapat perubahan pola pelaksanaannya, dimana sekarang guru bisa memilih apakah melalui pola PSPL (Pemberian Sertifikat Pendidik Secara Langsung, atau yang dikenal dengan verifikasi dokumen), pola Portofolio, atau pola PLPG. Secara nasional kuota guru yang disertifikasi sebesar 300.000 guru, dan hanya 1% yang diberi kesempatan menyusun portofolio atau melalui jalur langsung.

Berikut Alurnya:

Dengan demikian bisa dikatakan guru akan diarahkan melalui jalur PLPG mengingat hasil evaluasi Balitbang Diknas bahwa kualitas guru yang lulus PLPG lebih baik dari yang lulus melalui jalur portofolio.

Bagi yang memilih jalur PF, ada tes awal untuk menentukan kelayakan. Bila berhasil maka diberi kesempatan menyusun PF, bila gagal tes maka diikutkan PLPG. Bila skor PF di atas batas kelulusan maka ada verifikasi ulang untuk melihat apakah PF yang disusun sudah benar (sesuai dengan kenyataan guru). Bila tidak lolos verifikasi maka diikutkan PLPG. Bila skor PF di bawah batas kelulusan, maka seperti tahun lalu, akan diikutkan PLPG. Untuk yang jalur PSPL, bila dokumennya berstatus TMP (Tidak Memenuhi Persyaratan) maka langsung diikutkan PLPG (berbeda dengan tahun lalu yang diberi kesempatan menyusun PF).

Pelaksanaan PLPG masih sama dengan tahun lalu, diadakan selama 90 jam pertemuan (9 hari) dan diakhiri dengan Uji Kompetensi. Guru yang tidak lulus akan dikembalikan ke Dinas Pendidikan setempat.

Sumber: http://psg15.um.ac.id/

Soal-Soal Prediksi UASBN 2011

2011-04-03T02:25:00.000-07:00

Terdorong oleh cerita beberapa rekan guru di kawasan pinggiran baik itu di Jember, Bondowoso ataupun di daerah lain yang membutuhkan soal-soal prediksi UASBN karena siswanya masih belum mempunyai buku-buku soal prediksi. Maka saya berupaya mengumpulkan beberapa link yang menyediakan soal-soal prediksi tersebut.

Berikut ini link-link tersebut, silahkan klik untuk mendownload:

1. Bahasa Indonesia 1 Matematika 1 IPA 1

2. Bahasa Indonesia 2 Matematika 2 IPA 2

3. Bahasa Indonesia 3 Matematika 3 IPA 3

4. Bahasa Indonesia 4 Matematika 4 IPA 4

5. Bahasa Indonesia 5 Matematika 5 IPA 5

6. Bahasa Indonesia 6 Matematika 6 IPA 6
7. Bahasa Indonesia 7 Matematika 7 IPA 7
8. Bahasa Indonesia 8 Matematika 8 IPA 8
9. Bahasa Indonesia 9 Matematika 9 IPA 9
10. Bahasa Indonesia 10 Matematika 10 IPA 10
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Download free Buku bse SD : Dijamin gratis! ngak usah login-loginan

2011-03-28T03:24:00.000-07:00

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Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam
Senang Belajar Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam
Pengarang: S. Rositawaty, Aris Muharam
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Depdiknas
Tahun: 2008
Jumlah Hal: 281
Download (7.258 MB)

Bahasa Indonesia
Bahasa Kita Bahasa Indonesia
Pengarang: Muhamad Jaruki
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Depdiknas
Tahun: 2008
Jumlah Hal: 247
Download (9.509 MB)

Matematika
Matematika 1
Pengarang: Purnomosidi – Wiyanto – Endang
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Depdiknas
Tahun: 2008
Jumlah Hal: 139
Download (10.783 MB)

PKn
Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan
Pengarang: Setiati Wadihastuti, Fajar Rahayuningsih
Penerbit: PT. Pustaka Insan Madani
Tahun: 2008
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PKn
Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan
Pengarang: Tijan, Edi Santoso, Slamet, Sumarto, Sri Untari
Penerbit: CV. Mitra Media Pustaka
Tahun: 2008
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Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam
A.B.I. Asiknya Belajar IPA
Pengarang: Evi Susanti, Sholehudin
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Tahun: 2008
Download (2.922 MB)

Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam
Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam 1
Pengarang: Erni Zebua, Sri Purwati
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Tahun: 2008
Download (3.057 MB)

Bahasa Indonesia
Indahnya Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia 1
Pengarang: H. Suyatno,Ekarini Saraswati, T. Wibowo, Sawali
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Tahun: 2008
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PKn
PKn 1
Pengarang: Priyati E., Suliasih, Ridwan Efendi
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Tahun: 2008
Download (1,390 MB)

Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial
Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial SD / MI
Pengarang: Inoki Wasis Jatmiko, Mariyono San Dwi
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Tahun: 2008
Download (5,337 MB)

Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial
Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial 1
Pengarang: Edi Hernawan, Endang Hendayani
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Tahun: 2008
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Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial
Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial 1
Pengarang: Indrastuti, Penny Rahmawati
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Tahun: 2008
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Matematika
Dunia Matematika
Pengarang: Kismiantini, Dyan Indrawati
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Tahun: 2008
Download (8,886 MB)

Matematika
Matematika Untuk SD/MI
Pengarang: Djaelani, Haryono
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Tahun: 2008
Download (5,572 MB)

Bahasa Indonesia
Bahasa Indonesia
Pengarang: Umri Nur’aini, Indriyani
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Tahun: 2008
Download (3,185 MB)

Bahasa Indonesia
Belajar Bahasa Indonesia Itu Menyenangkan
Pengarang: Ismail Kusmayadi, Nandang R. Pamungkas, Ahmad
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Tahun: 2008
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Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam
Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam
Pengarang: Heri Sulistyanto, Edi Wiyono
Penerbit: Pusat Perbukuan Departemen Pendidikan Nasional
Tahun: 2008
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Development Activity, Creativity, and Motivation Students

2011-03-19T10:45:00.001-07:00

Citing thought Gibbs, E. Mulyasa (2003) points out the things that needs to be done to make students more active and creative in their learning, are:
1. The development of self-confidence of students and reduce the fear;
   2. Provide opportunities for all students to communicate freely directed scientific;
   3. Involving students in setting learning objectives and evaluation;
   4. Provide supervision that is not too tight and not authoritarian;
   5. Involve them actively and creatively in the learning process as a whole.
Meanwhile, Widada (1994) noted that to increase the activity and creativity of students, teachers can use the following approach:

   1. Self esteem approach; teachers consider the development of self esteem (sense of self-esteem) students.
   2. Creative approach; teachers develop problem solving, brain storming, inquiry, and role playing.
   3. Value clarification and moral development approach; teachers develop learning with a holistic and humanistic approach to develop all students' potential towards achieving self-actualization, intellectual development in this situation students will accompany the development of all aspects of the personality of students, including in terms of ethics and morals.
   4. Multiple talent approach; teachers pursue development of all potential students to build self-concept that mental health support.
   5. Inquiry approach, the teacher provides the opportunity for students to use the mental process of finding a scientific concept or principle and enhance its intellectual potential.
   6. Pictorial Riddle approach; teachers to develop methods to develop students' motivation and interest in small group discussions to help improve the ability to think critically and creatively.
   7. Synetics approach; teacher is focusing on the competence of students to develop various forms of metaphor to unlock intelligence and develop creativity. Learning activities begin with activities that are not rational, then evolved into the discovery and problem solving in a rational way.
Meanwhile, to raise students' motivation, according to E. Mulyasa (2003) to note the following:

   1. That students will learn to be more aggressive if he had studied the topic interesting and useful to him;
   2. Learning objectives should be drafted with clear and informed to the students so they know the learning objectives to be achieved. Students are also involved in preparing it;
   3. Students should always be informed of the results of their study;
   4. Giving praise and reward is better than punishment, but punishment is also occasionally necessary;
   5. Take advantage of the attitudes, ideals and curiosity of students;
   6. Try to pay attention to individual differences of students, such as: differences in ability, background and attitude toward school or particular subjects;
   7. Try to meet the needs of students with attention the way his physical condition, safety, shows that the teacher cares about them, organize learning experiences so that students gain satisfaction and reward, and direct the learning experience towards success, so as to achieve accomplishment and have confidence.

The Importance of Educational Psychology For Teachers

2011-03-19T10:44:00.000-07:00

Etymologically, psychology comes from the word "psyche" meaning soul or breath of life, and "logos" or knowledge. Viewed from the meaning of the word is as if psychology is the science of the soul or the study of the soul. If we refer to one of the requirements of science that is the object being studied, it is not right if we interpret psychology as a science of the soul or the study of the soul, because soul is something that is abstract and can not be observed directly.
With regard to the object of this psychology, it is most likely to be observed and studied are the manifestation of the soul itself that is in the form of individual behavior in interacting with their environment. Thus, the psychology seems to be interpreted as a study of individual behavior in interacting with their environment.
Psychology is divided into two parts, namely general psychology (general phsychology) that examine the behavior in general and special psychology that examines individual behavior in specific situations, including:

    * Developmental Psychology; examine the behavior of individuals who are in the process of development starting from the time of conception until the end of life.
    * Psychology of Personality; examine the behavior of specific individuals seen from the aspect - aspect of his personality.
    * Clinical Psychology; examine the behavior of individuals for purposes of healing (clinical)
    * Abnormal Psychology; examine the behavior of individuals who are classified as abnormal.
    * Industrial Psychology; examine the behavior of individuals in relation to the industrial world.
    * Educational Psychology; examine the behavior of individuals in the educational situation
Besides the type - the type of psychology mentioned above, there are various other types of psychology, even very likely the future will increasingly continue to grow, in line with the development of the life of an increasingly dynamic and complex.Educational psychology as a science can be said because in it has had a science requirement criteria, namely:

    * Ontological; object of educational psychology is the behavior of individuals who are involved directly or indirectly with education, such as students, teachers, administrators, parents, learners and community education.
    * Epistemological; the theories, concepts, principles and propositions - propositions educational psychology generated by systematic efforts through a variety of longitudinal studies and cross sectional studies, both qualitative and quantitative approaches.
    * Axiological; benefit from educational psychology particularly with respect to achieving efficiency and effectiveness of the educational process.
Thus, educational psychology can be interpreted as one branch of psychology that specifically examine the behavior of individuals within the context of the educational situation in order to find the facts, generalizations and theories related to educational psychology, which is obtained through a specific scientific method, in order to achieve effectiveness educational process.
Education can not be separated from psychology. Contributions of psychology to education is enormous. Educational activities, especially in formal education, such as curriculum development, Teaching and Learning, evaluation systems, and services Guidance and Counselling is a major activity in which education can not be separated from psychology.
Education as an activity in which involved many people, including students, teachers, adminsitrator, communities and parents of students. Therefore, for the purpose of education can be achieved effectively and efficiently, then everyone involved in education should be able to understand about the behavior of individuals as well as to show their behavior effectively.
Teachers in carrying out its role as a mentor, educator and trainer for the learners, certainly required to understand the various aspects of her behavior and the behavior of those associated with his duties, especially the behavior of learners-with all its aspects, so that they can perform the task and its role effective, which in turn can contribute significantly to the achievement of educational goals in school.
This is where the importance of Educational Psychology for teachers. Mastery of teachers about educational psychology is one that must be mastered teacher competence, the pedagogical competence. Muhibbin Shah (2003) says that "among knowledge-knowledge that need to be controlled by teachers and prospective teachers is the knowledge of applied psychology is closely related to the learning process of learners'
By understanding the psychology of education, a teacher through a consideration - the psychological considerations are expected to:
1. Formulate learning objectives appropriately.
By understanding the psychology of an adequate education is expected teachers will be more precise in determining the form of the desired behavior change as a goal of learning. For example, by seeking to apply Bloom's thoughts about the taxonomy of individual behavior and relate it to theories of individual development.
2. Choosing strategies or teaching methods accordingly.
By understanding the psychology of an adequate education teachers are expected to determine the strategy or method of learning the proper and appropriate, and able to relate to the characteristics and uniqueness of the individual, the type of learning and learning styles and levels of development being experienced by their students.
3. Provide guidance or even provide counseling.
Duties and role of teachers, in addition to carrying out the learning, is also expected to guide their students. By understanding the psychology of education, we expect teachers to provide psychological assistance appropriately and correctly, through a process of interpersonal relationship full of warmth and intimacy.
4. Facilitate and motivate learners' learning.
Facilitate means to try to develop all potential students, such as talent, intelligence and interests. While the motivation may be interpreted seeks to provide encouragement to students to perform certain acts, particularly acts of learning. Without a proper understanding of educational psychology, it seems that the teacher will have difficulty manifests itself as a facilitator and motivator of student learning.
5. Creating a conducive learning climate.
The effectiveness of learning requires the presence of a conducive learning climate. Teachers with an adequate understanding of educational psychology makes it possible to to create a climate conducive socio-emotional in the classroom, so students can learn with a comfortable and enjoyable.
6, Interact appropriately with students.
The understanding of teachers about educational psychology allows for the realization of interaction with the students is more wise, empathetic and be really nice to be in front of their students.
7. Assessing learning outcomes are fair.
The understanding of teachers about educational psychology to helping with the teacher in developing student learning assessment more equitable, both in technical assessment, compliance with the principles of assessment and determine the results of the assessment.

Psychology of Learning and Teaching

2011-03-19T10:42:00.000-07:00

CHAPTER I PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Psychology is a science that examines individual behavior in interacting with their environment. The behavior in question is, motor behavior is behavior in the form of movement. Cognitive behavior is behavior in the form of how individuals know dis ekitarnya natural. Conative behavior is behavior in the form of encouragement from within the individual. Affective behavior is behavior in the form of feeling or emotion.
The main approaches in psychology are:Behaviorism approach, preferring things that are visible from the individual. Behavior is anything that can be observed by the sensory organs as a result of interaction with lingkungnnya. Psychoanalytic approach, preferring things that are under individual consciousness. Cognitive approaches, behavior as an internal process, which is an input-output process of reception and processing of information, to then generate output. Humanistic approach, that the man had initially had the urge to realize himself as a man in his neighborhood. Neurobiology approach linking individual behavior with events in the brain and nerves.Educational psychology is the branch of psychology specifically examine various inddividu behavior in relation to education, the aim is to find facts, generalizations, and psychological theories relating to education for use in an effort melaskanakan effective educational process.The role of psychology in the learning and teaching are: understanding the student as a student, understand the principles and theories of learning, selecting teaching methods, establish learning goals, create a conducive learning situation, select and specify the content of teaching, helping students getting kesultan in learning, choosing teaching aids, assess learning outcomes, memaham personality and the teaching profession, personality membimgbing students.
Comments / reflections:Psychology is a science because psychology uses scientific methods. Educational psychology is very important to be studied, understood, and reviewed by the student teacher. Because education is an activity that involves individuals who behave that became involved in education. They should be involved to show behavior after for the education process can take place effectively in accordance with the basis and objectives to be achieved.
PART II UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
Learning is a process conducted by an individual to obtain a new perubahanperilakuu as a whole, as a result of the individual's own experience in the interaction with the environment. Some of the principles that became the foundation of understanding is this:

   1. Learning as an attempt to obtain a change in behavior. This principle means that prosees learning is a change in behavior within the individual.
   2. Results pembelajarn marked by changes in overall behavior.
   3. Learning is a process. This principle implies that learning is a continuous activity.
   4. The learning process occurs because of something that is encouraged and there is sustu goals to be achieved.
   5. Learning is an experience.
Comments / reflections:Learning is the most important activities in the education process at school. For that the understanding of a teacher towards the understanding of learning will affect the way teachers teach. In this chapter discussed the notion of learning and linkages with other terms. To that can be used as a reference for learning the meaning mengetahhui keberhasilsan for achieving the goals of education can be achieved denggan effective.
CHAPTER III LEARNING PROCESS AND RESULTS
The learning process is the process of changing the behavior of individuals in an effort to meet their needs. Halini means that individuals will do activities to learn if she faces a situation that needs can not be met by instinct or habit.
The learning process is an activity as follows:

   1. Individuals feel the need and saw the goal to be achieved.
   2. Readiness (readiness) of individuals to determine their needs and achieve goals.
   3. Understanding the environmental situation.
   4. Mentafsirkan situation ie how individuals view the links contained in the various aspects of the situation.
   5. Follow-back (response)
   6. Result (outcome) learning.
Results of the learning process is to change individual behavior. Individuals will acquire new behaviors, living, functional, positive, conscious, and so on. Changes in behavior as a result of learning is the overall behavior that includes aspects kognitiif, conative, affective, and motor.The types of learning on the basis of aspects of learning to be achieved, namely: learning skills, learning attitude, and learning knowledge. From its distinguished between formal learning, informal and non formal.
Comments / reflections:In this third chapter discusses the process of learning, which can be learned how the learning process can take place effectively in accordance with the needs and objectives. Hasildari learning process there are two possibilities of success or failure. If the result of success then achieved all its goals and will gain satisfaction and if it fails to Mersa disappointed. Here, teachers are expected to help students who fail to keep them from despair and able to learn deengan good.
CHAPTER IV THEORY-THEORY OF LEARNING (1)
The theory is a tool of organized prinssip principles concerning certain events in the environment. Characteristics of a theory is to provide a conceptual framework for a iinformasi and to principles that can be tested. The function of learning theory in education is:

   1. Provide reference lines for the design of teaching.
   2. Assessing the results have been achieved for use in the classroom.
   3. Diagnosing the problems in the classroom.
   4. Assessing the results of research conducted berdasarrkan certain theories.
Behaviorism learning theory which argues that behavior melelui perkaiatan formed between the stimulus (stimulus) with a follow-back (response). More behavior change because of environmental influences. Behaviorism theory distinguished between classical theory and the theory pelaziman pelaziman operand. Pelaziman classical theory was pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, concept or principle of learning, namely:

   1. Excitation (pergetaran) that a stimulus is not natural to membangkitkanreaksi terazim or certain cells, which can lead to acts of revenge.
   2. Irradiaton (transmission) that is the reaction of other cells which differ in some kawasann sl-cell bekenan debgan rangasangan not terlazim.
   3. Stimulus generalization (stimulus generalization), ie situations where individual acts of revenge memberika the same to ranggsangan tertentuu that have similar though not identical.
   4. Extintion (penghapuan) is a not reply secarra will disappear slowly if the less keterkaitann with no terlazim stimulation.
Characters theory pelaziman operand is Throndike, basically learning poses a coaching relationship between certain stimuli with certain behaviors. All learning is done through a trial-and-wrong prroses (trial and error). There are three laws of learning that is the law of (law of effect) suggests that the relationship between stimuli and behavior will be more robust when there is satisfaction, and will be increasingly weakened in case of dissatisfaction, the law practice (law of exercise) provides a stimulus and the behavior will be more robust if frequent practice, and legal preparedness (law of readiness) states that the relationship of stimulation and behavior will be more robust if accompanied by the readiness of the individual.Gestalt learning theory, in this view of learning is a cognitive phenomenon that involves the perception of an object, person, or event in different ways yng. Some applications tori gestalt in the learning process is the experience of insight (insight), meaningful learning (meaningful learning), behavioral objective (purposive behavior), the principle ruangg life (life space), and transfer in learning.
Comments / reflections:Basically teoori-learning theory according to experts with rangssangan serprti behaviorism theory and stimulus and Gestalt, k eduannya have the same fingsi pendididkan process
CHAPTER V THE THEORY-THEORY OF LEARNING (2)
Theory of cognitive development is one aspect of mental development which aims to: (1) memissahkan reality with fantasy, (2) explore the reality and discover its laws, (3) selecting the facts that are useful for life, (4) determine the true reality behind something that appears. Cognitive developments is a process in which individual goals through a ranggkaian which kualittatiif beerbeda with thinking. Kgnitif development is the growth of logical thinking from infancy to adulthood, which berrlangsung melali four ranks, namely:

   1. Rating sensory motor (0 to 1.5 years), activities centered on lat kognitip senses (sensory) and motor (motor). This activity is formed through a process of physical adjustment as a result of inteeraksi with liingkungan.
   2. Pre-operational ratings (1.5 to 6 years), berfikirnya activity does not have an organized system. This way of thinking is not systematic, inconsistent and illogical.
   3. Rating concrete operational (6-12 years), cognitive development, concrete operations on the ranking, giving the children skills relating to the classification concepts, relations and quantities.
   4. Rating formal operational (12 years and over), cognitive development is characterized by kemmpuan individuals to think hypothetically and different from the facts, understand abstract concepts.
Impilkasi Piaget's theory of cognitive development in teaching, among others:

   1. Language and the way children think differently from adults and therefore the teacher should teach the language menggnakan yan accordance with fig thinking child.
   2. Children will beajar better if it can deal with good dnan environment. Teachers must help to be able to interact with the environment denggan tub.
   3. The material will be studied children should feel new but familiar.
   4. Give opportunities for children willing to learn in accordance with its development ranks.
   5. In the classroom children should be given the opportunity to talk to each other and beriskusi with his friends.
Information processing theory (Robert Gagne), the result of human learning is essentially cumulative, meaning that the outcome of learning achieved by individuals is a collection of all-hail the day after the inter-related learning. Learning occurs processes the information received and processed to produce output in the form of learning outcomes. Ranking in the learning process according to the theory of Gagne through phases: (1) motivation, (2) understanding, (3) acquisition, (4) detention, (5) recall, (6) generalization, (7) treatment, (8) bait behind. In each phase a certain processing occurs.
In connection with the teaching of teaching there are nine steps are:

   1. Undertake measures to attract students' attention.
   2. Provide information to students about teaching purposes.
   3. Stimulate students to undertake learning activities.
   4. Delivering content that will be discussed according to topic.
   5. Provide guidance for student activities.
   6. Provide reassurance to students' learning behavior.
   7. Umppan Giving back to the behavior shown students.
   8. Implement the assessment process and learning outcomes.
   9. Provide opportunities for students to remember and use the learning outcomes.
Cognitive social learning theory, called this theory because the cognitive processes that occur in the individual play a role in learning, learning edangkan occurs because of the influence of social lingkunggan. I will observe the behavior of individual neighborhood as a model, then so be imitated his behavior. Thus this theory called the theory of learning through imitation. The behavior of individuals is formed through the imitation of behavior in lingkuna, p embelajaran is a proess how to make the best imitation that corresponds with the situation himself and his purpose.
Comments / reflections:The theories of learning that should go in mind is diverse and kesemuannya instrumental to the process of learning and teaching. As according to teoriperkembangan cognitive learning process will be successful if tailored to students' ratings of cognitive development. Students should be given the opportunity to experiment with physical objects which are supported by the interaction with peers, and aided by the insight question of the teacher and the teacher should be a lot to give to students for your rrangsanan berinteraksii with lingkunganya and actively seek and find different things from their environment. According to social cognitive learning theory that emphasizes the imitation of that in teaching in the classroom teacher should be a figure of conduct for all students. Cognitive processes students should get attention from the teacher, then the environment should provide support for the learning process, and teachers help students develop the learning behaviors.
CHAPTER VI PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS IN THE PROCESS OF LEARNING AND TEACHING
Student learning behavior, in educational psychology, learning is defined as a process of individual effort to obtain a new behavior changes as a result penglaman keseeluruhan the individual in interaction with the environment. In connection with this learning process, which should be known betuloleh the teachers is what is referred to as metacognition and social-psychological perceptions of students. What dimaksd with metacognition is knowledge of an individual learning processes and outcomes that occurred within him and related matters. This means that, for the process of learning can take place effectively, the student should be able to know the process and outcomes that occurred within him. For that mamppu teachers should know and help students. What is meant by socio-psychological perception is how far the students perceive the learning process that goes along with situations that effect.Behavioral results of learning include cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Teachers are highly expected to anticipate aspects of these behavioral changes that began with the planning of teaching and learning activities, and develop it after learning activities over. With effective learning behaviors accompanied by appropriate teaching process, the teaching-learning process is expected to produce humans that have the characteristics as: (1) personal independence, (2) an effective learner, (3) workers who are productive, (4 ) members of the public good. To realize such human qualities, then there is the four-quality learning that must be developed within the students, yiatu: (1) learn to be a (learning to do), (2) learning to learn (learning to learn), (3) learning to do (learning to do), (4) learn to live together (learning to live together)Teaching behaviors of teachers, teachers are able to realize the flow required to teach proper behavior in order to become effective learning perilku in Siwa. Teachers are also in demand to create a situation conducive Study abroad-menajar. Teachers are not limited as a lecturer in the sense that conveys knowledge, but rather increased as a designer of teaching, teaching managers, evaluators learning outcomes and as director of learning.In realizing tept teaching behavior, teacher characteristics that are expected are:

   1. Has interest in the lessons and he taught pelaajaran eye.
   2. Have the ability to predict personality accurately ddan mood and make contact with the group as appropriate.
   3. Have patience, friendliness, and sensitivity needed to foster the spirit of learning.
   4. Having imaginative thinking (conceptual) and practical in an attempt to give an explanation to pesrta students.
   5. Having an adequate qualification in the field, both the content and methods.
   6. Having an open, flexible and dams experimental methods and techniques.
Teachers will teach well when the basic attitude is right, the correct target, the necessary factual information, understand the various methods and techniques and know how to select it, and assist students in planning follow-upManifestations of teacher behavior as a teacher and student as the student will nampk on the interaction between the two. In this interaction occurs processes influence each other so that there is a change of behavior on self-learners in the achievement of learning outcomes. At least there are three things in a student-teacher interaction is belaja process, teaching methods, and patterns of interaction.Learning model which is considered quite comprehensive, developed by Ernest Chang and Don Simpson, "The circle of learning: Individual and Group Process" according to this model, pembeljaran can take place not only individual responsibility, but can be in the form of collaborative groups through the process of life. This model is based on the paradigm of the relationship between activity and orientation. In the ongoing process of learning there are two dimensions are dimensions of learning activity and process-oriented dimension. Two-dimensional relationship that produces four patterns of learning are: (1) traditional lectures or traditional lecture, (2) self-study or independent study, (3) concurrent learning or shared learning, (4) colaborative learning or collaborative learning.
Comments / reflections:In this chapter we can know and apply bebgai psychological aspects in the overall educational activities especially during the teaching-learning process. What ibicarakn psychological aspect here is that terkit aspects of individual behavior with the teaching-learning process. As we know in the process of this activity involves individual intraksi between students and teachers prilkunya aspect means learning behavior of students and teachers to teach behavior.In realizing the process of effective and efficient teaching and learning behaviors of students and the teachers' teaching behaviors can be dinamiskan well. Lecturer (teacher) should be able to realize appropriate teaching behaviors to be able to realize the learning behavior of students through teaching and learning interactions effective in the teaching-learning situations conducive.
CHAPTER VII ASPECTS BEHAVIORAL LEARNING
Motivation can be interpreted as an attempt to cause or increase the impetus to realize certain behaviors are directed to achieving a particular goal. Learning behavior occurs in situations of teaching and learning interactions in achieving goals and learning outcomes. In various theoretical studies, there were close links between satisfaction yng achieved in the premises elajar performance and motivation. Satisfaction obtained from prosse students learn to demonstrate performance and to increase motivation to learn. The performance achieved by a person can get satisfaction and then to increase motivation, in this connection should be able to cause an atmosphere of learning in such a way as to give satisfaction to produce a good performance. Factors affecting student satisfaction in learning that reward learning achievement, a sense of security in the study, adequate learning conditions, opportunities to expand the self, personal relationships.There are several principles of motivation that can be used as a reference that is the principle of competition, the principle driver, prinsipganjaran and punishments, goal clarity and closeness, understanding the results, peengembangan interests, a conducive environment, exemplary.Observation and attention is an aspect of behavior that has an important role in learning proese. Effectiveness of a pross peembelajaran kulitas be much affected by observation and attention given. Observation or perception, is one form of cognitive behavior, which is a process familiar environment using sensory organs. Prosses pengmatn occurs because of stimulation from the environment received by individuals denan enggunaan sense organ. Stimulation was then forwarded to the center of consciousness, the brain for later diberika meaning and interpretation. Judging from the proportion of use of force senses there are some observations which are: the style of visual observation, auditif style, style tactile, kinesthetic style.Attention can be defined as an increase in mental activity to a particular stimulus. More focused attention to individual observations to a stimulus, sehinnga observations become more effective. Teachers can help students maintain focus perhatan in the learning process with any of the following:

    * Cues, give certain cues to students at the time to start lessons or at the turn of events.
    * Movement, always moving and traveling to the entire class during the present lesson.
    * Variations, using style variations in teaching style.
    * Interests, provide the interest the students before and during proes teaching.
    * Questions, ask questions during the teaching process progresses, encourage students to give answers premises their own words.
A learning process will take place effectively if the information learned can be remembered properly and avoid forgetting. Remembering is a process of receiving, storing, and issue a return inforrmasi-information that was received through observation, then stored in the center of consciousness (brain) after a given interpretation.What is meant by the transfer of learning is to transfer the learning outcomes of a situation other situai kee. Tanfer will happen apabla there are similarities between the learning that one with another situation.In the process of learning needs is the source of the emergence of motivation. Requirements (need) can be interpreted as a lack of self sitiasi menunutut inividu and gratification in order to function effectively. Needs a source of motivation that encourages the emergence of individuals to behave.
Comments / reflections:In this chapter discusses some aspects of psychology that tekait with the learning process and consider the concept of psychological pengajaran.dengan expected teachers can develop learning strategies as effectively as possible. Aspects of the topics discussed were:

   1. Motivation, in relation to the teachers have responsibilities and obligations to motivate learning and help to avoid the possibility of frustration.
   2. Observation and attention, in activities at school the teacher must arrange for students to make observations that effective learning outcomes in order to obtain the best possible. In teaching should provide students untmlakukan pengamtan kesempatann epada good.
   3. Remembering and forgetting, the task of teachers is to help siswwa in the learning process for the materials studied students can remember dnga good and avoid forgetting.
   4. Transer in learning.
   5. Individual needs.
CHAPTER VIII TEACHING PSYCHOLOGY
Education is realized through the teaching process. The process of effective teaching through teaching meliki formed characteristics as follows:

   1. Student-centered
   2. Educational interaction between teachers and students
   3. Democratic atmosphere
   4. Variation of teaching methods
   5. Teacher professional
   6. Materials suitable and useful
   7. Environment conducive
   8. Learning tools that support
Models of teaching are grouped in four clusters namely

   1. Genetic information processing model, the model is oriented to students' proficiency dam process information. comprising: an inductive thinking model, training model inkuri, inkuri science, invention concept, cognitive growth, advanced styling model and memory.
   2. Clumps of personal models, these models are oriented to the individual and the development of ego (selfhood), consisting of: non-directive teaching, awareness training, sinektik, conceptual systems and a class meeting.
   3. Genetic model of social interaction, this model emphasizes individual relationships with other people or society, consisting of; determination of the group, inquiry (social invention), laboratory methods, jurisprudensial, play a role, the model advanced styling, and social simulation.
   4. Genetic model of behavior (behavior), this model emphasizes the behavioral aspects of psychological and behavioral changes that can not be observed, consisting of: contingency management, self control, relaxation, stress reduction, assertiveness training desensitasi, direct training.
Comments / reflections:In this chapter include the psychology of learning in which there is effective teaching process. In order to place the teaching process like that then the teacher should be able to create the teaching process in a good learning atmosphere. Furthermore, the familiar teaching models, as we all know that teaching is the main task of a teacher, with the existing discussion in this chapter, can be expected when being a teacher to know the models of teaching and selecting appropriate, in accordance with the capabilities and state-owned environment.
CHAPTER IX PSYCHOLOGY TEACHER
Role (role) means that the overall behavior of teachers who should be teachers in performing their duties as teachers. In the family perperan teachers as educators in the family or a family educator, while in the community, act as a mentor teacher (social developer), driving (social motivation), inventor (social innovators) and as agents of society (social agent).
Several factors influence the performance of teachers:

   1. employee benefits
   2. sense of security in employment
   3. good working conditions
   4. self-development opportunities
   5. personal relationships
Teacher competency is knowledge, attitudes, and skills that must exist in someone to show for his behavior as a teacher. Teacher competence includes personal competence, professional competence, social competence, intellectual competence and spiritual competence. Professional teachers are teachers who have the expertise, responsibility and sense kesejawatan supported by a strong professional ethics.Personality is the overall behavior of the various qualitative aspects will form the uniqueness or the uniqueness of a person in interaction with the environment in various situations and conditions. Within the scope of education, teacher performance is a very important thing to realize is tapat databases must address satisfying and effective. Thus the main characteristic of a teacher is the ability to realize the appearance quality of the interaction of personality in the best possible education for the needs and goals are reached effectively.
Comments / reflections:In the whole process of education, especially at school teacher plays the most important, the behavior of teachers in the educational process will give effect to coaching students. In a psychology teacher in this chapter is a psychological study of various aspects of teacher behavior typical in the education process at school.

The Importance of Flavor of Love in Education

2011-03-19T10:38:00.000-07:00

As one form of individual emotion, a sense of love can be present in the subject and object as well as a variety of situations. In education there is any real sense of love, whether experienced by teachers, students, or others involved in education. As the embodiment of his professional attitude, in addition are required to have a sense of love for the task they do, a teacher is also important to be able to have a sense of love towards learners. Form of manifestation of love of course teachers to the learners is different from other forms of manifestation of the kind of love, such as erotic love, the love of God, or love of parents. Although in certain cases found to overlap in realizing his love, where love of the students turned into erotic love, which of course is very different and opposite from the real meaning.
Feelings of love toward all learners teacher is very important and considered a major tool in education. This is a tragic when the educator is always busy and are required to master the teaching materials or developing methods and specific learning technology, but they just forget the importance of a sense of love towards learners. Mastery of teaching materials and methods and learning technologies by teachers is important, but if the education process must forget the aspect of love as the main tool of education would seem to be dry and loses his soul.
Maybe we ask, why students march in anarchist? Why is there a group of female students form a gang that spread hatred? Why some people are well educated and earn a bachelor's degree, but they actually cause misery to many people through corrupt behavior? Apparently this is where the importance of educators to be able to develop his love for dealing constructively with their students, are realized in the form of a sense of empathy, attention to happiness, prosperity and progress of the learners, making various efforts and helped the learners to gain happiness, prosperity, and progress.
Through the education process based on a sense of love, in turn, other than to bring someone to gain knowledge and skills are high, reaching a respectable position and wealth in abundance, is also expected to membelajarkan the learners to know and have a sense of love, so that they can grow and develop become a fully-human figure's love, both towards himself, his neighbor and his God.

Creativity in Schools

2011-03-19T10:36:00.000-07:00

In simple language, creativity can be defined as a mental process that can generate ideas or new concepts. According to the National Advisory Committees UK (1999), that creativity has four characteristics, namely: (1) think and act imaginatively, (2) all imaginative activities that have clear objectives, (3) through a process that can generate something original and (4) the results should provide added value. All four of these characteristics should be a unified whole. It is no creativity if only one or a few of these four characteristics.
Robert Fritz (1994) says that "The most Important developments in civilization have come through the creative process, but ironically, most people have not been taught to be creative." The same thing also delivered Ashfaq Ishaq: "We Humans have not yet achieved our full creative potential primarily Because every child's creativity is not properly nurtured. The critical role of imagination, discovery and creativity in a child's education is only beginning to come to light and, even Within the educational community, many still do not appreciate or Realize its vital importance. It must be acknowledged that until now the school system has not been fully able to develop and produce its graduates to become creative individuals. The students are more likely to be prepared to become a staff interpreter who worked on technical issues rather than become a visionary (read: leader). What dibelajarkan in schools often lack the benefit of student life and less in tune with the development of an ever-changing environment with rapid and unpredictable. Similarly, the learning process is carried out is likely to put more emphasis on learning "what is" that require students to memorize facts, rather than learning "what few cans", which can lead students to become self intact and original.
Therefore, how important kreativiitas development in schools for the education process at school can actually have a high relevance and produce graduates who have high creativity. Schools should be able to provide a curriculum that allows students to think critically and creatively, and problem solving skills, so in turn they can respond positively to any opportunities and challenges that exist and are able to manage risk for the sake of life on the present and future.
According to Robert J Sternberg, a student said to have creativity in the classroom when they senatiasa show: (1) was intrigued and curious, questioning and challenging and not stuck on the existing rules, (2) has the ability to think laterally and be able to make connections beyond the usual relationship, (3) dreaming about something, to imagine, looking at various possibilities, ask "what if seandanya" (what if?), and seeing things from a different angle, (4) explore various thoughts and options, play ideanya, try out alternatives with a fresh approach, maintaining an open mind and modify his ideas to get creative results, and (5) critically reflect on any ideas, actions and results, review progress has been achieved, to invite and utilize feedback, criticize constructively and can make a clever observation.
Creative learning can be seen from two sides, namely: (1) creative teaching (creative teaching) and (2) teaching for creativity (teaching for creativity). Teaching creatively illustrates how teachers can use imaginative approaches so that learning activities could increasingly more attractive, arousing, and effective. While teaching for creativity associated with the use of forms of learning, aimed at developing the students to have the ability to think and behave creatively.
Both concepts can not be separated, teaching for creativity in it must involve creative teaching. Teaching creatively and teaching for creativity basically covers all the learning characteristics (good learning and teaching), such as about: motivation and high expectations, the ability to communicate and listen, the ability to excite learning, inspiring, contextual, constructivist, and the like .
Carolyn Kay Edwards and Springate, in the article titled "The lion comes out of the Stone: Helping Young Children Achieve Their Creative Potential" provides advice on development efforts kreativiitas students, as follows:

   1. Provide opportunities and time freely to each student to explore and do the best job and do not intervene when they actually were motivated in completing their tasks productively.
   2. Create an environment attractive and exciting class. Do the "unfinished work" so that students feel curious and tempted his thinking to try to complete it at the next moment. Give also the opportunity for every student to do the contemplation.
   3. Provide and serve the abundant variety of materials and learning resources are attractive and beneficial to students.
   4. Create a classroom climate that allows students to feel comfortable if you make a mistake, encourage students courage to take risks receive appropriate noise and chaos in the classroom, and provide a broad autonomy to the students to manage learning in accordance with the interests, characteristics and objectives
Creative learning is not an easy choice, in it requires more time and planning to give birth and develop new ideas. In addition, it also required a strong conviction to do improvisation in the learning, the courage to try and ability to bear the various risks that are not expected in learning. Although to be done through the efforts that are not easy, learning to creativity is believed to make learning more fun and gives high effectiveness.
Related to the teacher's role in the formation of student creativity, Robert J Sternberg says "The most powerful way to develop creativity in your students is to be a role model. Children develop creativity Pls note you tell Them to, but you show Pls Them. "In carrying out the learning, teachers should be able to show his example as a highly creative.
A teacher who is creative is not only required to have expertise in the academic field, but more than that required also to be able to master the various techniques that can stimulate curiosity as well as to foster self-confidence and self-esteem (self esteem) of each student. Teachers must be able to give encouragement when students need it and give confidence to the students at the time he felt his self-esteem is threatened. In carrying out the process of learning, a teacher must be able to maintain a balance between the structure of learning with students' self-development opportunities, including group management (management of groups) with attention to individual differences in students.
To be a creative teacher is not an easy thing, especially for teachers that are categorized as laggard. When faced with a change (innovation) in school, they may tend to be late or just simply remain silent face changes. If allowed to continue, teachers like these that can actually be damaging to education. Of course, many factors that cause them to be laggard and not creative, whether sourced from within the teachers themselves (internal factors) as well as external factors. Therefore, for teachers to be creative to consider various factors that influence and background.
Leadership in schools is one factor that can not be released in developing creativity and the creativity of school teachers as a whole. Fred Luthans (1995) argued that creativity is a skill that must be controlled by a manager. In this case, principals are required to create a culture and climate of creativity in the school environment that encourages all member schools to develop creativity in performing various tasks and jobs. The school principal should be able to give awards to sertiap dilakulan creative effort by its members, especially the creative effort carried out by teachers and students in conducting learning. The school principal is also required to provide the resources for the growth of creativity in schools.
In addition there are teachers who include laggard, not a few teachers (and students) in schools that actually have an attitude and critical thinking and creative, but because it does not get strong support from the school system, including the school management, and ultimately, attitudes and thoughts creative can not develop properly. In fact, on the contrary they often experience a certain pressure of its environment being perceived as someone who "nyeleneh" or eccentric.
Based on the above description, it seems it can be concluded that students who are creative can be produced through a creative teacher, and teachers who are creative can be produced through the creative principals. Students who are creative is a very valuable asset for the life of his private self and others.

Students in School Discipline

2011-03-19T10:34:00.000-07:00

In life we often hear people say that the X was a man of high discipline, while the Y people are less disciplined. The name of people who have a high discipline usually drawn to people who always come on time, obey the rules, behave in accordance with prevailing norms, and the like. Conversely, as people who lack discipline is usually directed to people who lack or fail to comply with applicable rules and regulations, both sourced from the public (convention-informal), the government or the rules established by a particular institution (organizational-formal).

A student in participating in learning activities in schools will not be separated from the various rules and regulations in force at his school, and each student is required to behave in accordance with the rules and regulations that are applicable in their schools. Compliance and adherence students to the various rules and regulations that are applicable in their schools has been dubbed student discipline. While regulation, order, and various other provisions that attempt to regulate student behavior called school discipline. School discipline is a business school to maintain student behavior so as not to deviate and to encourage students to behave in accordance with the norms, rules and regulations prevailing in the school. According to Wikipedia (1993) that school discipline "refers to students complying with a code of behavior Often known as the school rules. The meaning of school rules (school rule), such as rules about dress standards (standards of clothing), punctuality, social behavior and ethics of study / work. Definition of school discipline is sometimes applied also to impose penalties (sanctions) as a consequence of violation of the rules, although sometimes a matter of controversy in applying the method pendisiplinannya, so caught up in the form of physical treatment errors (physical maltreatment) and error psychological treatment (psychological maltreatment), as disclosed by Irwin A. Hyman and Pamela A. Snock in his book "Dangerous School" (1999).With regard to the purpose of school discipline, Maman Rachman (1999) argued that the purpose of school discipline are: (1) provide support for the creation of behavior that is not distorted, (2) encourage students to do good and true, (3) help students understand and adjust to with the demands of their environment and avoid doing things that are prohibited by the school, and (4) students learn to live with the habits of good and beneficial for him and his environment. Meanwhile, by quoting the thought Moles, Joan Gaustad (1992) suggests: "School discipline has two main goals: (1) Ensure the safety of staff and students, and (2) create an environment conducive to learning". Meanwhile, Wendy Schwartz (2001) states that "the goals of discipline, once the need for it is determined, Should Be to help students accept personal responsibility for Their actions, understand why a behavior change is Necessary, and commit themselves to change." Similar stated by Wikipedia (1993) that the purpose of school discipline is to create security and a comfortable learning environment, especially in the classroom. In the classroom, if a teacher is unable to impose discipline properly then students may become less motivated and acquire a certain emphasis, and the atmosphere of learning to be less conducive to student achievement.Devis Keith said, "Discipline is management action to Enforce standarts organization" and therefore it is necessary to develop preventive and corrective discipline. Preventive discipline, namely the effort to move students to follow and comply with regulations. With it all, students are disciplined and can maintain itself against the rules. Corrective discipline, which attempts to direct the student to remain in compliance with regulations. For those who violate sanctioned to give lessons and repair itself so that to maintain and follow the rules.Talking about school discipline can not be released to issues in students' negative behavior. Negative behaviors that occur among teenage students in recent years seems to have very mengkhawarirkan, such as: free sex life, involvement in drugs, gang motorcycle and various actions that lead to the other criminal, who can not only hurt yourself, but also detrimental to the general public. In the internal environment of any violation of school rules and school rules are still frequently found violations that ranged from mild to high-level violations, such as: case truant, fighting, cheating, pemalakan, theft and other forms of deviant behavior only lainnya.Tentu , all it takes steps to prevent and penanggulangganya, and this is where the importance of school discipline.Student behavior is formed and influenced by various factors, including environmental factors, family and school.

About Maslow's Needs Theory Applications in Schools

2011-03-19T10:31:00.001-07:00

Thinking about the theory of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Individuals already widely known, but their application to educational interests of students in school seems to have not received full attention. Ideally, in order to achieve personal development of students, schools should provide and meet the various needs of their students.
The following is a summary of several possibilities that can be done in schools in applying the theory of Maslow's needs.
1. Physiological Needs Fulfillment:

    * Provides a low-cost lunch programs or even free.
    * Provide classrooms with adequate capacity and proper temperature
    * Provide shower / toilet in balanced amounts.
    * Provide space and land to rest for the student representative.
2. Meeting the Safety Needs:

    * The attitude of the teacher: fun, able to demonstrate acceptance of their students, and do not indicate a threat or be judgmental.
    * The existence of consistent expectations
    * Controlling the behavior of students in the class / school to implement a fair system of student discipline.
    * More provide reinforcement behavior (reinforcement) through praise / reward for all the positive behavior of students from the provision of punishment for negative behavior of students.
3. Meeting the Needs Love or Acceptance:
a. Teacher Relationship with Student:

    * Teachers can display the personality traits: empathic, caring and intereres against student, patient, fair, open and can be a good listener.
    * Teachers can apply learning and to understand their students individua (needs, potentials, interests, personality characteristics and background)
    * Teachers provide comments and more positive feedback than negative.
    * Teachers can appreciate and respect every thought, opinion and decision of every student.
    * Teacher can be a helper who can be relied upon and give credence to their students.
b. Student Relationship with Student:

    * Schools to develop a situation that allows the creation of mutualistic cooperation and mutual trust among students
    * Schools can organize a class meeting, through various forums, such as sports or arts.
    * Schools to develop class discussions that are not just for the sake of learning.
    * School developed a peer tutor
    * Schools to develop other forms of extra-curricular activities that range.
4. Meeting the Needs of Self-Esteem:
a. Students Develop Self-Esteem

    * Develop new knowledge based on students' background knowledge (scaffolding)
    * Develop a learning system appropriate to the needs of students
    * Focusing on strengths and assets owned by each student
    * Develop a variety of learning strategies
    * Always ready to provide assistance if students have difficulty
    * Involve all students in the class to berpartisipai and responsible.
    * When it comes to disciplining students, wherever mengkin done privately, not in public.
b. Award from the other party

    * Develop a classroom climate and cooperative learning where every student can be mutual respect and trust, do not mock each other.
    * Develop a program "star of the week"
    * Develop an awards program for the work, effort and achievement obtained by students.
    * Develop a curriculum that can deliver every sisiwa to have an empathic attitude and be a good listener.
    * Trying to engage students in any decision-making related to the interests of the students themselves.
c. Knowledge and Understanding

    * Provide opportunities for students to explore areas that would like to know.
    * Provide learning that provides intellectual challenge through discovery-inquiry approach
    * Provide learning topics with a variety of viewpoints
    * Provide opportunities for students to philosophical thinking and discussion.
d. Aesthetic

    * Organize classroom is neat and attractive
    * Pasting things interesting in the walls of the room, including works of art memampangkan students who are considered attractive.
    * The room was painted with colors that are fun
    * Maintain facilities and pre-existing facilities at the school around
    * The rooms are clean and fragrant
    * There are classrooms and school gardens landscaped
5. Meeting the Needs Self Akatualisasi

    * Provide opportunities for students to do their best
    * Provide insensitivity to the students to dig and explore the capabilities and potentials
    * Creating meaningful learning linked to real life.
    * Planning and learning process that involves a meta-cognitive activity of students.
    * Involve students in projects or activities of "self-expressive" and creative

Prevent Anxiety Students in School

2011-03-19T10:27:00.000-07:00

Anxiety or anxiety is a form of individual emotions related to feeling threatened by the existence of something, usually with the object of threats that are not so clear. Anxiety with reasonable intensity can be considered to have a positive value as motivation, but if the intensity is very strong and will actually be negative instead of causing damage and can impair physical and psychological circumstances of the individual.
Is Sigmund Freud, the pioneer of psychoanalysis that many review about this anxiety. Within the framework of his theory, anxiety is seen as a major component and plays an important role in the dynamics of personality.
Freud (Calvin S. Hall, 1993) divides anxiety into three types:

   1. Realistic anxiety is fear of the threat or the real dangers that exist in the outside world or environment.
   2. Neurotic anxiety is fear lest instincts (encouragement Id) will be out of control and cause him to do something that could make him punished. Neurotic anxiety is not fear of the instincts themselves, but fear of punishment that will befall him if the instinct is released. Neurotic anxiety developed based on experience gained in childhood, is associated with punishment and threats from parents and others who have the authority, if he did act impulsively.
   3. Anxiety is a fear of moral conscience (super ego). People who have a super ego that both tend to feel guilty or embarrassed if they do or think something that is contrary to morals. Similarly, neurotic anxiety, moral anxiety also developed based on experience gained in childhood, is associated with punishment and threats from parents and others who have the authority if he does something which violates norms
Furthermore, also noted that the anxiety that can not be overcome by effective measures called traumatic, that would make a person feel helpless, and completely childish. If the ego can not cope with anxiety by rational means, then he will be back in ways that are not realistic that the technical term is self-defense mechanism (self-defense mechanism), such as: repression, projection, reaction formation, fixation and regression. All forms of self-defense mechanism has general characteristics: (1) they deny, falsify or distort reality and (2) they work or do so unconsciously do not know what was happening.
Anxiety can be experienced by anyone and anywhere, as well as by the students at the school. Anxiety experienced by students at the school may take the form of realistic anxiety, neurotic or moral anxiety. Because anxiety is a psychological process that are not visible to the surface then to determine whether someone Siwa experiencing anxiety or not, required a thorough review, by seeking to recognize the symptoms or the symptoms, along with the factors that melatarbelangi and influence it. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the symptoms of anxiety that can be observed on the surface only a small fraction of the actual problem, like an iceberg in the ocean, which, when dived more likely to be found in issues far more complex.
At school, many of the factors triggering the emergence of anxiety on students' self. Targeted curriculum that is too high, the climate is not conducive to learning, providing a very solid job, and strict scoring system and inequitable to a factor of anxiety that comes from the curriculum factor. Similarly, teachers' attitudes and treatment that are less friendly, grumpy, grumpy and less competent a source of causes of anxiety in self-funded students from the teacher factor. Application of strict school discipline and punishment put forward, the less comfortable school climate, and facilities and pre-learning tool which is very limited also the factors triggering the formation of anxiety in siswa.yang sourced from the school management factors.
According to Sieber e.al. (1977) anxiety is considered as one of the factors inhibiting the learning that can interfere with the performance of one's cognitive functions, such as in concentrating, remembering, concept formation and problem-solving. At the level of chronic and acute symptoms of anxiety disorders can take the form of physical (somatic), such as: disorders of the digestive tract, frequent urination, headaches, heart problems, tightness in chest, shivering and even fainting.
Given the negative impact on learning achievement and physical or mental health of students, it is necessary specific measures to prevent and reduce the anxiety of students in schools, which can be done through:

   1. Creating a joyful learning. Learning can be fun if it departed from the potential, interests and needs of students. Therefore, the learning strategy used should focus on students, allowing students to mengkspresikan themselves and to take an active role in the learning process.
   2. During the ongoing learning activities teachers should be able to develop a "sense of humor" himself and his students. Nevertheless, a joke or a "joke" that was brought up should still be based on ethics and not discredit the students.
   3. Distraction activities through a variety of attractions "game" or "ice-break" certain, mainly carried out during the class atmosphere is not conducive .. In this case, the skills of teachers in developing group dynamics seem indispensable.
   4. From time to time invite students to undertake learning activities outside the classroom, so that the learning process is not forever be confined to students in the classroom.
   5. Provide materials and academic tasks with a moderate level of difficulty. In a sense, not so easy because it will cause students to become quickly bored and less challenged, but also not too difficult which can lead to student frustration.
   6. Using a humanistic approach in managing the classroom, where students can develop an intimate relationship patterns, friendly, tolerant, full of love and appreciation, both with teachers and with fellow students. As far as possible teachers avoid using negative reinforcement (punishment) in case of disciplinary action on students.
   7. Develop a fun scoring system, by providing opportunities for students to conduct self-assessment (self assessment) for the duties and work that has been done. At the time of the test, create a situation that is not gripping, but still maintain order and objectivity. Give positive feedback during and after carrying out an assessment or testing.
   8. In front of students, teachers will be perceived as a figure of authority who can impose penalties. Therefore, teachers should strive to instill in students a positive impression, with the present as a figure of fun, friendly, intelligent, empathetic and can follow, rather than a source of fear.
   9. Development of school management which allows the availability of facilities and basic facilities needed for the benefit of student learning, such as the availability of stationery, seating, classrooms, and so forth. In addition, create the school as a comfortable environment and free from interference, apply a humane school discipline and avoid forms of physical or psychological violence at school, whether conducted by teachers, friends and the people who are out of school.
  10. Optimizing the guidance and counseling services in schools. Guidance and counseling services can be used as core strengths in schools to prevent and overcome the anxiety students In this case, the availability of professional counselors in schools seems to be absolute.
Through the efforts - efforts on the students are expected to avoid the various forms of anxiety and they can grow and develop into healthy individuals physically and psychologically, which in turn can demonstrate superior academic achievement.

Guiding Student Learning Difficulties

2011-03-19T10:25:00.000-07:00

In learning activities in school, we are faced with a number of characteristics of diverse students. There are students who can take their learning activities smoothly and successfully without difficulty, but on the other hand not a few students who actually experience difficulties in learning. Student learning difficulties indicated by the presence of certain barriers to achieve learning outcomes, and can be psychological, sociological, and physiological, which in turn can lead to learning achievement reached under proper.
Student learning difficulties covers a wide pengetian, including: (a) learning disorder, (b) learning disfunction; (c) underachiever (d) slow learner, and (e) learning diasbilities.

Implementation Guide Series Guidance and Counselling in Schools, (1995), Guidance and Counselling Service in High School (SMU), Book IV, London: IPBI

Winkel, W.S. (1991), Guidance and Counselling in Educational Institutions, New York: Scholastic

Individual Development Tasks

2011-03-19T06:55:00.000-07:00

One of the principle that each individual development will have a specific development phase, which extends throughout his life. At each phase of development characterized by a number of specific development tasks that should to be completed.

The duties of this development with regard to attitudes, behaviors and skills that should be controlled according to age or phase of development. Havighurst (Abin Makmun Shamsuddin, 2009) provide an understanding of the tasks of development that: "A developmental task is a task the which arises at or about a perform certain period in the life of the individual, succesful achievement of the which leads to his happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disaproval by society, difficulty with later tasks "..
The task of individual development based on the following factors: (1) physical maturity, (2) the demands of society as a cultural, (3) demands and encouragement and ideals of the individual, and (4) religious norms.
For more details, under this proposed job description of each phase of development by Havighurst.
1. The Infant Development Tasks and Early Child (0,0-6.0)

    * Learning to walk at age 9.0 - 15.0 months.
    * Learning to eat solid food.
    * Learning to speak.
    * Learning to urinate and defecate.
    * Learning to know the difference between the sexes.
    * Achieve physical physiological stability.
    * Forming simple concepts of social reality and nature.
    * Learning to make emotional connections with parents, siblings, and others.
    * Learning to make good and bad relationships and development of conscience.
2. Development Tasks End Childhood and School Children (6,0-12.0)

    * Learning to acquire the physical skills to do the game.
    * Learn to form a healthy attitude toward themselves as biological beings.
    * Learning to get along with peers.
    * Learning to play the role according to gender.
    * Learn basic skills in reading, writing and arithmetic.
    * Learn to develop these concepts daily.
    * Develop a conscience.
    * Learning to gain personal freedom.
    * Develop a positive attitude toward social groups.
3. The Youth Development Task (12.0-21.0)

    * Achieve a more mature relationships with peers.
    * Achieving social role as a male or female.
    * Receive the physical state and use it effectively.
    * Achieve emotional independence from parents and other adults.
    * Achieving assurance of economic independence.
    * Selecting and preparing for a career.
    * Preparing for marriage and family life.
    * Develop the intellectual skills and concepts necessary for citizens.
    * Achieving behavior that is socially responsible.
    * Obtain a set of ethical value system as a guide / mentor in the act.
4. The Early Adult Development Tasks

    * Choosing a partner.
    * Learning to live with a partner.
    * Starting life with a partner.
    * Maintain the child.
    * Managing the household.
    * Started working.
    * Taking responsibility as citizens.
    * Find a matching group.
Meanwhile, the Ministry of Education (2003) provide details on the development task of adolescence to the age of junior and SMTA, which serve as reference Competency Standards Guidance and Counselling Services in schools, namely:
1. Development of Junior High Level Task

    * Achieve personal development as a teenager and devoted believers in God the Almighty.
    * Prepare yourself, accept and be positive and dynamic of the physical and psychological changes that occur to yourself for a healthy life.
    * Achieving the pattern of relationships with peers in his role as a male or female.
    * Strengthening the values and way of behaving that are acceptable in a broader social life.
    * Know Your talent abilities, and interests and career trends and art appreciation.
    * Develop knowledge and skills appropriate to their needs to follow and pursue studies and careers or prepare for and participate in public life.
    * Know the image and attitude about independent living emotionally, socially and economically.
    * Know the system of ethics and values as a guide to life as individuals, members of the community and human interest.
2. Task Progress High School Students

    * Achieving maturity in faith and devoted to God Almighty
    * Achieving maturity in peer relationships, and maturity in the role of men and women.
    * Achieve a healthy physical growth maturation
    * Develop a mastery of science, technology, and art in accordance with the program curriculum, career preparation and continuing higher education and also play a role in the life of the wider society.
    * Achieving maturity in career choices
    * Achieve a picture of maturity and self-reliant attitude about life emotionally, socially, intellectually and economically.
    * Achieve a picture of maturity and attitude about berkehidupan family, society, nation and state.
    * Develop social communication skills and intellectual and artistic appreciation.
    * Achieving maturity in ethics and value systems.

Contribution to Educational Psychology

2011-03-19T06:52:00.001-07:00

There was no denying that the field of psychology has long been used as the foundation of education in development theory and practice of education and has contributed greatly to education, including the development of curriculum, learning and assessment system.
1. Contributions to Psychology Education Curriculum Development.
Assessment of Educational Psychology in relation to curriculum development particularly with respect to understanding aspects of behavior in the context of teaching and learning. Apart from the various schools of psychology that characterizes education, in essence, this psychological study or pay attention to how in the put, the process and out of education to run with did not ignore the aspects of behavior and personality of students.Psychologically, humans are unique individuals. Thus, psychological studies in curriculum development should consider the uniqueness of every individual, both in terms of level of intelligence, abilities, attitudes, motivations, feelings and characteristics, other individual characteristics.Education curriculum should be able to provide the opportunity for every individual to be able to develop according to its potential, both in terms of subject matter and methods of delivery.In particular, in the context of education in Indonesia today, which developed the current curriculum is competency-based curriculum, which basically emphasizes on developing the knowledge, skills, and basic values are reflected in the habit of thinking and acting. The habit of thinking and act consistently and continuously allows someone to be competent, in the sense of having the knowledge, skills and values fundamental to do something.Thus in competency-based curriculum development, psychological assessment, especially regarding the following aspects: (1) the ability of students to do things in different contexts, (2) student learning experience, (3) learning outcomes (learning outcomes), and (4) standardization student ability
2. Contribution of Educational Psychology of Learning System
Educational psychology study has spawned various theories that underlie learning systems. We recognize the existence of a number of theories of learning, such as classical conditioning theory, connectionism, operant conditioning, gestalt, power theory, cognitive theory and other learning theories. Despite the controversy that accompanied the weaknesses of each theory, in reality these theories has contributed significantly in the learning process.In addition, the study of educational psychology also has spawned a number of principles that underlie learning activities Nasution (Daeng Sudirwo, 2002) explores the thirteen principles of learning, namely:

   1. To be a really learn, he must have a purpose
   2. The objective must arise from or relate to their needs and not because imposed by others.
   3. The person must be willing to experience a variety of difficulties and trying diligently to achieve a worthy purpose for him.
   4. Learning should be evident from the changes in his behavior.
   5. In addition to our ultimate goal to be achieved, also obtained by-product.
   6. Learn more successfully with street acts or conduct.
   7. One learns as a whole, not just the intellectual aspects but also include aspects of emotional, social, ethical and so forth.
   8. Someone needed help and guidance from others.
   9. To learn needed insight. What is learned must be completely understood. Learning is not just memorize facts in verbalistis loose.
  10. In addition to the actual pursuit of learning goals, a person often pursue other goals.
  11. Learn more successfully, if the attempt to give a pleasant success.
  12. Deuteronomy and the training necessary but must be preceded by the understanding.
  13. Learning is only possible if there is a willingness and desire to learn.
3. Contribution of Educational Psychology of Assessment System
Penilaiain education is one important aspect of education in order to understand how far the level of educational success. Through psychological studies we can understand what behavioral development of students obtained after following a specific educational activity or learning.In addition, psychological studies have contributed significantly in the measurement of the potential of every learner, especially after the development of various psychological tests, both to measure the level of intelligence, talent and personality of individuals lainnya.Kita know a number of psychological testing that is currently widely used to measure the potential of an individual, such as the Multiple Aptitude Test (MAT), Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), Epps and other measuring instruments.Understanding intelligence, talents, interests and other aspects of personality through psychological measurement, has significance for efforts to develop the individual education process so that in turn can be achieved optimal individual development.
Therefore, the importance of mastery of educational psychology for the teacher in carrying out professional duties.

Theories-theories Motivasi

2011-03-19T06:50:00.000-07:00

Motivation can be defined as power (energy) a person who can cause the level of persistence and entusiasmenya in executing an activity, whether sourced from within the individual itself (intrinsic motivation) or from outside the individual (extrinsic motivation).
How strong is the motivation of the individual will decide on the quality of the display of behavior, both in the context of learning, work and other life .. Studies on motivation have long been a main attraction for educators, managers, and researchers, mainly associated with the interests of achieving the performance (achievement) a person. In the context of psychological studies, Abin Makmun Shamsuddin (2003) suggests that to understand the motivation of individuals can be seen from several indicators, including: (1) the duration of activities, (2) frequency of activity, (3) persistence in activities, (4) fortitude, tenacity and ability to deal with obstacles and difficulties, (5) devotion and sacrifice to achieve goals; (6) level of aspiration to be achieved by the activities carried out; (7) qualification level of achievement or product (output) is achieved from the activities carried out; (8) the attitude toward the target activity.
To understand the motivation, we will meet with several theories about motivation, among others: (1) the theory of Abraham H. Maslow (Theory of Needs), (2) McClelland's Theory (Theory of Achievement Requirements), (3) Clyton theory of Alderfer (ERG Theory), (4) theory of Herzberg (Two Factor Theory), (5) theory of Justice, (6) The theory of determination purpose; (7) Victor H. Theory Vroom (expectancy theory), (8) Reinforcement theory and behavior modification, and (9) theory with the Achievement Rewards Linkages. (Excerpted from various sources: Winardi, 2001:69-93; Sondra P. Siagian, 286-294; Indriyo Gitosudarmo and Agus Mulyono 0.183 to 190, Fred Luthan 0.140 to 167).
1. Abraham H. Theory Maslow (Theory of Needs)
The theory of motivation developed by Abraham H. Maslow basically revolves around the notion that humans have five levels or hierarchy of needs, namely: (1) physiological needs (physiological needs), such as hunger, thirst, rest and sex, (2) safety needs (safety needs), not in a purely physical sense, but also mental, psychological and intellectual, (3) the need for love (love needs), (4) the need for self-esteem (esteem needs), which generally reflected in the various status symbols, and (5) self-actualization (self-actualization), in the sense of providing an opportunity for someone to develop the potential inherent in themselves so that turned into a real capability.
The needs of the former (physiological) and second (security) is sometimes classified in other ways, eg by classify it as a primary need, while others also known as secondary classification requirements. Irrespective of how to make a classification of human needs, what is clear is that the nature, type and intensity of human needs differ from one person to another because the human is a unique individual. It is also clear that human needs are not only material, but is pskologikal, mental, intellectual and even spiritual.
It is interesting to note that with the increasing number of organizations that grow and develop in society and the more profound understanding of the human element in organizational life, the theory of "classical" Maslow increasingly used, even said to have "corrected". Completion or "correction" is mainly directed at the concept of "hierarchy of needs" expressed by Maslow. The term "hierarchy" can be interpreted as levels. Or by analogy means stairs. The logic is that to climb a ladder rung means starting with the first, second, third and so on. If the concept is applied to the satisfaction of human needs, it means that someone will not try to satisfy the needs of the second level, - in this case before the needs of safety-first level namely food, clothing, and shelter are met, the third one will not be sought satisfaction before a person feels safe, so well beyond.
Departing from the fact that the understanding of the various human needs deepening and perfecting "correction" is felt not only proper, but also is necessary because experience shows that enterprises satisfying the various needs of humans take place simultaneously. That is, while satisfying physical needs, someone at the same time want to enjoy a sense of security, to feel appreciated, needed friends and want to develop.
Thus it can be said that the more appropriate if the various human needs is classified as a series and not as a hierarchy. In this connection, it should be emphasized that:

    * Need a one time have been met is likely to arise again in the future;
    * Pemuasaan specific needs, especially their physical needs, can shift from quantitative to qualitative approach in fulfillment.
    * Various needs will not be reached "saturation point" in the sense that the arrival of a condition in which a person is no longer able to do something in the fulfillment of these needs.
Although Maslow's thinking about the theory of this requirement seems more theoretical, but has provided inspiration for the foundation and development of theory-oriented theory of motivation that more needs to be applied next.
2. McClelland's Theory (Theory of Achievement Requirements)
From McClelland is known about the theory needs to achieve or Need for Acievement (N. Ach) which states that the motivation is different, according to the strength of one's needs for achievement. Murray was quoted as saying by Winardi formulate the requirement of achievement as a desire: "Implement something difficult task or job. Control, manipulate, or organize physical objects, people, or ideas implement these things as quickly as possible and seindependen possible, according to prevailing conditions. Overcoming obstacles, achieve high standards. Achieve peak performance for yourself. Being able to win in competition with other parties. Improve themselves through the successful application of talent. "
According to McClelland characteristics of high achievers (high achievers) have three common characteristics: (1) a preference for tasks with a moderate degree of difficulty, (2) like the situations in which their performance arises because their own efforts , and not because of other factors, like luck for instance, and (3) want feedback on their successes and failures, compared to those with low achievers.
3. Clyton Alderfer Theory (Theory "ERG)
Alderfer theory known by the acronym "ERG". Acronym "ERG" Alderfer's theory is the first letters of the three terms are: E = Existence (the need for existence), R = Relatedness (kebutuhanuntuk associated with other parties, and G = Growth (the need for growth)
If the meaning of these three terms will be explored were two important things. First, conceptually there are similarities between the theories or models developed by Maslow and Alderfer. Because of "Existence" can be said is identical to the first and second hierarchy in the theory of Maslow, "Relatedness" in line with the third and fourth hierarchy of needs according to Maslow's concept and "Growth" meaning the same as "self actualization" according to Maslow. Second, Alderfer theory stresses that different kinds of human need fulfillment was cultivated simultaneously. If the theory of Alderfer listened further it would appear that:

    * The non-fulfillment of a specific requirement, the greater the desire to satisfy it;
    * Strong desire to satisfy the needs of a "higher" increases if the lower needs have been satisfied;
    * Conversely, the more difficult to satisfy the needs of higher level, the greater the desire to memuasakan more basic needs.
It seems that this view is based on pragmatism by human nature. That is, recognizing its limitations, one can adjust themselves to the objective conditions faced by, among others, focused attention to matters that may be achieved.
4. Herzberg's Theory (Two Factor Theory)
Scientists recognized three have contributed significantly in understanding the motivation Herzberg. He developed the theory known as "Model Two Factors" of the motivation, the motivational factors and hygiene factors or "maintenance".
According to this theory is the motivational factor is the things that drive achievement intrinsic nature, which means the source in a person, while the meaning of hygiene or maintenance factors are factors that are extrinsic, which means originating from outside the self that contribute to determine the behavior someone in one's life.
According to Herzberg, is classified as a motivational factor among others is one's job, the success achieved, the opportunity to grow, progress in career and recognition of others. While hygiene factors or maintenance include the status of a person in the organization, an individual's relationship with her supervisor, relationship with co-workers, supervisory techniques applied by the supervisor, organizational policy, administrative systems within the organization, working conditions and benefits system applicable.One of the challenges in understanding and applying the Herzberg theory is that correctly take into account more factors which strongly influence a person's life, whether intrinsic or extrinsic nature
5. Justice Theory
The essence of this theory lies in the view that humans are driven to eliminate the gap between the effort made for the organization with the benefits received. That is, if an employee has the perception that the benefits they receive is inadequate, two possibilities can occur, namely:

    * A will attempt to obtain greater benefits, or
    * Reduce the intensity of effort made in carrying out the tasks which it is responsible.
In growing a particular perception, an employee typically uses four terms as a comparison, namely:

    * The expectation about the amount of benefit received it deems appropriate based on personal qualifications, such as education, skills, nature of work and experiences;
    * Benefits received by others in the organization of qualification and nature of pekerjaannnya relatively the same as those concerned themselves;
    * Benefits received by other employees at other organizations in the same region and similar activities;
    * Rules applicable laws regarding the amount and type of reward that is the right of employees
Maintenance of relationships with employees in this connection means that the officials and officers in the civil service must always be vigilant lest the perception of injustice occur, especially widespread among the employees. If until there will arise a variety of negative impacts to the organization, such as dissatisfaction, high levels of absenteeism, the frequent occurrence of accidents in the completion of tasks, employees often make mistakes in carrying out their work, strike or even the movement of employees to other organizations.
6. The theory of goal setting (goal setting theory)
Edwin Locke proposed that in setting the goal to have four different motivational mechanisms namely: (a) the objectives to direct attention, (b) the objectives set effort, (c) the objectives to increase persistence, and (d) support the strategic objectives -strategy and plans of activities. The following chart presents the instructive model of goal setting.
7. H. Victor Theory Vroom (expectancy theory)
Victor H. Vroom, in his book entitled "Work And Motivation" explores a theory called "Theory of Hope". According to this theory, motivation is the result of an outcome to be achieved by a concerned and estimates that his actions would lead to results that he wanted it. That is, if someone really wants something, and the road seemed open to get it, the concerned will try to get it.
Expressed in a very simple, prospect theory says that if someone wants something and hope to get something that is big enough, the concerned will be very motivated to get things he wants it. Conversely, if the hope of obtaining what he wanted was thin, his motivation for working would be low.
Among scientists and practitioners of human resource management theory this expectation has special attraction because of the emphasis on the importance of the personnel assist employees in determining the things he wants, and suggests ways most appropriate to realize that keinginannnya. This emphasis is considered important because experience shows that employees do not always know exactly what he wanted, let alone how to get it.
8. Reinforcement Theory and Behavior Modification
Various theories or models of motivation that has been discussed in advance can be classified as a cognitive model of motivation because it is based on the needs of a person based on the perception of that person means is very subjective. His behavior was determined by these perceptions.
Whereas in organizational life will be realized and recognized that a person is determined also by the various consequences ekstrernal of behavior and actions. That is, from a variety of factors outside a person played a role as determinants and modifiers of behavior.
Be apaya In this case, known as "legal effect" which states that human beings tend to repeat behaviors that have consequences that benefit themselves and dodge mengibatkan behavior that resulted in the emergence of behavioral adverse consequences.
Very simple example is a typist who can finish a good job in a short time. Typist is getting praise from his superiors. Praising the results in an accelerated salary increases. Due to the typist that enjoys the consequences of his behavior, he then pushed not only work more diligently and more thorough, but even trying to improve her skills, for example by learning to use computers so that its ability to progressively increase, which in turn is expected to have positive consequences in the future.
Example otherwise is an employee who came late repeatedly reprimanded by his superiors, possibly accompanied by the threat of disciplinary sanctions. Warning and may be subject to sanctions as a consequence of negative employee behaviors that result in behavior modification, which came just in time in the task.It is important to note that for the ways that are used for permanent behavior modification into account the human dignity which must always be acknowledged and respected, ways are taken by "force" a humane as well.
9. Linkages with the Achievement Rewards theory.
Based on the view that there is no one perfect model of motivation in the sense that each has advantages and disadvantages, scientists are continuing to search for and find the best motivation system, in the sense of combining the various advantages such models into one model. It seems there is agreement among experts that the model is what is included in the theory of linking rewards with the achievement of an individual.
According to this model, the motivation of an individual is influenced by various factors, both internal and external. Included on the internal factors are: (a) the person's perception about themselves, (b) self-esteem, (c) personal expectations, (d) kebutuhaan; (e) desire, (f) job satisfaction, (g) performance resulting .
While external factors affect one's motivation, among others are: (a) the type and nature of work, (b) where a person joins the working group, (c) organization of employment, (d) the environmental situation in general, (e) the prevailing reward system and how its application.

Constructivism Learning Theory

2011-03-19T06:48:00.000-07:00

One theory or well-known views related to learning theory of constructivism is Piaget's theory of mental development. This theory also called theory of intellectual development or the theory of cognitive development. Learning theory is regarding the readiness of children to learn, which is packaged in a stage of intellectual development from birth to adulthood. Each stage of intellectual development is equipped with certain characteristics in constructing knowledge. For example, the sensory motor stage of the child to think through the motions or actions (Ruseffendi, 1988: 132).
Furthermore, Piaget, known as the first constructivist (Dahar, 1989: 159) asserts that knowledge is constructed in the minds of children through assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the absorption of new information in mind. Meanwhile, the accommodation was to reconstruct the structure of the mind because of new information, so that information has a place (Ruseffendi 1988: 133). Another notion of accommodation is a mental process that involves the formation of a new scheme that matches the stimulation of new or modify an existing scheme so that it matches the stimulus (Suparno, 1996: 7).
Piaget further suggested that knowledge is not acquired passively by someone, but through action. In fact, the cognitive development of children depends on how far they actively manipulate and interact with their environment. Meanwhile, cognitive development itself is a continuous process on the state of imbalance and the state of equilibrium (Poedjiadi, 1999: 61).
From Piaget's views about the child's stage of cognitive development can be understood that at some stage how well the child's ability to construct knowledge varies according to the intellectual maturity of the child.
In relation to children and learning environment in the view of constructivism, Driver and Bell (in Susan, Marilyn and Tony, 1995: 222) propose the following characteristics: (1) students are not seen as something passive, but has a purpose, (2) consider the optimal learning may process student involvement, (3) knowledge is not something that comes from outside but is constructed in person, (4) learning is not the transmission of knowledge, but rather involves setting classroom situations, (5) curriculum is not merely learned, but rather a set of lessons, materials, and resources .
The view of children from among the more recent constructivist developed from Piaget's cognitive learning theory states that knowledge is built in the mind of a child with the activities of assimilation and accommodation in accordance with the schemata they have. Learning is an active process to develop schemata so that relevant knowledge is like a spider's web and not just arranged in a hierarchical (Hudoyo, 1998: 5).
From the above definition, it is understood that learning is an interactive activity that takes place between the internal factors in self-learners with external or environmental factors, so that creates changes in behavior.
Here are three main arguments in relation to Piaget's stage of intellectual development or stage of cognitive development or also called the stage of mental developments. Ruseffendi (1988: 133) argued: (1) intellectual development occurs through successive stages that always occur in the same order. That is, every man will experience these sequences and with the same order, (2) the stages are defined as a cluster of mental operations (sorting, pengekalan, grouping, making the hypothesis and conclusion) that show the existence of intellectual and behavioral (3) movement through these stages was accompanied by a balance (equilibration), which describes the development process of the interaction between experience (assimilation) and the resulting cognitive structures (accommodation).
Unlike the cognitive style of Piaget's constructivism, social constructivism developed by Vigotsky is that learning for children is done in interaction with social and physical environment. The invention or discovery in learning more easily obtained in one's sociocultural context (Poedjiadi, 1999: 62). In another explanation Capers (1998: 7) says that the core of constructivist Vigotsky is the interaction between internal and external aspects of its emphasis on the social environment in learning.
The implications of learning theory of constructivism in education of children (Poedjiadi, 1999: 63) are as follows: (1) educational objectives according to learning theory of constructivism is to produce an individual or a child who has the ability to think to solve every problem faced, (2) curriculum is designed such that any of the circumstances that allow the knowledge and skills can be constructed by the learner. In addition, the exercise memcahkan problems are often done through learning groups by analyzing the problems in daily life and (3) is expected to be active learners and can find an appropriate way of learning for themselves. Teachers simply serves as a mediator, fasilitor, and friends who create a situation conducive to the construction of knowledge on self-learners.
B. The essence of Learning According to Constructivism Learning Theory
As has been stated that according to the Constructivism learning theory, pengertahuan can not be moved away from the minds of teachers to students' minds. This means that students must be active mentally build the structure of knowledge based on cognitive maturity he has. In other words, students are not expected as the small bottles that are ready to be filled with a variety of science according to the will of teachers.
Relative to the above, Tasker (1992: 30) suggested three emphasis in constructivist learning theory as follows. First is the active role of students in constructing knowledge significantly. Second is the importance of making links between ideas in the construction significantly. Third is the link between the idea with new information received.
Wheatley (1991: 12) support the above opinion by asking two key principles in learning with learning theory konstrukltivisme. First, knowledge can not be passively, but actively by the students' cognitive structures. Second, the function of cognition is adaptive and helps the organization through real experience possessed child.
Both terms above emphasize how important the involvement of children actively in the process of association of ideas, and construction of science through the environment. Even specifically Hudoyo (1990: 4) says that a person would be easier to learn something when the study was based on what is already known to others. Therefore, to study a new material, learning experience and from someone who will influence the occurrence of these learning processes.
In addition to the emphasis and specific stages that need to be considered in learning theory of constructivism, Hanbury (1996: 3) suggests a number of aspects in relation to learning, namely (1) students construct knowledge by integrating their own ideas, (2) learning more meaningful because the students understand, (3) students' strategies are more valuable, and (4) students have the opportunity to discuss and exchange experiences and knowledge with her friends.
In an attempt to implement constructivist learning theory, Tytler (1996: 20) propose some suggestions related to learning design, as follows: (1) provide an opportunity for students to express ideas with their own language, (2) provide an opportunity for students to think about his experience to become more creative and imaginative, (3) provide an opportunity for students to try new ideas, (4) provide experience related to the ideas that have been owned by students, (5) encourage students to think about changing their ideas, and (6) create an environment conducive learning.
From some view of the above, it can be concluded that learning refers to learning theory of constructivism is more focused on student success in organizing their experiences. Non compliance of students in reflection on what has been ordered and carried out by teachers. In other words, students preferred to construct their own knowledge through assimilation and accommodation.

Lessons Completed (Mastery-Learning) in the SBC

2011-03-19T06:46:00.000-07:00

One of the major problems in education in Indonesia is much discussed is the low quality of education is reflected in the low average academic achievement, especially high school students (high school). Another problem is that the approach to learning is still too dominated by the teacher (teacher centered). Teachers place students more as objects and not as a subject students. Education gives us less opportunity to students in various subjects, to develop the ability to think holistically (whole), creative, objective, and logical, not to take advantage of quantum learning as one of the interesting paradigm in learning, and less attention to individual learning completeness.
Similarly, the process of education in our school systems, generally do not apply the learning to students learning to master the material thoroughly. As a result, many students who do not master the learning material even though it was declared graduated from school. No wonder the quality of education nationwide is still low.
Implementation of Content Standards competency-based approach as an effort to improve educational conditions in the country has several reasons, among them:

   1. potential learners is different, and that potential will grow if the proper stimulus;
   2. quality of education remains low and ignore the moral aspects, morals, manners, arts and sports, and life skills (life skills);
   3. global competition that allows only those who can be successful;
   4. competition ability of HR (Human Resources), product education institutions;
   5. competition that occurs in educational institutions, so we need a clear formulation of competency standards.
Efforts within the framework of improvement and development of competency-based curriculum includes: authority development, learning approach, structuring the content, as well as socialization models, more adapted to the development of the situation and conditions and the current era. Learning approach geared towards learners develop the ability to manage the acquisition of learning (competence) that best suit their respective conditions. Thus the learning process more referring to how students learn and are no longer on what is learned.
In accordance with the ideals of national education goals, teachers need to have some principles of teaching that refers to the internal upgrades learners in designing and implementing learning strategies. Improved internal potential eg by applying the kinds of learning strategies that enable learners to reach full competency, intact and contextual.
Speaking about the low absorptive capacity or achievement, or do not realize the skills and learning process that emphasizes the active role of learners, the core problem is the problem of "mastery learning" in which the minimum mastery level of achievement set for each individual competency. Problems learning completeness is an issue that is important, because about the future of learners, especially those who are experiencing learning difficulties.
Complete learning approach is one effort in education that aims to motivate learners achieve mastery (mastery level) against a particular competency. By placing a complete learning (mastery learning) as one of the key principles in supporting the implementation of competency-based curriculum, means that learning is something that must be thoroughly understood and implemented with the best by all citizens of the school. For that we need guidelines that provide direction and guidance for teachers and school community about how learning should be implemented thoroughly.
B. Basic Assumption
Learning method is a way to facilitate learners reach a certain competency. This applies to both teachers (in the selection of teaching methods) and for learners (in choosing a learning strategy). Thus the better method, the more effective will also achieve the learning objectives (Winarno Surahmad, 1982). Step learning method that was chosen to play the main role, which ended on increasing learning achievement of learners.
Thorough learning (mastery learning) in the process of competency-based learning is an approach intended in learning which requires students to master completely all the basic competency standards of competence and certain subjects. In the simplest model, proposed that if each student is given time in accordance with that required to achieve a level of mastery, and if he spends the time needed, it is probable that students will achieve mastery level competence. But if learners are not given enough time, or he can not use the full time required, then the mastery level of competency of learners are not yet optimal. Block (1971) stated level of competence mastery learners as follows:
mastery level of competency of learners
This model illustrates that the mastery level of competence (degree of learning) is determined by how much time is actually used (Actually time spent) to learn divided by the time it takes (time needed) to master certain competencies.
In conventional learning, aptitude (aptitude) of students scattered normally. If told they were given the same lesson in the amount of learning and the time available for learning, then learning results achieved will normally distributed as well. In this case it can be said that the relationship between talent and mastery level is high. The schematic concept of academic achievement as a result of learning with the conventional approach can be described as follows:
concept of learning achievement as a result of learning with the conventional approach
Conversely, if the talent is spread in a normal learners, and to them were given the same learning opportunities for every learner, but are given different treatment in the quality of learning, then it is probable that learners who can achieve mastery will multiply. In this case the relationship between talent with success will become increasingly smaller.
The schematic concept of academic achievement as a result of learning with complete learning approach, can be described as follows:
the impact of learning with the learning approach completely
From the above concepts, it seems quite clear that the expectation of learning with mastery learning approach is to enhance the average performance of students in learning by providing quality learning is more appropriate, assistance, and special attention for the slow learners to master competency standards or basic competence. From concept, to put forward key principles pembelalaran completed are:

   1. Competency to be achieved learners formulated with a hierarchical order,
   2. Evaluation of assessment used is the reference standard, and each competency should be given feedback,
   3. Provision of remedial teaching and counseling are needed,
   4. Providing enrichment programs for students who achieve mastery learning early. (Gentile & Lalley: 2003)
C. Learning the difference between renovation with Conventional Learning
Learning is a pattern completion using the principle of mastery learning on an individual basis. In the case of granting freedom to learn, and to reduce the failure of students in learning, mastery learning strategy adopted individual approach, in a sense though addressed to a group learning activity learners (classical), but to acknowledge and serve the individual differences of learners sedemikiah a way that with the application of thorough learning enables the development potential of each learner optimally. The rationale of mastery learning with individualized approach is the recognition of individual differences of each learner.
To realize the recognition and service to individual differences, learning to use the strategy developed is based on continuous learning (continuous progress). For that, a systems approach which is one of the basic principles of learning technology should actually be implemented. One way is the standard of competence and basic competencies should be clearly stated, and the learning is broken down into units (cremental units). Learners learn step by step and should learn the basic competencies following the master number of basic competencies established in accordance with certain criteria. In this pattern, a student who studies a particular learning unit can move to the next learning unit concerned if students have mastered at least 75% of the defined basic competencies. While conventional learning in this context is defined as learning in a context that was used to do classical, teacher-centered nature, so that its implementation is less attention to the overall learning situation (non-mastery learning).
By considering the above description can be argued that the distinction between complete learning with conventional learning is that learning thoroughly done through the principles of mastery learning, whereas the conventional learning in general less attention to mastery learning in particular thoroughness individual learners. By qualitative comparison to the two patterns can be observed in the following table,
Table 1: Qualitative Comparison between Conventional Learning Lessons Completed byDistinguishing Aspects of Learning Steps Completed Conventional LearningA. Preparation 1. Measured completeness of the performance level of students in each unit (unit of competency or basic skills). Each learner must achieve grades of 75 Measured performance of learners who performed at random2. Learning Events Unit Created to one week of learning, and used as guidance given to teachers and learners learners Created for one week's, and only used as guidelines for teachers3. Views on the ability of learners entering a particular learning unit is almost the same capability, but still there are variations in ability of students considered the sameB. Implementation of learning 4. Forms of learning in a single unit of competency or basic skills Implemented through a classical approach, group and individual practices are applied entirely through the classical approach5. Ways of learning in every standard of competence or learning basic competence through teacher explanation (lecture), and controlled independently read, discuss, and learn individually Performed by listening (lecture), frequently asked questions, and read (not controlled)6. Orientation learning performance of learners at the terminal (or the basic skills competency) by an individual in the learning materials7. The role of teachers as managers of learning to meet the needs of the students individually as managers of learning to meet the needs of all students in class8. Intended to focus the learning activities of each individual learner Intended to students with high ability9. Determination of decisions about the learning unit Specified by students with teacher assistance Determined solely by the teacherC. Feedback 10. Feedback instruments Using various types and forms of bills on an ongoing basis to rely on the use of more objective test for a fragment of time11. How to help learners Using a system of tutors in group discussions (small-group learning activities) and conducted by an individual tutor Conducted by the teacher in a classical form of question and answer
D. Indicators of Learning Implementation Completed
1. Learning Methods
Actually completed the learning strategy adopted individual approach, in the sense that although learning activities addressed to a group of learners (classical), but also recognize and provide services in accordance with individual differences of learners, so learning enables the development potential of each learner optimally.
The steps are:

    * Identify the prerequisites (prerequisite),
    * Create a test to measure progress and achievement of competencies,
    * Measure the achievement of the competence of learners.
Learning method that is emphasized in the learning to individual learning thoroughly, learning with friends or colleagues (peer instruction), and worked in small groups. Various types of methods (multiple methods) of learning should be used for classes or groups.
Learning completely rely heavily on tutorial approach with a session-session small group, of a person's tutorial, programmed learning, work books, games and computer-based learning (Kindsvatter, 1996)
2. Teacher Role
Complete learning strategy emphasizes the role or responsibility of the teacher in encouraging the success of individual learners. The approach used a model approach Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) as developed by Keller, a greater emphasis on interaction between learners with materials / learning objects.
The role of teachers should be intensified in the following:

    * Describe / break KD (Basic Competence) into units (units) are smaller with respect to knowledge preconditions.
    * Develop indicators based on the SK / KD.
    * Presenting learning materials in various forms
    * Monitor all learners work
    * Assessing student progress in achieving the competencies (cognitive, psychomotor, and affective)
    * Using diagnostic techniques
    * Provides a number of alternative learning strategies for students who have difficulty
3. Role of Learners
Curriculum Education Unit which has a competency-based approach to highly value and puts the role of students as subjects students. Learning programs focus not on "Master and who will do" but on "Learners and who will do". Therefore, thorough learning allows students more flexibility in determining the amount of study time required. This means that learners are given freedom in determining the speed of the achievement of competence. The progress of students is based on individual effort and perseverance.
4. Evaluation
It is important to note that the mastery learning in the curriculum is determined by reference to the benchmark assessment (criterion referenced) on each competency basis and not determined based on norms (norm referenced). In this case learning completeness limit should be set by teachers, such as whether students must score 75, 65, 55, or until the value of how a dinyatakatan learners achieve mastery in learning.
Basic assumptions are:

    * That everyone can learn anything, just take a different,
    * The standard should be established first, and the results of the evaluation is passed or not passed. (Gentile & Lalley: 2003)
Evaluation system uses continuous assessment, which characteristics are:

    * Deuteronomy carried out to see the completeness of each Basic Competence
    * Deuteronomy can be composed of one or more of the Basic Competency (KD)
    * The tests were analyzed and followed up through remedial and enrichment programs.
    * Deuteronomy includes aspects of cognitive and psychomotor
    * Affective aspect was measured through affective inventory activities such as observation, questionnaires, etc..
Assessment system includes billing type and form of instrument / questions. In tests of learning thoroughly prepared on the indicators sought as a means of diagnosis of the learning program. By using the diagnostic tests, well-designed, learner is possible to assess their own test results, including to identify where he had difficulty immediately. While determining the achievement of learning completeness limit, although it is generally agreed on the scores / grades of 75 (75%) but limit the thoroughness of the most realistic or most appropriate is determined by the subject teachers, thus allowing the existence of differences in determining the completeness limit for each KD or at any school and / or regions.
Given the speed of each learner in the achievement of KD is not the same, then learning occurs in learning speed difference between learners who are very clever and intelligent, with a less clever in achieving competence. While the competency-based learning requires the achievement of completeness in the achievement of competence for the entire basic competency on an individual basis. The implications of these principles requires the implementation of remedial programs and enrichment as an integral part of the implementation of complete learning system.
Source:
Taken and Adapted from:
Ministry of Education. 2008. Completed Learning Implementation Guide (Mastery-Learning) Jakarta: Directorate General for Primary and Secondary Education. Directorate of Secondary School

Learning Theories

2011-03-19T06:43:00.000-07:00

When reviewing the literature of psychology, we will find many learning theories derived from psychology streams. In the link below will put forward four types of learning theory, namely: (A) the theory of behaviorism, (B) according to Piaget's cognitive learning theory, (C) information processing theory of Gagne, and (D) gestalt learning theory.
A. Behaviorism Theory
Behaviorism is one stream of psychology that views individuals only in terms of physical phenomena, and ignore the aspects - the mental aspect. In other words, behaviorism does not acknowledge the existence of intelligence, talents, interests and feelings of individuals in a study. Event learn merely reflexes trained in such a way that it becomes a habit that controlled individual.Some legal learning resulting from this behaviorism approach, including:
1. Connectionism (S-R Bond) by Thorndike.
From the experiments conducted on cats produce Thorndike's laws of learning, including:Law of Effect, meaning that if a satisfactory response effect, the relationship Stimulus - response will be stronger. Conversely, the effect achieved is not satisfactory response, it also weakened the relationship between stimulus-response.

    * Law of Readiness; means that readiness refers to the assumption that the satisfaction derived from the organism pemdayagunaan introductory unit (conduction units), where these units lead to a tendency that drives organisms to do or not do something.
    * Law of Exercise, meaning that the relationship between stimuli with increases in response closely, if often trained and will be further reduced if rare or not trained.
2. By Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning
From Pavlov's experiments conducted on a dog produce laws of learning, including:

    * Law of respondents conditioning that is required by law habituation. If two kinds of stimuli presented simultaneously (one of whom serves as a reinforcer), then the reflex and other stimulus will increase.
    * Extinction Law of respondents demanded the extermination of law. If the reflexes that have been strengthened through conditioning RESPONDENT was brought back without presenting reinforcer, then the strength will decrease.
3. Operant conditioning according B.F. Skinner
From the experiments conducted B.F. Skinner on rats and pigeons produce further against the laws of learning, including:

    * Law of operant conditining ie, if accompanied by the emergence of stimulus reinforcement behavior, then the strength of these behaviors will increase.
    * Law of operant Extinction that is if the occurrence of operant behavior has been strengthened through the process of conditioning stimulus was not accompanied by reinforcement, the strength of these behaviors will decrease and even disappear.
Reber (Muhibin Shah, 2003) mentions that what is meant by operant is a behavior that carries the same effect on the environment. The response in operant conditioning occur without preceded by a stimulus, but by the effects of reinforcer. Reinforcer itself is basically a stimulus that increases the likelihood of a number of specific responses, but not intentionally held as a couple other stimuli such as in classical conditioning.
4. According to Albert Bandura's Social Learning
Social learning theory also called theory of observational learning is a learning theory that is still relatively new compared with other learning theories. Unlike the adherents of other Behaviorism, Bandura view individual behavior is not purely automatic reflex of the stimulus (SR Bond), but also a result of reactions that arise as a result of interaction between the environment with the individual's own cognitive schemes. The basic principle of learning according to this theory, that the studied individuals, especially in social and moral learning occurs through imitation (Imitation) and presenting examples of behavior (modeling). This theory is also still looking at the importance of conditioning. Through the reward and punishment, an individual will think and decide which social behavior needs to be done.
Actually there are many other figures who developed the theory of learning this Behavioristic, such as: Watson that produce frequency principle and the principle of novelty, Guthrie and his theory called Contiguity Theory which produces threshold method (the threshold method), method of exhausting (The Fatigue Method) and unsuitable stimulus method (The Incompatible Response Method), Miller and Dollard with encouragement reduction theory.
B. According to Piaget's Cognitive Learning Theory
Piaget was one figure who is mentioned as a pioneer of constructivism flow. One contribution of his thinking which is widely used as a reference for understanding the individual cognitive development of theories about the stages of individual development. According to Piaget's cognitive development of individuals that includes four stages: (1) the sensory motor, (2) pre-operational, (3) concrete operational, and (4) formal operational. Another Thought of Piaget concerning the reconstruction process that is individual knowledge assimilation and accommodation. James Atherton (2005) mentions that asisimilasi is "the process by which a person takes material into Their mind from the environment, the which May mean changing the Evidence of Their Senses to make it fit" and the accommodation is "the difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation "
He proposed also, that learning will be more successful when tailored to the stage of cognitive development of students. Learners should be given the opportunity to experiment with physical objects, which are supported by the interaction with peers and helped by a question from the teacher insight. Teachers should provide much stimulus to students to want to actively interact with the environment, seek and find different things from the environment.Implications of Piaget's theory of cognitive development in learning are:

   1. Language and the way children think differently from adults. Therefore, teachers teach using appropriate language with the way children think.
   2. Children will learn better if it can properly deal with the environment. Teachers must help children to interact with the environment as well as possible.
   3. Material to be learned kids should just be felt but not foreign.
   4. Provide opportunities for children to learn appropriate stage of its development.
   5. In the classroom, children should be given the opportunity to talk to each other and discussions with friends.
C. Information Processing Theory of Robert Gagne
The assumption underlying this theory is that learning is a crucial factor in development. The development is a cumulative result of learning. According to Gagne that learning occurs in the admissions process information, to then be processed to produce output in the form of learning outcomes. In the processing of information occurs the interaction between internal conditions and external conditions of the individual. Internal conditions of a state within the individual who is required to achieve the result of learning and cognitive processes that occur in the individual. While the external condition is stimulation from the environment which affect the individual in the learning process.
According to Gagne stages of the learning process involves eight phases namely, (1) motivation, (2) understanding, (3) acquisition, (4) storage, (5) recall, (6) generalization, (7) treatment and (8) bait behind.
D. Gestalt Learning Theory
Gestalt comes from the German language which has the equivalent meaning as "shape or configuration." Main Gestalt view is that the object or event would be viewed as a whole is organized. According to Koffka and Kohler, there are seven principles which the most important organizations are:

   1. Relationships form and background (figure and gound relationship), ie assume that every field of observation can be divided into two, namely the figure (shape) and background. Appearance of an object such as size, cut, color and so on to distinguish figure from background. When the figure and background are vague, there will be a blur of interpretation between background and figure.
   2. Proximity (proxmity); that the elements adjacent to each other (both time and space) in the field of observation will be seen as a particular form.
   3. Similarity (similarity); that something similar will tend to be viewed as an object which belong to each other.
   4. The direction of joint (common direction); that the elements of field observations are in the same direction tend to be perceived as a figure or a certain shape.
   5. Simplicity (simplicity); that people tend to organize field observations form a simple, regular appearance and tend to form a good overall arrangement based on symmetrical and regularity; and
   6. Closure (closures) that people tend to fill the void of a pattern object or incomplete observations.
There are four assumptions underlying the Gestalt view, namely:
1. Behavior "Molar" should be well studied compared with the behavior of "Molecular". Behavior "Molecular" is the behavior in the form of muscle contraction or release of the gland, while the behavior of "Molar" is the behavior in connection with the outside environment. Running, walking, following college, playing football is some behavior "Molar". Behavior "Molar" is more meaningful than the behavior of "Molecular".
   2. What is important in studying the behavior is to distinguish between geographical environment with behavioral environment. Geographical environment is the environment that actually exists, while the behavioral environment refers to something visible. For example, the mountain is visible from afar as if something beautiful. (Behavioral environment), when in fact is an environment full of dense forest (geographic environment).
   3. The organism does not react to local stimulation or element or a part of the event, but react to the whole object or event. For example, the naming of a collection of stars, such as: Sagittarius, virgo, pisces, gemini and so is an example of this principle. Another example, the clouds look like a mountain or a particular animal.
   4. Giving meaning to a sensory stimulus is a dynamic process and not as a static reaction. Observation process is a dynamic process in providing interpretation of stimuli received.
Gestalt theory application in the learning process include:

   1. The experience of insight (insight); that insight plays an important role in behavior. In the process of learning, learners should have the ability to insight: the ability to know the relationship of elements in an object or event.
   2. Learning is meaningful (meaningful learning); significance related elements will support the formation of insight in the learning process. The more obvious meaning of the relationship of an element will be more effective something is learned. It is very important in problem solving activities, particularly in identifying problems and developing alternative solutions. The things that students should have learned the meaning of a clear and logical with the process of life.
   3. Behaviour aims (pusposive behavior); that the behavior directed at the goal. Behavior is not only due to stimulus-response relationship, but there is relevance to the objectives to be achieved. The learning process will be effective if learners know the goal to be achieved. Therefore, teachers should be aware of the objectives as a way of teaching activities and assist learners in understanding its purpose.
   4. The principle of living space (life space); that individual behavior is related to the environment where it is located. Therefore, the material being taught should have relevance to the situation and environmental conditions of life of learners.
   5. Transfer of Learning; namely the transfer of behavioral patterns in specific learning situations to other situations. According to the Gestalt view, transfer of learning occurs by way of releasing the sense of a configuration object in a particular situation and then put in a situation to another configuration in the appropriate governance arrangement. He stressed the importance of catching the main principles in learning and extensive then formulate the general provisions (generalization). Transfer of learning will occur when learners have arrested the main principles of a problem and find a generalization for later use in solving problems in other situations. Therefore, teachers should help learners to master the basic principles of content to be studied.

The Nature and Definition of Learning

2011-03-19T06:39:00.000-07:00

Learning is one of the factors that influence and was instrumental in the formation of personal and individual behavior. Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata (2005) mentions that some of the greatest individual development takes place throughlearning activities. So, what actually learn it?Below is presented on the definition of learning from the experts:

    * Moh. Surya (1997): "learning can be interpreted as a process conducted by an individual to acquire new behavior changes as a whole, as a result of the individual's own experience in interacting with their environment."
    * Witherington (1952): "learning is a change in personality that is manifested as patterns of response that a new form of skills, attitudes, habits, knowledge and skills."
    * Crow & Crow, and (1958): "learning is acquired habits, knowledge and new attitude."
    * Hilgard (1962): "learning is the process whereby a behavior appears behaviors arise or change due to a response to anything the situation"
    * In Vesta and Thompson (1970): "learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience."
    * Gage & Berliner: "learning is a process of behavior change that comes from experience"
From some understanding of learning mentioned above, the keywords of learning is behavioral change. In this case, Moh Surya (1997) revealed the characteristics of behavioral changes, namely:
1. Changes in conscious and deliberate (intentional).
Changes in behavior that occurs is a conscious and deliberate effort of the individuals concerned. So also with the results, the individual realizes that in itself has been a change, for example, increasing knowledge or skills increased, compared to before he followed a process of learning. For example, a student is learning about educational psychology. He realized that he was trying to learn about the Psychology of Education. Similarly, after studying Educational Psychology he realizes that he has been a change in behavior, to gain some knowledge, attitudes and skills related to Educational Psychology.
2. Changes in continuous (continuous).
Increased knowledge or skill possessed basically a continuation of the knowledge and skills that have been obtained previously. Likewise, knowledge, attitudes and skills that have been obtained, it will become the basis for the development of knowledge, attitude and skills of the next. For example, a student has studied Educational Psychology of the "Essentials of Learning". When he followed the course "Teaching and Learning Strategies", then the knowledge, attitude and skills of "Essentials of Learning" will be continued and can be used in following the course "Teaching and Learning Strategies."
3. Changes in the functional.
Any behavior changes that occur can be exploited for the benefit of the individual life, both for the benefit of present and future. Example: a student learning about educational psychology, the knowledge and skills in educational psychology can be utilized to learn and develop themselves and learn behavior and the behavior of the learners develop later when she became a teacher.
4. The changes are positive.
Behavioral changes that occur are normative and shows the direction of progress. For example, a student before learning about the Psychology of Education considers that in the Process of Teaching and Learning does not need to consider individual differences or personal development and behavior of learners, but after following learning Educational Psychology, he understands and intends to apply the principle - the principle of individual differences and the principles of development of the individual if he would become a teacher.
5. Changes which are active.
To obtain the new behavior, the individual actively seeks to make changes. For example, students want to acquire new knowledge about educational psychology, the student is actively engaged in reading and reviewing educational psychology books, discussing with friends about the psychology of education and so forth.
6. The changes are permanent.
Changes in behavior obtained from the learning process tends to settle and become an inherent part of himself. For example, students learn to use a computer, then the mastery of skills to operate computers will be settled and stick in the student.
7. The changes are aimed and directed.
Individual learning activities there must be objective to be achieved, both short-term goals, medium term and long term. For example, a student studying educational psychology, goal to be achieved in the short term maybe he wants to acquire the knowledge, attitude and skills of educational psychology in the form of graduation to earn an A. While the long-term goals he wants to be effective teachers with adequate competence of Educational Psychology. Various activities carried out and directed to achieve these goals.
8. Changes in behavior as a whole.
Studying behavior change is not merely acquiring knowledge only, but including also obtain a change in attitude and skill. For example, students learn about "Learning Theories", in addition to obtaining information or knowledge about "Learning Theories", he also obtained an attitude about the importance of a master teacher "of Theories of Learning". Likewise, he obtained a skill in applying the "Theories of Learning".
According to Gagne (Abin Makmun Shamsuddin, 2003), changes in behavior that is the result of learning may take the form:

   1. Verbal information, namely the mastery of information in verbal form, either in writing or written, for example giving the names of an object, definition, and so forth.
   2. Intellectual skills; the individual skills in interacting with their environment using symbols, for example: the use of mathematical symbols. Included in intellectual skills is a skill in distinguishing (discrimination), understand the concept of concrete, abstract concepts, rules and laws. These skills are needed in dealing with problem-solving.
   3. Cognitive strategies; ability of individuals to perform the overall control and management activities. In the context of the learning process, cognitive strategies is the ability to control memory and the way - the way of thinking for effective activity occurs. Intellectual skills focus on learning outcomes, while cognitive strategies more emphasis on the thinking process.
   4. Attitude; the learning outcomes of individual skill to choose the kinds of actions to be taken. In other words. Attitude is a state within the individual who will provide vertindak trend in the face of an object or event, in which there are elements of thought, feelings that accompany thinking and readiness to act.
   5. Motor skills; is the result of learning in the form of skills which are controlled by muscle movement and physical.
Meanwhile, Moh. Surya (1997) argued that the study will appear in:

   1. Habits, such as: learners learn a language many times to avoid the tendency of using the wrong word or structure, so that eventually he was accustomed to use language properly and correctly.
   2. Skills, such as: writing and exercise that although it is motor skills that require precise motor coordination and awareness is high.
   3. Observation; the process to receive, interpret and give meaning to incoming stimuli through the senses in an objective manner so that students are able to achieve the correct understanding.
   4. Associative thinking, ie thinking in a way to associate something with others using the memory.
   5. Rational and critical thinking that is using the principles and basics of understanding in answering critical questions such as "how" (how) and "why" (why).
   6. The attitude that is relatively permanent tendency to react with how good or bad to certain people or goods in accordance with the knowledge and belief.
   7. Inhibition (to avoid things that redundant).
   8. Appreciation (appreciate the works of quality.
   9. Affective behavior ie behavior that concerned with feelings of fear, anger, sadness, joy, disappointment, love, hate, anxiety and so forth.
Meanwhile, according to Bloom, the behavior changes that occur as a result of learning involves changes in the areas (domains), cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspects of its aspects and levels.

About Psychoanalysis

2011-03-19T06:36:00.000-07:00

Psikonaliasis touted as the first force in the flow of psychology. This flow was first developed in 1890s by Simund Freud, a neurologist who managed to find ways of effective treatment for patients who experience symptoms of neurotic disorders and hysteria through experimental treatment technique called abreaction, a combination of hypnotic techniques with catharsis, which he learned from a senior while his friend, Dr. Josef Breuer. Together with Breuer, Freud dealing with patients with disorders of hysteria that became material for his writings: "Studies in Hysteria". Collaboration with Jean Martin Charcot, the famous physician in France nerve, he dug a lot about psychosomatic symptoms of patients who experienced sexual harassment.
Freud has developed a theory of personality structure that divides the mind into three parts, namely: consciousness (conscious mind), preconsciousness (conscious threshold) and unconsciousness (the unconscious). Of the three aspects of consciousness, unconsciousness is the most dominant and most important in determining human behavior (the analogy with the iceberg). In the unsconscious stored memories of childhood, a great psychic energy and instinct. Preconsciousness act as a bridge between the conscious and unconscious, containing memories or ideas that can be accessed at any time. Consciousness is just a small part of the mind, but the only part that has direct contact with reality. Freud developed the concept of the structure of mind is to develop "mind apparatus", which is known as Freud's personality structure and become konstruknya most importantly, the id, ego and super ego. Id is the most basic structure of personality, entirely unconscious and work according to the pleasure principle, the aim is the fulfillment of immediate satisfaction. The ego develops from the id, the personality structure that controls consciousness and take decisions on human behavior. Superego, develops from the ego when people understand the value of moral good and bad. Superego reflects social values and individual awareness of the moral tuntuta. In the event of violation of values, the superego punishes the ego with the sense wrong. Ego always face the tension between the demands of the id and superego. If the claim is not resolved properly, then comes the ego is threatened and anxiety (anxiety). In order to save themselves from the threat, the ego to react defensively / self defense. This is known as a defensive mecahnism that type can vary, such as: identification, projection, fixation, agesi regression, repression.
Psychoanalysis of Freud's thinking more and continues to grow, Alfred Adler (1870-1937), as a follower of Freud who has developed his own theory called Individual Psychology. The main concept is to organ inferiority Adler. Departing from his theory of the inferiority because of trying to overcome the physical deficiencies of man, he expanded his theory by stating that the feelings of inferiority are universal. Every human being must have a feeling inferior because of shortcomings and try to make compensation for these feelings. This compensation could be in the form adjust or establish a defense that allows it to overcome these weaknesses. Furthermore, Adler also talks about striving for superiority, namely the drive to overcome inferiority to achieve excellence. This impulse innate nature and is a strong driving force for the individual throughout his life. The existence of the human striving for superiority led to ever-evolving towards perfection. This theory makes Adler has a more optimistic outlook and positive impact on humans and are more oriented to the future than Freud's more oriented to the past.
Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961), one of Freud's disciples who later managed to develop his own theory called Analytical Psychology. Jung's emphasis on aspects ketidakadaran with its main concept, collective unconscious. This concept of transpersonal nature, exist in all humans. This can be proven through the human brain structure that has not changed. Collective unconscious consists of memory traces derived from the older generation, coverage is up to the pre-human. For example, in love with the parents, afraid of wild animals, and others. Collective unconscious is a basic human personality because of the value and wisdom contained therein adopted by humans. Derived ideas or primordial images called archetype, which is formed from repeated experience in a long time. There are some fundamental archetype in men, the persona, anima, shadow, self. Archetype that is the content of collective unconsciousness. (Hana Panggabean, 2007, http://rumahbelajarpsikologi.com)
Until now in the United States recorded approximately 35 training institutes Psychoanalysis that has been accredited by the American Psychoanalytic Association and there are more than 3,000 graduates who practice psychoanalysis. Thinking of psychoanalysis not only flourished in America in almost all parts of Europe and other parts of the world.
Several theories generated from the psychoanalysis, including: (1) theory of conflict, (2) ego psychology, (3) theory of object relations, (4) structural theory, and so forth
Despite the controversy that accompanies it, psychoanalysis is one of the flow of psychology who has managed to uncover the human side of life that can not be observed by human senses. Psychoanalysis has brought its vanguard, that is Sigmund Freud as one of psychology's most popular figures in America in the 20th century.
Source:
Hana Panggabean, 2007, http://rumahbelajarpsikologi.com
Wikipedia. 2007. Psychoanalysis. http://en.wikipedia.org/

Overview of Behaviorism

2011-03-19T06:31:00.000-07:00

Behaviorism is one stream of psychology that believes that in order to examine the behavior of individuals must be made to each individual activity that can be observed, not on hypothetical events that occur within the individual. Therefore, the adherents of behaviorism balked flow of aspects of consciousness or mentality in the individual. This view has actually been going on for a long time since Ancient Greece, when psychology was still considered part of the study of philosophy. But the birth of formal psychological behaviorism as the flow started by JB Watson in 1913 who considered psychology as part of the faulty world of experimental science and objective, and therefore must use the methods of empirical psychology, such as: observation, conditioning, testing, and verbal reports.

Watson's main theory of the concept of stimulus and response (SR) in psychology. Stimulus object is anything that comes from the environment. While the response is all the activities in response to the stimulus, ranging from simple to advanced level. Watson does not believe in hereditary elements (descendants) as a determinant of human behavior and the behavior is the result of learning so that elements of the environment is very important. Thought Watson became the basis for the adherents of the next behaviorism.

The theories developed by the group generated a lot of behaviorism, especially through various experiments on animals. Here are some important theories generated by a group of behaviorism:
1. Connectionism (S-R Bond) by Thorndike.

From the experiments conducted on cats produce Thorndike's laws of learning, including:

     * Law of Effect, meaning that if a satisfactory response effect, the relationship Stimulus - response will be stronger. Conversely, the effect achieved is not satisfactory response, it also weakened the relationship between stimulus-response.
     * Law of Readiness; means that readiness refers to the assumption that the satisfaction derived from the organism pemdayagunaan introductory unit (conduction units), where these units lead to a tendency that drives organisms to do or not do something.
     * Law of Exercise, meaning that the relationship between stimuli with increases in response closely, if often trained and will be further reduced if rare or not trained.

2. By Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning

From Pavlov's experiments conducted on a dog produce laws of learning, including:

     * Law of respondents conditioning that is required by law habituation. If two kinds of stimuli presented simultaneously (one of whom serves as a reinforcer), then the reflex and other stimulus will increase.
     * Extinction Law of respondents demanded the extermination of law. If the reflexes that have been strengthened through conditioning RESPONDENT was brought back without presenting reinforcer, then the strength will decrease.
3. Operant conditioning according B.F. Skinner

From the experiments conducted B.F. Skinner on rats and pigeons produce further against the laws of learning, including:

     * Law of operant conditining ie, if accompanied by the emergence of stimulus reinforcement behavior, then the strength of these behaviors will increase.
     * Law of operant Extinction that is if the occurrence of operant behavior has been strengthened through the process of conditioning stimulus was not accompanied by reinforcement, the strength of these behaviors will decrease and even disappear.

Reber (Muhibin Shah, 2003) mentions that what is meant by operant is a behavior that carries the same effect on the environment. The response in operant conditioning occur without preceded by a stimulus, but by the effects of reinforcer. Reinforcer itself is basically a stimulus that increases the likelihood of a number of specific responses, but not intentionally held as a couple other stimuli such as in classical conditioning.

4. According to Albert Bandura's Social Learning

Social learning theory also called theory of observational learning is a learning theory that is still relatively new compared with other learning theories. Unlike the adherents of other Behaviorism, Bandura view individual behavior is not purely automatic reflex of the stimulus (SR Bond), but also a result of reactions that arise as a result of interaction between the environment with the individual's own cognitive schemes. The basic principle of learning according to this theory, that the studied individuals, especially in social and moral learning occurs through imitation (Imitation) and presenting examples of behavior (modeling). This theory is also still looking at the importance of conditioning. Through the reward and punishment, an individual will think and decide which social behavior needs to be done.

Education Information for New and Future Teachers

2011-03-16T08:04:00.000-07:00

This web page on study skills, and what some may refer to as study tips, is designed to help you improve your learning and understanding, and ultimately your grades. It is not so large that it would require you to engage in mind-numbing reading of chapter after chapter as is the case with many books on the subject. The information is written in a way to help you "see" and "practice" proven study techniques. This page is used in hundreds of schools and universities and is currently ranked by Google and Bing in the top ten for plain old "study skills" and "how to study effectively" and #1 by Google and Bing for "effective study skills"

Want more? Available now is a new, inexpensive download or CD on how to improve not just your study skills, but your learning skills as well. That includes in one program a greatly enhanced version of all the information below, and much, much more, including a new section on how to get better math grades and motivation.

There is little doubt that no two people study the same way, and it is a near certainty that what works for one person may not work for another. However, there are some general techniques that seem to produce good results. No one would argue that every subject that you have to take is going to be so interesting that studying it is not work but pleasure. We can only wish.

Everyone is different, and for some students, studying and being motivated to learn comes naturally. If you are reading this page, it's likely that you are not one of them, but don't despair, there is hope! Your success in high school and college is dependent on your ability to study effectively and efficiently. The results of poor study skills are wasted time, frustration, and low or failing grades. It's your life, your time, and your future. All I can say, upon reflection of many years as a teacher, is that time is precious and not to be squandered, no matter what you believe right now.

This guide is designed to help you develop effective study skills. It is not a magic formula for success in preparing for tests, or written or oral assignments. Studying any material requires work! However, by using the techniques described in this guide, and by applying yourself, you can gain a valuable edge in understanding material, preparing for tests, and, ultimately, learning. This guide contains some of the best and most effective techniques of successful students - students who typically have high grades in high school and college regardless of the courses they take. So read on, think about what you read, and prepare to become a successful student! If you have questions, comments or suggestions, please send to me.

Effective Study skills are about more than understanding

Effective study skills must be practiced in order for you to improve. It is not enough to simply "think about" studying; you have to actually do it, and in the process use information from what you do to get better. This is the central idea of this page. All that follows depends on this single concept. There is a saying that goes like this: "Practice doesn't make perfect; perfect practice makes perfect." If you want to be an achiever, take this saying to heart.

The value of a schedule

Before you even begin to think about the process of studying, you must develop a schedule. If you don't have a schedule or plan for studying, then you will not have any way of allocating your valuable time when the unexpected comes up. A good, well thought out schedule can be a lifesaver. It's up to you to learn how to develop a schedule that meets your needs, revise it if necessary, and most important, follow it.

A schedule saves time

All schedules should be made with the idea that they can be revised. A good schedule keeps you from wandering off course. A good schedule, if properly managed, assigns time where time is needed, but you've got to want to do it!

Making every hour count

A schedule should take into account every class, laboratory, lecture, social event, and other work in which you engage. There are givens such as classes and so on that have to be incorporated. You must focus on the other "free time" available and how you will use it. Make a weekly schedule and block off the 24 hour day in one hour increments. Indicate times for classes, labs, lectures, social, and work time. Also block off a period for sleeping each day. With what is left over, plan time for study. This gives you a rough road map of the time available. Of course, you can revise your schedule as circumstances warrant.

When to study

The problem of when to study is critical. A good rule of thumb is that studying should be carried out only when you are rested, alert, and have planned for it. Last minute studying just before a class is usually a waste of time.

Studying for lecture courses

If your study period is before the lecture class, be sure you have read all the assignments and made notes on what you don't understand. If the study period is after the lecture class, review the notes you took during class while the information is still fresh.

Studying for recitation courses

For classes that require recitation, such as foreign language, be sure to schedule a study period just before the class. Use the time to practice. Sometimes, practice with others can help sharpen your skills in a before-class study period.

Making and revising a schedule

Don't be afraid to revise your schedule. Schedules are really plans for how you intend to use your time. If your schedule doesn't work, revise it. You must understand that your schedule is to help you develop good study habits. Once you have developed them, schedule building becomes easier.

The Process of Study

How to use your time

Time is the most valuable resource a student has. It is also one of the most wasted of resources. The schedule you develop should guide you in how to allocate the available time in the most productive manner. Sticking to your schedule can be tough. Don't dribble away valuable time. Avoiding study is the easiest thing in the world. It's up to you to follow the schedule you prepared. A good deal of your success in high school or college depends on this simple truth.

Where to study

You can study anywhere. Obviously, some places are better than others. Libraries, study lounges or private rooms are best. Above all, the place you choose to study should not be distracting. Distractions can build up, and the first thing you know, you're out of time and out of luck. Make choosing a good physical environment a part of your study habits.

Strategies

Thinking skills

Everybody has thinking skills, but few use them effectively. Effective thinking skills cannot be studied, but must be built up over a period of time. Good thinkers see possibilities where others see only dead-ends. If you're not a good thinker, start now by developing habits that make you ask yourself questions as you read. Talk to other students who you feel are good thinkers. Ask them what it is they do when they think critically or creatively. Often times, you can pick up valuable insights to help you become a better thinker.

The SQ3R method

The SQ3R method has been a proven way to sharpen study skills. SQ3R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review. Take a moment now and write SQ3R down. It is a good slogan to commit to memory to carry out an effective study strategy.

Survey - get the best overall picture of what you're going to study BEFORE you study it in any detail. It's like looking at a road map before going on a trip. If you don't know the territory, studying a map is the best way to begin.

Question - ask questions for learning. The important things to learn are usually answers to questions. Questions should lead to emphasis on the what, why, how, when, who and where of study content. Ask yourself questions as you read or study. As you answer them, you will help to make sense of the material and remember it more easily because the process will make an impression on you. Those things that make impressions are more meaningful, and therefore more easily remembered. Don't be afraid to write your questions in the margins of textbooks, on lecture notes, or wherever it makes sense.

Read - Reading is NOT running your eyes over a textbook. When you read, read actively. Read to answer questions you have asked yourself or questions the instructor or author has asked. Always be alert to bold or italicized print. The authors intend that this material receive special emphasis. Also, when you read, be sure to read everything, including tables, graphs and illustrations. Often times tables, graphs and illustrations can convey an idea more powerfully than written text.

Recite - When you recite, you stop reading periodically to recall what you have read. Try to recall main headings, important ideas of concepts presented in bold or italicized type, and what graphs, charts or illustrations indicate. Try to develop an overall concept of what you have read in your own words and thoughts. Try to connect things you have just read to things you already know. When you do this periodically, the chances are you will remember much more and be able to recall material for papers, essays and objective tests.

Review - A review is a survey of what you have covered. It is a review of what you are supposed to accomplish, not what you are going to do. Rereading is an important part of the review process. Reread with the idea that you are measuring what you have gained from the process. During review, it's a good time to go over notes you have taken to help clarify points you may have missed or don't understand. The best time to review is when you have just finished studying something. Don't wait until just before an examination to begin the review process. Before an examination, do a final review. If you manage your time, the final review can be thought of as a "fine-tuning" of your knowledge of the material. Thousands of high school and college students have followed the SQ3R steps to achieve higher grades with less stress.

Reading

A primary means by which you acquire information is through reading. In college you're expected to do much more reading than in high school. Don't assume just because you've "read" the assignments that is the end of it. You must learn to read with a purpose. In studying, you may read the same assignment three or four times, each time with a different purpose. You must know before you begin reading what your purpose is, and read accordingly.

Getting the Main Idea

Getting the main idea in reading is central to effective studying. You must learn what the author's central idea is, and understand it in your own way. Every paragraph contains a main idea. Main ideas are perfect for outlining textbooks. Make it a habit to find the main idea in each paragraph you read.

Extracting Important Details

Extracting important details means that you locate in your reading the basis for main ideas. There is usually one important detail associated with every main idea. The more important details you can identify, the easier it will be to review for examinations because you have made a link between an idea and information that supports it. The more links you can make between details and ideas, as well as ideas themselves, the more powerful will be the efforts of your study.

Don't Read Aloud to Yourself

Generally, reading aloud to yourself does not help you study more effectively. If you move your lips while you read, you're not reading efficiently. If you read aloud or move your lips while you're reading, you are reading slowly, so stop moving your lips. Try putting a finger over your lips. Your finger will remind you not to move your lips. Make an effort to read faster and retain more - after a while, you'll be surprised how little effort it will take.

Taking Notes

Like reading, note-taking is a skill which must be learned and refined. Almost invariably, note taking, or the lack of it, is a constant deficiency in the study methods of many high school and college students. Learning the ingredients of good note taking is rather easy; applying them to your own situation depends on how serious you are in becoming a successful student.

Where to Keep Notes

You must learn to keep notes logically and legibly. Remember, if you can't read your own writing a few days after taking notes, they are of little use. By all accounts, the best place to keep notes is in a loose-leaf notebook. Use dividers to separate the different classes you take. Make it a habit of using your notebook to record ALL your notes. If you're caught without your notebook and need to take notes, always have a supply of loose-leaf paper with you. Insert your note papers into the notebook as soon as you can. Be sure to buy a good notebook, as it will get a lot of wear and tear.

Outlining Textbooks

First of all, don't underline. Use a highlighter. Experience has shown that text passages highlighted are more easily remembered than the same passages underlined. In outlining a text, don't just read along and highlight what seem to important words. That technique rarely works. The act of outlining works much better.

Taking Lecture Notes

Surveying, Questioning, Listening

Taking accurate and concise lecture notes is essential. Develop the habit of taking notes using appropriate methods described earlier in the SQ3R technique. For example, when you listen to a lecture, formulate questions as you listen. Your main job in taking lecture notes is to be a good listener. To be a good listener, you must learn to focus and concentrate on the main points of the lecture. Get them down, and then later reorganize them in your own words. Once you have done this, you have set the stage for successful reviewing and revising.

Reviewing and Revising

As you prepare for examinations, tests, or other assessments, you should spend time reviewing and revising your lecture notes. Begin the process by reviewing your notes right after a lecture. If you wait too long, you may discover that the notes just don't make sense. Don't hesitate to revise your notes based on the review process.

Research Notes

Any form of note-taking that requires compilation of information by categories, rather than in narrative form is best done using index cards. You can sort, edit and arrange index cards to suit your particular study needs. The most important point in using cards is to indicate the correct reference or topic at the top of the card. Use the cards for study, review, to help organize information for papers, reports, or projects. An even better idea, if you have a personal computer, is to organize your categorical information in a database. Once you set it up, finding, updating and adding new information is quite easy. If you have a printer, you can print out your notes in a variety of ways.

Taking Examinations

Objective Examinations

Surveying

Survey any objective examination to find out what types of questions are being asked. Surveying helps you to know what to expect.

Knowing the Ground Rules

Always read directions! Indicate your answers exactly the way the directions state. Make sure your answers are clear. Determine what the scoring rules for the test are and follow them to your advantage. For example, if wrong answers are penalized, don't guess unless you can reduce the choices to two.

Answering Easy Questions First

Answering easy (to you) questions first is the best strategy. If you stumble over difficult questions for too long a time, you may not be able to complete the exam.

Picking out Key Words

Objective examination questions usually contain one or more key words. A key word or group of words are those on which the truth or falsity of a statement hinges. Learn to spot the key words in the statement that define the meaning. If a statement contains two clauses, one of which is false, the whole statement is false. Usually, two-statement true-false questions are either both true or both false.

Reading Multiple-Choice Questions

Multiple choice questions are essentially true-false questions arranged in groups. Usually, only one alternative is correct. Your job is to pick the alternative that is more nearly true than the others. Read multiple-choice questions the same way as for true-false. Eliminate obvious false choices.

Reading Other Types of Questions

The methods used to answer true-false and multiple choice questions apply to matching questions as well. Always scan the entire list of alternatives before matching any. As in the other types of questions, try to identify key words in each list and test them. Completion questions require you to provide a word or phrase. When you encounter completion questions, choose your words carefully. If you don't know the answer, give it your best guess, as often times such responses get at least partial credit.

Essay Examinations

Planning your time in answering essay questions is more important than in objective type tests. The general rule is not to get carried away on one or two questions to the extent that you cannot answer that other questions in the time allowed. Read through the entire examination first. Get a feel for the questions you are expected to answer. If the exam allows you to choose from a number of questions, be sure to number your answers exactly to match the questions.

When you follow directions for an essay exam, pay attention to the key words the instructor has included. Such words as "list," "describe," "compare and contrast," and "outline" have special meaning. Don't "write around" the question but answer it directly. If a question asks you to list something, don't write a narrative about it. Answering essay questions directly is always the best policy.

After scanning the list of questions to be answered, choose the ones you know most about. A good idea is to prepare an outline of your answers. The outline will help you remember important ideas and facts to be included in your response. Another technique is to do a "memory-dump." This technique is discussed in the last section of this guide, "Power Study Tips."

Good handwriting is an absolute essential. If your cursive writing is very hard to read, try printing instead. Most instructors value clear handwriting. Grammar, punctuation, and spelling also count. Well-written grammatically correct answers almost always receive higher grades than poorly written grammatically incorrect answers, even though the answers themselves are the same.

Writing Themes and Reports

Reviewing the Topic

Students usually have some freedom to choose the subject of themes or reports. When you make this choice, be sure that the topic is acceptable to the teacher, and is as interesting to you as possible. Another consideration is that of availability of resource material. Your task is made much easier when there is a good amount of reference and resource material available.

Using Correct Punctuation and Grammar

As in writing essays questions, good grammar and punctuation are a must. Most students use word processors to write papers. Be sure to use the spell checker that almost all word processors have built in. Many word processors also have some sort of grammar checker. Learn to use a grammar checker, as it can point out serious flaws in your writing and help you become a better writer. Most grammar checkers explain the grammar rules that apply to the suggested corrections to your writing.

Gathering Materials Before You Write

Before you begin writing, assemble the materials you will need. Use index cards, notes, bibliographies, summaries, reports and reviews as part of your preparation process. Using index cards for references is an excellent way to organize your materials. Computer database programs can also help you classify and organize reference materials.

Preparing an Outline and Writing the Paper

Once you have your topic, have gathered and organized your materials, it is time to outline your paper. Put your outline on paper! Don't make the mistake of trying to keep everything in your head. Make your outline in the form of main headings or ideas with sub-headings fleshing out the flow of the paper. Using the outline as a guide begin writing begin by asking yourself what the paper is going to say and what conclusions you want to reach. Doing this ahead of time will help keep you focused and prevent you from straying from the purpose of the paper. Making up the outline as you go along almost always results in a less than satisfactory product. Writing is important in high school and is a key to success in college and in many professions. Become a good writer by writing, revising, and reviewing your work. Don't be afraid to ask other students to critique your work. Try to write in your own natural style, be aware that most good writers go through many revisions, and be prepared to do the same. Writing and test-taking are the end results of developing good study skills. There is no magic formula for success. If you follow the suggestions in this guide, apply them and think about them, you'll have taken a giant step toward becoming a successful student.

Power Studying Tips for College Students

The following tips have proven to be extremely powerful guides for organizing, thinking, studying, and learning in college. They represent the best advice of successful college students. They can also work for high school students.

Study Space

Tip: Your study space should be as quiet and comfortable as possible. Avoid studying in noisy places such as cafeterias, recreation rooms, or lounges.

Tip: When studying, keep a waste basket handy.

Tip: Have a consistent place for everything, and above all, keep it there!

Tip: Have everything needed for studying handy beforehand. Don't waste valuable time looking for books, notes, of other information. After you have assembled the items you need, put them where you can reach them easily.

Study Habits

Tip: Begin studying no less than 30-90 minutes after a meal.

Tip: Never study within 30 minutes of going to sleep.

Tip: Prioritize! Make a list of what you intend to study, prioritize the list, and stick to it!

Tip: If possible, study no more than 30-40 minutes at a stretch. Many students retain more by studying for short periods with breaks in between. It all depends on what you're trying to study, but generally, after a period of study, take a break.

Tip: Take study breaks away from your desk or wherever you are studying. Let the break be a time to think about other things. Use some break time to reflect, not constantly review what you have just studied.

The Classroom

Tip: Distractions in the classroom are deadly. To help avoid distractions, sit near the front of the class. You're less likely to miss something important, and there are far less distractions at the front than any other location.

Tip: Think! Thinking is one of the most important things you can do in class. If you just sit there passively, and not think, class can be deadly. Think about what the teacher is saying BEFORE writing down anything. Writing down each word is a WASTE OF TIME. Reorganize in your mind what the teacher says, and then write it down. This way you will be connecting the teacher's words with HOW you think. If you do this, your notes will make a lot more sense later on.

Tip: Pay attention to the course outline or syllabus. Generally, important points and materials are referenced here and repeated. Don't be afraid to ask the teacher if there is something you don't understand. Most teachers will be glad to clarify for you.

Preparing for Class

Tip: Efficient students do not underline! Underlining is not a productive way to emphasize textbook material. It's best to use a highlighter.

Tip: Read the table of contents of your texts carefully. If the textbooks have chapter summaries, read them first! If you don't understand the material from the summaries, go back and highlight. Take notes on what you have highlighted and review your notes. Tip: Break study material into short segments of length dependent on its difficulty. Remember, concise notes are more powerful than copious notes. Think about the material! Then take notes on what you don't know or are not sure of.

Test Taking

Tip: For essay examinations, try the "memory dump" technique. If permitted, write down everything you've memorized - facts, names, dates, ideas, events, and so on BEFORE you do anything else. Sometimes reading through the essay questions can distract you from what you've studied. The "memory dump" technique requires that you write down everything possible BEFORE you begin writing essay answers. This way, you are less likely to forget something important.

A Final Word

The study skills presented here depend on one thing, and that is your willingness to WANT to improve and do well in school. If you really don't want to make the effort and sacrifice, no amount of suggestions, ideas, or outlines can help much. You are the one who is responsible for your education, and effective study skills can help you. To that end, one last word of advice -- work smart, not hard

“Lesson Study” as Professional Culture in Japanese Schools: An Historical Perspective on Elementary Classroom Practices

2011-03-16T04:37:00.000-07:00

Mohammad Reza Sarkar Arani
Seijoh University, Aichi, Japan
Fukaya Keisuke
Chūbu University, Aichi, Japan
James P. Lassegard
Hōsei University, Tokyo, Japan
h is research examines “lesson study” as a traditional model of creating
professional knowledge in schools. “Lesson study,” typically dei ned as teachers’
classroom based collaborative research, has a long history in Japan as a shared
professional culture with potential for enhancing learning, enriching classroom
activities and transforming the school environment. A case study method
based on historical data is the primary approach used in this research. Detailed
description and analysis of lessons are provided, individual lesson plans are
examined and exchanges of views between teachers are discussed. h e i ndings
are intended to help clarify the cultural and historical role of lesson based
research in Japanese schools, and also the signii cant inl uence that lesson study
has exerted on developing a culture of shared professionalism in Japan.
Keywords: lesson study, elementary school, teaching, professional
culture, Meiji era, Taishō era, Shōwa era, Japan
1. Introduction
h   e purpose of this research is to examine the historical background to teachers’ collaborative
research on classroom activities known as “lesson study” (jugyō kenkyū 授業研究), and the
process by which it came to be established at the elementary school level in Japan. Emphasis is
here placed on an analysis of the environment and culture of support which generated lesson
study within Japan’s school culture. School culture is here dei ned straightforwardly as “the
commonly held beliefs of teachers, pupils, and principals” (Stolp 1994, p. 2). Beliefs are of
particular signii cance since they represent basic assumptions, modes of thinking, values, rituals,
heroes, and symbols (Hofstede 2001, Senge 1990). A review of the research literature on school
culture reveals an understanding that parents, teachers, principals and pupils all work within a
cultural context that inl uences every aspect of their educational activities (Prosser 1999; Hinde
2004; Takahata 2004). h is paper thus refers to school culture, as dei ned above, especially
in terms of organization (Hofstede 2001). Following Bruner (1996) who notes that “culture
has always been in the process of change” (p. 97), the present authors regard school culture as
malleable, forever accommodating possibilities for leadership inspired change. Our discussion
of lesson study as professional culture within Japanese schools also draws on Schein’s dynamic
view of organizational culture, with its theoretical perspective on how cultures begin and how
they develop. Schein (1985) reveals the “underlying interpersonal and emotional processes that
help to explain what we mean when we say a number of people share a common view of a
problem and develop a shared solution.” For Schein, moreover, “all dei nitions of culture involve
the concept of shared solutions, shared understanding, and consensus” (p. 149).
h e phenomenon known as lesson study evolved through precisely such a sharing
of responsibility, and a collaborative process of preparing lesson plans, conducting and
observing lessons, checking and evaluating teaching, rel ecting on practice, and replanning
(Sarkar Arani, Shibata and Matoba 2007). Teachers i rst created lesson plans in response to
learning requirements, and they established their classroom objectives in the actual process of
classroom teaching. Subsequently, methods for evaluating lesson objectives were devised. All of
this was managed entirely by the teachers themselves. School committees were established for
collaborative lesson study, and they were typically divided into their various functions of lesson
planning, lesson implementation and classroom observation, and sessions for evaluation and
rel ection. In preliminary research meetings, careful consideration was given to understanding
the circumstances of pupils. h ere would also typically be an examination of the development
of the lesson, based on whether or not the questions, printed documents distributed, and
instructions given by teachers were appropriate, and whether pupils had developed motivation
for study. Teachers observed actual classroom conditions, and they later conducted critique or
“rel ection sessions” (hanseikai 反省会).
Inherent to lesson study were the training sessions conducted for lesson plan review,
for classroom observation documents, and for lesson rel ection and evaluation. A unique
environment developed in which fellow teachers visited and observed each other in the
classroom, and pupils engaged in study in the uncommon atmosphere of being observed. Since
classroom visits occurred on a regular basis from 1872 as part of teacher training for novice
teachers, pupils quickly became accustomed to studying in this open setting. Visiting teachers
examined the responses and behaviour of pupils to determine the degree of their interest in the
class, and the suitability of the questions asked and of the texts used. h e rel ective nature of
lesson study had as its premise collaboration between participants, and throughout the process
emphasis was placed on how pupils viewed and comprehended the subject matter being taught.
h   e methodology inherent in conducting lesson study further led to the need for ef ective
documentation of classroom observations. Lesson study was thus inherently a collaborative
undertaking which Senge has identii ed as “involving everyone in the system in expressing
their aspirations, building their awareness, and developing their capabilities together” (Senge
et al. 2000, p.5). It is, of course, of interest to consider how lesson study might be ef ectively
transposed into other educational cultures, but of more immediate concern to the present paper
is an exploration of how Japanese lesson study developed into an intrinsic part of Japanese
educational culture in general, and of the culture of individual schools in particular. h is paper’s
focus is on the operation of lesson study as it developed within Japanese public schools from
Meiji through Taishō to Shōwa, and it deploys to this end historical evidence and documents
created by school-based research groups.
2. Lesson Study in the Meiji Era
Modern Japan’s education system began with the promulgation of the Fundamental
Code of Education (Gakusei 学制) of 1872, which laid the foundations for new schools, new
perspectives on education, including teaching methods and the professional development and
training of teachers. h   e Ministry of Education (Monbushō 文部省) sought to establish a
unii ed system of school and teacher training throughout Japan (Tōkyō Bunrika Daigaku and
Tōkyō Kōtō Shihan Gakkō 1932). According to Lincicome’s research on educational reform in
Meiji Japan, “the government founded the i rst normal schools, recruited their i rst pupils, hired
their i rst faculties, and translated the i rst teaching manuals to train them in the new “science”
of education” (Lincicome 1995, p. 233). Certainly, prior to Meiji, there were numerous other
“schools” in existence, such as the local schools or (terakoya 寺子屋) which Western scholars
translate as “temple schools” (Marshall 1994; Lincicome 1995). Learning also took place within
private schools, and in schools established by feudal domains, but these schools did not have an
impact on education across Japan. As a result of education reforms implemented shortly after
the Meiji restoration of 1868, Japanese elementary school education became oriented toward
European and American models, with their spirit of improving education for the common
people in an age of modernity. In the process of transferring Western technical “know-how,”
the Meiji government deemed it necessary to encourage educational goals that were conducive
to building a modern Japan.
Early Meiji educational methodology was concerned above all with the process of
teaching lessons in the classroom. h   e teacher stands up straight in front of the wall map or
blackboard, with pupils seated in an orderly fashion before him. Pupils respond to instructions
and questions that are repeatedly posed by teachers. Western, particularly American, textbooks
were translated for use in the classroom, and classes were conducted in a uniform manner
regardless of the subjects being taught. Such a methodology was rooted in Western educational
thought and practice, and while there were clearly insui   cient numbers of teachers capable
of teaching with modern educational methods, the ideal remained of implementation within
all elementary schools in Japan. h e afore mentioned Fundamental Code of Education set
out to establish facilities for the cultivation of teachers. Accordingly, in January of 1873,
the Japanese government founded an elementary school, the so-called Tōkyō Shihan Gakkō
Fuzoku Shōgakkō (東京師範学校附属小学校 Elementary School attached to Tokyo Normal
School), and in April of the same year, 78 pupils began classes there. h e elementary school was
founded for the purpose of providing a practical learning environment for teachers and pupils
of Tokyo Normal School where they could observe classrooms, conduct experiments using new
methods, and provide training for teachers in classroom management (Tōkyō Bunrika Daigaku
and Tōkyō Kōtō Shihan Gakkō 1932).
h   e graduates of Tokyo Normal School during the i rst decade of Meiji era did not
become elementary school teachers, but were invited by prefectural governments to accept
positions as teacher trainers. Tokyo Normal School thus served as a training institution for
elementary school teachers in rural areas, and its role later changed in 1902 when it became
the Tokyo Secondary School Teachers College (ibid). In August of 1873, Normal Schools were
also established in Osaka and Sendai, and in 1874 government-operated normal schools were
set up in Aichi, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Niigata prefectures. h ese institutions attempted to
inform their teacher training with educational methods found in Western countries, and it was
natural for teachers to engage in collaborative learning about curriculum and instruction. h e
graduates of these Normal Schools disseminated their newly acquired knowledge of Western
teaching methods at their schools of employment, and were expanding further upon their
experiences in the classroom.
Teachers set up regional learning groups (chiiki no gakushū shūdan 地域の学習集団)
which were designed to facilitate the sharing of experiences about learning, teaching, designing
ef ective lesson plans, and managing the classroom and school administration. h ese groups
also concerned themselves with teachers’ working rights (Inagaki 1966). Regional learning
groups l ourished, and had a signii cant impact on teachers’ professional development in the
i rst decades of the Meiji period, when most schools could employ only one or two teachers.
In 1877, out of a total number of 19,345 schools, 8,332 (43 percent) employed one teacher,
4,766 schools (25 percent) had two teachers, and only 84 schools reportedly had ten teachers.
Moreover, 6,170 schools were equipped with only a single classroom. By 1881, the total number
of schools declined to 17,889, but over half of them employed at least two teachers (Inagaki
1966, p. 37).
Teachers in early Meiji elementary schools revealed a deep interest in curriculum and
instructional methods. h   ere was notable participation in regional autonomous learning groups
during the period of the popular rights movement (jiyū minken undō 自由民権運動) from
1878 to 1888. h e activities of educational organizations at this time, which saw teachers form
autonomous study groups, have been mentioned in previous literature on the subject (Katagiri
1990). In the 1880s, teachers’ research on classroom instruction concentrated on the i ve
steps of teaching structure based on the educational philosophy of Johann Friedrich Herbart:
namely, preparation, presentation, comparison, integration, and application (Robinson 1977;
Inagaki 1993). Miller (2003) explains the signii cance of the Herbartian approach as follows:
“Using this structure a teacher prepared a topic of interest to the children, presented that
topic, and questioned them inductively, so that they reached new knowledge based on what
they had already known, looked back, and deductively summed up the lesson’s achievements,
then related these to moral precepts for daily living” (p. 114). Subsequently Japanese teachers
published research that drew on Herbart’s method, which proved to be the favoured method
of teacher training in Meiji Japan. h e work of Higuchi Kanjirō 樋口勘次郎, who led the
movement toward more pupil-centered teaching practices, is representative (Higuchi 1905).
During Meiji, the frequent importation of Western educational thought and systems led
to the establishment of a new educational discourse, in which “teachers, as professionals, were
trained to assume the dual roles of both “scientist” (empirical, logical, critical, and analytical)
and “artist” (creative, adaptive, and l exible)” (Lincicome 1995, p.234). New critical approaches
to Herbart duly emerged among educators in the early 20th
century (Hisaki, 1980). h is critical
discourse resulted in teachers shifting their focus from teaching to learners’ needs, activities,
individuality, and learning strategies (Lincicome 1995; Nakano 1968). In spite of these new
developments, classroom circumstances, in which teachers directly advised and taught many
levels of pupils, remained fraught with dii   culty. h   ere were insui   cient numbers of qualii ed
teachers, and it was often the case at schools with mixed levels that an individual teacher was
required to accommodate pupils of multiple ages and abilities in the same classroom. However,
a breakthrough happened around the turn of the twentieth century that alleviated these dii   cult
conditions. h is was the popularization of teaching methods that catered to pupils of dif erent
levels within the same classroom.
Research by Katagiri (1990) has indicated that during the 1880s, the regional learning
groups, which had been established throughout Japan, gave teachers the opportunity to begin
“lesson study groups” (jugyō kenkyūkai 授業研究会). h e main purpose of these latter groups
was to share the experiences of teachers who conducted lesson study in their classrooms.
Elementary schools attached to teacher training colleges began to undertake empirical studies
to overcome problems within the school classroom, and lesson study groups were formed
at numerous elementary schools. h ese gatherings for the exchange of knowledge were
enthusiastically hosted by the growing community of alumni at the teacher training colleges.
Furthermore, the reports of alumni meetings, for example, contained detailed records of
classroom teaching practices. h   e existence of lesson study groups at elementary schools attached
to teacher training colleges had became common by the late Meiji era, while the numbers of
participating elementary school teachers grew. h is motivation to study new teaching methods
encouraged teachers to accept more responsibility for teaching and learning. h is kind of teacher
learning community was supported and expanded by the Normal Schools Alumni Association
(Shihan Gakkō Gakuyūkai 師範学校学友会). h   at lesson study groups now began to exert
a substantial impact on the improvement of teaching practice, and subsequently helped to
inl uence the expansion of lesson study in schools. h e background for cooperative lesson plans
at elementary schools had developed within three main social contexts of the Meiji era. First,
in various regions of Japan there was a contextual basis for teachers to learn a new teaching
method provided by the new Meiji educational discourse. Second, there already existed in
Meiji Japan teacher training colleges intended to cultivate professional skills, while the ai   liated
elementary schools served as a laboratory for conducting practical research. Teachers were thus
able to conduct research based on practical classroom issues and timely educational topics, and
to convey these research perspectives to their counterparts in regional areas. h ird, there existed
“Alumni” Practical Research Reports (jissen hōkoku 実践報告) for college graduates.
In the late 1870s and early 1880s, the Ministry of Education challenged local school
administrators to apply a more creative and l exible approach through ef ective teacher training.
Lincicome states that “in practice, however, the Ministry’s tightly knit web of laws demanded just
the opposite: strict allegiance to the center” (Lincicome 1995, p. 234). Indeed, the government
relied on the Ministry to revise curriculum guidelines, and to inspect and authorize textbooks,
activities which certainly exerted a profound inl uence on the content and transmission of
school-based knowledge. In this context, local administrators and teachers were persuaded
to accept the political and ideological values of the Meiji government as a framework for the
modernization of Japan (ibid). According to Horio, teachers were expected to function in their
dealings with children and their parents as agents acting under “the emperor’s supervision”
(tennō no kanri 天皇の管理) (Horio 1988, p. 254).
Nevertheless, the apparent contradictions between ideals held by teachers and the dictates
of national government policy led educators in the 1880s to promote an educational discourse
that emphasized pedagogical knowledge and teaching methods (Marshall 1994; Abosch 1964).
Educational progress during the Meiji period thus came to support principals’ and teachers’
critical rel ection on both theory and practice for the improvement of lessons and of the
teaching training system. Individual educators, such as Marion McCarrell Scott (1843–1922),
introduced Western educational practice into Tokyo Normal School (Sato 1998), and then
promoted a pedagogical discourse that focused on ef ective teaching methods during the Taishō
era (1912–1926) (Collins 1975). Such developments “helped to fuel the so-called new education
(shinkyōiku 新教育) or liberal education (jiyū kyōiku自由教育) movement” based on the
philosophies of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778),
Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel (1782–1852) and Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) (Lincicome
1995, p. 240). Teachers subsequently acquired the opportunity to do lesson study in small
groups and to link educational concepts such as learning from practice (jissen kara manabu
実践から学ぶ) and rel ection (hansei 反省) on teaching, with new Western ideas such as
pupil centered education, l exible educational administration, individuality, citizenship, anti
bureaucratic activity, and the application of practical teaching and training methods (Hisaki
1980; Ebihara 1975). h   e stage was thus set for teachers to expand their autonomy in terms of
professional development which, although at times conl icting with state authority, allowed for
the eventual sustainability of lesson study in schools across Japan from the Taishō era.
3. Lesson Study in the Taishō Era
Japanese scholars have noted that during the prewar period when school curricula had
become increasingly rigid and nationalistic, teachers still created opportunities for research on
teaching in practice, and engaged in collaborative inquiry on classroom activities in order to
improve teaching. For example, Toyoda (2005) has detailed how during the Taishō era Japanese
teachers created a child centered curriculum, and independent learning activities. He suggests,
moreover, that teachers at Mikuni 三国 Elementary School in Taishō Japan, had the freedom to
“choose subjects of study, devise learning methods, develop learning materials and collect pupil
data” (Toyoda 2005, p. 86).
Iwasaki’s investigation of the lesson study process in elementary school science education
in Taishō found that teachers’ discussion meetings were particularly ef ective in enhancing
teaching by paying more attention to pupils, and by encouraging the search for better designed
teaching and learning materials (Iwasaki 2001). Iwasaki has analyzed records of teachers’
meetings on science lesson plans held at Toyohira 豊平 Elementary School in Sapporo in
1920, and he reports how teachers discussed ways of emphasizing cooperation and mutual
interaction between teachers and pupils. Fukaya’s (2007) research on an elementary school
attached to the Kagoshima 鹿児島 Normal School demonstrates that teachers in early Taishō
were collaborating to encourage discussion and rel ection on teaching. According to Sugiyama
(2004), “[Japanese] school curriculum had been nationally determined for a long period,
during which time there had been instructor manuals for teaching the national curriculum.
It was therefore required that teachers adhere to these manuals; lesson study in practice was
only geared toward technical aspects of teaching” (p. 352). Toyoda (2009) also notes that while
lesson study was strictly bound by nationally determined curricular content, teachers made
innovations on an individual level. For instance, in the Taishō era, Miyoshi Tokue 三好得恵,
a principal of Mikuni Elementary School, cultivated teachers’ capacity to exercise leadership by
promoting collaborative activities. Moreover, Miyoshi founded an association to raise funds for
holding open classes and for publishing books on teaching.
h e origin of the Taishō model of lesson study, which emphasizes critical feedback
on lessons, assessment of lesson plans, and rel ective practice, can be found in the teaching
methods of Ashida Enosuke 芦田恵之助 (1873–1951), a teacher at the elementary school
attached to the Tokyo Higher Normal School from 1899 to 1917. His area of expertise was
teaching Japanese language (kokugo 国語) (Kobayashi 1989). h e lesson records (jugyō kiroku
授業記録) of Ashida and other teachers who learned from him are contained in Dōshi dōgyō
同志同行, a monthly journal of research on teaching.
1
h   ese lesson records of teachers were
entitled Kyōdan kiroku 教壇記録, and consisted of the shorthand writings of Aoyama Hiroshi
青山廣志, a correspondent for the Osaka Mainichi Shinbun 大阪毎日新聞 (Osaka Mainichi
Newspaper). h ese writings of er a description of the evolution of Ashida’s classroom practice.
Ashida outlined his teaching methods for reading Japanese in the “Ashida Method of Seven
Steps” (Ashida shiki shichi henge 芦田式七変化), and embarked on a mission to disseminate his
philosophy of teaching throughout Japan.
2
h e Dōshi dōgyō was read by teachers who wanted
to learn Ashida’s methods, and had a large impact on Japanese elementary schools in the 1930s.
h   rough their review of Ashida’s lesson records, teachers were able to learn from his reading
methods, and integrate them into their own practices. Ashida emphasized the power of lesson
records and lesson analysis (jugyō bunseki 授業分析). His methods represented a departure
from the Herbartian and other teaching structures in their emphasis on more meticulous
classroom interaction, and greater respect for children’s learning and communication needs
(Ashida 1936a).h   e Herbartian teaching method was prone to formality, and had proved
dii   cult to apply to teaching in an actual classroom. Moreover, its strict adherence to the
completion of all i ve stages was not well suited to lessons which accommodated pupils of
diverse abilities. h ese points of criticism, informed by an active approach to learning, were
i rst made by Higuchi Kanjirō (Higuchi 1905). Ashida was well known as a fervent supporter
of Higuchi, and he too cautioned against a teaching approach that was too regimented. As the
lesson records published in Dōshi dōgyō make clear, Ashida maintained charts of pupil seating
(zaseki hyō 座席表) and teachers’ blackboard writings, and he wrote down the exchange of
questions and answers that transpired between teachers and pupils. Teachers’ rel ection upon
classroom activity based on question and answer sessions with pupils was accomplished by
direct observation of the classroom, and group discussion. Furthermore, mimeograph machines,
which by now had become widely used in educational settings, made the dissemination of ideas
possible throughout Japan. h ese machines allowed the easy distribution of lesson plans, lesson
records and rel ective comments among teachers. As a result, active lesson study was able to
develop and become more widespread at schools.
School principals were often active in supporting teachers’ autonomy in their practice
of lesson study (Toyoda 2009). Nevertheless, principals and local education authorities did
not readily welcome learning and teaching innovations that challenged traditional methods of
school management as dictated by the Ministry of Education (Ebihara 1975). Hence, Taishō
teachers in general did not have the individual authority to reform teaching content and school
curriculum in order to render it more responsive to pupils’ needs (Lincicome 1995; Inagaki
1993; Ebihara 1975). Kijō 亀城 Elementary School in Early Shōwa Japan
With the proliferation of mimeograph machines, preparing lesson plans based on
curriculum guidelines, followed by critical review sessions, became the central work of lesson
study committees. Teachers at elementary schools used the mimeograph to print out lesson
plans that rel ected their educational views, distributed them to fellow teachers, and attended
open classes and critical review sessions for evaluation and rel ection.
Written records of teaching plans between the years 1932 to 1934 were maintained at Kijō
Elementary School (KES) located in Kariya 刈谷 city, Aichi Prefecture.
4
A geography lesson
study plan comprising seven lessons for 5th
year pupils is analyzed here, and a description of the
seven lessons may be viewed in Appendix A. h is record of seven lessons is part of a unit lesson
study plan created by Isomura Akira 磯村章, and it took place on September 20, 1930. Isomura
describes here in detail the objectives of the lesson, and designs an outline of observations and
professional dialogue on his teaching for the discussion session to be held afterwards. His lesson
plan resembles a check list: it contains seven items for teaching, and eighteen items for teacher
and pupil activities in the teaching and learning process. h ese were to be used for both self-
evaluation and rel ection on the lesson, as well as for colleagues’ discussion of methods for
geography teaching.
Isomura carried out two surveys of pupils, and made an analysis of his i ndings. h e
questionnaires inquired about children’s motivation toward the learning of geography. A
preliminary investigation was conducted in early May (Appendix B); it was followed by another
in late September (Appendix C). Isomura’s observations suggest his ability to rel ect deeply
on his practice: “I wondered what children, who are as pure as blank sheets of paper, thought
about the learning of geography, and so I listened carefully to their honest opinions. h ere were
twenty i ve comments from twenty two children about why they liked learning geography,
while forty children gave i fty three reasons for their dislike of geography” (Appendix B).
h   e basic intention behind Isomura’s lesson study was to “facilitate pupils’ learning about
mountains in central Japan, and to cultivate their interest in mountains,” but he also emphasized
raising their general interest in geography. To this end, his lesson plan also state what approach
in geography was most appropriate for understanding the feelings and cultivating the interest of
youngsters. For Isomura, lesson planning was the way to improve practice. He noted:
I must admit that I am to blame for many pupils’ responses [about learning geography].
When learning geography for the i rst time, pupils are expected to memorize a large
amount of information. I ignored the obvious fact that learning the geography of one’s
region requires an enormous amount of ef ort. In light of this, I thought I would like
to start anew and try to teach geography that was interesting and fun (Appendix C).
h   e results of Isomura’s research on classroom practice can be verii ed by means of the two
afore mentioned questionnaires. h e children’s responses leave no doubt that the lesson plan
attracted their attention, and encouraged them to focus and engage themselves in the classroom
activity. Isomura’s change of approach toward the teaching of geography resulted in verii able
dif erences in children’s perception of the classroom atmosphere and the study of geography
(Appendix B). His second survey saw the number of positive pupils’ comments rise from twenty
i ve to eighty, while reasons given for their dislike of learning geography declined from i fty three
to thirty seven. It is also meaningful to examine how pupils wrote their comments (Appendix
C). In the i rst survey, pupils only wrote very brief comments, but in the second most wrote full
sentences to explain their enthusiasm for geography. For example, one pupil wrote, “I really
like geography. It is because 1) I can i nd out many things by looking at a map; 2) I love learning
about many towns and cities; 3) I can easily understand the teacher’s questions, and have an
interesting discussion for an hour; 4) It’s interesting to learn how the topography of the land
has developed” (Appendix C). It must be underscored that Isomura repeatedly rel ected upon
his own classroom practice, and was concerned that his teaching may not have been completely
understood by his pupils (Appendix C). He noted:
…children thought it was interesting and fun to start the lesson by looking at the
postcards and illustrations that they had brought to class. I was glad to observe that
children were happy with the way I resolved the previous problems, and it became my
usual teaching practice to conduct lessons while working in tandem with them. h is was
a warning for me to change my teaching style (Appendix D).
Isomura’s comments suggest the potential for Japanese teachers to collaborate regularly
and learn from colleagues, and rel ect individually on the realities of pupils’ learning. His
records of lesson study process are, however, not the only ones in existence for KES. For 1930 to
1933, there exist mimeograph records of other lesson plans, participant observation notes and
teachers’ notes of discussion and evaluation sessions. h e appendices of this paper contain just
a few of the many existing records relating to lesson study process at KES. Other evidence of
the lesson study process in practice exists in the form of the discussion and evaluation sessions
of 4th
and 6th
grade science education lessons in 1930 (Appendices E and F). In particular,
we may observe from the teachers’ notes included in Appendix E, the specii city with which
they recorded their rel ections and observations on teaching science to pupils. Consider for
example the following notes: “whether questions posed to pupils are refutable”, “the degree of
pupil-centered teaching,” “how to respond to pupils’ questions.” Appendix F provides detail
of teachers’ discussion and critique sessions, and includes these comments by a 6th
grade class
teacher (Sugiura Ito 杉浦いと): “h e lesson should begin with a discussion of something made
from vinegar that is related to life,” “the pupils’ experiments are mechanical” and “make sure
that the results from the experiment are duly written down in the record book.”
h   ere was also some debate in the review and evaluation sessions over whether the class
was clearly focused on pupils’ learning activities, whether teaching was directed at pupils’
understanding, and whether the teacher adopted a sui   ciently rel ective attitude toward his
lesson plan. From these excerpts, it would seem that many KES teachers emphasized pupil-
centered teaching, and were striving to function as “managers of learning,” in addition to their
roles as didactic instructors in the building of a learning community culture in schools of early
Shōwa Japan.
5
5. Discussion
KES records of geography and science classroom lesson study shed light on lesson study
as it was implemented in one public school at the start of the 1930s. Lesson study, teachers’
professional development, and the use of new teaching methods were not only prevalent in
the ai liated schools of teacher education colleges, but were also actively incorporated into
regional public schools (Nakauchi 1970; Miyoshi 1972). h is owes much to the fact that
Japan had a very high rate of primary school enrollment, even compared with more developed
nations. Indeed, as early as the year 1907, 98.5 percent of boys and 96 percent of girls went to
school (Kaigo and Naka 1963, p. 90). Moreover, in the 1930s when lesson study became more
prevalent, the rate of secondary enrollment was also relatively high, with 21 percent of boys and
15.5 percent of girls attending (Murata et al. 1996, p. 85).
During the early 20th
century, many educational journals focused on teaching methods.
Kyōiku kenkyū 教育研究 (Educational Research) was published in 1904 by the elementary
school attached to the Tokyo Higher Normal School, and it became a prominent educational
journal contributing to the practice of lesson study (Koizumi 1904). Additionally, numerous
other journals on lesson study also contributed to its dissemination. h ese included Kyōiku
jikkenkai 教育実験界(h   e Society for Experimental Education), and Kyōiku gakujutsukai 教
育学術界(h   e Society for Science of Education) which were founded in 1898 and 1899,
respectively (Ōmura 1898; Inoue 1899). It would appear, therefore, that lesson study came
to constitute an essential aspect of school culture and teachers’ professional development by
the late Taishō and early Shōwa eras, and the educational journals served to deepen mutual
exchanges between schools throughout Japan. Certainly, the culture of lesson study was formed
through classroom instruction of teachers at schools across Japan. School teachers taught
lessons based on their individual views of education, and they openly shared their views on
educational improvement both inside their schools and with society at large. At the start of the
20th
century, teachers were also using photography to record classroom activities and learning
environments, and were making these images and words public by means of educational
journals (Kinkōdō Henshūbu 1910; Yoshida 1921; Ebihara 1975; Toyoda 2005; Fukaya
2007). Photography was used for more empirical evaluation of lessons and teaching. Figure 1
depicts pupils’ independent learning environment in a class at Honami Shōgakkō 穂波小学校
(Honami Elementary School). h is photo was used as instructional material for pupils in the
teacher training and education course at Fukuoka ken Fukuoka Shihan Gakkō 福岡県福岡師
範学校 (Fukuoka Prefectural Normal School) in 1909. In the photo we can observe the quiet
and attentive of pupils after the whistle has blown marking the start of study time.
h   e question that naturally arises is why teachers thought it necessary to photograph the
classroom learning activities of pupils. Figure 2 is a photograph of the school principal, Kuroda
Sadae 黒田定衛, teaching pupils a lesson in moral education using the story of Matsumoto
Keidō 松本奎堂. Matsumoto was a samurai 侍, well-known in the city of Kariya for his
driving ambition, and his philosophy of school discipline which included the principles of
“improvement, perseverance, and cooperation”. In the photos, Principal Kuroda stands directly
in front of the class; the backs of pupils are visible and convey the tense classroom atmosphere
typical of the study of moral education. h   e atmosphere of the moral education class depicted
in Figure 1 appears to be contemplative and collaborative, and is quite dif erent from the rigid
atmosphere depicted in Figure 2. h e teacher in Figure 1 can be seen wandering among pupils,
checking their work and giving individual assistance. However, in Figure 2, the teacher delivers
a traditional didactic lesson from the front of the classroom with pupils sitting straight to
attention. h   e contrasting pedagogical styles of the teachers can be clearly discerned in these
two photographs. During the Meiji and Taishō eras, it was common for school principals to
assume responsibility for teaching moral education (shūshin 修身). h   is explains much of
the dif erence found between approaches to teaching morals and other subjects. Principals
tended to give formal lectures in moral education, which covered such topics as school culture,
goals, life skills and ethics in society. In the Shōwa era, however, the National School Law
(Kokumin Gakkō Rei 国民学校令) of 1941 dictated that responsibility for moral education
should be transferred from principals to home room teachers (Motokane 1996; Hayashi 1997;
Monbushō 1981). It should be duly noted that both photographs were taken 1909–1910, and
the suggestion is that by this time there already existed diverse views of teaching. It is commonly
viewed that Meiji era education, particularly from 1890, was based on instilling the values of
loyalty, patriotism, and respect for the emperor (Yoshida 1921). Nevertheless, the impression
given by Figure 1 is that pupil-centered learning in classroom activities had already begun to
develop at regional public elementary schools.
A school organization comprises teachers, administrators, and pupils themselves, and
the formation of school culture is a direct outcome of the actions taken by these dif erent
stakeholders. Teachers’ lesson study served to create the educational culture in Japan over the
course of one hundred years. Elementary school teachers’ cooperative engagement in lesson
study remains to this day a remarkable feature of elementary and junior high school teaching
in Japan. It points to a school culture that encourages mutual observation and the exchange
of pedagogical views; it is one in which teaching and learning take place through voluntary
activity that enhances the professional competence of school teachers. What was the role,
then, that lesson study played in the formation of professional development at schools? In
elementary and junior high schools, this practice led to an increased motivation for learning.
Indeed, lesson study committees were recognized by the teaching staf as vital spaces for the
educational development of children, and played an important role in supporting the essential
function of school education. As seen in the case of KES, a variety of lesson study activities had
already taken root in regions of Japan by 1930. Furthermore, lesson study encouraged teachers,
through their observations of pupils’ learning activities, to rel ect upon their own teaching
practices, and so accumulate teaching experience. Lesson study continuously urged teachers
to examine their own professionalism and create goals that help maintain positive motivation.
h is revitalization function generated new teaching practices.
Finally, lesson study emphasized collaborative research on classroom activities, and
enhanced the possibilities for teachers to rel ect upon their own practice from multiple
perspectives. h is yielded benei ts for the entire school in terms of pupil comprehension and
the sustainability of quality teaching. Yet, it must acknowledged that the uncritical adoption
of lesson study did not necessarily result in more rel ective teacher practice, or even teachers’
collaborative learning. What seems absolutely necessary was for teachers to have a signii cant
degree of common understanding of educational practice as a source of rel ection on the
teaching and learning process.
School based in-service training focusing on lesson study promoted professional
competence and the enhancement of teaching skills. Lesson study enabled educators to
observe the progress of pupils while improving their teaching skills. In other words, teachers
became more aware of the diversity in their pupils, and more inclined to think in terms of
lesson planning oriented to pupils’ learning activities rather than teacher focused pedagogy.
Improvements in teaching transpired naturally through regular lesson study. Such conditions
allowed for the democratization of school management, as well as for the possibility of teachers
making new discoveries in the classroom. One consequence of lesson study was to negate the
notion that a uniform style of teaching was ef ective. Pupils’ inability to understand a lesson
did not mean that the fault was in the pupils’ ability or motivation. Rather, it provided teachers
with the opportunity to rel ect upon their own teaching, and encouraged in the entire school
teaching staf   an attitude of contemplative ef ort in striving for successful learning by all pupils.
h   e careful collaborative examination by teachers of lessons helped generate an awareness
of their need to assume more responsibility in terms of school level management. Furthermore,
if lesson study enhanced teachers’ perceptions of pupils’ circumstances in the classroom, by the
same token it improved their professional skills. Teachers who admitted to each other that their
teaching was not ef ective, who empathized with fellow teachers, and who discovered that they
had something in common, had the opportunity to set new goals for themselves and for their
future lessons.
6. Conclusion and Lesson Study Prospects
Lesson study as a professional culture in Japanese education has a long history. During
the Meiji era, it was necessary that Japan absorb and learn from the educational methods of
the West in order to create a modern educational system better suited to the needs of the
modern state. h   e seeds for the future development of lesson study were planted during this
important period. In particular, Meiji lesson study was conducted collaboratively at schools
ai   liated to teacher education colleges, spaces for learning that supported the education of
teachers. h   is teaching culture subsequently spread to public schools all over the country. In
the early 20th
century, a typical Meiji era school environment emerged which provided spaces
for teachers to discuss the ef ectiveness of their teaching methods (Kinkōdō Henshūbu 1910).
In addition, the proliferation of mimeographs facilitated collaborative lesson plans. Copying
and sharing of lesson plans allowed their dissemination to other schools. h e proliferation
of this new technology helped contribute to open discussion about teaching. Lesson study
also enabled Japanese teachers to realize, rel ect upon, and sustain meaning in their classroom
environment, and in pupil learning activities. h   is pedagogical awareness transpired as a result
of the accumulation of formal lesson study, but it also arose out of the informal rel ection of
individual teachers. h   e way of viewing pupils as described in Isomura’s geography lesson plans,
for example, was achieved through continuous rel ection on teaching.
h   is study asserts that the Japanese model of lesson study supported schools in managing
micro-level educational reform in practice, bringing teachers together to learn from each other
and to develop the school’s capacity for promoting learning and fostering shared values. Of
course, the school professional culture of lesson study in Japan was not achieved overnight. It
constitutes one example of the Japanese practice of kaizen 改善 (continuous improvement)
which is relatively easy to comprehend yet dii   cult to master in practice, and requires time
and systematic support from inside and outside the school. A professional school culture was
formed through cumulative lesson study activities of teachers, who rel ected on the realities of
their pupils for over a century. h   e culture of lesson study was cultivated within this learning
community.
Arguably, the most remarkable impact of lesson study historically has been its contribution
toward the creation of a shared professional culture dedicated to educational improvement,
the enhancement of pupil learning, enrichment of classroom practices, and acquisition of
pedagogical knowledge (Sarkar Arani, Shibata and Matoba 2007; Takahashi and Yoshida
2004). Looking to the future, lesson study may help to support school leadership by building
a culture of collaboration, and instilling a shared commitment among teachers to focus more
on learning than teaching, and also a shared sense of the meaning of ef ective teaching. h is
may be accomplished through the use of a common language for sharing ideas, in the search
for a common mission, common values and a common vision (Peterson and Deal 1998;
O’Neil 1995). Since Stigler and Hiebert published h e Teaching Gap in 1999, describing the
Japanese approach to lesson study, teachers and educational researchers worldwide have reacted
positively to this practice, and this has resulted in an increase in research utilizing ethnography
as a qualitative method to examine school culture and teacher culture (Fernandez, Cannon and
Chokshi 2003; Lewis, Perry and Murata 2006; Lee 2008).
Recently, educators in many countries have begun to learn from their Japanese counterparts
how to develop a new culture for promoting learning communities at their schools (Sarkar
Arani and Fukaya 2009). Needless to say, countries such as the United States, China, Indonesia,
Singapore, Iran, and Germany in their attempt to transfer the Japanese model have developed
their own perspectives on lesson study based on indigenous school cultures, educational context
and needs. In the teaching cultures of many countries, opening up classrooms to the outside and
soliciting criticism are often interpreted uniquely as a means of teacher evaluation, and there is
a tendency for teachers to have conl icting feelings regarding engaging in lesson study (Matoba,
Shibata and Sarkar Arani 2007). Moreover, since the practice of lesson study is typically done
simultaneously with large numbers of pupils, it is often dii   cult to determine how ef ective it
is for all pupils, or how pupils may perceive the instruction. Many strategies are necessary for
transferring lesson study to other educational contexts. Collaborative lesson plans, participant
observation, and rel ective thinking on teaching are the three points that serve as the core of
lesson study, and should be highlighted in its application to other educational contexts. It is
essential that teachers work together to plan lessons and to give feedback with no one individual
teacher functioning as the sole leader in lesson study. Educators, as equal participants, must
clarify their own views toward education and pupil learning; they must present a collaborative
lesson plan based on these aspects, and articulate their fundamental approaches to teaching.
h e i nal consideration is that lesson study should be understood as both regular practice
and as process, and that problems will not be resolved after a single session. Ef ective lesson
study follows the teaching of pupils and their progress over a long period of time. h is kind
of long term and continuous research orientation situates lesson study at the heart of school
culture.
Acknowledgement
h   is research was supported in part by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS)
under the Grant-in-Aid for Scientii c Research C (Reference number: 21530811). h e authors would
like to express their gratitude to the JSPS for the assistance and encouragement that made this research
possible.

http://www.worldscibooks.com/etextbook/6339/6339_toc.pdf

Teaching in Japanese Elemetary Schools - the official word

2011-03-16T04:28:00.000-07:00

This article is taken from the 2001 Renewer's Conference in Kobe and was prepared by the ALT Advisor at Monbukagakusho.

The following is not the new curriculum itself. It is just a brief description of how the curriculum is laid out and an overview of the International Understanding (kokusai riikai) portion of the curriculum, which ALTs may be expected to help with. It mentions what may be expected of ALTs and suggests what types of activities could be used. It is possible that your schools would like to explain the International Understanding portion of the curriculum to you, but aren't sure how.

Beginning in April 2000, elementary schools in Japan were allowed to introduce a new "Period of Integrated Studies" into their curriculum. Next year, in April 2002, with the introduction of the new course of study, all elementary schools in Japan will be required to do so.

The Period of Integrated Studies is a period that has been allocated for cross-curricula study. Some of the suggested areas that can be covered in this period are: international understanding (kokusai rikai), the environment, welfare, and information technologies.

Teachers at individual schools are asked to develop their own programs after considering the interests and abilities of their students as well as the situation of their school and local community.

International understanding is one element that many schools may choose to incorporate into their Period for Integrated Studies. As an ALT, you may be required to assist elementary schools with their programs.

International understanding education has three main goals:

1) The development of attitudes that are respectful of other cultures and qualities, and the development of the abilities necessary for living together with people from different cultures.

2) Establishment of a strong Japanese identity to better contribute toward international understanding.

3) The development of basic foreign language skills, the ability for self-expression and other communication skills for expressing one's own thoughts and intentions, while respecting the position of others in an international society.

In terms of specific learning activities at elementary school, they may take the form of 'student research projects,' 'international exchange activities,' and 'foreign language conversation'. All are effective for developing international understanding and it is hoped that they will be employed in an integrated manner.

Regarding the points to consider in developing foreign language activities during the Period for Integrated Studies, the Elementary School Course of Study states:

1) Activities should incorporate experiential learning, appropriate for elementary school students, in which the children are exposed to foreign language and familiarized with the daily life in foreign countries.

2) The primary purpose is to foster interest and desire to use English-not to teach a language. It is important to assess the students' level and developmental stage in devising activities. The contents and activities are not fixed so teachers when devising activities have to consider first the emphasis on 'spoken English' and other areas such as: what the students want to say and do; items that the students can relate to in their daily lives; items that increase students' awareness of differences in other cultures,etc...

In keeping activities interesting, it is possible to use such activities as: games, chants, suitable songs, picture books, easy role-plays/skits, use of audio/visual materials, as well as events introducing culture, special events and exchange activities, etc..

The emphasis of foreign language activities at the elementary school is on speaking and listening rather than reading and writing. The purpose is to spark an interest in foreign language and cultures. It does not mean an early introduction of junior high school English.