Gardening Cherrybrook

Tree Removal Dead Peppercorn Tree

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Sat, 08 Aug 2015 23:47:00 +0000

Job

This Peppercorn tree was in Summer hill Sydney. It had rott all thruought the stem of the tree from the base to the last remaining limbs. It trully was a risk to the fallily of four that lved with it. This is a classic example of a tree the really needed to go.

Requirements

We climbed this tree as it had poor axcess for our platform host, and had to set up ullys and blocks to encsue the tree came down safe without damage to property. Note please when ever climbinga tree in such condition be extreamly carefull of the dangers, as any limb could give way at any moment.

About Pepper Corn tree ( Schinus molle )

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schinus_molle

Schinus molle is a quick growing evergreen tree that grows 15 meters (50 feet) tall and 5–10 meters (16–33 feet) wide. It is the largest of all Schinus species and potentially the longest lived. The upper branches of the tree tend to droop.The tree's pinnately compound leaves measure 8–25 cm long × 4–9 cm wide and are made up of 19-41alternate leaflets.Male and female flowers occur on separate plants (dioecious).Flowers are small, white and borne profusely in panicles at the ends of the drooping branches. The fruit are 5–7 mm diameter round drupes with woody seeds that turn from green to red, pink or purplish,carried in dense clusters of hundreds of berries that can be present year-round. The rough grayish bark is twisted and drips sap. The bark, leaves and berries are aromatic when crushed.

Sandstone pathways

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Fri, 03 Oct 2014 13:50:00 +0000

There are many reasons for choosing sandstone patio pathways or driveways are durability and versatility. Sandstone pavers are used for various external applications both in commercial and residential projects. These are extremely popular in Sydney landscape designs, garden pavements, pathways, etc.

Main features are:

1. The most important feature of Sydney sandstone is that availability in many colours and each colour has shades from light to dark. This makes your selection easy for matching and in many shades of one colour you can design your whole interior and exterior décor.

2. You can use both natural surface and honed (polished) surface of sandstone for outdoor paving because of its non-slippery property. It is also moisture and corrosion resistant which makes it perfect as outdoor application material.

3. Create any design or shape that compliment your interior designs like our designs of sandstone circles.

4. A low maintenance cost makes it more demanding among architects and builders. Some sandstone like yellows are even acid resistant so there is no worry of stains. If you still have any stain of acid or hot water then it can also be washed away by using strong detergent and hot water. For some more deterrent stains like rust, you can use chemical acid solutions like hydrochloric solutions.

5. A properly sealed paving design lasts long but if you are using any harsh way to clean your pathways then it may be possible that some joints can open. These damages or joints can be filled easily again with cement or any other filler available in your local building material shops.

All these qualities make sandstone a first and functional choice of construction companies. If you have any renovation or construction project then write us for informative and technical advices for choosing material.

Here is an example of a pathway we just compleated in Pymble.

Posted by The Zeal Group. Call us on 1300882787

Sandstone pathways

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Fri, 03 Oct 2014 13:50:00 +0000

Here is an example of a pathway we just compleated in Pymble.

Posted by The Zeal Group. Call us on 1300882787

Lilac care

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Thu, 10 Oct 2013 03:34:00 +0000

If you can't plant the lilac right away, soak the roots as described above, then plant the lilac temporarily in a holding bed. Set the lilac at an angle ("heeled") and entirely pack the roots with soil. Add additional soil and keep the soil moist until you are ready to plant.

There are four important areas of lilac care:

sunlight

drainage

soil

pruning

Choosing the planting site: Avoid planting lilacs along walls or among large trees (or trees that will grow tall). Use complementary shrubs, plants, or other garden outcroppings to enhance the appearance before and after bloom. Space lilacs no less than 6 to 10 feet apart. Crowding requires more frequent and drastic pruning.

Sunlight: Make good use of available sunlight; try a south or southwest spot out of the way of doors or windows. Lilacs require a minimum of six hours of direct sunlight daily. The amount of sunlight dictates the appearance, color, and quantity of bloom. Too much sunlight is better than not enough.

Drainage: Good drainage is characterized by the soil's ability to retain sufficient moisture to nourish the root system while still being able to drain off excess moisture. Lilacs do not thrive in soggy soil.

Before planting, try digging a hole about 8 inches in diameter by 12 inches deep. Fill the hole with water. If the water has not drained after one hour, improve the drainage or move the plant to another site.

To improve drainage:

Remove the topsoil from the actual planting site (an area equal to 2 to 3 times the lilac's root system) and reserve.

Mix sand and/or fine gravel 6 to 10 inches deep into the subsoil (not the topsoil)

Mix the reserved topsoil with peat, vermiculite or other porous amendment to cover the root system when the lilac is planted.

Planting

The planting hole should be deep and wide enough to accommodate the plant's root system. We recommend adding compost, bonemeal or an all-purpose fertilizer to the planting hole. If your soil is acidic, add some garden lime.

When planting, place the top of the root ball level with the surface of the hole. If the lilac is bareroot, the top layer of roots should be a few inches below the surface. When filling in with soil, it is important to water well, but do not flood, and avoid compacting the soil around the root system. The idea is to remove air pockets, yet keep the soil porous.

Remember to water your lilacs regularly throughout the summer. During the dry season, water more frequently to keep the leaves robust, not limp.

Fertilizing

Fertilizer should be applied at the base of the plant early each spring to help provide the plant with nutrients for the coming year. Buds are set the previous year so the fertilizer will feed this year's leaves and next year's bloom. We recommend our Organic Flower Fertilizer.

Lilacs love a sweet soil. If your soil is acidic, adding garden lime in the fall will help the soil stay alkaline.

Mulching

Using mulch will help hold water in the soil and reduce heat stress. If you see the leaves getting limp during summer it is a sign that the plant needs to be watered.

Deadheading

If you have a repeat-blooming variety, such as Josée, deadheading will will stimulate the production of new flower and leaf buds. All lilac varieties benefit from annual deadheading.

Pruning

Lilacs do not require annual pruning, but cutting off blooms from main stems within a week after blooms have faded will help the plant concentrate on preparing more flower buds and not seeds. If your lilacs become too tall, and the number of blooms declines, you can rejuvenate the plant by cutting one-third of all main stems that have a diameter of at least 1.5 inches.

Cut these main stems down to 12 to 15 inches from the soil. This will stimulate the growth of new shoots. Pruning in this way over a three-year period will refresh the plant while it still continues to flower.

Posted by The Zeal Group. Call us on 1300882787

Untitled

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Mon, 30 Sep 2013 00:29:00 +0000

Posted by The Zeal Group. Call us on 1300882787

Dogwood bush

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Mon, 30 Sep 2013 00:06:00 +0000

Growing a red twig dogwood is a great way to add spectacular color to the winter garden. The stems, which are green in spring and summer, turn bright red when the foliage drops off in autumn. The shrub produces creamy-white flowers in spring and berries that ripen from green to white by the end of summer. Both fruits and flowers look good against the dark background of the foliage, but pale in comparison to the brilliant winter display.

Growing a Red Twig Dogwood

Don’t confuse red twig dogwood trees with other dogwood trees. While both the tree and the shrub belong to the Cornus genus, red twig dogwoods never grow to become trees. There are two species of Cornus called red twig dogwoods: Tatarian dogwood (C. alba) and Redosier dogwood (C. sericea). The two species are very similar.

Red twig dogwood is one of those plants where more is better. They look fantastic when planted in groups or as an informal hedge. When planting red twig dogwoods, give them plenty of room. They grow up to 8 feet tall with an 8 foot spread. Overcrowding encourages diseases and causes less attractive, thin stems.

Red Twig Dogwood Care

Red twig dogwood care is minimal except for pruning. Annual pruning is essential to keep the brilliant colors of the twigs. The primary goal of pruning red twig dogwoods is to remove the old stems that no longer show good winter color.

Remove about a third of the stems at ground level every year. Cut out old, weak stems as well as well as those that are damaged, discolored, or growing poorly. This method of pruning keeps the color bright and the shrub vigorous. After thinning you can shorten the stems to control the height if you’d like. Cut back the entire shrub to 9 inches above the ground if it becomes overgrown or out of control. This is a good way to quickly renew the plant, but it leaves a bare spot in the landscape until it regrows.

Water weekly in the absence of rain for the first couple of months after planting red twig dogwoods, and cut back on the water once the shrub is established. Mature shrubs only need watering during dry spells.

Feed the plant once a year with a layer of compost or a sprinkling of slow-released fertilizer over the root zone.

Posted by The Zeal Group. Call us on 1300882787

Pruning Roses

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Sat, 14 Sep 2013 03:40:00 +0000

Pruning is a great job to undertake and I can't wait to get started. But early winter (June), with our temperatures still reaching 17 degrees , it's still too soon and I will have to restrain myself a little longer. It's that time of year again and many roses enthusiasts are turning their minds to this task. There are principles to be followed if you want to do the right thing, but there is really no need to find it daunting.

Just a few major steps first for beginners.
The more you know about your rose the easier the task will be.

For example:
Is your rose once-flowering or remontant (repeat flowering)?

What is its normal growth habit - climber, tall, medium or short bush?

Do you get frosts in your area? This is very important for the timing of pruning.

When to prune
The time varies according to rose type and location.
If your rose is just once-flowering, it should be pruned as soon as possible after the flowering is finished and this usually means late spring or early summer.

Most old and species roses require little or no pruning, other than to keep the plant from growing far too big (so you cut to the size you want – allowing for growth in the following season).

The oldest less productive, dry- greyish looking stems can also be removed to encourage the growth of more productive (young , green, sappy-looking) stems from the base or from near the base.

I cut out old wood (to the base of the plant) and prune back any branches which are clearly too big ( or going to be too big), knowing that although I may lose some flowers by doing this, there will still be a wonderful show in the following season from the many canes

I have left. Be aware that any pruning at this time will remove the hips which can otherwise make a wonderful show and be enjoyed throughtout the summer and well into autumn.

That is what I usually prefer to do. In Autumn, when the hips are past their best, I cut out old wood (to the base of the plant) and prune back any branches which are clearly too big ( or going to be too big), knowing that although I may lose some flowers by doing this, there will still be a wonderful show in the following season from the many canes I have left.

Repeat-flowering roses also benefit from being pruned after flowering, so I prune them three or four times each season.

It is the severity of the pruning that varies. In summer, most gardeners are happy to just dead- head their roses, and certainly this is usually adequate after the first flowering in the spring. Even at this time, however, I take each stem of a spent flower well back if the rose is a very vigorous variety, so that it does not become too tall or 'leggy' in the summer. Other stems may just be tipped. This procedure is repeated in the summer and perhaps in early autumn (depending on the season and the variety). I have had good flowering well into May, in a season with prolonged warm weather and little rain.

By late autumn or early winter, the rose garden is generally in need of attention, but my advice is to let it rest if possible and not rush into the winter prune (the most severe prune), too early. In so doing, you may be able to enjoy the last few odd roses with their unique touches of autumnal colourings, and you do allow the new young stems to grow and harden off, before you have to consider what should be pruned away. In frost-prone or very cold areas, leave the pruning until all chances of frost or extreme cold are over. If you prune early and warm weather follows, new growth will appear on the plant and this will be damaged when the cold comes. The plant is unnecessarily 'knocked back'. Wait for all leaf fall, to show the plant is dormant.

How to winter prune
After many years of pruning thousands of roses I still most frequently stand in front of each rose and think 'What on earth am I going to do with this?' Over the years, the answers just come a little more quickly. If the top is very tall, spindly and in my way, I may initially just clip it all off roughly, at one level, with hedge clippers, to allow me to work more easily.

Then I go to the base of the plant and I like to use two handled secateurs to cut out the old stems (see description line 15, above) and any laterals (small stems coming from main ones)which cross over or which are growing towards the middle of the plant. Using my one handled secateurs, I make my way up from the base in this way, aiming to clear the centre of the plant and to maintain a good structure with strong, upright stems forming the shape.

Clear away all leaves and debris that may have collected at the base.

When I reach what can be considered an appropriate height for that plant - short, medium or tall - I then look to prune each stem to a bud at the desired height ( remember to allow for the spring growth).

The later you leave the pruning the easier it will be to find a bud, as they begin to swell. Basically, however, there will be a bud at each leaf join. (pull away a leaf from the stem and you will find a slight swelling or even just a line).

Find a bud growing in the direction you want the next stem to grow, (usually outwards, keeping the centre free), cut at an angle about one centimetre from the bud, so that the lowest part of the cut is on the side opposite to the bud. (this is the ideal, but if it sounds too complex do not be overly concerned; just cut at this level and with time as you become used to pruning, you will find appropriate buds easily).

Shape the top of the plant as you desire – stems should usually be of similar height or perhaps reach a dome shape if there are many.

Carry away and dispose of all prunings and leaf litter as they harbour diseases.

Spray plant and surrounding area with lime sulphur to keep diseases such as blackspot at bay.

Pruning climbers

This is task is even more clearly demonstrated in the garden, but basically the same principles apply as those given for bushes.

Each year one or more of the oldest canes may be selected to be pruned out to encourage new basal growth.

The remaining long canes are best bent and fixed in fan shape or horizontally, as flowering will then occur at frequent intervals. If this is not possible and all the growth is to be vertical, with flowering just at the top of each stem, cut these at different levels.

For example, if stems are upright against a wall, pole or fence, leave the back two or three as tall as possible (or desired), select the next two or three and prune them somewhat shorter, and so on down the plant in a graded effect, with the shortest at the front.

Flowers will then develop at all levels instead of the unappealing 'bare-legged look' with all the flowering at the top and just stems at eye -level and below.

There is no need to feed at this time. Wait until the warmer weather comes and the first signs of growth(buds swelling ) can be seen. You will be well rewarded within a few short weeks!

Posted by The Zeal Group. Call us on 1300882787

Top dressing for your lawn at the beginning of the growing season

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Wed, 07 Aug 2013 22:35:00 +0000

Why Topdress?

The main reason for topdressing is to level the lawn or build it up to the desired level. Topdressing fills holes or low spots and encourages the grass to spread by giving it a medium to grow in.

Tools

Successful topdressing requires a few tools and some suitable soil. A good wheelbarrow with an inflatable tyre will make wheeling the soil easier. For shoveling and spreading the soil, an aluminium shovel is priceless. A small level-lawn is also a worthwhile investment for leveling and rubbing the soil in.
Soil selection is up to you but it is best to use a soil that is consistent with the soil that the lawn is growing in. This is usually sandy type loam. I prefer use a clean sandy loam rather than some of the lawn topdressing mixes available today which may claim to contain organic matter and fertiliser. My reasons for this are that a clean soil is easier to work with, resulting in a better looking finished job and you can make more money by fertilizing your client's lawns at a later date. It is up to you as a professional lawn contractors to determine the required amount of soil that is needed to complete the job.

Preparation

Before you actually spread the soil, make sure the grass is actively growing. Don't top dress dormant grass. You will damage it, if not kill it. A good idea is to give the lawn a fertilize a couple of weeks before topdressing, this will help the grass push through the soil quickly. Also, mow the lawn the day before you do the job. Long grass takes more soil to cover properly and the thicker the soil layer, the harder it is for the grass to emerge.

Doing the Job

Alright, you've fertilized, you've cut the lawn, purchased the soil and you are ready to go, but it looks like rain! DON'T DO IT! Why? Besides making a big mess, wet soil does not rub in well and can sometimes dry like a hard crust on top of the grass, making it very difficult for the grass to grow through.
Okay, now the sun is out, lets get into it. Start by spreading an even layer of soil over the lawn covering the entire area. I've seen many people topdress their lawns but only covering it roughly. If you are going to the trouble, at least make sure you do it right.

Once the lawn is completely covered, don't rush in to level it off, give it a couple of hours to dry first. This will allow you to rub in the soil more effectively and you will be able to fill up holes rather than smoothing wet soil over the top. This couple of hours will allow you to go and mow another lawn or work out what to do with any soil you have left over.

Once the soil is dry, start to rub it in with the level-lawn. This can be done in any direction, just as long as you go over the whole lawn. Pick up any excess with a shovel and make sure the job is as neat as possible. Leave the site clean and tidy. Sweep up any soil off paths and drives as clients really appreciate it and it makes you look more professional. Don't water the lawns for a couple of days. This will let the grass punch through the soil.

Posted by The Zeal Group. Call us on 1300882787

Pruning citrus trees sydney

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Mon, 05 Aug 2013 04:52:00 +0000

Fertilising and Pruning

Fertilising

Citrus are high feeders and love fertiliser. In many books you will read, fertilise your citrus twice a year. We have a different opinion. “A little bit - often” is our philosophy. Therefore feed your citrus at least four times per year. Timing is not critical, if you haven’t feed your tree for a while, start now. There are many different commercial citrus fertilisers on the market. We generally don’t recommend these fertilisers as their instructions are often difficult to comprehend,

eg. X kilograms per age of tree.

There is nothing quite like, good old fashioned blood and bone or well rotted chicken manure or cow manure or ‘Organic Life’ or ‘Dynamic Lifter’. Any of these are fine and it’s a good idea to alternate between them. Water your tree well; remove any mulch from around the tree. Spread the fertiliser evenly around the soil underneath the

canopy, but not directly against the trunk. The amount varies, depending on which fertiliser you choose. Don’t be afraid, you can use up to half a bucket, per tree of organic fertiliser. Generally the organic fertilisers are less harmful if you accidentally overfeed. When all else fails, read the instructions on the bag. There is no need to cultivate the fertiliser into the soil as this will only cause damage to the surface roots. Water in well and then replace the mulch.

Citrus in pots also require regular feeding. Fertilise at least four times per year. Either ‘Organic Life’ or ‘Dynamic Lifter’ is great; put a light covering over the entire surface of the pot. If these products are a little too smelly, you can use ‘Osmocote’ or ‘Greenjacket’ slow release fertilisers.

Pruning

Citrus unlike many other fruit trees don’t require annual pruning to aid in fruit production. They can be happily left for

many years unpruned and will still produce an abundance of fruit.

Alternatively, citrus can be pruned into any shape that is desired. Citrus are often trained and pruned into Standards, for a formal topiary effect. Planting citrus close together and regular pruning can form a lovely dense fruiting hedge. Citrus are very adaptable and can be trained and pruned into many shapes only limited by your imagination.

Australian Cumquat pruned as a Standard

Espaliered Citrus are becoming very trendy for the smaller gardens or balconies. An espalier is when the citrus is pruned and shaped flat against a wall or lattice. All varieties of citrus are suitable and it is simply a case of tying the new growth back against the wall, fence or lattice and pruning off, any forward growth that can’t be tied back, creating a flat two dimensional plant. This saves space, creates a beautiful green wall and the citrus still produce an abundance of fruit.

Kaffir Lime trained as an espalier

Old, neglected, citrus can be resurrected by a heavy rejuvenation prune. If the tree is old and ugly and hasn’t fruited well for years attack it with a chain saw, taking it right back to the main fork. This sounds drastic, but the tree was useless as it was, so you have nothing to lose. As it starts to re shoot, fertilise well and water regularly. Most often the tree with comeback better than ever and continue producing fruit for many more years.

Posted by The Zeal Group. Call us on 1300882787

Backyard Renovation

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Wed, 11 Jul 2012 21:45:00 +0000

Before the digging to level, as you may be able to see the ground is very wet and consists of clay.

After leveling the yard by hand as there was no way to get our mini digger in. It was an difficult task due to rain and the sub surface consisting of clay, & builders waste. Finally we had the yard level and the area prepared for turfing, with our underlay rolledout and leveled we rolled the are, to ensure the turf will take level.

This area is essentelly a dog run, providing the childern with an area free from the dogs. It also is part of the retaining wall required to level out the yard.

Now with. The yard turfed the focus can be on cleaning the area of mud and dirt left over from all the rain. As when the deck is installed it is important that the deck is applied in a clean environment.

Here we are installing the uprights for the decking that will trace around the back of the pond angive axcess to the ponds filter.

This area is assigned to being a deck that will house a shead, with decking tracing around the pond to the shead area.

This area will be housing a coi fish pond 2.4 meters x 2.1 meters x .900 deep it will be sunken into the ground and ris up throught the timber decking surounding it.

We had to install a block wall suround to ensure the stability of the fiberglass insert.

Her is a view of the pond fitted into the block wall.

At the entrance to the back yard, there is a alley way.

The deck is comming together , now.

The sandstone is being attached to the sides of the masonry pond wall.

Posted by The Zeal Group. Call us on 1300882787

Cuttings

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Thu, 19 Apr 2012 09:14:00 +0000

How often do we see a lovely shrub or perennial in a friend’s garden and just wish we had one like it? And with a little skill, ingenuity AND your friend’s permission, there’s no reason why you can’t have one or more the same. A word of caution here though, to avoid spreading weeds make sure that you don’t propagate anything you can’t identify, and ALWAYS ask permission. It is very frustrating for proud gardeners with attractive shrubs tumbling over their garden fence to find pieces constantly being ‘ripped’ off by passing walkers. The plant will suffer from needless brutalisation and the ‘cuttings’ may not actually survive the damage of being torn from the parent plant. So just ask!

Cuttings

A cutting is the term we use for lengths of plant material being used specifically to propagate new plants. In contrast to growing plants from seed, where we may get plants that are slightly different from what we expected, cuttings will always be clones of the parent plant from which the cutting was taken. So a camellia cutting from a plant with a pink and white flower will produce another identical camellia with a pink and white flower. If you were to take the seed from that same parent camellia you would not be guaranteed to get a camellia with a pink and white flower. Nature has a tendency to play games when growing from seed, all in the name of maintaining a healthy gene pool, of course!

Softwood, Semi-hardwood and Hardwood Cuttings

These terms relate to the period in the growing cycle when the cutting is taken.

Softwood Cuttings are generally taken in spring and early summer when the plant is putting on its new growth and there are a lot of growth hormones in the plant system. Soft wood cuttings usually strike (start to grow roots) relatively quickly. Chose slightly firmer pieces of plant material and avoid very soft sappy growth. Softwood cuttings generally benefit from the addition of some heat (mentioned further on).

Semi-hardwood Cuttings are taken mid- summer after flowering when the plant is putting on new growth and starting to harden. They strike quickly and give good results without the need for additional heat.

Hardwood Cuttings are generally taken at the end of summer and take longer to strike than those taken earlier in the season. However as this period coincides with the garden’s Autumn pruning, particularly of perennials, it is easy to source cutting materials. And with so much cutting material available, even if some fail, most will be ready to plant the following spring.

Types of Plants suitable for Cuttings

All perennial and shrubby plants provide excellent potential for cuttings. The most successful plant material for cuttings comes from the ‘square’ stemmed plants eg from the Laminaceae family. This includes salvias, mint, rosemary and many other herbs. Many of the perennials in the daisy family, like Federation Daisies, also do well from cuttings however other daisy plants, like Echinacea sps, are best propagated from root division.

Taking cuttings

The preferred cutting length is about 10cm to 12cm with at least 2 to 3 nodes on each cutting. The lower cut should be on an angle just beneath the first node. You can also ‘nick’ the area just beneath the lower node taking care not to damage the node itself. This node will be below the soil surface and this is where the root zone will develop.

The top cut should be made above the next node (or the one above). The entire cutting length should contain 2 or 3 nodes in total. These upper nodes will be where the leaves of the new plant will shoot. Take care not to damage any of the nodes along the cutting length. Plant nodes have the amazing ability to produce either roots or leaves depending on whether they are above or below the soil level which is why cuttings are so effective.

The lower node may be dipped in a ‘rooting hormone’ if desired although if a lower strike rate is acceptable this is not essential. For a natural rooting hormone you may try dipping the cutting in honey.
Reputably pieces of willow (an introduced species) soaked in water for about 10 days produce an excellent rooting hormone. This may be why they have been so successful at colonising our river banks and become serious environmental weeds!! If using this willow method, dispose of the willow pieces carefully so as not to increase their weedy spread. And yes, they probably will be still viable even after 10days in a bucket of water!
Avoid taking cutting from any plant when it is in flower as these cuttings will have less potential for success.
If the cutting has broad-leaf leaves, eg feijoa plants remove all except the top two leaves. If the top two leaves are very large, they can be cut in half laterally so the cutting doesn’t lose too much moisture through the leaves.
If the cuttings have multiple narrow small leaves, eg lavender and rosemary, remove the leaves on the lower 2/3rds of the cutting. The multiple nodes left all have the potential to produce roots when they strike.

Growing Medium

Cuttings do best in a free draining mixture so that they don’t rot. It is best to put lots of cuttings in the same pot rather than single cuttings in many post. The warmth and humidity of having them all clustered together will help them to strike. To increase the warmth and humidity, and maintain heat overnight, if possible cover the pot with a clear plastic ‘hood’ or the end of a polystyrene bottle. If doing this, keep the pot out of direct sunlight so that the air inside in the pot doesn’t heat up too much and ‘cook’ the cuttings. Mist the cuttings regularly to help regulate the temperature and keep a moist environment.

Potting up

Leave the cuttings in the pot long enough for them to establish strong root systems. Remove any cuttings that start to look like they have failed so that you don’t allow rots and fungal problems to enter the pot. They will usually look weak, brown off and begin to rot at the base.
You can generally tell when the cutting has taken if it starts to put on new leaves and to grow. However be patient as the roots may take longer to develop. Continue to water the cuttings until you are ready to pot up.
You can test for roots by gently rocking the cutting. If you feel no resistance, then the roots have probably not yet developed.
When you think the cuttings are ready to pot up, tip the pot gently upside down and remove all of the contents together. Lay on a piece of newspaper and gently start to disentangle the roots. It is important to minimise the damage to these young roots as the vigour of the new plants depends on a strong root system.

Pot the young cuttings into small pots with a good quality potting mix. Water in with a weak solution of seaweed fertiliser or worm leachate tea. Put the cuttings in a sheltered spot to ‘harden off’ before gradually introducing them to a more open environment.

Once the root mass of the cutting starts to fill its new pot, either pot on again or, if the conditions are suitable, plant into a prepared garden bed. And enjoy the fruits of your labour for years to come!

Many new plant cultivars that have been developed over the past decade may be subject to Plant Breeders Rights (PBR). PBR is effectively a plant patent. You may propagate these plants for your own use but NOT for resale unless you pay a royalty to the PBR holder. If in doubt, check the original plant label or seed packet or look for the PBR symbol.

Posted by The Zeal Group. Call us on 1300882787

Eucalypts

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Mon, 16 Apr 2012 09:09:00 +0000

Introduction

Eucalypts are almost a defining feature of Australia. They are the dominant tree of the higher rainfall areas of the country, and sparsely represented in the driest regions. There are nearly 900 species which have adapted to nearly every environment. In EUCLID we include the long-standing genus Angophora, which is exclusive to eastern Australia excluding Tasmania, and the recently recognised Corymbia, occurring primarily in northern Australia. SeeEvolutionary relationships in Eucalyptus sens.lat. for more detail of generic relationships.

Eucalypts must have been known by Europeans from the early 16th century when the Portuguese colonised Timor. There are at least two indigenous species, E. alba and E. urophylla on the island. Following the Portuguese occupation, it is probable that eucalypts were established from seed in Brazil which was colonised about the same time, although records are too hazy to confirm this. Eucalyptus came into recorded history in 1788 when the French botanist, L'Héritier de Brutelle, described Eucalyptus obliqua, the well known Messmate of widespread distribution in the wetter regions of the south-east of the continent. This species was named from a specimen collected at Adventure Bay on Tasmania's Bruny Island by David Nelson, one of the botanists on Captain James Cook's third voyage in 1777.

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Evolution and distribution

Eucalypts are likely to have evolved from rainforest precursors in response to great changes in the landscape, soils and climate of the continent. No point of origin is possible to determine but it is assumed to have been on the Australian landmass from which several species have migrated probably by land bridges to islands north of the continent.

One species, E. deglupta, is distributed as far as the island of Mindanao, in the southern Philippines which places one eucalypt naturally in the northern hemisphere. However, the genus is now cultivated world-wide in tropical and temperate countries and in some places has become naturalised.

Eucalypts are now of great importance commercially in other countries, particularly South Africa, China, India and Brazil and to a lesser extent in central and northern Africa and in Mediterranean countries. They have many advantages apart from the timber and fibre which are the basis of huge paper industries. Eucalypts are also notable for their oils, use in lowering water tables, horticulture, shade and simple ornamentation, largely for the bark features and colourful flowers in many species.

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Identifying eucalypts

Innumerable books have been published on eucalypts. Some include a wide range of information on a regional basis, others concentrate on the more spectacular flowering species while others specialise in identification. Identification has always been regarded as difficult, partly due to the lack of instruction on specific botanical characteristics. Understanding the eucalypt plant is a vital element in attempting the identification process.

It is a fact that, to the uninitiated, most eucalypt species tend to look the same, and while taxa in some groups are indeed difficult to distinguish, in general there are good features and clear characteristics to use in identification. In EUCLID we have made particular effort to explain specific eucalypt features and to aid identification.

Eucalypt leaf morphology provides a range of diagnostic features as well as injects a level of confusion in the change from seedling to juvenile to sapling to adult leaves that takes place in the majority of species. In eucalypts there is a striking array of juvenile or seedling leaf types from opposite and completely connate pairs of leaves (e.g. E. uncinata), to crowded and spirally arranged short linear leaves (e.g. E. brockwayi), to disjunct petiolate ovate leaves (many species, e.g. E. obliqua, E. ewartiana, C. terminalis), even leaves with peltate leaf bases (e.g. C. citriodora). The descriptions accompanying every species in EUCLID include details of seedling, juvenile and adult leaves.

Some species never, or seldom, develop true adult leaves in the mature crown but instead retain their juvenile leaf phase where the leaves are commonly glaucous and rounded. This condition is rare in eastern Australian species but is notable in E. risdonii an endemic to Tasmania and in E. cinerea of New South Wales and Victoria. In south-western Western Australia many more species have the glaucous crown, probably the most spectacular being the glaucous-leaved E. macrocarpa which produces large red flowers. Across northern Australia there are fewer species with these characteristics but the widespread tropical box E. pruinosa, the abundant Queensland and New South Wales ironbark E. melanophloia, the highly restricted Kimberley endemicE. ceracea and the well-known desert mallee or tree E. gamophylla are examples with the crown of retained glaucous juvenile leaves.

In south-eastern Australia, nearly all eucalypt species have green leaves of roughly similar size and fairly inconspicuous white flowers. Only two species in south-eastern Australia, E. sideroxylon and E. leucoxylon, can have strongly coloured flowers; in south-western Australia C. ficifolia, E. erythrocorys and E. caesia provide examples of species with spectacular flowers. A few tropical species have brilliantly coloured flowers, e.g. E. miniata, E. phoenicea, C. ptychocarpa and C. cadophora subsp. pliantha.

Eucalypt fruits (gumnuts) also show great diversity in form and size with the smallest occurring in northern Australia, e.g. E. raveretiana in central Queensland, E. brachyandra in north-western Australia, and among the largest being E. gigantangion from the Top End of the Northern Territory, C. abergiana from the Atherton area of Queensland, C. calophylla from the Perth area in Western Australia, and E. youngiana from the Great Victoria Desert of South Australia and adjacent areas of Western Australia. There is great variation in size between these extremes throughout the country, but in south-eastern Australia fruits tend to be smaller than elsewhere.

So the problems of identification in EUCLID for eastern Australian species usually fall back on the less conspicuous and accessible but highly diagnostic characters, often ones that may be less relevant in other plant groups, and this is also true in other parts of the country. In Western Australia or northern Australia, however, if the tree or mallee has brightly coloured flowers or has very large or very small fruit, identification may be easier.

In working with eucalypts in the field it is important to recognise whether the trees are cultivated, or occur naturally. If cultivated, they could be from anywhere in Australia and the identification cannot take into account the geographic regions used in EUCLID. If identifying a specimen from a natural stand then geographic regions can aid in making an identification but it is not essential if the specimen has sufficient morphological features.

To aid identification the observer in the field also needs to take into account other aspects of the specimen, viz. the height of the plant, the number of stems or trunks, the colour of the crown, the overall appearance of the crown to determine if it is composed of juvenile or adult leaves, general size of the leaves (very small, e.g. E. parvula or E. kruseana, or very large, e.g. E. globulus) and the type of bark, basically, whether rough or smooth, and extent of coverage by the rough bark of the smaller branchlets. The observer also needs bear in mind there is often considerable variation in some characters between trees of the same species in one population, especially in size of parts, such as length and width of leaves, length of petioles, bud sizes, lengths of peduncles and pedicels, and fruit dimensions and position of the disc relative to the rim of the fruit.

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Inspection of specimens

The 'internal' features of the eucalypt plant, such as the number of opercula in the bud, arrangement of stamens, number of ovule rows and seed shape, are usually more reliable for identification than the 'external' features. They are relatively protected from the elements and from various forms of predation. They are the parts that require handling and close inspection or even dissection, as opposed to macro observation.

Specimens for study may be obtained in several ways from a living tree. Sampling smaller trees and mallees is usually easy because the leaves and flowering structures are often at about head height and no sophisticated methods of collection are needed. For most trees, however, a weighted length of rope can be thrown over a low branch which can then be broken off with a sharp tug and pulled to the ground for close inspection of the parts (shown in image). Alternatively, for trees of moderate height, pole pruners can be used less destructively than the weighted rope. For tall trees it is a curious fact that the flowers and fruits are small and scarcely visible to the unaided eye, e.g. E. regnans. Then the canopy needs to be inspected with binoculars and a useful branch selected. If it is above rope-throwing height, the branch may be reached with the use of a shanghai by shooting a lead weight attached to a fine, light line over the branch and then attaching a thicker, stronger rope to one end of this line and then pulling this line up over the branch. Often the smallest trees or mallees have the largest buds and fruits, e.g. E. pyriformis. These plants are the easiest to sample, examine and assess.

The whole process of identification begins in the field with broad external assessment and ends with microscopic examination. The characters in this sequence of investigations have reliabilities that vary from very low to high and finally absolute. With experience the user is able to weigh up these relative values and apply them with confidence.

In summary it might be said that the number of opercula on the developing flower bud is of absolute reliability, staminal inflexion, ovule row numbers and seed shape are of high reliability, bud numbers, flower colour and bark type of medium reliability, leaf colour of low reliability, bark colour of very low reliability. External features are very susceptible to seasonal and intra-population variability.

When choosing a specimen for identification there are some things to be avoided. For example always choose 'typical' leaves on the specimen for assessment, avoiding the largest and the smallest. Similarly, be cautious when using fruit that are lying on the ground, especially if in a mixed eucalypt species stand, for they may not belong to the tree under which they are found. When searching for juvenile leaves make sure they belong to the tree or mallee you are investigating – if there is any doubt do not use them. A mixed species stand may produce a variety of juvenile leaves. Time spent looking at both adult and juvenile growth in a stand will be very rewarding.

If an identification is proving difficult then growing of seedlings may be a help in resolving it. Obviously this slows down the process, but valuable information can be obtained from observing seedling growth, firstly the shape of the cotyledons and secondly whether the leaves become disjunct early in growth or persist as opposite for many pairs. The shape of seedling leaves, whether they are stalked or stalkless and other leaf features can help also.

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Understanding some of the important characters in the eucalypts, will aid in the process of identification. Descriptive information on some of the important parts of the eucalypt plant follows.

Habit


Tree - erect single-stemmed woody plant with various crown forms. The definition of tree deliberately has no upper or lower height limit. If the user finds it difficult to decide whether the specimen is a tree or a shrub it is probably better to avoid using this character. The definition of tree includes the two special categories in common usage only in Western Australia - mallet and marlock (see more below). Note that a tree may have a lignotuber at the base of the trunk and epicormic shoots on the trunk or stems, or lack either or both of these means of vegetative recovery after disturbance such as fire.	Tree
Mallee or shrub - a mallee is a woody plant that is multistemmed from ground level and seldom taller than 10 m. In eucalypts a shrub is a low growing and reproductively mature plant, that may be less than 1 m tall, and is usually growing in an extreme environment. There is no clear distinction between mallee and shrub. A mallee has at the base of the stems a woody structure, the lignotuber, that has numerous dormant buds that enable vegetative recovery after fire or other disturbance. The term mallee is often applied to eucalypts and has wide currency in southern Australia. Shrub is infrequently applied to eucalypts, good examples being E. vernicosa in high mountain areas of Tasmania, E. yalatensis on the Nullarbor Plain and E. surgensatop coastal cliffs at Toolinna Cove in Western Australia. Naturally low-growing marlock plants are included here as well as below, e.g. E. mcquoidii which may be reproductive at about 0.4 m tall.	Mallee (top) or Shrub (bottom)
Mallet or marlock (only applies to Western Australian species) - a mallet is a tree with a slender trunk with branches steeply angled on it, and lacks both lignotuber and epicormic buds (e.g. E. astringens). A marlock is a single-stemmed shrub or small tree with spreading branches that are densely leafy often almost to the ground, and lacks a lignotuber (e.g. E. platypus). Correctly usedmallet or marlock has great discriminating value. Species with mallet habit are also included in Tree above.Marlock, as here defined, is easily understood whilst the plants are relatively small, but from 8 m tall the distinction between marlock, mallet and tree is often unclear. Marlock applies to relatively few species, but some are frequently cultivated e.g. E. platypus, E. conferruminata, growing taller than they do in the wild.	Mallet (left) or Marlock (right) (WA only)

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Bark

Having taken into account the habit features, the next important character to assess in eucalypts is the type of bark. It pays to think in terms of the growth processes. Each year there is an increment of living bark that results in the continual expanding girth of the tree. In all species the outermost layer dies each year. In about half of the species this dead layer completely sheds, exposing a new layer of living bark, and the process continues year after year. These are known as the smooth barks. The dead bark may be shed from these trees in large slabs, in ribbons, or in small flakes. Invariably the newly exposed living bark is relatively smooth and brightly coloured but this fades with weathering. Often the dead bark comes off in pieces at various times of the year such that the trunk is mottled depending on the amount of time the newly revealed patches of bark are exposed to weathering.

A curious but easily recognised bark type is the minnirichi which is restricted to a few species from southern Western Australia and arid Central Australia. This bark seems rough at first glance and on close inspection is seen to be formed of partly shed longitudinal strips that curl outwards, initially exposing pale or greenish underbark. The older attached strips turn deep red on aging. In one minnirichi species, in particular, the lower bark becomes thick and fibrous while only the upper bark is typical minnirichi.

In many species the smooth bark is uniform over the whole trunk in both texture and colour, e.g. E. mannifera, E. tintinnans, E. salmonophloia and C. aparerrinja. In others the bark is mottled, e.g. C. maculata and E. dawsonii, while in a few species, particularly the red gums and the grey gums, the newly exposed smooth bark can be brilliant orange or yellow, fading to greys, the surface texture of which becomes granular with age.

The irregular markings on the living bark of some smooth bark species are known as scribbles and are caused by burrowing insect larvae. Insects are attracted to some species and not others, whether to eat the leaves, suck nectar or to lay their eggs. Some insects are particularly partial to species in Eucalyptus subgenus Eucalyptus - stringybarks, ashes, peppermints, and related species, and lay their eggs in the bark. The larvae then eat their way through the surface of the bark leaving a characteristic zig-zag trail or scribble.

In the ribbon gums the long strips of dead bark are imperfectly shed and hang conspicuously in the crown, particularly around the trunk.

In great contrast are the remaining half of the eucalypts, the rough barks, in which the outer annual increment of dead bark simply dries out, leaving the natural fibres which do not shed and which accumulate year after year. These may remain loosely intertwined as in stringybarks, e.g. E. macrorhyncha, or the peppermints, e.g. E. radiata, or more tightly adherent as in the boxes, e.g. E. leptophleba or many of the rough-barked bloodwoods e.g. C. gummifera.

In some species rough bark becomes infused with gum exudates which harden, resulting in the ironbark, e.g. E. crebra, E. jenseni or the compacted types of rough bark, e.g. E. smithii, E. elata and E. sargentii.

The ironbarks only occur in northern and eastern Australia but some species from south-western Western Australia have very hard rough bark that is thinner than that of the eastern ironbarks to which they are only very distantly related, e.g. E. indurata.

In many species of bloodwood and some ghost gums rough bark develops that becomes tessellated to a greater or lesser extent, e.g. C. tessellaris, C. cliftoniana.

Assessing rough bark type is one of the most difficult features in identifying eucalypts. The rough bark may cover the whole trunk and branches, or it may shed from the branches, or develop on the trunk only, to certain characteristic heights up the trunk. Consequently we refer to species as being wholly rough-barked or partly rough-barked, half-barked, or with rough bark only at the base (black butt). There is usually a range of variation in the bark between trees of the same species. This is illustrated by E. decipiens which is divided taxonomically into three subspecies diagnosed by the extent and type of rough bark. Since there are so many different types of rough bark, defined by their texture, colour and persistence on the trunk, we suggest that bark, because of the variability and imprecision of the descriptive terms, is a feature of only medium reliability for identification purposes.

More about rough bark types

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Leaves

The mature crown consists of a branched leafy canopy in which flower buds, flowers, fruits and seed are formed. The leaves of a mature crown are adult in most species but in many others, leaf advance is arrested at the juvenile phase and the tree is reproductively mature when in juvenile, not adult leaf. In the development of any eucalypt there is no distinct point at which the juvenile stage changes to the intermediate and the intermediate leaves become adult. The stages are useful although imprecise reference points.

Every leaf begins as a minute bundle of cells, whether it is on a seedling or a grown plant. The ultimate functional structure is a mature leaf which can be on a eucalypt plant at any growth stage. This means that there are mature seedling leaves, mature juvenile leaves, mature adult leaves etc. and the term 'mature' must not be used interchangeably with the word 'adult'.

In the great majority of eucalypts, the leaves are formed in the following sequence. The first recognizable organ to emerge from a germinating seed is the root which pierces the seedcoat and penetrates downwards. It is usually white and covered with fine hairs. Then an aerial shoot appears and a pair of cotyledons soon unfolds. These are situated on the opposite sides of a 'square' stem (a seedlot will occasionally produce seedlings with cotyledons in threes placed symmetrically around a six-sided stem, but this condition changes to the normal four-sided stem after a few nodes).

Above the cotyledons, the true leaves are formed in opposite pairs (see exceptions next paragraph), each succeeding pair being at right angles to the pair below. While the leaves in most species continue to be formed in opposite pairs for the whole life of the tree (this can be checked at the growing tips on a mature crown), from the late seedling to the adult stage the leaves become displaced at their point of attachment on the stem such that they appear to be alternate. In some species, however, the leaf development does not advance to the adult stage, and the crown is composed of opposite leaves for the life of the tree. These may be broad, glaucous in some species e.g. E. pruinosa, setose or scabrid in others e.g. C. dunlopiana, but always juvenile in character. In only a few species is the mature crown composed exclusively of opposite, apparently adult (lanceolate or falcate, green) leaves, e.g. E. doratoxylon, E. erythrocorys, and in some Angophora species, e.g. A. floribunda, A. bakeri.

In a small group of species, after the first two or three pairs of leaves, the stem becomes five-sided and the subsequent leaves form in a 2/5 spiral (e.g. E. oleosa). This is detected by examining the seedling closely. No leaves will be opposite and any two leaves appearing consecutively, one above the other on any leaf-bearing face, will be separated vertically by four other leaves distributed around the other four vertical faces (e.g. E. longicornis). Vertically adjacent leaves will occur on the next leaf-bearing face but one, never the adjacent face. This produces a spiral arrangement of leaves that occurs often in seedlings with very narrow seedling leaves.

A different spiral formation is seen in a small group of Western Australian eucalypts. In these the stem is three-sided and a three-leaved spiral forms in the seedling and persists throughout the life of the tree (e.g. E. lehmannii).

Adult leaves are formed in the crown of the eucalypt plant, be it a mallee or tree, and for species in temperate and sub-tropical areas these leaves probably remain on the plant for some 2 to 3 years although this is not well-known. In monsoonal northern Australia many species are deciduous or semi-deciduous in the dry season which lasts from May to November. Examples are the red gum E. tintinnans and ghost gum C. confertiflora. New leaves form about October.

Adult leaf shape is not much use in identification as most species have lanceolate or falcate (curved) leaves. Leaf shape is a character of low reliability for identification. Leaf size is less useful as many species have leaves about the same size. It is most useful if the species typically has adult leaves much larger (e.g. E. globulus) or much smaller (e.g. E. parvula) than most other species.

Most eucalypt species have adult leaves that are more or less the same colour on both sides. But if an adult leaf is distinctly discolorous (the upper face is darker and greener than the lower), then this is a fairly powerful tool in the discrimination of species. The discoloured appearance of the leaf is a factor of internal structure. The green photosynthetic tissue (composed of cells with chlorophyll-bearing chloroplasts) is near the upper surface of the leaf and is lacking towards the lower surface in this type of leaf. The discoloured appearance is sometimes maintained on fallen dead leaves although somewhat faded. Juvenile leaves in all species are usually slightly to distinctly discoloured, so care must be taken in assessment of colouration. It is thought that the discolorous (or dorsiventral) leaf is an atavism (a reversion to an ancestral form), maintained in species of humid or high rainfall regions that most resemble the probable environment of the rain forest precursors of the eucalypts. It is seen in E. intermedia in eastern Australia and in E. diversicolor of the far south-west of Western Australia. E. cladocalyx of South Australia with its very discolorous leaves is probably a curious survivor of the ancient forests.

Another character not influenced by the environment is the leaf venation and this can be characteristic of certain groups such as the red bloodwoods, e.g. C. hylandii, which have many parallel side veins at a wide angle in a regularly pinnate (feathery) pattern. Other species have generally fewer side veins at more acute angles, the extreme being the Snow Gums (E. pauciflora) and Black Sally (E. stellulata) which have side veins more or less parallel to the midrib. While the angle of the side veins is highly diagnostic for the wide-angled and for the parallel-veined species, it is of little value for angle states between the extremes.

The midrib of a leaf is the primary vein, the side veins are the secondary veins. When these are the only veins apparently present or visible as in E. suberea, there is no reticulation, a strong character in assessing leaves for identification. Tertiary veining links the side veins and forms a reticulum. Some species have quaternary veining and the reticulum is consequently very fine. There is no absolute distinction between these categories and we use the terms: no visible reticulation, sparse reticulation, moderate reticulation, dense and very dense reticulation to describe them.

Eucalypts are notable for their oil glands in the leaves. In a dried specimen the glands can only be seen with reflected light and appear as black dots on the undifferentiated surface. But if a fresh leaf is held up towards the sun and inspected with oblique light through the leaf, the glands will be seen as white or yellowish or green structures, obviously within the tissue of the leaf. This inspection should always be done on the upper surface of the leaf (i.e. holding the lower leaf face towards the sun). This is to ensure comparability between specimens. The leaves of some species look the same when viewed through either face, but most show far more features when viewed with the underside towards the light source.

Many species will show quite different patterns between top-side or under-side viewing. Because most eucalypt leaves turn on their stalks and hang down in the crown, some experience is needed to determine which are the upper and lower faces. This decision is easier to make if the petiole is flattened on the upper surface, as it is in many species. Difficulty will be experienced in other species in determining the upper and lower surfaces of a leaf if the leaf stalk is slender and not flattened. In these instances both sides should be examined and the image with clearer reticulation and glands assessed, as this is the upper surface. Then comparable assessment can be made.

Leaf oil gland categories are usually strong aids to identification as related species tend to have similar patterns.

	The oil glands may be positioned either at the intersections of the veinlets, e.g. E. squamosa, and E. mannensis, where they appear to be star-shaped, being connected from the points by a linear chain of cells (appearing as veinlets) to the tertiary veins.
	In sharp contrast, the glands may appear as 'islands', e.g. E. muelleriana, E. loxophleba, E. marginata, and C. bunites, within the un-veined areas (areoles). 'Island' glands usually appear round although in some species as in the gimlets, e.g. E. salubris, they are very irregular.
	In some species the oil glands are obscure, e.g. E. baxteri which is probably a result of their appearance through thick leaf tissue. In a few species the glands are apparently absent, e.g. E. ovata, and E. todtiana. Apparent presence or absence may be variable within a species and although rare, is seen in E. rigidula whose leaves in southern populations are clearly glandular while populations in more arid regions of the species distribution to the north appear to be glandless.
	While oil glands in the leaves are mostly described as intersectional, island, absent or obscure, another category almost confined to southern Western Australian species is defined as 'abundant' or 'crowded'. In these species, e.g.E. eremophila, E. annulata, and their related species, the oil glands are extremely numerous, round, crowded, often obscuring any venation apart from the midrib. The abundant category of glands is a character of high reliability being mostly confined to the series as represented by the species named above. In eastern Australia, only E. froggattii has similarly crowded glands, making identification easy for trees in natural stands..

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Inflorescences, buds and flowers

Floral structures traditionally hold the defining aspects of species. There are numerous characters associated with them. Basically there are two contrasting forms of floral architecture, the individual flower buds or flowers, and then their arrangement on the branchlets. In most species of eucalypts, the buds occur in clusters on single stalks in the axils of the leaves. The flowers are mostly small and whitish and are not conspicuous in the crown.

A very few species have the inflorescences in complex clusters in the leaf axils, e.g. E. michaeliana or on expanded axillary shoots as in some ghost gums, e.g. C. bella, C. tessellaris, and the spotted gums e.g. C. henryi, C. maculata, or in more contracted though still branched axillary shoots as in most ghost gums e.g. C. flavescens, C. polysciada. Four species from eastern Australia, E. fastigata, E. pachycalyx, E. regnans and E. squamosa, form their buds consistently in twin clusters in the leaf axils. In contrast, several large groups, the bloodwoods, some of the boxes and some of the ironbarks, form theindividual bud clusters in large groups at the ends of the branchlets, with few or no leaves. In season these result in conspicuous sprays of flowers on the outside of the crown. A prominent example is the yellow bloodwood (C. eximia) of the sandstone regions of central eastern New South Wales, where the creamy white flower clusters stand out in the forest. In the south-west of Western Australia the widespread marri (C. calophylla) exhibits the same prolific flowering affect, although the southern Red-flowering gum (C. ficifolia) and the commonly cultivated northern Swamp bloodwood, C. ptychocarpa, are the most spectacular of the flowering eucalypts. One species, E. cladocalyx, has ramiflorous inflorescences, with the buds formed on the leafless part of the branchlets well inside the crown. Some ghost gums from northern Australia which are deciduous in the dry season, e.g. C. confertiflora, also appear to flower on leafless branches but these are cases where the floral buds have formed in the axils where last-season’s leaves used to be and the inflorescences are axillary, not truly ramiflorous. Very useful diagnostic information can be derived from these inflorescence patterns, although the structures can be modified by various external factors including predation.

A common modification of the basic axillary inflorescence of the eucalypts can be seen in many 'box', 'ironbark' and 'bloodwood' species. In these, bud clusters are formed in the usual way in the axils of developing leaves towards the ends of the annual growth of a branchlet. The arrangement of these leaves and floral primordia is initially decussate, and subsequent uneven elongation of the axis gives the appearance of alternation. Each branchlet terminates with a vegetative bud. In many 'box', 'ironbark' and 'bloodwood' species, this terminal vegetative bud aborts and the now apparently alternate leaf primordia cease their development. The floral primordia however, continue to develop, resulting in a 'leafless' compound inflorescence, terminating the branchlet. Good examples of this are E. paniculata, the common grey ironbark of south-eastern Australia, and C. calophylla, or Marri, common in south-western Australia.

The individual bud clusters in most eucalypts can be seen on close inspection to be in symmetrical patterns. A few species have a single bud in the inflorescence, e.g. E. globulus and E. macrocarpa, but the basic numbers in Angophora, Corymbia and Eucalyptus are 3 or 7. In a 3-budded inflorescence there is a central erect bud and two subtending side buds, all in a plane at right angles to the stem, forming a 'cross'. A 7-budded inflorescence has a central erect bud, two subtending side buds plus two buds each subtending the side buds. Bud numbers higher than 7 form by the addition of further pairs of subtending buds, and the number of buds in an intact inflorescence is always odd (never an even number), although very high bud numbers may occur in an obscured pattern. Also, in inflorescences with high numbers, one of a pair of subtending buds may be suppressed, probably by compression in the very young inflorescence which is tightly held within bracts which are soon deciduous. When assessing bud numbers, it is important to take into account the fact that during inflorescence development, which often takes more than a year, individual buds may be lost. This is particularly the case by the fruiting stage when the structures under examination have been exposed for a long time and subject to various traumas including predation and simple death of individual buds.

Angophora species and some of the northern bloodwoods (Corymbia setosa and related species) have simple hairs and bristle glands (erect multicellular hairs or setae) somewhere on the inflorescence, peduncle, pedicel, and often on the bud. The buds of Eucalyptus species are glabrous for their whole life cycle.

Angophora flowers

Inner opercula

Operculum scars

Inner bud anatomy

Angophora species are readily distinguished from other eucalypts in the flowers, by the presence of petals that have a green keel and white margin, and by persistent hard, woody, green sepals.

All Corymbia species and most Eucalyptus species do not have separate sepals. The exceptions are the species in Eucalyptus subgenus Eudesmia plus a handful of other species. Subgenus Eudesmia is widespread and consists of 21 species. In south-western Western Australia the most famous is the glaucous, juvenile-leaved Tallerack (E. pleurocarpa). In this and related species, the calyx is formed of distinct separate sepals which are usually evident as four small teeth at the top of the hypanthium and usually persist to the fruiting stage. A northern example is the Darwin Stringybark, E. tetrodonta, which in bud has prominent sepals that persist in fruit. Another group of eudesmids have their sepals more or less fused to the corolla right at the apex of the bud and usually are difficult to see. Examples of this are E. baileyana from Queensland and northern New South Wales, E. ebbanoensis from south-western Western Australia, and the orange-flowered tropical trees E. miniata and E. phoenicea.

Other Eucalyptus species having separate sepals are E. microcorys, which has, in early bud development, very small calyx lobes formed at the top of the hypanthium but which fall early and are seldom seen, and the south-western species E. steedmanii and E. mimica where conspicuous sepals are present in bud but are lost on flowering; the Queensland endemic species E. curtisii, E. cloeziana and E. tenuipes, with four small teeth present on the mid line of the bud which persist in E. curtisii but fall early in the other two. In all other species in Eucalyptus and in Corymbia the sepals are united to form the outer operculum or bud-cap.

The individual flower buds have two opercula (bud caps covering the stamens and style) derived from the united sepals (outer operculum) and united petals (inner operculum). In some species of red bloodwood the fusion of the petals to form the inner operculum may not be complete, but careful dissection is needed to see this. A longitudinal section through an almost mature bud can reveal whether or not the inner operculum is divided at all. Similarly, removing the outer operculum but leaving the inner operculum intact can also show whether the inner operculum is partially divided or not. Some examples in the bloodwoods are C. ficifolia, C. zygophylla and C. deserticola. Eucalyptus guilfoylei from the wet forests of southern Western Australia may also possess this feature of the inner operculum.

The flower buds of Angophora (illustrated above) are all very similar within the group of twelve species and subspecies and, apart from size, contain very few discernible characters that distinguish the species. The individual flower buds of the traditional eucalypts, however, contain a great deal of vital information, from the external superficial nature of the wall of the bud to the characters of much higher reliability contained within. One character of absolute reliability (no exceptions have ever been found) is the number of opercula, although this requires experience to assess.

Except for Angophora, the eucalypt flower lacks showy petals. The petals are in fact united very early in bud development to form a cap or a cone-shaped structure that covers the stamens and ovary during their development. This is the inner operculum, which sheds just before flowering when the stamens expand and are almost ready to shed their pollen. (There is a delay in pollen ripening and dispersal to lessen the chance of self-fertilisation and consequent inbreeding). The outer whorl of the floral parts is the sepals which, likewise, unite to form an operculum in most eucalypt species. In the majority of species, this, the outer operculum sheds early in bud development. In doing so, the tissue around the approximate middle of the bud, i.e. where the outer operculum attaches to the base of the bud, dies resulting in detachment. This leaves a scar around the middle of the bud which can sometimes be seen with the naked eye but is best seen with a lens. About 130 species, comprising the Eucalyptus subgenusEucalyptus, have lost the outer operculum altogether in the evolution of the group. Therefore, throughout the development of the bud in these species there is no scar, and the side of the bud is smooth. Some species have two opercula that are fused giving the superficial impression that only a single operculum is present, e.g. E. ochrophloia. The boxes and ironbarks show parallel development in operculum characters. There are two groups, one in which the outer operculum sheds early leaving a scar, e.g. the box species, E. behriana, and the ironbark species, E. paniculata, and another in which the outer operculum is held to bud maturity, e.g. the box species, E. microcarpa and the ironbark, E. sideroxylon. The double opercula and their retention to bud maturity is a diagnostic feature of all the red bloodwoods (Corymbia informal section Rufaria). The ghost gums (Corymbia informal section Blakearia e.g. C. bella) and spotted gums (Corymbia informal section Politaria e.g. C. citriodora) shed the outer operculum during bud development leaving an operculum scar.

Stamens have various forms of orientation in the unopened bud. Some species have their stamens wholly erect. Others have them uniformly inflexed, while others have irregular orientation. Again, the extremes of positioning, i.e. complete inflexion or complete erection, are easy to assess. However there will be 'in-between' species in which the character is difficult to categorise. The attachment of the anther on the summit of the staminal filament is useful diagnostically. Some anthers are basifixed, with the tip of the filament attached rigidly at the base of the anther. This character is seen in the boxes and ironbarks and at its most extreme in E. leptophylla, E. foecunda and related species. In the majority of eucalypts the anthers are dorsifixed, by attachment loosely to the back of the anther, such that it can swivel, i.e. versatile. Some eucalypts have flowers with staminodes, where the outer stamens lack anthers or have reduced, non-functional anthers, e.g. E. calycogona. The openings of the anther for pollen shed (dehiscence) is also an important diagnostic character. Most eucalypts have their anthers either opening by well separatedlongitudinal slits for the more or less cuboid anther, or, as in Eucalyptus subgenus Eucalyptus (e.g. E. regnans) with their more or less kidney-shaped anthers, have the openings oblique and touching near the apex, finally forming confluent slits. The cuboid, freely dorsifixed anther occurs in many western species but the kidney-shaped anther with confluent slits is rare in western monocalypts but is seen in Jarrah (E. marginata) and a few related species. The butterfly-shaped anther in E. guilfoylei is unique in the genus. In a considerable number of species, particularly mallees, e.g. E. oleosa, the anthers are subversatile and open by small roundish pores, either at the sides or the top of the anther.

Within the base of the bud is the ovary and this contains characters of high diagnostic reliability. The most useful is the number of vertical rows of ovules. These can only be seen by dissection and is best done under a microscope but can be done in the field and seen with a 10× lens. Most eucalypts have ovule rows with 4 or 6 vertical rows. Another group has ovule rows consistently in 2s (Eucalyptus subgenus Eucalyptus), while others have rows of 3 or 5, or irregular patterns (bloodwoods and ghost gums).

The top of the ovary is surmounted by the style which terminates in the stigma. The style is usually erect in all but a few species but can be spiral in some e.g. E. albida, making it a useful diagnostic character. In the great majority of species the style arises from the narrowed summit of the ovary. In some bloodwoods, in Eucalyptus series Melliodorae (e.g. E. leucoxylon) and some species of Eucalyptus series Loxophlebae (e.g. E. loxophleba) the style narrows at the base and is inserted into the roof of the ovary. The style is subsequently articulate, not rigid.

The pollen is transported to the stigma from another flower by insects, small birds or small mammals. On germination of the pollen grains, the contents including the vital nuclei migrate by means of a pollen tube down the stigma shaft to the ovary itself where several ovules at the base of the placentae are fertilised. The fertilised ovules mature into the seeds. The ovular structures on the upper part of the placentae are infertile or unfertilised and 'mature' into sterile particles smaller than the seeds known as the chaff.

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Fruit

In bud, the ovary is sunk into the expanded, invaginated top of the pedicel (individual bud stalk) known as the hypanthium. The side walls of the ovary are usually fused to the inner wall of the hypanthium such that they appear as one structure. Following fertilisation, the stamens fall from the flower, the style surmounting the ovary usually sheds, and the remaining structure becomes woody and matures into the fruit. The fruits of eucalypts, commonly called the gumnuts, are thus a compound structure of supporting tissue, the hypanthium, and the ovary. The rim of the fruit comprises the scar or circular 'platform' where the operculum was attached, then on the inner side, the narrow or broad ring of tissue that bore the stamens, and finally a band of tissue that links the rim with the ovary roof. This last tissue is the disc, derived from the nectary in the flower. It may descend vertically to the ovary and line the inner wall of the hypanthium as in the bloodwoods and ghost gums, or cross horizontally to the ovary roof, e.g. E. regnans, or be raised and ascend to an uplifted ovary roof, e.g. E. tereticornis. Some western species have a further development of the disc, e.g. in E. coronata and related species, in which the disc extends over the valves such that only the extreme tips of the valves are exposed.

Throughout the three genera fruit shape is difficult to categorise with certainty. One very distinctive fruit form, however, is seen in a few species endemic to southern Western Australia. In these, the numerous individual fruits in a single cluster are fused by the walls of the hypanthium from the time of bud formation onwards. The fused buds mature into a large, hard, woody cluster that is instantly recognisable, as in E. lehmannii. These fruit are said to be syncarpous.

These fruits were originally considered to be so distinctive that on the discovery of the species, E. lehmannii was thought to belong to a different genus and was given this status in the newly coined name, Symphyomyrtus, meaning 'fused myrtle'. Later the fused character was considered to be somewhat superficial and the species was placed in the genus Eucalyptus. Fusion of organs is easily recognized and of great value in species recognition. Fusion of parts occurs elsewhere in the genus in other organs, e.g. opposite pairs of juvenile leaves of E. uncinata and the staminal filaments of E. synandra.

For western species another useful aid to identification is found in part of the subgenus Eudesmia. The buds and fruit of many of the Eudesmia species are square in cross-section, the sepals being conspicuous on the rim at the tips of the sides of the square. 'Square' fruit are also seen in the widespread E. calycogona, and E. prolixa, which is endemic to the goldfields of Western Australia. This is an interesting convergent character as the two groups are quite unrelated. Curiously the square fruit is also seen in some box species, clearly so in E. froggattii, and less obviously so in E. petraea and E. ochrophloia,and some ironbark species, e.g. E. tetrapleura. The large urceolate fruits of the bloodwoods (e.g. C. calophylla) might also be regarded as quite distinctive fruits, but the great variety of fruit shapes seen throughout the eucalypts makes fruit shape a character for which words are rarely ideally descriptive. Further, categorizing fruits into separate shape descriptions is difficult given natural variation and general gradation between shape definitions/categories. Size of fruit is also very variable and within a species size may be affected by seasonal conditions, such as drought, and also by the numbers of fruit that may develop in relation to available resources. Therefore the shape of the fruit, should be used carefully in identification. Similarly when using fruit dimension, choose average sized fruit for the specimen, not extremes.

The roof of the ovary is 'free' and exposed and separates into valves which spread and allow the seeds to shed. The mature but unopened woody ovary may be deeply sunk in the fruit and not actually be visible below the rim; be more or less level with the rim; or in other species, the roof of the ovary may be raised above the rim. This latter character is seen most conspicuously in E. coolabah and the ovary is scarcely inferior, i.e. it is not well sunk into the hypanthium as it is in the vast majority of eucalypts.

Of considerable value in identification are the valves of the fruit. Their number and exsertion can be characteristic of species and species groups, e.g. the red gums in which the ovary splits into 3 or 4 valves which are usually strongly exserted. The number of valves in the majority of eucalypt species is usually 3 or 4 with a few exceptions where the numbers are up to 6 or occasionally 7, as in the big-fruited E. aquilina and E. preissiana subsp. lobata. In one tropical species, E. phoenicea, the valve number is reduced to 2.

There is one valve character that requires qualification. In the large series Subulatae and to a lesser extent the series Falcatae, the ovary is sunk well below the rim of the hypanthium. The style surmounting the ovary splits into three or four needle-like structures (the number of the ovary chambers and therefore the valves). Despite their fragility they persist as the valves spread in dehiscence, and are conspicuously emergent above the rim of the fruit. Ultimately they break off but their early persistence is a feature of these two taxonomic series and may be regarded as a character of medium to high reliability bearing in mind that the 'valves' are finally lost from the fruit.

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Seed

One useful feature that is not immediately available in the field is the seeds. Until the vascular connections between the individual fruits held in the crown and the parent tree are broken, the valves will not open. Otherwise, eucalypt fruit are held on the branchlets often for years. Seed from detached fruits, however, can be ready for inspection after about 24 hours by placing unopened fruits in a paper bag where they dry out quickly and shed the seeds and the thinner chaff particles. There is a great number of seed forms and these can be seen either with the naked eye or with a lens. Fortunately, related species have identical seeds and the character is therefore one of high reliability. Because words do not adequately convey the actual seed shape for most species, experience is needed to educate the user who will ultimately find the seeds to be an invaluable aid in discriminating species and groups of related species. We suggest the following terms as a guide.

	Flattened or saucer-shaped The seed is somewhat flattened with a distinct upper (dorsal) and lower (ventral) side. The ventral side may be somewhat concave, with the hilum in the centre. Angophora and the ghost gums have this type of seed.
	Pyramidal or obliquely pyramidal The seed is pyramid shaped with a relatively smooth or lacunose, flat or rounded dorsal side. The ventral side is usually ribbed, wrinkled or angled and is surmounted by a narrowed face at the summit where the hilum is (e.g. E. acmenoides). This is the seed type in most of the monocalypts although there is a great amount of variety in their seed form. Perhaps the most extreme seed shape in the monocalypts is seen in some western endemics, e.g. E. buprestium and E. todtiana, in which the body of the seed is small in comparison to the grossly extended curved lateral wings.
	Boat-shaped The seed is elongated and strongly keeled dorsally with a large, conspicuous hilum in the middle of the flat underside. The edges may be flanged or narrowly winged. C. gummifera and C. calophylla notably have this type of seed.
	Cuboid The seed is chunky, often with a smooth, shiny or somewhat granular, sometimes slightly rounded, dorsal side. The hilum is situated on a smaller terminal face separated from the dorsal side by the side walls of the seed. These walls are often angular. The chaff is usually similar to the seed, but somewhat smaller and lighter coloured (e.g. E. seeana).
	Ellipsoidal with terminal wing The flattened-ellipsoidal body of the seed occurs at the lower end (considering the disposition of the ovule on the placenta in the intact bud), with a transparent wing as long as the body of the seed at the top end. The wings may be seen, just before seed shed, emerging from the top of the ovary. The hilum is usually positioned near one edge not far from the start of the wing. The wing is purely a descriptive morphological term and the structure has no apparent aerial function. Most of the bloodwoods have this type of seed (e.g. C. chippendalei).
	Pointed at one end The seed is somewhat flattened, usually rounded at one end and pointed at the other. It may be described as teardrop-shaped (e.g.E. conica).
	D-shaped The seed is roughly disc-like with a short straight side and a longer connecting curved side. The hilum is towards the narrowed end (e.g. E. porosa).
	Spherical The seed is more or less spherical (e.g. E. desmondensis).
	Ovoid or depressed-ovoid The seed is ovoid or elliptical in outline but flattened with the hilum on the more or less concave ventral side (e.g. E. aggregata). A large number of species have this type of seed. Examples are the section Maidenaria, endemic to eastern Australia, in which the dorsal surface is often lacunose, and a large number of mallees occurring across southern Australia. These seeds have very smooth dorsal sides with two or three shallow longitudinal grooves. This is seen particularly in series Subulatae and Calycogonae.
	Obliquely elongated The seed is like a narrowly drawn-out pyramid with the dorsal face curved and prolonged into a thin 'tongue'. The terminal face is small, flat and oblique on the seed with the hilum in the middle. The sides are ridged (e.g. E. burracoppinensis).
	Linear The seed is narrow and elongated, with a very small dorsal surface, long sides and terminal hilum (only E. curtisii).

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Pith

Once a specimen has been taken, a very handy and accessible feature is the pith of the branchlets. In the southern half of the country about half of the dry country mallees have a line of clear-coloured or brown oil glands in the pith usually visible to the naked eye, while the remaining species have a white or uniformly coloured, undifferentiated pith. This character is easily assessed in the field by pulling a side branchlet away from the main axis. Pith glands, if present, will be most conspicuous at the nodes so this is where the character should be sought for its presence or absence. The developmental origin of these discrete rounded pith glands is unknown.

Pith gland absence or presence is a character of moderately high, not absolute, reliability and is a particularly useful character to help identify South Australian and southern Western Australian species.

This, however, is not true in all areas of the country. Many, perhaps all, species of Corymbia (bloodwoods and ghost gums) andAngophora have obvious short or elongated duct-like spaces in the pith of the branchlets. These are not as easily seen in the field as the discrete round pith glands but can be seen with a 10X lens, especially at or near the leaf bases. These ducts may be filled with a sticky brown substance (?oil or resin) or the contents may be crystalline but they are not round pith oil glands as described above. Only one species of ghost gum, C. kombolgiensis has been observed with discrete round brown pith oil glands. In EUCLID we have scored this character when we have seen it in Corymbia and Angophora species, however when identifying these species it should be used with caution or avoided.

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A brief history of Eucalyptus, Angophora and Corymbia

Although eucalypts must have been seen by the very early European explorers and collectors, no botanical collections of them are known to have been made until 1770 when Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander arrived at Botany Bay with James Cook. There they collected specimens of C. gummifera and later, near the Endeavour River in northern Queensland, they collected E. platyphylla; neither of these species was named as such at the time.

In 1777, on Cook's third expedition, the botanist David Nelson collected a eucalypt on Bruny Island, southern Tasmania. This specimen was taken to the British Museum in London, where it was named Eucalyptus obliqua by the French botanist, Charles-Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle, who was working in London at the time. He coined the generic name from the Greek roots eu and calyptos, meaning 'well' and 'covered', in reference to the operculum of the flower bud. This organ protects the reproductive structures during their development and sheds under pressure from the emerging stamens at flowering. The name obliqua was derived from the Latin, obliquus, meaning 'oblique', describing a leaf base where the two sides of the leaf blade are of unequal length and do not meet the petiole at the same point.

In the publication of Eucalyptus obliqua, L'Héritier recognized in the generic name a feature common to all eucalypts - the operculum. In his choice of specific name, he recognized not only a characteristic feature of E. obliqua but one that occurs in most other eucalypts as well. E. obliqua was published in 1788 and coincides with the date of the first official settlement of Australia.

Between 1788 and the beginning of the nineteenth century several more species of Eucalyptus were named and published. Most of these were by the English botanist James Edward Smith and most were, as might be expected, trees of the Sydney region. They include the economically valuable E. pilularis, E. saligna and E. tereticornis, each of which also occurs in Queensland, with the distribution of E. tereticornis extending to the island of New Guinea.

Also in this period the genus Angophora was published, in 1797, by the Spanish botanist Antonio Jose Cavanilles, based on specimens collected at Port Jackson by Frenchman Luis Née in 1793. Née was botanist with the Alejandro Malaspina expedition. Various authors have considered Angophora to be sufficiently distinctive that it should be maintained as a separate genus. Others believe it is a 'eucalypt'. We recognize both Eucalyptus and Angophora in EUCLID, reflecting results of recent research and usage by the general community.

The nineteenth century was a period of extensive land exploration. This resulted in the discovery of many new eucalypts and their subsequent naming by several of the great botanists in Australian history, particularly Ferdinand von Mueller, whose work on eucalypts contributed greatly to the first comprehensive account of the genus in George Bentham's Flora Australiensis (1867). Bentham never visited Australia, but his account is the most important early systematic treatment of the genus Eucalyptus.

Some earlier authors had constructed classifications, but the distinctions they used - for example, shape of the operculum and the juvenile leaf arrangement - were only applicable to far fewer species than were known to Bentham; they were of little use when applied to a much larger number of species. One useful study before that of Bentham, however, was Mueller's description of different bark types (Mueller, 1858). These still have relevance in distinguishing between, for example, groups that shed or retain dead bark and, in the latter case, between ironbark and other types of rough bark.

Bentham divided the genus into five series whose distinctions were based on characteristics of the stamens, particularly the anthers. Categories within each series were based largely on the leaves, and on bud and fruit shape. He was obviously working with limited botanical specimens, and field characters were not available to him unless communicated by others from Australia.

Mueller, working in Australia, devised another classification based on the anthers (Mueller, 1879-84), while Joseph Henry Maiden (1924) elaborated on the anther system, which was taken even further by William Faris Blakely (1934). By this time, classification based on the anther system had become too complex to be workable.

Other more consistent characters have been sought in recent years to aid in the construction of classifications. Of these, leaf venation, the nature of bristle glands, the morphology of the seeds, nature of the operculum and the structure of the inflorescence are fundamental. More sophisticated equipment has usually enabled the examination of these leaf and floral structures early in and during their development. Similarities thus recognised usually provide the evidence of natural affinity between species and groups of species. In other words, botanists became better equipped to decide whether these similarities noticed in different species and groups were the results of inheritance from a common ancestor or if they had independently evolved, in many cases as an adaptive necessity such as lignotuber formation or salt tolerance.

A comprehensive but informal classification of all known eucalypt species was published in 1971 by the late L.D. Pryor and L.A.S. Johnson. It comprised seven major groups based on the association of many morphological characters and suggested by the breeding incompatibility between them. Their system has been subjected to close scrutiny in the past 30 years. Many improvements to this classification were proposed by Johnson himself and by others, although he never formally published a system of classification.

Briggs and Johnson (1979) contributed a major advance in the botany of the whole family Myrtaceae, in which they outlined for the first time a comprehensive analysis of inflorescence structure in all genera and its indication of evolutionary trend.

In Volume 19 of the 'Flora of Australia', all eucalypts published to 1988, were comprehensively treated (Chippendale, 1988). This work includes 513 species of Eucalyptus arranged in 92 series, many of which were published formally in this volume. This is not a structured classification as there are no subgenera or sections. The work is of particular value for its typology and erection of many new taxonomic series.

The decade after 1988 saw the application of advanced methodology in the study of the genus Eucalyptus, especially in phylogenetic analyses of taxonomic series (e.g. Ladiges et al., 1987; Hill and Johnson, 1995) and in the use of molecular techniques in the estimation of infra-generic relationships within the genus and between cognate genera (Ladiges et al., 1995; Ladiges and Udovicic, 2000).

Posted by The Zeal Group. Call us on 1300882787

Clivia

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Fri, 19 Aug 2011 22:16:00 +0000

Traits: , Shade, Feature, Groundcover, Container, , Birds
This genus in the amaryllis (Amaryllidaceae) family is made up of just 4 species of perennials from southern Africa. While these plants are best suited to warmer conditions, and can tolerate only the lightest of frosts, they can be enjoyed as container plants in cooler climates. The stunning flowers come in vibrant shades of red, yellow, and orange, and are followed by equally vibrant and showy berries, which extend the ornamental season of these plants. The genus was named for Lady Charlotte Clive, Duchess of Northumberland, who was the granddaughter of Robert Clive of India (general and colonial administrator).
Flowering Season: Summer, Spring
Appearance
These clump-forming plants grow from stocky rhizomes, and have long, bright green, strap-like leaves. Most bloom in spring, but flowering times do vary, depending on the speciesClivia gardenii, for instance, blooms from autumn to spring, bringing welcome color to the winter garden. They produce strong flower stems that are topped with heads of large funnel-shaped flowers in vibrant hues of yellow, orange, and red. Attractive bright red berries follow the flowers.
Cultivation
Fire lilies will tolerate only the lightest of frost, but otherwise they are easily grown. These plants make superb greenhouse container specimens, and can be enjoyed as indoor pot plants in cooler climates. Outdoors they will do best if grown in fertile well-drained soil in a position that provides dappled shade. Water well during the warmer months and allow to dry off for winter. They are usually propagated by division.

Potash

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Fri, 19 Aug 2011 04:42:00 +0000

It is well-known that Australian soils are low in phosphorus. What is not so well-known is that many of our soils are also low in potassium. As a result, the animal manures that we increasingly use on our gardens in place of chemical fertilisers are also low in potassium. This has led to an increase in the incidence of plant diseases. Although potash could never be described as a fungicide, its correct use can certainly minimise diseases such as blackspot, rust and powdery mildew. These appear most visibly on the leaves and fruit of affected plants, but can affect any part.

Potassium takes part in more than 40 enzyme actions which help control many plant functions. Of potassium's multiple roles within the plant, one important one is its work in building cellulose, a component of plant cell walls.
If conditions are suitable, a fungus spore will germinate after landing on a host plant and form a tiny root system known as a haustoria. This produces an organic chemical, designed to break down the cellulose barrier of the cell wall and allow the fungus to reach the sap stream, upon which it feeds. If the cell wall is thin, this is achieved with relative ease and the fungus flourishes while the host plant suffers. If the cell wall is thick, the fungal spore is unable to penetrate the cell wall and it eventually dies before it can reach the life-giving sap of the host plant.

When using organic fertilisers, look at the analysis on the back of the bag - if it contains less than 3% potassium, you should add some to it. About 10% sulphate of potash will usually do the trick. Potash can be applied pure, at a rate of 15g per square metre, for a quick fix.

For plants that are particularly susceptible to disease, such as roses, it's a good idea to apply about 150g of sulphate of potash to each bush at 3-4 monthly intervals.

Sulphate of potash is known to improve the quality and the colour of flowers, probably because of the increased enzyme activity. It also enhances the formation of proteins and sugars, probably because it influences photosynthesis, the process by which these sugars are made.

In frost-prone areas, plants treated with potash are better able to withstand the frost because of the higher cellulose content in the cell walls. Plants with slender stems and large flower heads such as Iceland poppies and Gerberas will hold their heads erect if adequate levels of potash are used.

squiggly_lines_on_leaves_leaf_miner

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Sun, 07 Aug 2011 07:30:00 +0000

The squiggly lines are caused by leafminers. The larvae from some flies, moths or beetles feed between the upper and lower leaf surfaces. They make the squiggly lines while tunneling through. Citrus leafminers are a potentially serious pest. The "mines," those squiggly lines, can result in leaf curling.

You can prune off and destroy the branches that are damaged, but don't place these cuttings in your regular yard waste recycling. Put the infested branches in your regular household garbage. This way the infected branches will not become mulch at a yard waste processing facility.

After pruning, water and fertilize the plant so it can outgrow the damage. It's tough to manage leafminers with chemical control, because they are protected inside the leaf. At the first signs of leafminer feeding, take chemical action. There can be several generations that overlap in the course of a year because a generation can be completed in three weeks.

Annuals

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Sat, 06 Aug 2011 20:29:00 +0000

Ageratum

Clusters of fluffy blue flowers on neat, compact, low growing plants. They are frost tender but otherwise tough plants which will bloom for months. Feed and water regularly and pick spent flowers.

Timing:

Plant in spring to summer to flower in spring, summer and autumn. Plant all year round in tropical climates.

Positioning:

Best in full-sun. Will grow in semi-shade.

Height:

20-25cm

Planting Distance:

15-20cm

Colour:

Blue, Pink, White

Use:

Bedding, front of border edging, container. Combines well with other plants.

Examples of how to plant out properly

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Wed, 03 Aug 2011 02:23:00 +0000

Insect large

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Mon, 01 Aug 2011 00:12:00 +0000

Some Caterpillars are easy to identify because they have some unique characteristic, but most are rather similar to each other. Most taxonomy has been performed using the adult forms, so the only sure way to determine their species is to rear them through to the adult butterfly or moth, and then identify that.
Some caterpillars can be identified to the individual species.
Some can only be identified easily to the family.
Some are not true Caterpillars at all.

http://lepidoptera.butterflyhouse.com.au/faqs/ident.html

Planting Bulbs

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Sun, 31 Jul 2011 01:58:00 +0000

The possibilities when gardening with bulbs are endless.

Bulbs are loved the world over for their clear colors and some for their unique fragrance. Tulips, freesias, daffodils, hyacinths and many more will enhance your garden and give pleasure to your senses.
Most bulbs prefer to be planted in sunny spots, but you will find that they will also grow with some shade.Easy to grow, bulbs require only a little care and attention to give a beautiful and colorful display. You can have a spectacular spring garden outside and spotted color inside.

VARIETIES - There is a big and interesting range of bulbs to choose from. For full sun, choose anemones, daffodils, Dutch iris, ixia, lachenalias, ranunculus, sparaxis and tritonia. For areas with some shade choose bluebells, daffodils, freesias, grape hyacinths, tulips and hyacinths.

WHEN TO PLANT - The best time to plant for most bulbs is between March and May - tulips in May and hyacinths in March/April.

WHERE TO PLANT - The majority of bulbs prefer sun but will accept broken shade, or shade for part of the day. They do not like poorly drained, wet soils and definitely prefer cool soil. Bulbs such as anemones, ranunculus and sparaxis prefer sunny spots.

PREPARATION AND PLANTING - It is not difficult to prepare a soil suitable to grow beautiful bulbs. Loosen the soil in a sunny well drained spot to spade depth and add some YATES BULB FOOD, raking it through. Add some compost too to help keep the soil rich and friable. When planting bulbs, you can choose how you want them placed, either individually

You should only fill the container so that the the tips of the bulbs are level with, or just above the rim. Once this is done, fill the pot to the rim, and firm the mixture around the bulbs. Create an artificial winter for hyacinths and tulips by keeping them in the vegetable crisper of the refrigerator for about 2 - 3 weeks prior to planting. The container of flowering bulbs may be brought indoors when the flowering commences.

FEEDING - The major cause of failure to flower is under- feeding of bulbs. Like most plants they require some fertilizer from time to time. Incorporate a liberal dressing of YATES BULB FOOD into the soil about one week prior to planting. Feed the bulbs as they grow, and add some more YATES BULB FOOD just before the buds show color. Feed with PHOSTROGEN every three weeks during the flowering period. About a month after the flowers have finished, before the foliage has died down, feed again with YATES BULB FOOD.

WATERING:- Once planted, you should water occasionally for 8 - 10 weeks, so that they don't dry out. Don't be too heavy handed but gradually increase the watering as the plants grow.

- Posted by Zeal Property Maintenance P/L from iPad.

Fire wood hard wood free delivery

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Thu, 02 Jun 2011 04:48:00 +0000

- Posted by Zeal Property Maintenance P/L from iPad.f
For the best prices across Sydney and free delivery go to www.firewood.net.au

Location:All over Sydney

Composting

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Fri, 24 Dec 2010 09:40:00 +0000

What is composting?
Composting is nature’s own recycling program. In time, organisms will break down the ingredients listed below into rich, dark crumbly compost - nature’s own nutrient-rich fertiliser.

How does composting work and how long does it take?
Natural composting, or decomposition, occurs all the time in nature. Home composting generally takes two months or more. The more you turn and mix the contents - adding air in the process - the more rapid the composting action will be.

The right conditions include
the right ratio of nitrogen to carbon - equal amounts of ‘greens’ (kitchen scraps) for nitrogen and ‘browns’ (fallen leaves and woody material) for carbon
the right amount of water (feels like a damp sponge)
good drainage (to remove excess moisture)
enough oxygen (turned often)
What can you compost at home?
Vegetable and fruit scraps
Fallen leaves
Grass clippings
Finely chipped branches
Used vegetable cooking oil
Tea leaves, tea bags
Coffee grounds
Vacuum cleaner dust
Egg shells
Sheets of newspaper
Paper bags
Shredded paper
What can’t you compost?
Metal, plastic, glass
Meat and dairy products (attract rodents)
Large branches
Bones
Plant bulbs (need specialised treatment)
Droppings of meat-eating animals (e.g. dogs)
Grubs in your compost?
Sometimes in compost bins there are many segmented brown grubs. These are the larvae of the beneficial Soldier Fly. They are not pests, nor will they cause health problems.

Mulches
Mulches can prevent up to 73% evaporation loss and they are one of the cheapest and easiest ways to make the most of water in the garden.
The best mulch is a well-rotted compost which will also improve the soil structure and stimulate the biological life of the soil. Place the mulch away from the trunk to prevent collar rot.
Do not apply mulch more than 75-100 mm in thickness or water may not easily penetrate into the soil.

lace Mites

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Sat, 09 Oct 2010 20:47:00 +0000

Azalea Lace Bugs - fact sheet
The Azalea Lace Bug (Stephanitis pyrioides), an insect originating from Japan, is a signicant pest of azaleas and rhododendrons in many regions of the world where these plants are cultivated. The bug especially attacks plants growing in sunny, exposed situations.
Symptoms of lace bug attack
The feeding activity of every stage of the lace bug life cycle produces a widespread grey-whitish/silvery mottling on the upper surfaces of the leaves, similar in colour but coarser in texture to that caused by spider mites. Adult and juvenile lace bugs feed on the undersurfaces of azalea and rhododendron leaves. The mottling is usually so severe that leaves that have been attacked are permanently disfigured. Leaves will die and fall from the plant well before their time. Sticky brown patches or ‘varnish’ (excretory products of the lace bugs) appear on the undersides of the leaves. The Azalea Lace Bug is widespread throughout Australia.
Life cycle
The lace bug has at least two (and possibly four) generations per year in Australia. Adults reach 4-6 mm in length. They have clear, heavily veined wings - hence the insects’ common name. Juvenile lace bugs are wingless, spiny, have long antennae relative to their body length, and have a black and tan mottled colouring giving them an overall dark appearance.
There are probably five nymphal instars. Nymphal moult skins often remain stuck to lace bug varnish on the undersides of leaves. Lace bugs overwinter in the egg stage, hatching when conditions improve for them in the sping. Eggs are inserted into the mid-vein on the underside of the azalea or rhododendron leaf as they are laid. They have a brown protective covering which hardens on contact with air.
Control
Lace bugs are particularly difficult to control. There is currently no known effective biological control agent (e.g. a parasitic wasp). There are some pesticides that are registered for the control of this pest.

Call 1300 882 787
Servicing the Blue Mountains
and Western Sydney
ACN 127 048 015
www.propertymaintenance.net.au

- Posted by Zeal Property Maintenance P/L from iPad.

Curl grub

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Sat, 09 Oct 2010 20:04:00 +0000

General information
Scarab beetle larvae, also known as white curl grub (or cockchafer in southern states), are a serious lawn pest. The signs of infestation are easily confused with other pests, diseases and disorders in turf and present as a general yellowing, then browning, followed by the death of lawn.
Overview

Pest characteristics
In subtropical areas, lawn injury is commonly seen from November through to January. The most common causal agent is African black beetle (Heteronychus arator), although a number of native and non-native scarabs look similar and produce comparable damage. These include pruinose scarab (Sericesthis geminata) and Argentine scarab (Cyclocephala signaticollis). If in doubt, have the pest formally identified.
Third instar African black beetle larvae grow to 20-25 mm in length before pupating in the soil. They have an orange-brown head capsule. Oval-shaped, shiny black adults, 12-15 mm long, emerge during February, feeding on stems just below ground level. They are less active through winter and mate in spring after the female has reached sexual maturity.
Only one generation is produced each year. Deceptively, different larval stages are sometimes found in the soil. This is mainly due to eggs being laid at different times.

Correct names
White curl grub, scarab beetle larvae, lawn beetle larvae or cockchafer are the correct common names for the juvenile stage of lawn beetle. However, white curl grub is sometimes incorrectly referred to as 'lawn grub' and 'witchety grub'. 'Lawn grub' is a colloquial term for surface-dwelling caterpillars such as sod webworm, army worm and cutworm, which become moths. The true witchety grub is the wood-feeding larva of two families of giant Australian moth.
Symptoms
White curl grubs have a characteristic 'C' shape and three pairs of legs. They live underground, protected by soil. Animals such as magpies, crows, wood duck and other carnivorous birds, bandicoots and even foxes enjoy this food source. Damage from animal feeding can be the first indicator that the insects are present.
Some white curl grubs are parasitised by the yellow (hairy) flower wasp (Campsomeris tasmaniensis) in southern Queensland. This 30 mm-long hairy wasp with yellow and black banding on its abdomen can also act as an indicator of the presence of beetle larvae.
The late second instar and third instar phases of the beetle’s lifecycle are the most damaging to turf. These larger larvae are voracious feeders on roots and underground stems. The adults also feed on turf, but cause much less damage.
What often differentiates white curl grub damage from other types of lawn dieback, such as that caused by drought or water repellent soils, is that the lawn starts to slip or roll up like a carpet. If this symptom is detected it is time to bring out a large corer or shovel and dig for beetle larva.
A problem infestation is generally regarded to be 25 or more white curl grubs per square metre. If fewer larvae are present, healthy turf is likely to outgrow the minor damage it will sustain. Under heat and drought stress, the problem may be exacerbated by poor rates of regrowth and smaller numbers of larvae can cause significant damage.
Host range
African black beetles establish in a wide range of grasses including green couch, blue couch, soft leaf buffalo grass and kikuyu. The insect has a broad range of dietary preferences and larvae will attack, among other things, strawberries, pineapples, potatoes and grape vines.
Detection
Control measures are most effective when insect activity is monitored. One way of doing this is to moisten a hessian bag or piece of carpet and place it on the lawn overnight. In the morning the adults can be collected and disposed of. Check for adult beetles from late spring to early summer when egg laying commences.
It is thought that garden lighting may be helpful in attracting and detecting adult beetles. However, this may have the unwanted side effect of increasing egg laying activity in adjacent lawn areas. Turning off unnecessary garden lighting may reduce pest numbers.
Biological controls
Some householders encourage carnivorous birds into their garden to control the pest. However, if the white curl grub problem is severe, bird feeding can cause extensive damage in its own right. Free range poultry will also keep pest numbers in check.
A bucket of soapy water made with a biodegradable detergent can be poured onto affected areas, encouraging the larvae and beetles to move to the surface where they might be picked off by birds.
Effective control of later larval stages is only achievable with insect killing nematodes, known as entomopathogenic nematodes (ENs). They are active only against specific soil-dwelling insects, safe to handle and safe for plants. These nematodes were commercialised in 1999 after extensive research by the CSIRO Division of Entomology in Canberra.
ENs for African black beetle are raised in a laboratory and shipped in a dormant state. When received, the ENs must first be hydrated in water, and then lightly stirred to avoid settling. The suspension can then be watered onto a pre-moistened lawn. This needs to be done in the late afternoon because ENs are sensitive to the sun’s ultra-violet rays.
Upon release, the nematodes sense their target, move to it, and enter their prey through openings in its body. They then release bacteria that feed on the inside of the larva. The bacterium nurtures the nematode population, which builds up to the point where the larvae dies, rupturing to release a new generation of ENs into the soil.
Chemical control
Read garden chemical product labels carefully prior to purchase. Make sure the product is registered for use on home lawns for lawn beetle. There are three stages of the lawn beetles’ lifecycle for which a chemical may be registered. Use the chemical on the correct part of the lifecycle, strictly following the directions on the label.
Chemical control measures are most effective on newly hatched larvae. The presence of adult beetles is a cue to check the soil for early stages of the lifecycle, which are vulnerable to imidacloprid (Confidor) and thiamethoxam (Meridan) applications.
The organophosphate, chlorpyrifos (various lawn beetle and lawn grub formulations), is registered for the control of lawn beetle larvae and adults. In practice, the chemical is only effective on larvae if it infiltrates the soil and reaches the insect. It does not work well on larvae with high body fat. In addition, chlorpyrifos is highly toxic to the user and needs to be handled with caution.
Prior to treatment, water the lawn well to bring the larvae closer to the surface. Penetration of chemical will also be enhanced by mowing, then raking out thatch, before treatment.
The adult beetle is easier to control. Other chemicals registered for the control of adults have the active ingredients beta-cyfluthrin, bifenthrin, cyfluthrin (Baythroid) and diazinon (Pennside). Synthetic pyrethroids (such as bifenthrin and cyfluthrin forms) are safer to handle than organophosphates such as diazinon and chlorpyrifos. Pennside has been micro-encapsuled, reducing its toxicity to users.

Call 1300 882 787
Servicing the Blue Mountains
and Western Sydney
ACN 127 048 015
www.propertymaintenance.net.au

- Posted by Zeal Property Maintenance P/L from iPad.

Coicheli Michelia

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Fri, 08 Oct 2010 22:06:00 +0000

Michelia figo
(Port wine Magnolia)
HEIGHT 3M AFTER 10 YEARS
WIDTH 2M AFTER 10 YEARS
FULL SUN
SEMI SHADE
FRAGRANT FLOWERS
CONTAINER PLANT

DESCRIPTION – An attractive evergreen shrub with glossy green leaves that slowly grows to its maximum height. It is an old favourite for many people because of it highly scented yellow-purple flowers that are produced during Spring, early Summer and Autumn.
CULTURAL - Michelias, a relative of the Magnolia, prefer a moist, fertile and well drained soil that is slightly acidic so when planting it helps if the position has been prepared that way. A warm, sunny aspect is best, though they do tolerate partial shade. We advise an annual application of good quality fertilizer in Spring, and mulching and watering during the drier months especially when the plant is establishing itself.
LANDSCAPE USE – Most famous for its small flowers-their strong sweet scent will drift about in the air so it is a great one for planting around entertaining areas or close to the home.

- Posted by Zeal Property Maintenance P/L from iPad.

Greenlife*

noreply@blogger.com (The Zeal Group) — Wed, 29 Sep 2010 07:37:00 +0000

Hi people, you really should check this product out.

- Posted by Zeal Property Maintenance P/L from iPad.

Gardening Cherrybrook

Tree Removal Dead Peppercorn Tree

Sandstone pathways

Sandstone pathways

Lilac care

Untitled

Dogwood bush

Pruning Roses

For example:Is your rose once-flowering or remontant (repeat flowering)? What is its normal growth habit - climber, tall, medium or short bush? Do you get frosts in your area? This is very important for the timing of pruning.

Top dressing for your lawn at the beginning of the growing season

Why Topdress?

Tools

Preparation

Doing the Job

Pruning citrus trees sydney

Backyard Renovation

Cuttings

Eucalypts

Introduction

Evolution and distribution

Identifying eucalypts

Inspection of specimens

Habit

Bark

Leaves

Inflorescences, buds and flowers

Fruit

Seed

Pith

A brief history of Eucalyptus, Angophora and Corymbia

Clivia

Potash

squiggly_lines_on_leaves_leaf_miner

Annuals

Examples of how to plant out properly

Insect large

Planting Bulbs

Fire wood hard wood free delivery

Composting

lace Mites

Curl grub

Coicheli Michelia

Greenlife*

For example:
Is your rose once-flowering or remontant (repeat flowering)?

What is its normal growth habit - climber, tall, medium or short bush?

Do you get frosts in your area? This is very important for the timing of pruning.