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How to study organic chemistry for an A-Plus

2012-01-03T10:32:00.000-08:00

Organic chemistry is the most interesting and easier to learn the subject matter of all sciences. However many students find intimidating. Organic chemistry fear permeates a lack of understanding of the subject which itself derives from an erroneous approach to learning object.

There are two stages of organic chemistry - based reasoning and the practice of learning. My twenty years of experience teaching chemistry, I have come across a large number of students, and they did very well themselves by simply following the steps above. Basic learning chemistry considerations are as follows:

Organic chemistry is not hard: Organic chemistry is not difficult at all. This is one of the most systematic sciences. This subject more practical needs and if you're comfortable in writing and identification of compounds from different structural ratings, I'm sure will provide you a good start. Don't forget that 40 per cent of organic chemistry is done if you're well in identification of structural formulas or write structures.

Don't Just read - practice it: You can delete your concepts only by questions. You must make a minimum of 10-20 different questions for each concept to master. For example, Carbocations concept governs product training preferred in many a reactions. Each book has a detailed explanation of the meaning and stability of carbocations. Understand the concept of the order of stability is very simple and straightforward, however the problem occurs when you start to apply the concepts of the problem. Identification of the different types of carbocations becomes easy until you have practiced various questions based on it.

Collapse your chapter in small matters: For example, write Lewis Structures, resonance, tautomerism etc. You must not cram the given language in the book, read many topics to understand. For example in headings of resonance, there are many: s and: s. not pas cram them because will you achieve anything by. What is important is to put into practice the rules by making questions based on the notes. As you rest assured that no Professor only asks you to list of rules for the review - but rules much a teachers favorite issues Forms applications. They may also appear in the true / false statements, but they may be tempted very well if the topic was understood by you.

Understanding organic reactions master their: Organic reactions can only be mastered by understanding. Each atom has a reaction with good reason. It is important to understand the reason why each reaction. For example, if Markovnikov rule, you can try to memorize this - you can also learn by heart. However you will find very difficult to keep them long term. However if you have learned with her reasoning for the stability of the carbocation, believe me you will hold it in your memory long long.

M aster reactions by practising with different examples: my advice is to practice at least ten examples of each reaction to master. For example consider the reaction for reduction of alkene with a metallic catalyst. If you practice different 10 examples of the response, the response will be get etched in your memory as an addition of hydrogen on the double bond cis. Anytime later when you come across this reaction, believe me, the reaction will snap back you immediately.

Exceptions or clumsy behaviour: In organic chemistry, as in every part of life, there are a few exceptions or clumsy behaviour of certain molecules. -Thank God there are only a handful of them. You will find all the books an explanation for their exceptional behavior. Simply include that the reasoning behind it, the exception appears more an exception for you.

Ultimately, I can summarize my experience teaching in organic chemistry in a single sentence:

LEARN WITH PRACTICE AND THINKING ORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND FIND OBJECT SIMPLER FOR EVERYONE.

UMA Sharma is a tutor for Expert chemistry online with more than 17 years of College teaching experience and Test Prep chemistry. For experts online tutorials in organic chemistry at school and college prep level and test for MCAT, DAT, AP, SAT chemistry chemistry tutor site online. The site offers also excellent chemistry tutorials and quizzes. For expert tutorials in organic chemistry, visit the organic chemistry tutor.

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The Energy Conservation Act

2012-01-01T09:46:00.000-08:00

Energy conservation law States that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Energy can only be conserved. Consider throwing a upwards. What are the forces acting on the ball? One is the weight of the ball can be pulled down. The next is the force behind rising on the balloon provided when the ball leaves the hand.

How far the ball travels upward? Answering this question can be easily to the law of conservation of energy. When the ball is thrown energy there is due to its speed and kinetic energy. His movement upwards the ball has potential energy and kinetic energy. Speed or velocity of the ball will be maximum when it leaves the hand and will be zero when it reaches the maximum height. Anytime speed reduce slowly (this is called as a delay versus acceleration where the veolocity increases continuously). The maximum height traveled by ball then can be determined by equating the potential energy of the destination (here kinetic energy is equal to 0, the ball is at rest), kinetic energy at the beginning of the query (here the potential energy is equal to 0).

Without the force of gravity, we would not drawn down for our planet and therefore we will be always floating upwards. The LCE can be used to make substantial diversions even the object lifted upwards does not in the vertical direction (or goes into a parabolic trajectory).

Imagine a marble is just rolling down a slope and is made to move in a circular ring, energy is conserved in this case as well. Can use the energy conservation act to determine the maximum time that the marble will be inside the circular ring.

How are we able to walk? We walk by the force of friction between foot and land surface. If there was no friction, we would be unable to stop walking. A ball which is rolling on stops floor at any time due to friction between the surface of land and the ball.

Teaching dynamic rotation

2011-12-30T09:11:00.000-08:00

Then, I describe how I teach problem solutions for dynamic rotation in terms of basic principles. As always, the statement of principles will be the first line of the solution to the problem. I chose two problems to illustrate my approach. They will require the application of the second law of Newton, angular velocity versus the angular position and the equation of motion of rotation.

In previous articles, I described the unusual scoring, I used. It is necessary due to the limitations of the text editor. Notation is dispersed on four different articles, which makes accessing very annoying. To overcome this difficulty, I summarize this notation here:

1. Most of the kinematic variables are represented by letters. For example, v is represented by the speed and acceleration by a.

2 Indices are designated using lowercase letters. For example, initial speed V-naught"is Vo.

3 Powers are represented by *. For example, "time squared" is T * 2.

4. An amount is represented by the sum (the conditions to be summarized).

5 Ft is represented by FT.

6 Static and kinetic friction coefficients are represented by the United Kingdom and United States, respectively.

7 Angles are represented with a script italic examples, I represent "Theta" by th and "phi" by phi.

8. Rotational quantities are represented with a script in italics. Specifically, the angular position is represented by Q, angular speed W, angular acceleration by A net external forces by text, torque moment of inertia by I.

Examine problems and their solutions.

Problem. Vertical grinder (I = 15 kgm * 2) has a RADIUS R = 80 cm. The wheel turns 80 rev/min when a friction brake is pushed against the rim. The wheel and then stops after five additional revolutions. The coefficient of kinetic friction between wheel and brake pad is Uk = 0.70. What is the normal force n applied to the brake?

Analysis. We have the angular velocity at the beginning and the end of five revolutions. Therefore, if we relate speed angular angular position, we should be able to determine the angular acceleration. Then, we can use the rotation of the motion equation to determine the force of friction and the normal force.

The wheel is supported to the axis of rotation (Group B) bearings, thrust by brake (normal force n and friction force f = UkN), and the acts of its weight to its centre of mass (which is also in the axis of rotation). Only the friction force exercises a couple around the central axis of rotation of the wheel.

Firstly, we must obtain 80.0 rev/min and 5 revolutions in appropriate units:

............................80 rev/min = (80 rev/min) (are rad/rev) (1 min / 60 s) = 8.38 rad/s.

... .rev 5 = (rev 5) (are rad/rev) = 31.4 rad.

Now, we can apply the basic principles:

....Angular velocity Versus the angular Position...Rotation equation of motion

..........W**2 = Wo**2 + 2A(Q - Qo)...........................................Sum (Text) = IA

..........0**2 = Wo**2 + 2A(Q - Qo).............................................fR + B(0) + N(0) = IA

..........0 * 2 = (8.38 rad/s) * 2 + 2 A (31.4 rad)... UkNR = IA

therefore...A = - 1.12 rad/s * 2.

With this a Uk = 0.70 with I = 15 kgm value inserted in the rotation of the motion equation, we have

N = - IA / UkR (kgm 15 * 2) = (-1.12 rad/s**2)/(0.70)(0.80 m) = 30 n.

Problem. A pulley radius r and moment of inertia is free to rotate without friction around a horizontal axis through the Centre of the pulley. A string is wrapped around the pulley and the free end of the chain is linked to a mass M. cylinder when the bottle was released, falls and turns the pulley. What are the cylinder acceleration and angular acceleration of the pulley? What is the chain tension?

Analysis. We can apply Newton's second law to the bottle and the equation of rotation of the movement to the pulley. The angular acceleration of the pulley and linear acceleration of the cylinder are bound by a = AR.

The cylinder is affecting only the string (strain Tupward). the weight of the cylinder is MG. The pulley is affecting string (strain Tdownward) and support its central axis (B). Pulley weight acts to the axis of rotation of the pulley. Only the voltage (point R arm) exerts a couple around the central axis of the pulley.

Using free body for two-body diagrams, we apply the second law of Newton (with the positive direction downwards) to the bottle and the equation of rotation movement pulley (with positive clockwise):

...............................The second law of Newton...Rotation equation of motion

..................................SUM(Fy) = MAy....................................Sum (Text) = IA

...................................MG - T = McAy....................................TR = IA

After combining A = AR, and these two equations find us, after a bit of arithmetic, which

..................A = MGR * 2 / (M. * 2 + I)...T = GIG / (M. * 2 + I)...A = MGR / (M. * 2 + I)

Again, we see physical problems solved by consulting basic principles. In short, this is my message. Teach students to resolve Physics problems starting with the basics.

Dr. William Moebs is physical retired professor who has taught at both universities: Indiana - Purdue Fort Wayne and Loyola Marymount University. You can see hundreds of examples illustrating how stressed fundamental principles consulting

USING PHYSICS.

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Introduction to nanotechnology

2011-12-28T09:06:00.000-08:00

Nanoscience is the study of phenomena and manipulation of matter at the nanoscale (0.1-100 nm), while nanotechnology is design, characterization, production and application of structures, devices and systems by control form size and nanoscale. The term commonly used nanotechnology to refer to both disciplines.

A nanometer is a unit of length equal to one millionth of a meter (1 x 10-9 m). At this scale, physical, chemical or biological properties of materials, objects, systems, etc., fundamentally different properties of the same size micro / macroscopic so that research and development of nanotechnology aims to understand and to create improved materials, devices and systems that exploit these new properties. In this regard, nanotechnology promises a better understanding of the nature and life itself, where the size and shape are important.

In turn, physics, chemistry, materials science, simulation and Engineering Computing, converge to the same principles theoretical and technical driver enabling the technological advance exceptional synergy and interdisciplinary initiatives taken by different sectors and countries.

In General, experts worldwide agree that nanotechnology has the potential to develop tools for making and influence procedures and even doctors unprecedented sur la société et des relations internationales. Therefore, it is considered a mega trend and a disruptive technology. For example, nanotechnology promises to increase the efficiency of the industry and develop traditional radical news from emerging technology applications. Internet, until recently called the revolution of the next generation unlike this new phenomenon blades.

There are many areas in which nanotechnology have potential applications. Progress will affect a wide range of industries such as cosmetics, pharmaceutical products, appliances, medical personnel, building, communications, security and defence, automotive and aerospace industries, among others. The environment will also benefit, while energy production will be less expensive and cleaner and more environmentally friendly materials were used.

The market is now available for such applications. For example, nanostructured materials are already used in products like tennis balls, golf or bowling (a way to reduce the number of tours are the same), to tire manufacturing high performance in the manufacture of fabrics with properties anti blemish or wrinkles, cosmetics, medicines and new therapeutic treatments, nanostructured membrane filtration water and sanitation environment; improving production processes through the introduction of more sustainable materials and efficient (industrial and agro-industrial) in the design of new materials for use in electronics, the aeronautics industry and almost all of the transport.

Now with nanoscience and nanotechnology are still at an early stage of research and development, where research and most of the investments are directed towards understanding of phenomena in nanoscale, processes and the creation of new materials or nano-structures. Technology trends towards the year 2020 in the world pointing to the transition from nanomaterials Nanosystems, thanks to the construction of systems at the nanoscale requires the combined use of the statutes of the nanoscale, biological principles, information technology and systems integration.

Nanotechnology-oriented innovations will meet a large number of current problems and needs of society and provide an enormous challenge for the future industrial and economic activities which often and is considered to be the engine of the next industrial revolution. Among the wide range of possibilities and after execution of the dispersion of initial positions it is illegal to questions about the areas where she focuses on our knowledge of our Paris and challenges assumed in order risk, development and implementation expectations.

Speakers in detail the origins of nanotechnology since its origin, classification, materials and their applications in various industries all with the intent to understand fully the nanotechnology research area and, thus, to calculate its vital importance in society.

Teach Newton's second law

2011-12-26T08:32:00.000-08:00

In three previous articles, I described how I deal with all problems of kinematics of the same three basic equations. I also said that this approach encourages students to discuss the options of physical problem in terms of fundamental principles. The purpose of this paper is to show how I continue to focus on basic-principle approach when the laws of Newton. Future articles will demonstrate how I turn to other topics such as dynamic rotation, mechanical energy conservation and static equilibrium.

Because my options are limited by the Equation Editor, I use the rather unusual notation. Much of it is summarized in an article entitled "teaching kinematics". Additional notation introduced for the first time in this article is: 1. an amount is represented by sum (the conditions to be summarized). 2 Pi is represented by FT. 3 Static and kinetic friction coefficients are represented by the United Kingdom and United States, respectively. A typical problem solution cinematic starts with the statement of one or more of the three fundamental equations like this:

...Position to time...Speed time.

...X = Xo + VoT + (AT**2)/2................................V = Vo + AT)

...Equation specific specific libellésÉquation

Many students who accept my message comment how easily they can solve most of their duties kinematic problems. More important still, many of these students start actually solve the problems of Physics in terms of fundamental principles. Let me show you two examples.

Problem. A block of mass Mj is pushed rightward by a horizontal force P. A small block of mass Mi rests on it. Coefficients of static and kinetic friction on all surfaces are the United Kingdom and United States, respectively. If the block at the top of the page does slips on the bottom one, what is the acceleration of the blocks? (b) if the block at the top of the page does not bottom one slip out, what is the maximum p can be?

Analysis. We will use a Galilean repository at rest to Earth with horizontal and vertical x axis y axis. If the upper block is not dragging, two blocks have the same Aix = Ajx = acceleration. The upper block is receive (i) just lower block (normal force neither pointing upwards and friction force fi right-pointing). (ii) the weight of the upper block is MiG. The lower block is touch: (i) block higher (normal force nor pointing downwards and frictional force fi pointing Leftwards - what reaction forces to those of the lower block on the upper block); (ii) the floor (normal force Nj and strength friction fj left-pointing). (iii) the weight of this block is MjG. (iv) there is also a P, force pushing the lower block on the right. Newton second

................................................Newton's second law

...............................Block i..........................................................Block j

.Sum (Fix) = MiAix....Sum (FIY) = MiAiy...Sum (Fjx) = MjAjx...Sum (Fjy) = MjAjy

.....fi = MiA..................NI - MiG = 0... P - fi - fj = MA...New Jersey - Ni - MjG = 0

the first equation gives neither = MiG. When put us this into the equation y second and then solve for Nj, we find Nj = (Mi + Mj) g. Given that the lower block is rolling around the floor, fj = UkNj = Uk (Mi + Mj) g. After placing it with the x-fi first equation in the second equation x, we

...P-MiA - Uk (Mi + Mj) G = MDY

Therefore

...A = (P - Uk (Mi + Mj) G) /(Mi_+_Mj).

(b) the top block slides when it static friction force reaches fimax = UsNi = UsMiG. With this inserted in the first equation-x, we have Amax = fimax/Mi = UsMiG/Mi = UsG. Finally, after placing the result in the equation for acceleration found in (a) and problems for P, we find

...Pmax = (US + Uk)(Mi_+_Mj) g.

Problem. Coin is sitting on a rotating horizontal platform distance R = 20 cm from the Centre of the platform. If the platform is a T = 1.1 s rotation period, which is the minimum coefficient of friction required to maintain the piece in place?

Analysis. We study the motion of the room. We'll use radial (outward) and the axes of vertical reference (upwards). Since there is no tangential acceleration, so can be ignored. Room is affected just the platform (vertical upward normal inward force and n radial static force of friction f). The weight of the piece is MG... With the second law of Newton in radial and vertical directions, we have

.................................Newton's second law

...SUM(Fr) = MAr......................................................Sum (Fz) = MAz

...-f = M(-V**2)/R.....................................................N MG = 0

Since we want we have minimum coefficient of friction, f = UsminN, which, when combined with radial and vertical, equations yields UsMG = (MV * 2) / r. Thus the minimum coefficient of friction is

...Usmin = (V * 2) / RG.

Speed is related to the period by V = 2 (pi), R/t. insert this and given in equation Usmin values we find that

...Usmin = 0.67.

Two problems I just use examples, major emphasis has been on a basic principle, in this case Newton's second law. If you look at how I teach students to approach constant-acceleration kinematics, you'll see that my approach here is an obvious extension to what I was doing it. I try very hard to keep students from ever "formula hunting". You can find many more examples in the physics Web site help. In the next article, I demonstrate how I approach the problem of work-energy theorem solutions.

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Dissolve Fat - 5 Secrets to lose fat forever

2011-12-24T06:56:00.000-08:00

Depending on the degree of seriousness, you're dissolve your fat and be pleased that once again, when it comes to cellular nutrition, it is a miracle of modern science. This is why many doctors recommend cellular NUTRITION, because it is a proven formula that works for the fight against obesity and its complications have become a wold wide epidemic.

More than two-thirds of adult United States are overweight or obese.People who are obese, tend to pay 42% higher health care costs.From 1960 to 2006, obesity in the United States rose from 13.4 to 35.1% among adults 20 years at 74. Obesity in the United States is 32.2% of adult men and 35% in the United States women.16% adults, children are obese and 11% are extremely obese.

2011 is the year to learn how to avoid... and dramatically reduce risk... the suffering of the three major killers in the United States... heart disease, stroke and heart attack!

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Dissolve fat eating nutritional products and cell - CONS.

Good health by cellular nutrition is not free. Your body is the most important machine you will never run. Control what happens by increasing energy, get the best nutrition and health maintenance is not a job, but rather a lifestyle. Should adopt to this lifestyle in order to maximize the benefits offered by cellular nutritional products.

How cellular Nutrition?

Produced nutritional simple cellphones are scientifically formulated in support of healthy "villi." These tiny, finger structures along the wall of your intestines are essentially "keepers," help your body to absorb more nutrients, vitamins and minerals, while protecting you from toxins. The healthier your villi more effectively as you absorb the food your cells need - dissolve healthy fat.

Our body consists of over 100 billion cells.Cells form tissues.Tissues form organs.Body shape organ system.The system working together form a human being.

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absorption of micronutrients corps support and promote the production of energy cell support energy boost and loss of weight; increase metabolism and generating energy and alertness; reduce fat absorption and support weight loss a protein without fat supplements for control of hunger which build assistance and support lean mass muscle.

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Now, you must make a choice and to consider the possibility of being helpless and dependent on doctors, medications and other one day. Ask yourself, if you even afford all this. You see, if you can afford to buy and consume food, you can offer you products, because these products only in the form of supplements are foods, herbal plants and foods consumed while you are taking medications. Do you think that you are at the crossroads? Allow me to quickly resolve your issue and help you make a quick decision.

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Master of Science for an emerging Graduate Professional degree

2011-12-22T06:44:00.000-08:00

With growth in the health care industry, emerges from a relatively new diploma. He is known as the Science of a professional or MMP - masters degree and it is designed so that students can go beyond making advance their understanding of science and mathematics. The Professional Science master's degree provides students business skills they might need in the workplace working.

This combination of skills is a key to the success of many businesses in biotechnology in particular, according to what one researcher Senior Council of graduate schools project residence and professional master's programs Director says BioWorld today. However, the majority of medical products companies is established by scientists who might consider research honored profession and business as the "Devil's work", underlined article October BioWorld today. Up to now, more than 100 colleges and universities PSM degrees make available proposed an announcement by the Council of graduate schools.

The Council of graduate schools strives to promote the PSM degree so that it becomes as commonplace as other degrees. In an article in the New York Times in December, the Dean of the University in Upstate New York called a "21st century degree." He compared this degree with a hybrid, expands in how MBA evolved over 100 years ago.

Professional Science Master degrees extend beyond areas generally associated with mathematics and science. Certainly, there are degrees PSM in areas such as biotechnology, medical related sciences, physics and geological and mathematical and statistical sciences. There are also PSM degrees in forensic science, national defence, computational sciences as the analytical science and imaging and sciences de l'environnement such as coastal and watershed science policy, science and climate solutions.

MMP levels are created in collaboration with employers. Some of the skills taught in courses or other offers of vocational training that accompanies these programs are communications, business and regulatory affairs, noted the announcement of the Council of graduate schools.

The Council of graduate schools plans to establish a means to gather information for registration in the mastery of Science professionals as well as diplomas awarded degrees. The Council also plans to gather information about the students who participate in these programs, where they work and how their work and their wages are progressing in the five years between the time where they get their professional Science master's degree.

A not-for-profit foundation known as the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation provides the Council more than $490,000 for his efforts. The Board plans to review the Web site, sciencemasters.com, of the plans of awareness for new master Science professionals. Currently, the New York Times article noted, the majority of students participating in professional Science masters degree programs are Americans, while a solid number of foreign students is in fact the same.

PSM degrees have come a long way since their introduction of the 1990s. This diploma more recent is taking off in popularity. Those who are interested in potentially earn a master's degree in this area can explore their options with indications of connection of education; they can be paired with schools and programs that meet their interests. Michael Teitelbaum is responsible for professional Foundation Sloan Science master's program. He has been quoted in the announcement of the Council of graduate schools by saying that "The rapid growth of the program," Teitelbaum said, "speaks volumes for efforts (the Council of graduate schools) and its members have already made and we look forward to success."

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Create the best mathematics and science educational experiences for youth

2011-12-20T06:32:00.000-08:00

In the almost 15 years since I finished high school I notice major changes in how children are educated. I feel like I'm not old enough to say that when I was small things were different, but I say that on a regular basis. When I was a child, parents and educators seemed to work together to provide a quality education for children. There are learning experiences both at home and at school. I have some memories of conduct science experiments at home and at school as early as primary school. However, I am aware that children not today have the same opportunities I had during my studies of K - 12.

All students is not equality of the chances of having a large science educational experience. I have been spending time in schools and am aware that children are not engaged in enough hands on science or science that is relevant for them to make them interested in science. A conversation with a 5th grader and he talked about what he learned in science class that day here. What they have learned bored to death, they talked about a scientist who died and technology which is obsolete. I know that the history of science is an important part of science, but children should learn something that is relevant and current, and scientists who are alive today. But something that I appreciate at least this student's science learning. I am always curious how State math and science standards are selected. Curriculum team brings together a variety of mathematics and sciences and professional educators? They choose based material which provide students with a solid base and also to engage with them subjects? Whether they choose a curriculum that school districts will be able to be implemented, including districts and schools with limited resources? Do they consider the curriculum is academically prepare for postsecondary education and pursue careers in these subjects? I think a strong program should include these elements in order to ensure the academic success of our children in math and science.

In addition, most State curriculum at the heart of the subjects are arts of language, mathematics, social studies and science. However the priority of time teaching in our schools, especially at the elementary school is not always placed emphasis on equal preparation in all areas. There are studies that show that of elementary students do you always an adequate amount of science in their curriculum. There are various reasons for this. the main reason is that not enough resources is education, because science is rarely about standardized testing which has become an essential part of education. Another reason is not all primary teachers feel sufficiently comfortable teach their students the science. With school primary is the Foundation for learning in all areas, if there is no sound basis in science, how children aim when they go to school of medium and high. This does not create an environment for our children to Excel in science, let alone to pursue a career in these areas.

So that we can provide the best educational experience for our young people, we must take the educational system that is responsible for ensuring that all domains have times of equal education. We shouldn't give more subjects more time teaching simply because our students will be tested on these topics. The best way we can hold accountable them is to build a relationship with education at all levels; different schools, school district and State Education Department. We want to ensure that our children are academically prepared to enter the market of the future work to be an educated workforce.

Solving Crime with DNA analysis

2011-12-18T05:23:00.000-08:00

While techniques to identify a suspect of his genetic code exist since the 1980s, DNA analysis has gained in popularity in recent years. On the one hand, television shows like "csi: Crime Scene Investigation" has increased public awareness of the Forensics and DNA analysis through the use of the technology, as determine size of particles and synthesizers DNA analyzers that collect and analyze DNA. So intriguing and compelling are instances that today many juries expect DNA evidence in the courtroom.

The truth is, the DNA is probably the biggest promotion in police work from analysis of fingerprints. This breakthrough in genetic technology translates not only current criminals to justice, it has also helped break cases unresolved for years.

What is DNA?

DNA means deoxyribonucleic acid and it hereditary material in humans and almost all other organizations. Almost every cell in the body of the person has the same DNA and it contains information used daily in the growth and metabolism and it influences most of our features.

A DNA molecule is a long string known as a double-helix twist. In human cells, DNA is tightly wrapped in 23 chromosomes where one member of each pair of chromosomes from your mother and your father. Simply put, your DNA is a combination of your mother and father and DNA except if you have a twin, your DNA is unique for you.

DNA collection

DNA can be collected on virtually anywhere. Even a criminal wearing gloves may unwittingly leave traces of biological material such as hair, blood, semen, skin, or even sweat. Some cells are all that are needed to get enough DNA information to identify a suspect.

DNA analysis techniques

1 Restricted Fragment Length Polymorphism analysis

One of the first methods used forensic was RFLP, analysis that analyzes the lengths of strands of DNA, including base pairs called, variable number tandem repeat them here. In this method, investigators must dissolve DNA in an enzyme that breaks down the strand to specific points. The number of repetitions affects the length of each strand of DNA and investigators compare samples by comparing the length of strands. RFLP analysis requires a broad sample of DNA was contaminated with dirt.

Today, several laboratories are alternate RFLP analysis short Tandem repeat (STR) analysis, a method which offers several advantages, the greater is its ability to start with a much smaller sample of DNA.

2. The analysis Y marker of

While most laboratories use methods of RFLP or STR analysis, there are situations that require a different approach. For example, in a situation as a sexual assault case when there are several contributors of genetic material, analysis of Y-marker males can resolve the mixture and untangle exactly what men were involved. This technique looks at several genetic markers on chromosome Y. Given that chromosome is passed from father to all her sons, DNA on chromosome is can be used to identify different male DNA.

3 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis

RFLP and STR testing can be used over ancient remains or lack of biological evidence of nucleated cells. In such situations, the mitochondrial DNA analysis is used. This method uses the DNA of mitochondria in a cell and is particularly useful in solving cold cases.

4 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) analysis

The SNP analysis is a relatively new technique, and it is useful in cases where forensic laboratories are presented with highly degraded DNA samples. Scientists are analyzing DNA variations where one nucleotide replaces another. This genetic modification is called a unique polymorphism and it is an excellent marker, which can determine the sensitivity of the person to certain diseases.

Solving Crimes

There are two ways that DNA analysis can be done to solve crimes. In cases where the perpetrator has been identified, DNA samples can be taken by the suspect and compared with genetic evidence found at the scene of the crime. If the samples match after testing, the suspect can be loaded.

The second method is used when no suspect has been identified. With the help of equipment and techniques such as laser diffraction, DNA can be detected and recovered from the scene of the crime. Under controlled conditions, evidence of DNA sample is analyzed and compared the DNA of offender profiles database. A match to identify the perpetrator of the crime.

Go green and get a degree in environmental science!

2011-12-16T05:22:00.000-08:00

Go to College is a fun and exciting experiences that you'll have in your entire life. Part of what is most interesting experience is the fact that you get to choose a major. You get to decide that the only thing you are most interested in the study is going to be your attention for the rest of your diploma.

For our generation, one of the most important topics of focus is the green environment. In fact, more than any other generation before us, we are embracing green more. Keep our planet healthy, happy and ecologically is extremely important for many of us in every day of our lives. Unsurprisingly, it makes sense that making into a job would be attractive for many of us.

In fact, you can turn your passion into a degree. Focus is called the science of the environment and it is the science of the environment and the invention of solutions to our environmental problems. Unfortunately, human beings humans tend to do a lot of destruction of our planet. Fortunately, you can be part of the correction.

Environmental science diploma is almost exactly what it sounds like. It combines physical and biological sciences. Environmental science aims to be a well balanced, multidisciplinary scientist who can use many tools to solve problems.

Okay, what is a specific example of what an environmental scientist doing? It's easy. They look at things that make up our planet – air, soil and water — and determine what pollutants are affecting them, and how to get rid of them. Environment specialists are big sur to find what is wrong and a plan to solve the problem. Environment specialists can also choose to focus on more specific types of environmental science.

Some environmental scientists choose to specialize in a specific type of environmental science. For example, environmental chemists work to determine what chemicals are safe for environment - and how to get rid of chemical substances which are dangerous for the environment. Other environmental scientists choose to work in the legal field, helps companies comply with environmental legislation or really help in the composition of these laws.

As the world continues to evolve its greenness (and delegate as make us messy), employment opportunities for graduates with degrees in environmental science extends just. Even the Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts that the employment opportunities for these graduates will grow faster than similar jobs in other specialties. The vast majority of these jobs will be held at the Federal, State and local government positions.

Therefore, if you've been research to save the world for your entire life, it may be the closest you'll get. You'll certainly part superhero, but you'll also graduate full - and probably the most important part anyway. The head of your college campus and begin the registration process to become an environmental specialist today! If you take courses online or on a college campus, completing your degree is what is most important for your future. Not only you will be grateful you gets your scientific environment, the planet will be happy to have one more person on the other hand.

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Medical genetic inheritance II - recessive type associated with x and Dominant inheritance

2011-12-14T04:01:00.000-08:00

The first part of this article. Medical genetic inheritence can be divided into four types. Autosomal recessive and Dominant types and dominant and recessive x-linked. The types of autosomal, recessive both dominant have been discussed in previous articles. Let's now talk about the type of gender-related or rather bound inheritence x.

X-linked recessive inheritance
1. There are "oblique" transmission, i.e., in the pedigree, the line drawn by the affected persons is oblique.
2. Only males are affected, females are only carriers.
3. For the progeny of a female carrier has 50% probability of affected son and 50% probability of daughters being carriers.
4. For the descendants of an affected male, none of the threads will carry line, while all daughters will be carriers.

A female can manifest a character bound to x if the normal x chromosome is inactivated life fetal (Lyonization) or if it is the offspring of a male of female, and are affected carrier, or if the unaffected x-chromosome is structurally abnormal as in Turner's syndrome. Example: Hemophilia disease of Christmas, pseudo-hypertrophic muscular dystrophy.

X-linked dominant inheritance
1. The number of affected women is doubling the number of affected males.
2. The affected male going of chromosome y sons (and not the X chromosome), accordingly, all affected male sounds are normal, while all girls affected male are abnormal.
3 Affected females passes the x-chromosome mutant half of his daughters and sons and consequently, half half girls and half threads are affected.

Disease is usually milder females, due to gene on the other X chromosome, for example, type of vitamin D resistant rickets hypo-phosphatemic

Forensic Science degrees can lead to a variety of exciting careers

2011-12-12T02:01:00.000-08:00

Forensic science isn't really a singular science in the truest sense of the word. It is rather a term that may refer to several sciences, each with the objective to answer questions for legal proceedings. Although the word "lawful" originally indicated a legal adjective or law, it has become so synonymous with its pairing scientists some references have allowed for a transitional definition of scientific distinction.

In a legal system where deductive reasoning and assumption do not suffice for the criminal prosecution and punishment, there is need for a rigorous process that can provide objective evidence. Act here turns into forensic medicine and science that have supported their value in the field and laboratory.

Forensic biological concentration degrees use biology and apply it to the legal system. These degrees arm students for a career might include DNA or analysis of vegetable proteins or evaluation of insects and other biological components that could be part of a crime scene. This division of forensic science includes subdivisions of forensic anthropology, forensic Botany, judicial Odontology and forensic entomology.

Forensic science degrees are offered with scientific concentration of chemistry and its application to the legal system. Students will learn how to identify if certain chemicals or elements were present at the time of a crime and what changes in chemical reactions took place which could help to prove what happened.

Forensic Psychology degrees are the union between the law and mental science. These degree holders have a distinct, but sometimes discrete task for the use of psychological methods to relay a legal and succinct explanation. Often the work of psychologist forensic involves determining the mental state of mind of the accused during the alleged crime, determination of sanity or insanity and able to relay to each of these points in a manner which is not necessarily medically driven, but rather relates to the Court and its objectives. As a result, credible forensic psychologists are usually also well versed in the law as science.

Degrees of forensic psychiatry, used for many legal purposes (i.e., credible opinion regarding skills) that forensic psychology degrees, are actually medical degrees that require the same course outline, the time and effort as other achievements of the school of medicine, as additional study requirements and residence.

If psychologists and psychiatrists speak to live when they speak for themselves, you could tell forensic anthropologists talk to the dead. Using a physical analysis of often break human bones, forensic anthropologists use their credentials to identify deceased persons, injuries, diseases and sometimes time and due to death. Their jobs often include working with with drafters and homicide investigators.

Forensic science is the branch of science which covers many segments that assist the legal system. Act depends more on scientific discovery and application in forensic science. As to develop new technology, forensic science finds new industries and new jobs to accommodate them. Degrees of forensic science, some of the largest colleges at the United States have a forensic DNA forensic toxicology programs variety. Many of these programs are relatively young, offered for about ten years. It is possible to earn a degree online in this area. Because of their scientific and technological often diversions, they prove to be advanced educations in development studies.

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Life, life and Einstein

2011-12-10T01:49:00.000-08:00

Not only there hands Einstein in the greatest scientific minds of our time, he was also an astute commentator on human nature. Einstein held faith into something beyond what simply meets the eye, which I interpret his saying "the most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious". He added that (the mysterious) is the "source of all true art and science all the". Finally, this is the conclusion of Einstein who that someone who is unable to take a break "booth for rapt in AWE is also good as dead", that "his eyes are closed."

For me, the Einstein commentary on life reinforces the reality that the mere fact of being alive in itself is more that a sufficient cause of joy and wonder. A person should never have to be bored. If the effect of life is causing a pause in the Rapture is certainly not try to find awe in action or acquisition. In fact, those hunting things, who spends their life hunting rather than to wonder is ironically those who is blind. And they are blind because the acquisition is ultimately a dead-end game. Once it acquires the piece at the end of an alley, it must continue the drama. It may be a way to earn a living virtually in the practical sense. But it is not a break.

There are many Quantum big shots out there these days that seem to me to be incredibly arrogant and the art of necromancy black spinning. I will not go into name-calling. People from all sides have tried to overthrow the Einstein and relativity. But Einstein's theories have been falsified, and they have stood the test of that resulted in many practical applications which have all worked - unfortunately some horribly. On the other hand, Quantum theorists are praised for their theories without any practical applications for returning all the. We seem to be in a world of hypocrisy, decipher from the ashes of a particle accelerator. Theories come into vogue or are released faster than autumn fashions in Paris.

It is not truth as a source of science. Einstein clearly knew himself as a participant of this disbelief universe, not as a mere observer. Cannot see the scene when it participates in games, but one can describe the rules and dimensions. Einstein was a genius - he was also a prophet.

This article was written by Dinah Jackson, who likes to write about science, travel, and pokemon. To find the rarest Japanese Pokemon elements, see the store has every kind of Pokemon plushie you can imagine. Also an incredible selection of Pokemon pokedolls, charms, Toys Plush, keychains, figures, binders, deck boxes, sleeves, plush toys, and anything you can imagine. Delivered right to your door entrance to the Japan.

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Mysterious, moving, magnetic north pole - Cause - consequence - Florida airport runway closure!

2011-12-08T00:45:00.000-08:00

Slowly but steadily, the magnetic pole in the North of planet Earth seems to be drifting towards Russia - recent consequences has been the impact of commercial flights above to force air-ground tracks closure in Tampa, Florida.

Change of magnetic fields of the Earth relatively slowly, explains the FAA marked intervals of 10 degrees. The magnetic field went from about 10 degrees is 25 degrees West in the 19th century 300 years ago. It is now swinging back, currently at 3 degrees West.

Tampa International Airport is forced to readjust its tracks at the beginning of January, 2011, due to the magnetic field movement, its main runway for a week of change taxiway signs closing. Aviation is drawn to the latitude and longitude, with the participation of the magnetic poles, information that drivers rely on to navigate to an airport, until there is a Visual takeover.

Although the exact cause of the drift of the North magnetic pole is not completely understood, scientific Earth explains that magnetism is generated by internal and external Earth core movements, and polar movements are only a few degrees per year, they are constantly in flux. Rarely, however, are changes of this magnitude that tracks require adjustment in accordance with the FAA.

Magnetic fields vary across the world, apparently influenced by local ore deposits. While runway adjustments were required in Tampa International small Peter o. Knight airport, they were not otherwise required across the country. The FAA is quick to point out that these change insrease passenger safety.

The runway most occupied at Tampa International has been renamed 19R/1 L for aviation charts, from 18R/36 L, indicating the alignment along the approach 180 degrees of the North and the south - 360-degree approach explains in an article in the Tampa Tribune. Earth's poles are constantly changing and when change is more than three degrees, it may require renumbering of the runway, magnetism lines Earth Monitoring and air-fields is the Division of the Office of natural resources of the Canada Geomagnetism.

Historically, the South Pole and magnetic north are known to completely reverse such flipping recorded in ancient rocks magnetism. The cause and predictability are unknown, the last such upset natural 780,000 years ago.

Aaron Kolom is considered to be "scientific" with aerospace engineering over 50 years: Stress senior analyst of many military aircraft structural science Corp. Director Structures and materials, Deputy Chief Engineer of shuttle from three first flights (Medal of Service granted Public NASA), Rockwell International Corp.; Concorde SST, VP Engineering TRE Corp. Aerospace Consultant Manager program.

Aaron l. Kolom - of brainwashed * and Miracles *.
* The perceived elite mentality secular re Darwin evolution!
* To believe in them - have faith - in Science and logic!

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Mechanical advantage - screw

2011-12-06T00:16:00.000-08:00

It's a "simple machine" we are all quite familiar with due to its widespread use in various applications. In fact, we may be familiar with what might be difficult to believe that it is even a "machine".

Well, technically, a machine can be anything that performs mechanical "work", so even has something as trivial as a screw can be one. Screw systems such as Archimedes screw are at the base of numerous mechanical devices, including those used for the conveyance of water, grain or even transporting fish from one container to another. As you can see, the concept of the screw is thus not limited to the sharp small pieces of galvanized metal used in carpentry jobs, or fix-it. This is one of the components core number in the world of mechanics.

Speaking from a point of reference technical screw nothing, but a "inclined plan" wrapped a shank or cylinder. A slipway is also one of the 6 machines simply called thus by scientists of the Renaissance, but the distinction between the screw and the slipway is that the former only in spiral around a cylinder, but also converts a linear rotational force.

Inclined plane

First, let's define a slipway. Imagine a straight line with the 2 points of endpoint at different heights and you have yourself a slipway. In practice, think of a ramp next to the stairs. Ramp jumps to the same height as the stairs, but has probably start from further back.

So much more return ramp goes, the mechanical advantage. The advantage of the mechanics of the incline is the length of the slope divided by the slope - MA slope length/slope height = height.

Screw

If the thread is wrapped a screw is essentially a plan tilted, gradually climbing tree screw. The advantage of the mechanics of the screw is calculated by MA pdm/l = where dm is equal to the average or mean diameter of the screw thread, and l is equal to the head of the screw thread.

* You need to know the actual mechanical advantage of screw system is more than the above equation, the advantage of the mechanics of the driver or similar device transforming.

Why stuff Say Carl Sagan who are Star?

2011-12-03T22:18:00.000-08:00

I saw a show on my TV last night courtesy of NetFlix instant Downloads still has captivated me by the purpose of the program. It is a "Universe" episode of season 1 (one) who says how the stars are, how they live their lives in various stages of development, and finally how they die. It seems that all stars come to be stars in the same general way, but all the stars are not created equal. Some have to reveal average as our Sun, while other much larger and warmer, and some end to reveal much smaller and cooler than Sun astronomers say stars are formed from very large clouds of gas and dust. Due to the force of gravity, these clouds begin to rotate and Centre grows warmer and warmer on the day of the Star "Turns On".

Stars live most of their lives combustion hydrogen and helium conversion process. This is called the "main sequence" and stars the size of our Sun, it can last billions of years. More stars live on the "main sequence" for a shorter time, normally in millions of years because they parce qu' ils consomment consume their fuel hydrogen at a much greater pace and shine more brilliant. When the star has used all its hydrogen, it begins to transform helium into heavier elements such as carbon and oxygen. Finally, the star runs fuel and begins the process of dying.

More massive stars create heavier elements, and when they die in explosions of supernova, they start these elements in space. The force of the explosion also creates new, heavier, and that all items items will travel to enrich the space between the stars with dense clouds of gas and dust. And so the process starts over again, new stars and planets forming debris once stars.

Specimen containers - you need to know to buy

2011-12-01T20:54:00.000-08:00

Sometimes pre analytical errors may occur in specimens if specimen containers are not the best quality. Accordingly, it is important to ensure compliance by buying the best containers for this purpose as such, the errors are very difficult to detect. An extensive collection of these containers are easily accessible online and you can see all details such as specifications, intended use and method of manufacturing employment. You can even read reviews before buying.

Many lab specimen containers, such as the urine containers are available in a variety of shapes and sizes with different types of lids. Lids are the type screw which are very practical snap - type handle. Most manufacturers of e-commerce have the best quality products.

It is very important to buy a product of good quality for these containers, as a low quality one can cause leakage problems. The laboratory must also make use of cups tight as it is important that them--health, such as nurses, care workers remain protected from exposure to the specimen and also the specimen must be protected from contaminants.

Many of these laboratory specimen containers are available with special access ports that enable the transfer of the specimen through a closed system directly from the collection system tube. These containers are available in various colors like amber, opaque, translucent and even white so that you can choose according to the specimen.

Available containers are particularly attractive, as they can protect your specimen of light effects. You get polyethylene and polypropylene containers. There is also a graduate and identification tags are included.

You can easily purchase these containers resistant flight via the internet, as many of them have even sterile internal surfaces which are suitable for various purposes. Covers most of them are ideal for stacking too. They provide labels attached to the date, name, room number and doctor.

Specimen transport containers can also be availed from online shopping. They are available in a wide range of storage and transport of specimens that are economically viable. There is a wide selection of sizes and they are multipurpose containers are also resistant to shocks, thereby making an ideal container for the transportation of the sample.

Many of them have ribbed caps are watertight and can be opened and closed with wet hands or gloves. You can have empty jars or formalin prefilled specimen pots.

In bulk can also be made use and labels for jars pre-filled, you can even custom. Thus, all your requirements for your installation or your laboratory specimen containers can be easily achieved by shopping online with a wide range for each type of requirement.

Successfully executing a good survey

2011-11-29T20:27:00.000-08:00

Criminal investigations is also known as forensic science. This is how the detectives and scrupulous right solve criminal cases by gathering useful evidence. People can ask what things a crime scene investigator must know and what are the corresponding formations one.

There is a popular television CSI show was criminal that is surprisingly resolved by protagonists show from. Acts are quite similar to real world affairs, but those who have shown that some of the few things do. There are many things to do before executing successfully a good investigation.

Trainings are the main beginning to be a crime scene investigator. It requires many practical cases which must be well familiar with. You must be exposed to different types of sites and be able to manage a number of horrific objects as human blood and objects used in crimes.

The good thing to be a CSI is that it makes feel you a saviour in a survey. It allows you to help those who really need your analysis and resolution. The work will be certainly more cost-effective.

The training includes various types of analysis. This is why a person is required to participate in an intensive training and investigation.

Since a crime investigation must occur exactly at the place, a CSI are allowed to possess a firearm or help an unforeseen event or defence purposes. An investigator must have at least an education courses from the application of the law and should be physical adapted to qualify for this profession.

Training institutions offer complete and certified courses for a crime scene investigator. Prior to the education of criminal investigations, it is suggested that you first discover what are required training, you should take to be a crime scene investigator.

Your local police department and a representative of crime scene should be able to advice you the necessary qualifications to choosing schools and courts of rights.

Anatomy and Physiology Questions examination – exam success

2011-11-27T18:37:00.000-08:00

Anybody to the success of their anatomy reviews review and Physiology should know that it is essential that you have a study guide that offers a variety of issues to review Anatomy and physiology.

There is so much information to learn with this difficult topic. The majority of students is the latin name for example the muscles, the trickiest of learning.

I taught Anatomy and Physiology for a long time and after years of dealing with students frustrated, nervous, which I have had the best results at the end of year reviews after I tested my students on a weekly basis at the beginning of their studies.

Anatomy and physiology is divided into body, for example respiratory and circulatory systems. Each system must be learned separately, for example to learn the skeletal system and then move on the next chapter. The type most appropriate to use the revision of the questions are multiple-choice questions.

My advice would be to take on issues and copy them on a piece of paper or some Records of 20-30 cards. Day 1 learn these questions again and again until you are satisfied. Repeat this process the next day and so forth. Each chapter is expected to take about four days to review. It is obvious that some chapters may take longer than others, depending on the information contained in each of them. You can also change the number of issues you learn every day, but you can change accordingly based on the size of the chapter and the time you have.

When you reviewed a body system, give yourself a review on what you've learned. If you type on your review, it will be more professional, you can also keep copies for future reference. When you take the exam, close your books and honestly to mark your paper. This will give you a guideline on how well informed that you are on this system of body and knowledge if you need to study more.

If you repeat this on all body systems, you'll be surprised how much learn you. The key is to constantly test yourself. Give your review little self all the time.

DNA - testing how is it really used in our society today?

2011-11-25T16:38:00.000-08:00

DNA testing is done to obtain important information or facts about the crimes to prove guilt or innocence of a person or family tracing ancestry. It is also widely used for genetic testing and paternity tests. Below are the different ways in which it is used in our society today.

Forensic science

DNA tests or fingerprinting is widely used for forensic science today. This type of test is used to find a suspect in a case of crime using samples of hair, blood, saliva etc. There are various methods used in DNA fingerprinting. Some of these methods are RFLP, chain polymerase and short tandem or STR analysis. A test of this kind help to understand the particular profile of human beings humans from pre historic era.

Paternity testing

DNA testing is widely used for paternity testing to prove if a child is the son or the daughter of a particular person. The test is performed by comparing the DNA of parents with children. There are various companies around the world who offer these services today. Basically, there are three types of companies that offer paternity tests. Some firms specialize in these tests and have a laboratory that are unique. Other companies are more as brokers while the third type of companies are laboratories that perform these tests as a business side.

Genetic disorders

DNA is often used today for genetic tests to verify the ancestors, diseases, and diseases. Genetic testing is the analysis of the DNA of a human being. Our DNA has strands of various codes that relate to the color of the eyes, height, color of hair and other parts of the body. It also has information on illnesses and diseases. These tests can be executed before or after the birth of a child. In the case of a genetic test before birth the doctor take fluid of the fetus or would CVS for placental material for genetic information. Some segments of DNA are such that they are transmitted from generation to generation without modification.

DNA and the different types of tests that are associated with have changed our company in different ways. Today there are testing centers and laboratories around the world that provide useful information and helpful services. These test centres also offer banking services DNA as well as biological link sessions search counselling. The results of these tests are very specific, which is one of the reasons why they are very reliable and used around the world. It can be rightly said that genetic analysis has infiltrated almost all strata of society today.

One must learn more about DNA and other secrets marketing test.Thomas Freers is a Marketing coach online which is undoubtedly more great Internet Marketing School, available worldwide today. He specializes in Marketing Article, Social Media networking and various other marketing strategies and working with small and large businesses to help them customize their marketing campaigns. With more than 50 different marketing strategies available today you learn that fits your personality. To learn more about Thomas Freers and see more efficient principles to explode your Internet business to create large profits and get results go to http://www.earn-1k-a-day-for-life.com/

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Physiology Questions – help to pass your exams.

2011-11-23T15:27:00.000-08:00

It is very important to have the good set of questions from Physiology to help spread your examinations.

Anatomy and physiology is very difficult to learn, and once the end of the year arrives there is much to review. Physiology is generally divided into body systems namely.
Skin
Cell & fabrics
Circulatory
Respiratory
Digestive
Muscles
Skeleton
Endocrine system
Reproduction
Urinary
Nervous system
Lymphatic

The best way to review each system must have a set of questions with multiple choices relevant to the body part you learn. Multiple-choice questions are the best type of questions to use because there is no room for error, you need to know the answer that you can only choose a single selection.

Some examples:
01. What is the largest gland in the body?
(a) liver - response
(b) the gallbladder
(c) pancreas
(d) stomach

02. Which one of the following is not a function of the larynx?
(a) aid to voice generation
(b) acts as an air passage
(c) Act as an air passage between pharynx and bronchi - response
(d) to prevent choking

03 Bundle of nerves, known as the horse tail consist of what part of the spinal nerves?
(a) lumbar, sacral and coccygeal nerves - response
(b) nerves of cervical, thoracic and lumbar
(c) thoracic, lumbar and sacral nerves
(d) the cervical nerves lumbar and coccygeal

04. What is the hormone stimulates the growth of mammary glands and lactation after parturition?
(a) follicle-stimulating hormone
(b) lactogenic hormone - response
(c) of the growth hormone
(d) thyroxine

It is very important to be consistent with your studies. And always test yourself. When you reviewed a body system, review what you've learned yourself, use your bank of test questions of Physiology. This will give you an indication of knowledge if you need more study in that particular area.

The OWL of Minerva fly only at dusk - obviously intelligent Ontologies

2011-11-21T13:48:00.000-08:00

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The development of WAGI, Web Artificial General Intelligence, can for instance involve an intelligence algorithm with two metasystem transitions as I explained in my earlier article "Bloom's Beehive -Intelligence is an algorithm". In his book "Creating Internet Intelligence" Ben Goertzel also implicitly describes this. Steps 3 and 6 I mentioned in my earlier article are the most important steps in that they identify differences, correspondences and spatio-temporal relations are mapped as patterns. A pattern P is said to be grounded in a mind, when the mind contains a number of specific entities wherein P is in fact a pattern. From correspondences, shared meaning and grounded patterns, abstractions and simplification rules can be derived, whereas differences prompt for the evaluation towards possible modification.

For the abstraction and simplification processes wherein from numerous data events patterns are derived Artificial Intelligence programs exist and are developed, but they are often dedicated to a very specific niche. When it comes to numerical data, such as in stock market analysis, commercial activity analysis, scientific experimental data etc. or spatiotemporal data such as traffic systems or rule and pattern based data such as in games these programs work fairly well for their specific niche. What Goertzel is attempting in the OpenCog software and the Novamente project is bringing these features to the world of Artificial General Intelligence (AGI). Here the data mining which involves a great deal of analysis of a linguistic and semantic nature is of a quite different order. Although quite a number of programs exist (e.g. DOGMA; OBO, OWL: Web Ontology Language etc.) exist and a lot of work has been done in the field of Ontology (ontology in the field of AI is a "formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualisation") there is still room for improvement of rules and schemes helping in establishing ontologies.

It is here where the daily work of patent attorneys and patent examiners can provide ideas for development in the field of Ontology. In fact a great deal of the jobs of patent attorneys and patent examiners involve establishing ontologies. When a patent attorney drafts a claim for an invention, which is a specific entity, he tries to conceptualise in what way the invention can be described in the most general way, whilst maintaining all essential features for defining the invention. Upon drafting an application he has to take into account all possible components of an ontology being commonly known as individuals, classes, attributes, relations, function terms, restrictions, rules, axioms and events as illustrated hereunder:

The specific entities on which a pattern is grounded, of which at least one must be described in a detailed manner and which can be claimed in dependent claims can be considered as the "individuals", the ground level objects. The claim dependency structure, the so-called claim-tree has various kinds of intermediate generalisations before arriving at individual specific entities and can be considered as providing the "classes". A claim most essentially exists of a list of features which qualify as "attributes". By means of the dependency in the claim tree the "relations" are provided. The so-called "functional features" which encompass a series of specific entities provide the "function terms". Disclaimers, proviso's qualify as "restrictions". If..then "rules" result in dependent claims of particular combinations of conditional requirements The provision of "axioms" is most often done in the description; it amounts to giving a plausible explanation of why the structural and functional features give rise to the described technical effect the invention has over the prior art. Changes in attributes or relations which lead to the drafting of different independent claims qualify as "events".

In an astute manner patent attorneys are extremely proficient in this process. With a minimum of features and functional relations between those features, so as to warrant a claim which is as broad as possible without infringing teachings from the prior art, they arrive at giving an ontological definition of an invention.

The whole process of drafting a patent application and especially a successful claim tree depends on the proficiency of the patent attorney to identify classes and sub-classes: hypernyms and hyponyms. In the feature description he'll have to use holonyms and meronyms. And in the ideal situation the broadest independent claim has been generalised in such a manner that prima facie it is difficult to see what concrete types of inventions fall under the conceptualisation.

And it doesn't stop there the differences as regards the prior art prompt for the evaluation towards possible modification and/or additional industrial applications.

When a patent examiner has to evaluate a patent application, he has to go through this process in reverse order. He has to find out which specific entities have allowed for the generalisation and he has to imagine, what existing types of inventions could possibly fall under the scope of the generalised claims. He has to identify which features (structural and/or functional) are responsible for the technical effect over the prior art. From those notions he can then build a search strategy for identifying relevant prior art, which anticipates and falls within the scope of the subject-matter of the claims. For this search strategy to be complete he must combine a set of search concepts which reflect all individual essential features describing the invention. The search will start with some concrete examples of individual entities and synonyms at one level but when simple search strategies fail he'll have to define (in as far as such has not been done by the patent attorney) hypernyms and hyponyms of the features and combine these. Or he'll have to describe a feature as a set of meronyms or conversely a set of features as a holonym. Nasty problems occur often with acronyms which have more than one meaning, i.e. they are holonyms, which lead to search hits, which have too many documents. Then the Boolean operator NOT must be added in an additional search statement so as to filter out the irrelevant documents, the so-called noise. Antonyms at close distance to negating terms as "not" or "non" can also lead to positive results. If hits sets contain too many members narrowing down must occur, by adding more search terms or more specific search terms. Additionally search terms that have a defined relationship can be combined in a specified manner so as to warrant a proximity between the terms: this is done with so-called proximity operators, which are more powerful in those instances than simple Boolean "AND" operators. Conversely, if a hit set has too few members, it can be expanded by using more general terms, less search statements or less strict proximities.

In fact in building a search strategy, the search examiner is making a very detailed partial Ontology, and it is a pity (but a logic consequence of the requirement of secrecy) that these ontologies are not stored in a publicly accessible database in analogy the Semantic Web. In addition the community of patent examiners has created and still creates a very detailed classification scheme such as the IPC, which can suitably be used as inspiration in the development of ontological classification schemes. It would also be useful for everybody (not just patent professionals, scientists, inventors and AI ontologists) if search engines such as Google and Yahoo would finally make proximity operators available. There is a lot of criticism from the world of scientists and inventors on the inadequate results that web based search engines deliver (see Grivell, L. in EMBO reports (2006) 7, pp.10-13). The search engines employed by the patent offices are in many respects far superior. Unfortunately for you, they are not accessible to the public. In any way the AIbot based crawlers and spiders do not go into the deep web databases, where extremely relevant information may be waiting for you.

Ontologies stored in a specific database with links to other deep web databases that are completely searchable in combination with non-spider/non-crawler data mining bots may be a great step forward in information provision.

The proximity relation is a concept that may require further attention in the field of ontology as it is an indicator as to how certain terms are semantically connected to each other. For instance it would be useful to map for each term defined in a semantic web to know the average distance in all documents on the web to each other term. Perhaps from such a data mining it would turn out that certain terms have very close average proximities, where both terms have not been defined in the semantic web to have any relation to each other. It would provide a further degree of ontological mapping. On a more concrete level involving geographical data such processes are already under way (e.g. Arpinar et al. In "Handbook of geographic information science": Geospatial Ontology Development and Semantic Analytics).

The ontologies are in any way required to build a Webmind based on WAGI and it is about time that AI developers at Google, Yahoo etc. start to work on these issues and to avoid that Hegel's OWLs will only fly at dusk.

Antonin Tuynman was born on 22-02-1971 in Amsterdam. He studied Chemistry at the University in Amsterdam (MSc 1995, PhD 1999). Presently he works as a patent examiner at the European Patent Office in the field of clinical diagnostics. He has also passed the papers of the European Qualifying Examination for patent attorneys. Antonin has a developed a strong interest in futurism and the Singularity theory of Kurzweil. In his blog Awwwareness, http://tuynmix.blogspot.com/ Antonin proposes Artificial Intelligence concepts which may lead to the emergence of internet as a conscious entity.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Antonin_Tuynman

Copies of x-rays of today are both Art and Science

2011-11-19T12:08:00.000-08:00

Duplication of x-rays is more an art than a science. They have also created a new consumer market for those who want the right to boast about copies of x-ray chest of celebrities who made their mark on the American cinema.

Consider the somewhat macabre sale in Las Vegas: a recent bidding war of chest radiography of none other than Marilyn Monroe extracted from $45,000 to an auction held in a Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino in Las Vegas. Photography, have taken when Monroe 28 years ago, should have been less than $1,800, according to Darren Julien sales auction Julien.

The image is to have generated interest so that Monroe said pregnant at the time wherever taken while on a visit to the former Hospital of Lebanon (now Cedars-Sinai) cedar in Hollywood.

"(The_X-Ray)" was made at the time believed to be pregnant, and the rumor that she had a false layer, "said Julian in an interview on the element with the new york Daily News."

While medical imaging technology has grown to giant since Monroe chest pic was taken in 1945, the image is well-preserved and shows a remarkable resolution for films produced in the period.

Digital radiography has revolutionized the way in which copies of x-rays are obtained and processed, now that many offices medical installed computers and software capable of displaying images of x-rays to the examination rooms individual; an auxiliary requirement of HIPAA regulations that protect patient privacy. Only a handful of providers of copy of x rays were still, capacity to move replicas of x-ray film.

Digital x-rays may be transferred to DICOM scans and on DVD and other forms of electronic media that exist today. But some providers do not necessarily create these images in a HIPAA compliant facility.

If only Marilyn Monroe were still alive today to see digital medicine today at work!

CopyScan is the leader in document management specializing in South Florida. Headquartered in Fort Lauderdale, CopyScan provides electronic medical records X-ray best; image medical duplication. document high-speed scanning and other services for companies.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Michael_M_Brewer

Diploma in medicine - what jobs can I get one?

2011-11-17T11:35:00.000-08:00

If you are currently studying for a degree in medicine or you contemplating it in the near future and you're interested in discovering what kind of career is at your disposal once you graduation, then read on as we will discuss your options. If you are near the end of your course and uncertain if you want a career as a nurse or a physician after being during the work placement in a busy hospital then it might be interesting to see what is available.

For students on medical degree courses who do not wish to pursue a career in hospital is a number of options open to them under the economy and the availability of jobs is.

Medical degree career choice

If you are about to graduate from a course of medical degree then others that becoming a doctor or a nurse you may also be interested in pursuing a following related career paths:

Dentistry

If you have a keen interest in oral hygiene and interpersonal you may be interested in a career in a dentist for the N.H.S or the practice of private dentistry. With a medical qualification as a degree you can become a dentist or a dental hygienist.

Sports medicine

For MD/PhD students who have a keen interest in sport and fitness, a career in sports medicine physical therapy or osteopathy can be a viable option.

General practitioner (GP)

Or if you always want to be a doctor and deal with everyday issues of public health but do not wish to work in a hospital setting, then you can work as a practitioner in a surgery room near your place of domicile or later.

Medical research

Other options for medical degree graduates are jobs in the field of medical research, which may be of interest in this area, you can research medical cures diseases such as AIDS and cancer or find a recovery faster new rates of treatment for trauma injuries caused in accidents.

Medical journalist

Of course if you are totally disabled by the idea to engage directly with the diseases and conditions, you can pursue a medical journalist career or become a medical degree course literature author. You can even choose to go into the educational system and teach other medical sciences university courses if you must also complete an education in addition to the current qualification.

So you can see there are many choices available to medical students once their studies in a variety of other areas as the nurse conventional ward or doctor. ?

Science Fair projects can be fun for you and your child.

2011-11-15T11:04:00.000-08:00

Oh no, it's time for project feared. But wait. Science projects are supposed to be fun.

And they can be, if you know the secrets to projects just science successful, starting by choosing the right project for your child.

Here are 6 steps to help you choose a project that will be fun for you and your child.

First things first. And this first step is to check the requirements just for science and understand what your child project criteria must be met.

Then, map the chronology and the important due dates. This will help you avoid the wacky minutes and to ensure that you do not choose a project takes more time to make the time you need to do.

Now let's talk money. How do you devote to this science project? Knowing what your budget is before you choose a project will ensure that you do to break the Bank or encourage your child to choose something that is really not possible financially.

Now that you have the criteria for including project, it is time for reflection.

Firstly and most importantly, ask your child if they have ideas. They may have already decided on something of themselves and then your work is much easier - you can start just to help them get there.

But if they are not all ideas, then their interests into account. What they want to? What they collect or think, speak or ask questions about? Your children will enjoy science much more if you make a project they are really interested in.

Then online and search for a topic that your child is interested in the "project" or "science project" or head to the library and discover one or two of science books great project you can find.

Recognize a few ideas that meet your criteria for database requirements, timeline and budget and share with your child and ask if no interest in them. Or better yet sit with your son or your daughter, and watch through the choices together and discuss the criteria you're looking for together. You spent some quality time with your child benefit from teaching them how to find the information they need to begin.

Once you and your child choose your project, the next step is to start - collecting supplies and develop the project. Enjoy the process. Science is really discovered - and it's fun!