tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7514037335395880572024-12-18T19:28:26.351-08:00erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.comBlogger85125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-16343209732836924122011-05-27T21:36:00.001-07:002011-05-27T21:36:30.751-07:00Share<br /> <br /> Peristiwa yang langka terjadi di dunia, dimana para orang kaya sejagat terutama dari para raja dunia maya seperti Facebook, Google, Twitter, Yahoo, Apple Dan beberapa lainnya (Hanya dari Microsoft) yang tidak hadir entah kenapa. Mereka semua berkumpul dalam jamuan makan malam bersama Presiden Amerika Serikat Barrack Obama. Bila dijumlah jumlahkan maka kekayaan para tamu yang hadir itu bisa mencapai angka yang spektakuler yaitu hingga 1 Triliun Dollar Amerika.<br /> <br /> <br /> Saat Orang-Orang Terkaya Berkumpul Dalam Acara Makan: Siapakah Yang Akan Membayar Tagihannya? Dari kiri ke kanan (searah jarum jam) Eric Schmidt, Arthur D Levinson, T John Chambers, John Doerr, Larry Ellison, Reed Hastings, John L Hennessy, Carol Bartz, Dick Costolo, Mark Zuckerberg, Barack Obama, Steve Jobs<br /> <br /> Mereka yang terbilang masuk dalam para juragan dari Silicone Valley ini berkumpul di markas John Doerr kapitalis lembah silikon yang terkenal dengan jagoan para master IT tersebut. Mereka bersama Obama makan malam selama 2 jam mungkin saja pendekatan sang presiden yang tahun depan nyalon lagi ini, betapa tidak yang berkumpul ini adalah penguasa jagat maya yang sangat berpengaruh di dunia.<br /> <br /> Apa menu favorit di jamuan makan malam tersebut, Chef Yigit Pura menuturkan Pie Pisang Krim, sang Presiden pun terlihat begitu menikmatinya. Seperti dikutip ruanghati.com dari Mail Online dalam dinner tersebut ada yang agak beda, yaitu penampilan bos Facebook, Mark Zuckerberg yang biasanya casual malam itu tampil secara formal alias necis.<br /> <br /> Siapa yang mau bergabung di makan malam selanjutnya, mesti jadi kaya dan berpengaruh dulu syaratnya<br /> <br /> Berikut detil tamu undangan yang hadir:<br /> <br /> Eric Schmidt<br /> Pemilik Google<br /> Kekayaan US$7 Miliar<br /> Penilaian pasar Google US$171,8 Miliar<br /> Dalam masa sepuluh tahun, Schmidt membuat Google bertransformasi menjadi raksasa internet global yang seperti sekarang ini. Ia mengundurkan diri sebagai CEO bulan lalu dan kini menjadi anggota Presiden Dewan Penasehat Ilmu Pengetahuan dan Teknologi.<br /> <br /> Arthur D Levinson<br /> Pemimpin Genentech<br /> Kekayaan US$850.000 pada tahun 2010<br /> Penilaian pasar Genentech US$46.8<br /> Didirikan pada tahun 1976, Genentech (sekarang dimiliki oleh Roche) memelopori menggunakan informasi genetik manusia untuk mengembangkan obat-obatan, termasuk pengobatan kanker. Levinson mengundurkan diri sebagai CEO di tahun 2009, dan sekarang duduk di dewan direksi Apple.<br /> <br /> T John Chambers<br /> CEO, Cisco Systems<br /> Senilai US$1 miliar<br /> Penilaian pasar Cisco US$96 miliar<br /> <br /> John Doerr<br /> Mitra, Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers<br /> Kekayaan US$2,2 miliar<br /> Tuan rumah pada saat itu, Doerr adalah investor teknologi. Kembali di tahun 1999, KPCB memimpin investasi US$25 juta. KPCB telah berpartisipasi dalam lebih dari US$2,3 miliar investasi sejak Mei 2010.<br /> <br /> Larry Ellison<br /> CEO, Oracle<br /> Kekayaan US$39,5 miliar<br /> Penilaian pasar Oracle US$177,6 miliar<br /> Orang terkaya kelima di dunia saat ini, Ellison mendirikan Oracle pada tahun 1977.<br /> <br /> Reed Hastings<br /> Co-founder dan CEO, Netflix<br /> Kekayaan US$5.5 juta pada tahun 2010<br /> Penilaian pasar Netflix US$12 miliar<br /> Pada tahun 1997 bersama Hastings-mendirikan Netflix, layanan berlangganan online untuk film dan TV yang kini memiliki lebih dari 20 juta anggota di Amerika Utara. Dia pernah mengajar matematika di Swaziland selama bertugas dua tahun di AS Peace Corps.<br /> <br /> John L Hennessy<br /> Presiden, Universitas Stanford<br /> Kekayaan US$31,4 juta<br /> Stanford US$15,9 miliar<br /> Terletak di jantung Silicon Valley, Stanford memiliki asosiasi lama dengan perusahaan teknologi di daerah itu, banyak dari para pendiri (termasuk Google, Cisco Systems, Hewlett-Packard dan Yahoo!) lulus melalui universitas tersebut.<br /> <br /> Carol Bartz<br /> CEO, Yahoo!<br /> Kekayaan US$47,2 juta pada 2009<br /> Penilaian pasar Yahoo! US$ 23,7 miliar<br /> Bartz, yang bergabung dengan Yahoo pada tahun 2009, memegang kehormatan dalam puncak daftar dari 2.010 eksekutif dengan bayaran tertinggi untuk menjalankan perusahaan berkinerja buruk. Meskipun Yahoo! tetap merek internet global, namun masih dianggap dalam kemunduran.<br /> <br /> Dick Costolo<br /> CEO, Twitter<br /> Kekayaan US$120 juta<br /> Penilaian pasar Twitter US$3,7 miliar<br /> Costolo menjual FeedBurner (penyedia alat manajemen untuk pemilik situs web) untuk Google pada tahun 2007 yang diisukan senilai US$100 juta. Tahun lalu ia mengambil alih sebagai CEO Twitter.<br /> <br /> Mark Zuckerberg<br /> CEO, Facebook<br /> Worth US$135 miliar<br /> Penilaian pasar Facebook US$50 miliar<br /> Zuckerberg 'berusaha' untuk membuat dunia menjadi tempat yang lebih terbuka dengan membantu orang terhubung dan berbagi', sesuai dengan profil Facebook-nya sendiri. Untungnya untuk dia, dia menjadi kaya raya dalam proses tersebut.<br /> <br /> Steve Westly<br /> Pengelola dan pendiri, Grup Westly<br /> Senilai US$500 juta<br /> Seorang pendukung Partai Demokrat, kapitalis ventura Westly menjabat sebagai kursi co California untuk tahun 2008 dalam kampanye pemilihan presiden Obama. Grup Westly telah berpartisipasi dalam lebih dari US$ 178 miliar investasi sejak April 2010.<br /> <br /> Barack Obama<br /> Presiden, Amerika Serikat<br /> Kekayaan US$10.5 juta<br /> Produk Domestik Bruto (PDB) USA US$14,7 Triliun<br /> Obama terkenal karena cintanya terhadap teknologi, dia merangkul media sosial dalam kampanye pemilihan, dan dikabarkan dihadiahi iPad, dua bulan sebelum mereka mulai dijual. ajudan Nya Valerie Jarrett juga menghadiri makan malam (duduk di sebelah kanan Zuckerberg).<br /> <br /> Ann Doerr<br /> Nyonya rumah, sebagai istri dari John Doerr, dan tidak asing dengan teknologi, memegang sarjana dan gelar master dalam rekayasa elektronika. Seorang aktivis lingkungan, ia bekerja bersama suaminya dalam upaya filantropi-nya.<br /> <br /> Steve Jobs<br /> Co-founder dan CEO, Apple<br /> Kekayaan US$ 8,3 miliar<br /> Penilaian pasar Apple US$ 323,3 miliar<br /> Jobs telah mengubah industri teknologi beberapa kali. Setelah merintis tahun pertama di Apple, dia meninggalkan perusahaan untuk mendirikan NeXT (yang menciptakan mesin di mana web ini dikembangkan), sebelum kembali ke ujung tombak 'iRevolution'.erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-31562902438608756452011-05-12T07:06:00.001-07:002011-05-13T13:38:39.818-07:002 Mantan Presiden indonesia yang Dilupakan Sejarah Dunia<br /> 1. syarifudin prawiranegara<br /> <br /> <br /> Dalam sejarahnya, Negara Indonesia pernah mengalami pergantian sistem pemerintahan. Dari kesatuan berubah menjadi serikat dan berubah kembali menjadi kesatuan hingga kini.Demikian juga dengan pemimpinnya atau presidennya. Selama 63 tahun berdiri sebagai Negara, telah terjadi berkali-kali pergantian pemimpin di Indonesia. Mulai dari ir. Soekarno hingga Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono sekarang.<br /> <br /> Sebagai penjabat presiden,umumnya orang Indonesia hanya mengenal Soekarno, Soeharto, BJ Habibie, Abdurahman Wahid, Megawati Soekarno Putrie dan Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. Padahal masih ada dua lagi presiden Indonesia dan jarang sekali disebut. Yakni Syafrudin Prawiranegara dan Mr. Asaat.<br /> Dua orang ini pernah menjabat sementara ketika eranya Soekarno. Syafrudin Prawiranegara menjabat Presiden/ketua PDRI (Pemerintahan DaruratRepublik Indonesia) ketikaSoekarno dan M. Hatta ditawan Belanda dan ketika ibukota Yogyakarta jatuh ke tangan Belanda. Agar pemerintahan tetap eksis dan berjalan, akhirnya dibentuklah PDRI dengan Syafrudin Prawiranegara sebagai penjabat presiden.Syafrudin menjabat Presiden Indonesia Darurat sejak 19 Desember 1948<br /> <br /> Mr. Syafruddin Prawiranegara, atau juga ditulis Sjafruddin Prawiranegara (lahir di Serang, Banten, 28 Februari 1911 – meninggal di Jakarta, 15 Februari 1989 pada umur 77 tahun) adalah pejuang pada masa kemerdekaan Republik Indonesia yang juga pernah menjabat sebagai Presiden/Ketua PDRI (Pemerintah Darurat Republik Indonesia) ketika pemerintahan Republik Indonesia di Yogyakarta jatuh ke tangan Belanda saat Agresi Militer Belanda II pada tanggal 19 Desember 1948.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 2. Mr.assaat<br /> <br /> Siapa Mr. Assaat ?<br /> <br /> Lahir di sebuah kampung bernama Kubang Putih Banuhampu, pada tanggal 18 September 1904. Memasuki sekolah agama "Adabiah" dan MULO Padang, selanjutnya ke STOVIA Jakarta. Karena jiwanya tidak terpanggil menjadi seorang dokter, ditinggalkannya STOVIA dan melanjutkan ke AMS (SMU sekarang). Dari AMS Assaat melajutkan studinya ke Rechts Hoge School (Sekolah Hakim Tinggi) juga di Jakarta.<br /> Ketika menjadi studen RHS inilah, beliau memulai berkecimpung dalam gerakan kebangsaan, ialah gerakan pemuda dan politik. Masa saat itu Assaat giat dalam organisasi pemuda "Jong Sumatranen Bond". Karir politiknya makin menanjak lalu berhasil menduduki kursi anggota Pengurus Besar dari "Perhimpunan Pemuda Indonesia". Ketika Perhimpunan Pemuda Indonesia mempersatukan diri dalam "Indonesia Muda", ia terpilih mejadi Bendahara Komisaris Besar " Indonesia Muda".<br /> Dalam kedudukannya menjadi studen (mahasiswa), Assaat memasuki pula gerakan politik "Partai Indonesia" disingkat Partindo. Dalam partai ini, Assaat bergabung dengan pemimpin Partindo seperti : Adnan Kapau Gani, Adam Malik, Amir Syarifuddin dan lain-lainnya.<br /> Kegiatannya di bidang politik pergerakan kebangsaan, akhirnya tercium oleh profesornya dan pihak Belanda, sehingga dia tidak diluluskan walaupun setelah beberapa kali mengikuti ujian akhir. Tersinggung atas perlakuan demikian, gelora pemudanya makin bergejolak, dia putuskan meninggalkan Indonesia pergi ke negeri Belanda. Di Nederland dia memperoleh gelar "Meester in de rechten" (Sarjana Hukum).<br /> Sekitar tahun 1946-1949, di Jalan Malioboro Yogyakarta sering terlihat seorang berbadan kurus semampai berpakaian sederhana sesuai dengan irama revolusi.<br /> Terkadang ia berjalan kaki, kalau tidak bersepeda menelusuri Malioboro menuju ke kantor KNIP tempatnya bertugas. Orang ini tidak lain adalah Mr. Assaat, yang selalu menunjukkan sikap sederhana berwajah cerah dibalik kulitnya kehitam-hitaman. Walaupun usianya saat itu baru 40 tahun, terlihat rambutnya mulai memutih. Kepalanya tidak pernah lepas dari peci beludru hitam.<br /> Mungkin generasi sekarang yang berumur 30 sampai 35 tahun, kurang atau sedikit sekali mengenal perjuangan Mr. Assaat sebagai salah seorang patriot demokrat yang tidak kecil andilnya bagi menegakkan serta mempertahankan Republik Indonesia.<br /> Assaat adalah seorang yang setia memikul tanggung jawab, baik selama revolusi berlangsung hingga pada tahap akhir penyelesaian revolusi. Pada masa-masa kritis itu, Assaat tetap memperlihatkan dedikasi yang luar biasa.<br /> Ia tetap berdiri pada posnya di KNIP, tanpa mengenal pamrih dan patah semangat. Sejak ia terpilih menjadi ketua KNIP, jabatan ini tidak pernah terlepas dari tangannya. Sampai kepadanya diserahkan tugas sebagai Acting (Pejabat) Presiden RI di kota perjuangan di Yogyakarta.<br /> Sebagai ilustrasi dapat dikemukakan, Komite Nasional Indonesia Pusat (KNIP) dan Badan Pekerjanya selama revolusi sedang berkobar telah dua kali mengadakah hijrah.<br /> Pertama di Jakarta, dengan tempat bersidang di bekas Gedung Komidi di Pasat baru dan di gedung Palang Merah Indonesia di Kramat. Karena perjuangan bertambah hangat, demi kelanjutan Revolusi Indonesia, sekitar tahun 1945 dipindahkan ke Yogyakarta.<br /> Kemudian pada tahun itu juga KNIP dan Badan Pekerja, pindah ke Purwokerto, Jawa Tengah. Ketika situasi Purwokerto dianggap "kurang aman" untuk kedua kalinya KNIP hijrah ke Yogyakarta. Pada saat inilah Mr. Assaat sebagai anggota sekretariatnya. Tidak lama berselang dia ditunjuk menjadi ketua KNIP beserta Badan Pekerjanyaerdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-78173155064527162552011-05-12T06:51:00.000-07:002011-05-13T13:38:39.693-07:00KOPI BISA AMANKAN CEWEK DARI KANKER PAYUDARA<br /> <br /> - Berbagai senyawa yang terkandung dalam kopi diketahui bersifat antioksidan sehingga diyakini bisa mengurangi risiko kanker. Termasuk pada perempuan, konsumsi 5 cangkir kopi sehari terbukti bisa mengurangi risiko kanker payudara hingga 57 persen.<br /> <br /> Manfaat minum kopi untuk kesehatan payudara diungkap oleh dr Per Hal, seorang profesor kedokteran dari Karolinka Institute di Swedia. dalam penelitiannya, dr Hal melibatkan sekitar 5.929 perempuan Swedia dengan rentang usia 50 hingga 70 tahun.<br /> <br /> Hasil pengamatan selama beberapa tahun menunjukkan, 50 persen partisipan terkena kanker payudara. Ketika dibandingkan dengan gaya hidup dan faktor lainnya, dr Hal menemukan hubungan antara kebiasaan minum kopi dengan risiko kanker payudara.<br /> <br /> Partisipan yang minum 5 cangkir kopi tiap hari memiliki risiko kanker 33-57 persen lebih rendah dibandingkan partisipan yang minum kopi kurang dari 1 cangkir sehari. Jenis kanker payudara yang dipengaruhi oleh kebiasaan minum kopi adalah tipe Esterogen-Resistant (ER) Negative.<br /> <br /> Beberapa penelitian sebelumnya juga membuktikan bahwa kopi bisa mengurangi risiko kanker, namun belum diketahui pasti senyawa apa yang berperan. dugaan semula, senyawa tersebut adalah fitoesterogen namun ternyata tidak berpengaruh pada kanker payudara ER Positive.<br /> <br /> "Saya sendiri tidak akan serta merta menyarankan untuk lebih banyak minum kopi sebelum tahu persis mekanisme biologis yang bisa menjelaskan hubungan ini," ungkap dr Hal dalam laporannya di jurnal Breast Cancer seperti dikutip dari HealthDay,<br /> Sikap hati-hati yang ditunjukkan dr Hal cukup beralasan, sebab penelitian lain yang juga dilakukan di Swedia mengungkap bahwa kopi juga bisa memberikan dampak negatif bagi payudara. Konon ukuran payudara bisa mengecil jika minum lebih dari 3 cangkir kopi tiap hari.<br /> <br /> Seperti yang disampaikan dr Hal, sebelum ada yang menjelaskan mekanismenya sebaiknya kopi memang tidak dikonsumsi berlebihan hanya karena ingin bebas dari risiko kanker payudara. Kalaupun benar bisa memperkecil ukuran payudara, yang penting tidak terlalu banyakerdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-25457553257028041302011-05-12T06:50:00.000-07:002011-05-13T13:38:39.558-07:00Manusia Yang Memiliki Ekor Sepanjang 33 CM<br /> <br /> Tak ada yang aneh dari sosok Chandre Oram. Hanya, pria asal Alipurduar, Bengal Barat, India, ini memiliki daging tumbuh bertulang lunak sepanjang 33 sentimeter yang menyembul dari tulang ekornya.<br /> <br /> Di tengah tradisi Hindu yang masih kental, masyarakat setempat meyakini Oram sebagai reinkarnasi Hanoman atau titisan Dewa Monyet. "Banyak orang sembuh dari penyakit parah ketika mereka menyentuh ekor saya," ujarnya seperti dikutip dari Daily Time.<br /> <br /> Sejak tahun lalu, Oram sudah menarik perhatian masyarakat India juga mancanegara. Ia menjadi pusat perhatian setelah ribuan orang rela mengantre demi mendapat keberuntungan setelah menyentuh ekornya.<br /> Popularitas itu tak sepenuhnya membuat Oram merasa beruntung. Gara-gara ekornya, ia pernah ditolak sedikitnya 20 wanita pujaannya. "Banyak yang membatalkan menikah dan pergi setelah melihat ekor saya," ujarnya. "Saya harus menemukan wanita yang bisa menerima saya dan ekor saya."<br /> <br /> Terlepas dari kepercayaan masyarakat setempat, ahli bedah terkemuka di India, Dr B Ramana, mendiagnosis Oram mengalami cacat bawaan yang membuat tulang ekornya menonjol. Meski kondisinya langka, dokter sepenuhnya yakin Oram bukan dewa atau tuhan.<br /> <br /> Dunia medis menyebut kelainan bawaan itu sebagai spina bifida. Ditutupi banyak rambut, tulang yang menjulur itu diperkirakan terjadi akibat mutasi gen yang memicu perpanjangan tulang ekor.<br /> <br /> Sejumlah dokter telah menawarinya operasi untuk menghilangkan ekor itu. Tapi, Oram dan keluarganya menolak. "Dia tak akan bisa hidup tanpa ekornya. Ekor itu sudah menjadi bagian dari hidupnya, identitas dirinya," ujar Rekha, sang kakak.<br /> <br /> Kasus serupa terjadi di Kota Lixing, China, tahun lalu. Seorang bayi perempuan bernama Hong Hong juga lahir dengan ekor. Berdasarkan pengamatan sinar X, ekor itu ternyatata menyambung dengan tumor jaringan lemak tulang belakang. Namun, atas persetujuan keluarga, dokter telah mengangkat ekor itu.<br /> <br /> Jika Oram dan Hong Hong memiliki ekor, Huang Yuanfan, 84, dan Zhang Ruifang, 101, memiliki tanduk di kepala. Tanduk Yuanfan tumbuh hingga tujuh sentimeter di kepala bagian belakang. Sementara tandung Ruifang tumbuh sepanjang enam sentimeter di dahinya.<br /> <br /> Mengenai tanduk yang tumbuh di kepala dua lansia itu, dokter memperkirakan itu berasal dari keratin, substansi yang sama seperti kuku.erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-34365384859724453692011-05-12T06:49:00.001-07:002011-05-13T13:38:39.649-07:00Kisah Pendaki Gunung Amputasi Tangan Sendiri untuk tetap HIDUP<br /> <br /> Aron Ralston, seperti biasa melakukan pendakian rutinnya di hari Sabtu seorang diri. Ia berencana untuk menghabiskan hari dengan mengendarai sepeda gunung dan mendaki batu-batu merah dan pasir di luar Taman Nasional Canyonlands di Utah tenggara. Ralston berasal dari Aspen, Colorado, adalah sarjana teknik dan musik yang pernah bekerja selama lima tahun di Intel,<br /> Aron Ralston sendiri telah mendaki tempat itu berkali-kali dan kali ini dia melakukannya sebagai pemanasan untuk sebuah pendakian gunung tertinggi di Amerika Utara. Mengenakan T-shirt dan celana pendek dan membawa ransel ia berencana untuk melakukan ‘Canyoneering’ jauh ke ngarai Blue john Canyon. Ranselnya berisi dua burrito (makanan khas Meksiko), satu liter air, alat multi fungsi tapi imitasi bermerek Leatherman, alat P3K, kamera video, kamera digital dan peralatan panjat tebing.<br /> Aron Ralston tidak membawa jaket. Canyoneering adalah melakukan perjalanan ke ngarai dengan menggunakan berbagai skill : berjalan, mendaki, memanjat tebing dengan menggunakan berbagai peralatan. Canyoneering yang dilakukan Ralston adalah melewati lembah yang bercelah sempit.<br /> Aron Ralston berada 150 meter di atas puncak dinding vertikal Blue john Canyon. Dia melakukan manuvernya untuk mencapai bagian atas sebuah batu besar yang terselip di antara dinding ngarai sempit. Dia mulai memanjat permukaan batu dan rasanya sangat stabil ketika ia berdiri di atas. Ketika ia mulai turun di sisi yang berlawanan, batu seberat 800-pound (kurang lebih dua setengah ton) itu tiba-tiba bergeser, menjepit lengan kanannya – ia terjebak.<br /> EKSTRIM!! Aron Ralston, Kisah Pendaki Gunung Amputasi Tangan Sendiri untuk tetap HIDUP [FOTO + VIDEO]<br /> Saat terjebak dengan tangan yang terhimpit batu, dia memiliki beberapa pilihan : antara menunggu seseorang yang muncul untuk menyelamatkannya, membebaskan dirinya sendiri, atau kalau semua cara gagal dia akan memutuskan lengannya. Kematian adalah kemungkinan yang terakhir tapi Ralston tidak ingin mempertimbangkannya.<br /> Aron Ralston mencoba tali, jangkar dan alat yang ada untuk memindahkan batu, hasilnya batunya tidak bergerak sedikitpun. Berjam-jam jam dia berjuang untuk membebaskan dirinya dari batu tanpa hasil yang posisif. Di malam hari temperaturnya turun, Aron Ralston masih bekerja untuk membebaskan dirinya sendiri. Minggu dan Senin berlalu, tapi ia masih terjebak. Sinar matahari sampai di lantai ngarai sempit hanya untuk waktu yang sangat singkat waktu setiap hari. Dia kehabisan makanan dan air pada hari Selasa.<br /> EKSTRIM!! Aron Ralston, Kisah Pendaki Gunung Amputasi Tangan Sendiri untuk tetap HIDUP [FOTO + VIDEO]<br /> Pada hari Rabu, Aron Ralston mulai menghirup air seni yang telah ia simpan di hari sebelumnya. Dia mengeluarkan video kamera dan merekam pesan terakhir berisi selamat tinggal kepada orang tuanya. Dia lalu mengukir namanya, tanggal lahir, dan apa yang dia yakin adalah hari terakhirnya di bumi ke dinding ngarai. Di atasnya dia mengukir RIP. Pada Kamis pagi, Ralston melihat suatu visi (penampakan?) yaitu seorang anak 3 tahun berlari lalu dibawa oleh seorang pria yang hanya memiliki sebuah lengan.<br /> Dia mengerti visi itu bahwa anak itu akan menjadi anak di masa depannya dan dia memutuskan untuk melakukan tindakan yang segera agar hidupnya bisa bertahan. Jika ia tidak menyelamatkan dirinya sekarang, dia tidak akan memiliki kekuatan fisik yang tersisa untuk melakukannya nanti. Akhirnya dia mengambil keputusan yang dramatis : memotong tangannya sendiri!<br /> EKSTRIM!! Aron Ralston, Kisah Pendaki Gunung Amputasi Tangan Sendiri untuk tetap HIDUP [FOTO + VIDEO]<br /> Aron Ralston siap untuk mengamputasi lengan kanan di bawah siku dengan menggunakan pisau multi fungsinya. Menyadari bahwa pisau itu tidak cukup tajam untuk memotong tulang lengan ia menekan tangannya melawan batu dan mematahkan tulangnya sehingga dia akan bisa memotong tangannya melalui jaringan. Pertama ia mematahkan tulang radius, yang menghubungkan siku dengan jempol.<br /> Dalam beberapa menit ia memecahkan ulna, tulang di bagian luar lengan bawah. Selanjutnya ia menerapkan tourniquet yaitu membebat atau mengikat erat lengannya. Dia menggunakan pisau untuk mengamputasi lengan kanan di bawah siku. Seluruh prosedur dibutuhkan kurang lebih satu jam.<br /> Aron Ralston memberikan pertolongan pertama untuk dirinya sendiri dari kit kecil di ransel. Ia menancapkan jangkar dengan tali di tempat itu. Ia kemudian mendaki 5 mil ke hilir Horseshoe Canyon yang berdekatan, di mana ia bertemu dengan keluarga wisatawan dari Belanda yang sedang berlibur.<br /> Pasangan Belanda Eric dan Monique Meijer dan putra mereka, Andy, mulai keluar dari ngarai ketika mendengar suara di belakang “Tolong, saya butuh bantuan”. Pasangan itu segera menyadari bahwa dia pasti seorang pendaki yang hilang seperti keterangan dari petugas sehari sebelumnya..<br /> Aron Ralston berjalan cepat menuju pasangan ini dengan lengannya yang digantung di sling buatan sendiri dan ia berbicara dengan jelas: “Halo, nama saya Aron Ralston, saya jatuh dari tebing pada hari Sabtu dan saya terjebak di bawah batu besar. Saya memotong tangan saya empat. jam yang lalu dan saya memerlukan pertolongan medis. Saya butuh helikopter “.<br /> EKSTRIM!! Aron Ralston, Kisah Pendaki Gunung Amputasi Tangan Sendiri untuk tetap HIDUP [FOTO + VIDEO]<br /> Istri dan anak Eric mencoba untuk keluar lebih dulu dari ngarai secepat mungkin untuk mendapatkan bantuan. Eric bersama dengan Aron Ralston untuk memberikan dia makanan, air dan dukungan mental. Meskipun kehilangan darah, Aron Ralston tetap mampu berjalan tapi pasir di dalam sepatunya mulai mengganggu dia. Dia berhenti sejenak di tempat yang teduh untuk menghilangkkan pasir dalam sepatunya lalu melanjutkan perjalannnya lagi. Tiba-tiba awak pesawat melihat dua orang di Horseshoe Canyon melambai.<br /> Ini adalah istrinya Eric dan anaknya dan mereka memberikan sinyal ke arah helikopter dan menunjuk ke arah korban. Awak pesawat merespon dengan cepat dan mendarat di tempat yang luas di lembah dekat Aron Ralston. Kru pesawat terkejut saat melihat – lapisan darah kering dan segar tubuhnya – dan lengan yang hilang.<br /> EKSTRIM!! Aron Ralston, Kisah Pendaki Gunung Amputasi Tangan Sendiri untuk tetap HIDUP [FOTO + VIDEO]<br /> Aron Ralston menyandarkan kepalanya kembali helikopter dan menghirup air. Vetere mengajaknya ngobrol, sehingga dia tidak akan kehilangan kesadaran. Dua belas menit kemudian, helikopter tiba di Allen Memorial Hospital di Moab, Utah. Ralston masuk ke ruang gawat darurat tanpa bantuan, kemudian menunjuk pada peta di mana dia telah terjebak.<br /> Para penyelamat heran Aron Ralston tetap hidup. Sebuah helikopter kemungkinan besar tidak akan menemukannya karena posisinya di celah lembah yang dalam dan sempit. Aron Ralston memiliki semangat luar biasa untuk hidup, dia tidak pernah menyerah dan akhirnya dia selamat. Kisah Aron Ralston sendiri sudah diangkat ke layar lebar dengan judul “127 Hours” dengan pemerannya James Franco.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> sumber :http://unik13.info/2011/01/ekstrim-aron-ralston-kisah-pendaki-gunung-amputasi-tangan-sendiri-untuk-tetap-hidup-foto-video/erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-25268822410028203652011-05-12T06:46:00.000-07:002011-05-13T13:38:39.607-07:007 Cara Mengutarakan Cinta<br /> <br /> Kebanyakan pria maupun wanita bingung menunjukkan rasa cinta terhadap pasangannya. Sebenarnya, rasa cinta tidak selalu harus ditunjukkan dengan kata-kata, mengirim bunga atau kartu ucapan romantis.<br /> <br /> <br /> https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2QzAKKvKUqeNL8wKeiKjF674hj3yFqwV7kSSJokSE4f8JZ5yY_1Iq2FzOuywlCQDK-axicc0SaVrkp56qwmDLW-RAyA0W1S0-Qq7NFG5CVT7Gi1yorm9P6jGoNOImx7FAv6aY9lLRvGI/s320/pacarbaik.jpg<br /> <br /> Beberapa tindakan sederhana pun mampu menunjukkan bahwa si dia spesial di mata Anda. Berikut beberapa tindakan sederhana yang patut Anda lakukan, seperti dikutip dari Lifestyle MSN:<br /> <br /> <br /> 1. Membuatkan Makanan<br /> <br /> Cari tahu apa makanan kesukaannya dan luangkan waktu untuk memasak nya, walaupun tidak terlalu mewah. Misalnya dengan memasak telur dadar untuk sarapan atau sup disertai roti. Hal tersebut akan membuat pasangan semakin jatuh cinta walaupun hasil masakan Anda tidak terlalu sempurna.<br /> <br /> 2. Memberikan Pujian<br /> <br /> Pujian merupakan pernyataan yang tulus akan kebaikan atau keunggulan yang dimiliki seseorang. Tentunya setiap orang senang dipuji. Apalagi jika pujian tersebut datang dari pasangannya. Pastikan untuk memberikan pujian sesuai dengan kata hati Anda, jangan berbohong! Si dia akan lebih menghargai apa yang dikatakkan secara jujur.<br /> <br /> 3. Hargailah Pasangan Anda<br /> <br /> Hargailah segala sesuatu yang telah dilakukan pasangan Anda. Contohnya dengan mengucapkan "terima kasih" atas apa yang telah dia lakukan atau bisa juga dengan mengucapkan "kamu telah membuatku nyaman ". Kalimat seperti itu telah memberitahukan bahwa usaha yang ia lakukan berhasil.<br /> <br /> 4. Berilah Kejutan<br /> <br /> Berilah kejutan yang tidak mudah dilupakan, misalnya dengan membuat pesta ulang tahun kejutan yang dihadiri keluarga dan teman dekatnya. Anda juga bisa memberi si dia kejutan dengan tiba-tiba menyiapkan makan malam romantis. Usahakan kejutan itu berkesan sehingga akan selalu dikenangnya.<br /> <br /> 5. Jujurlah pada Pasangan<br /> <br /> Jika Anda tidak ingin dibohongi pasangan, maka Anda juga harus bersikap jujur terhadapnya. Jika tidak mempunyai keberanian untuk membicarakannya, Anda dapat membuat daftar di kertas mengenai kekurangan Anda yang sebenarnya, dan kesalahan apa saja yang telah Anda lakukan. Apa yang Anda buat itu dapat menginspirasi si dia untuk melakukan hal yang sama sehingga tidak ada lagi yang disembunyikan antara satu sama lain.<br /> <br /> 6. Ungkapkan Perasaan Anda Secara Langsung<br /> <br /> Ungkapkanlah perasaan Anda secara langsung di hadapannya, jangan melalui perantara seperti telepon, email, SMS, Facebook, Twitter atau BBM. Si dia akan lebih menghargai jika Anda berbicara langsung dan lebih menyadari betapa seriusnya Anda dengannya.<br /> <br /> 7. Terserah Anda saja heheheeee [source]erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-74000613197284063692011-05-08T07:49:00.000-07:002011-05-08T07:49:26.417-07:00Minggu, 13 Maret 2011<br /> Lambang Gerakan Pramuka<br /> Lambang Gerakan Pramuka<br /> <br /> Lambang gerakan pramuka adalah tanda pengenal tetap yang mengkiaskan cita-cita setiap anggota Gerakan Pramuka.<br /> Lambang tersebut diciptakan oleh Bapak Soehardjo Admodipura, seorang pembina Pramuka yang aktif bekerja di lingkungan Departemen Pertanian dan kemudian digunakan sejak 16 Agustus 1961. Lambang ini ditetapkan dengan Surat Keputusan Kwartir Nasional Gerakan Pramuka No. 06/KN/72 tahun 1972.<br /> <br /> Bentuk dan Arti Kiasan<br /> Bentuk lambang gerakan pramuka itu adalah Silhouette tunas kelapa. Arti kiasan lambang gerakan pramuka :<br /> 1.Buah nyiur dalam keadaan tumbuh dinamakan cikal, dan istilah cikal bakal di Indonesia berarti penduduk asli yang pertama, yang menurunkan generasi baru. Jadi lambang buah nyiur yang tumbuh itu mengkiaskan bahwa tiap anggota pramuka merupakan inti bagi kelangsungan hidup bangsa Indonesia.<br /> 2.Buah nyiur dapat bertahan lama dalam keadaan yang bagaimanapun juga. Jadi lambang itu mengkiaskan bahwa tiap anggota pramuka adalah seorang yang rohaniah dan jasmaniah sehat, kuat, dan ulet serta besar tekadnya dalam menghadapi segala tantangan dalam hidup dan dalam menempuh segala ujian dan kesukaran untuk mengabdi pada tanah air dan bangsa Indonesia.<br /> 3.Nyiur dapat tumbuh dimana saja, yang membuktikan besarnya daya upaya dalam menyesuaikan diri dalam mesy dimana dia berada dan dalam keadaan bagaimanapun juga.<br /> 4.Nyiur tumbuh menjulang lurus ke atas dan merupakan salah satu pohon yang tertinggi di Indonesia. Jadi lambang itu mengkiaskan bahwa tiap pramuka mempunyai cita-cita yang tinggi dan lurus, yakni yang mulia dan jujur, dan dia tetap tegak tidak mudah diombang-ambingkan oleh sesuatu.<br /> 5.Akar nyiur tumbuh kuat dan erat di dalam tanah. Jadi lambang itu mengkiaskan tekad dan keyakinan tiap pramuka yang berpegang pada dasar-dasar dan landasan-landasan yang baik, benar, kuat dan nyata ialah tekad dan keyakinan yang dipakai olehnya untuk memperkuat diri guna mencapai cita-citanya.<br /> 6.Nyiur adalah pohon yang serba guna dari ujung atas hingga akarnya. Jadi lambang itu mengkiaskan bahwa tiap pramuka adalah manusia yang berguna, dan membaktikan diri dan kegunaannya kepada kepentingan tanah air, bangsa dan negara Republik Indonesia serta kepada umat manusia.<br /> <br /> Penggunaan Lambang<br /> Lambang gerakan pramuka dapat digunakan pada panji, bendera, papan nama kwartir dan satuan, tanda pengenal administrasi gerakan pramuka. Penggunaan tersebut dimaksudkan sebagai alat pendidikan untuk mengingatkan dan meningkatkan kegiatan gerakan pramuka sesuai dengan kiasan yang ada pada lambang gerakan pramuka tersebut.erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-73082031633925743642011-05-04T04:24:00.001-07:002011-05-04T04:24:20.920-07:00Galápagos tortoise<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> Galápagos tortoise<br /> Adult Galápagos tortoise<br /> Conservation status<br /> <br /> Vulnerable (IUCN 2.3) [1]<br /> Scientific classification<br /> Kingdom: Animalia<br /> Phylum: Chordata<br /> Class: Reptilia<br /> Order: Testudines<br /> Suborder: Cryptodira<br /> Family: Testudinidae<br /> Genus: Chelonoidis<br /> Species: C. nigra<br /> Binomial name<br /> Chelonoidis nigra[2]<br /> (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824b[3])<br /> Subspecies<br /> Subspecies[1] [show]<br /> <br /> See: Subspecies of Galápagos tortoise<br /> <br /> * C. n. abingdoni (Extinct in the wild)<br /> Günther, 1877[4]<br /> * C. n. becki<br /> Rothschild, 1901[5]<br /> * C. n. chathamensis<br /> Van Denburgh, 1907[6]<br /> * C. n. darwini<br /> Van Denburgh, 1907[6]<br /> * C. n. duncanensis<br /> Garman, 1917[7]<br /> * C. n. hoodensis<br /> Van Denburgh, 1907[6]<br /> * C. n. nigra (Extinct)<br /> Quoy & Gaimard, 1824b[3]<br /> * C. n. phantastica (Extinct)<br /> Van Denburgh, 1907[6]<br /> * C. n. porteri<br /> Rothschild, 1903[8]<br /> * C. n. vicina<br /> Günther, 1875[9]<br /> <br /> Synonyms<br /> Species synonymy[10] [show]<br /> <br /> * Testudo californiana<br /> Quoy & Gaimard, 1824a[11] (nomen oblitum)<br /> * Testudo nigra<br /> Quoy & Gaimard, 1824b[3] (nomen novum)<br /> * Testudo elephantopus<br /> Harlan, 1827[12] (nomen dubium)<br /> * Testudo nigrita<br /> Duméril and Bibron, 1834[13] (nomen dubium)<br /> * Testudo planiceps<br /> Gray, 1853[14] (nomen dubium)<br /> * Testudo clivosa<br /> Garman, 1917[7] (nomen dubium)<br /> * Testudo typica<br /> Garman, 1917[7] (nomen dubium)<br /> * Testudo (Chelonoidis) elephantopus<br /> Williams, 1952[15]<br /> * Geochelone (Chelonoidis) elephantopus<br /> Pritchard, 1967[16]<br /> * Chelonoidis elephantopus<br /> Bour, 1980[17]<br /> <br /> Subspecies synonymy[2] [show]<br /> <br /> C. n. nigra (nominate subspecies)<br /> <br /> * Testudo californiana<br /> Quoy & Gaimard, 1824a[11] (nomen oblitum)<br /> * Testudo nigra<br /> Quoy & Gaimard, 1824b[3] (nomen novum)<br /> * Testudo galapagoensis<br /> Baur 1889[18]<br /> <br /> C. n. abingdoni<br /> <br /> * Testudo ephippium<br /> Günther, 1875[9] (partim, misidentified type specimen once erroneously attributed to what is now C. n. duncanensis)<br /> * Testudo abingdoni<br /> Günther, 1877[4]<br /> <br /> C. n. becki<br /> <br /> * Testudo becki<br /> Rothschild, 1901[5]<br /> <br /> C. n. chathamensis<br /> <br /> * Testudo wallacei<br /> Rothschild 1902[19] (partim, nomen dubium)<br /> * Testudo chathamensis<br /> Van Denburgh, 1907[6]<br /> <br /> C. n. darwini<br /> <br /> * Testudo wallacei<br /> Rothschild 1902[19] (partim, nomen dubium)<br /> * Testudo darwini<br /> Van Denburgh, 1907[6]<br /> <br /> C. n. duncanensis<br /> <br /> * Testudo ephippium<br /> Günther, 1875[9] (partim, misidentified type)<br /> * Geochelone nigra duncanensis<br /> Garman, 1917[7] in Pritchard, 1996[10](nomen nudum)<br /> <br /> C. n. hoodensis<br /> <br /> * Testudo hoodensis<br /> Van Denburgh, 1907[6]<br /> <br /> C. n. phantastica<br /> <br /> * Testudo phantasticus<br /> Van Denburgh, 1907[6]<br /> <br /> C. n. porteri<br /> <br /> * Testudo nigrita<br /> Duméril and Bibron, 1834[13] (nomen dubium)<br /> * Testudo porteri<br /> Rothschild, 1903[8]<br /> <br /> C. n. vicina<br /> <br /> * Testudo microphyes<br /> Günther, 1875[9]<br /> * Testudo vicina<br /> Günther, 1875[9]<br /> * Testudo güntheri<br /> Baur, 1889[18]<br /> * Testudo macrophyes<br /> Garman, 1917[7]<br /> * Testudo vandenburghi<br /> De Sola, R. 1930[20] (nomen nudum)<br /> <br /> The Galápagos tortoise or Galápagos giant tortoise (Chelonoidis nigra) is the largest living species of tortoise, reaching weights of over 400 kg (880 lb) and lengths of over 1.8 meters (6 ft). With life spans in the wild of over 100 years, it is one of the longest-lived vertebrates. A captive individual lived at least 170 years.<br /> <br /> The tortoise is native to seven of the Galápagos Islands, a volcanic archipelago about 1,000 km (620 mi) west of Ecuador. Spanish explorers who discovered the islands in the 16th century named them after the Spanish galápago, meaning tortoise.<br /> <br /> Shell size and shape vary between populations. On islands with humid highlands, the tortoises are larger, with domed shells and short necks. On islands with dry lowlands, the tortoises are smaller, with "saddleback" shells and long necks. These island-to-island differences played a role in the inception of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.<br /> <br /> Tortoise numbers declined from over 250,000 in the 16th century to a low of around 3,000 in the 1970s. The decline was caused by hunting for tortoise meat and oil, habitat clearance for agriculture, and introduction of non-native animals such as rats, goats, and pigs. Seven subspecies of the original ten survive in the wild. An eighth subspecies (C. n. abingdoni) has only a single living individual, in captivity, nicknamed Lonesome George. Conservation efforts beginning in the 20th century have resulted in thousands of captive-bred juveniles being released onto their home islands, and it is estimated that numbers exceeded 19,000 at the start of the 21st century. Despite this rebound, the species as a whole is classified as "Vulnerable" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 Taxonomy<br /> * 2 Evolutionary history<br /> o 2.1 Subspecies genetics<br /> * 3 Description<br /> o 3.1 Gigantism<br /> o 3.2 Shell shape<br /> * 4 Behaviour<br /> * 5 Darwin's development of theory of evolution<br /> * 6 Conservation<br /> o 6.1 Historical exploitation<br /> o 6.2 Modern conservation<br /> * 7 Notes and references<br /> * 8 External links<br /> <br /> [edit] Taxonomy<br /> <br /> Early classification<br /> <br /> The Galápagos Islands were discovered in 1535, but first appeared on maps, of Gerardus Mercator and Abraham Ortelius, in about 1570.[21] The islands were named "Insulae de los Galopegos" (Islands of the Tortoises) in reference to the giant tortoises found there.[22][23][nb 1]<br /> <br /> Initially, the giant tortoises of the Indian Ocean and those from the Galápagos were considered to be the same species. Naturalists thought that sailors had transported the tortoises.[24] In 1676, the pre-Linnaean authority Claude Perrault referred to both species as Tortue des Indes.[25] In 1783, Johann Gottlob Schneider classified all giant tortoises as Testudo indica ("Indian tortoise").[26] In 1812, August Friedrich Schweigger named them Testudo gigantea ("gigantic tortoise").[27] In 1834, André Marie Constant Duméril and Gabriel Bibron classified the Galápagos tortoises as a separate species, which they named Testudo nigrita ("black tortoise").[13]<br /> Black and white photograph of Walter Rothschild straddling an adult Galápagos tortoise. Rothschild is a Victorian gentleman sporting a beard and top hat.<br /> Walter Rothschild, cataloger of two Galápagos tortoise subspecies<br /> <br /> Recognition of subpopulations<br /> <br /> The first systematic survey of giant tortoises was by Albert Günther of the British Museum, in 1875.[9] Günther identified at least five distinct populations from the Galápagos, and three from the Indian Ocean islands. He expanded the list in 1877 to six from the Galápagos, four from the Seychelles, and four from the Mascarenes. Günther theorised that all the giant tortoises descended from a single ancestral population which spread by sunken land bridges.[28] This theory was later disproven by the understanding that the Galápagos, Seychelles and Mascarene islands are all of recent volcanic origin and therefore could not have been linked by land bridges. It is now thought that the Galápagos tortoises descended from an ancestor from South America.[29] The Indian Ocean tortoises derived from Madagascar.[30][31]<br /> <br /> At the end of the 19th century, Georg Baur[18] and Walter Rothschild[5][8][19] recognised five more populations of Galápagos tortoise. In 1906, the Academy of Sciences collected specimens and gave them to John Van Denburgh for study. He identified four additional populations,[6] and proposed the existence of 15 species.[32] His list still guides the taxonomy of the Galápagos tortoise, though now ten populations are thought to have existed.[2]<br /> <br /> Current species and genus names<br /> <br /> The current species designation of nigra ("black" – Quoy & Gaimard, 1824b[3]) was resurrected in 1984[33] after it was discovered to be the senior synonym (an older taxonomic synonym taking historical precedence) for the then commonly used species name of elephantopus ("elephant footed" – Harlan, 1827[12]). The use of nigra is explained by Quoy and Gaimard's Latin description: "Testudo toto corpore nigro", meaning "tortoise with completely black body". Quoy and Gairmard described nigra from a living specimen, but there is no evidence that they knew of its accurate provenance within the Galápagos – the locality was in fact given as California. Garman proposed the linking of nigra with the extinct Floreana subspecies.[7] Later, Pritchard deemed it was convenient to accept this designation despite its tenuousness because this decision allowed minimal disruption to the already-confused nomenclature of the species. The even more senior species synonym of californiana ("californian" – Quoy & Gaimard, 1824a[11]) is considered a nomen oblitum ("forgotten name").[34]<br /> <br /> Previously, the Galápagos tortoise was considered to belong to the genus Geochelone, known as typical tortoises or terrestrial turtles. Subsequently, subgenus Chelonoidis was elevated to generic status based on phylogenetic evidence which grouped the South American members of Geochelone into an independent clade (branch of the tree of life).[35] This nomenclature has been adopted by several authorities.[1][2][36][37]<br /> <br /> Subspecies<br /> <br /> Main article: Subspecies of Galápagos tortoise<br /> <br /> There were probably 10 subspecies of Chelonoidis nigra, although some recognise up to 15 subspecies.[38] Only seven subspecies now exist in the wild, one on Santiago, Santa Cruz, San Cristóbal, Pinzón and Española, and two on Isabela. An eighth surviving subspecies, abingdoni from Pinta Island, is considered extinct in the wild and is represented by a single living specimen, "Lonesome George". The subspecies inhabiting Floreana island (C. n. nigra) is thought to have been hunted to extinction by 1850,[39][40] only years after Charles Darwin's landmark visit of 1835 in which he saw shells but no live tortoises on the island.[41] The phantastica subspecies of Fernandina is of disputed existence as it was described from a single specimen which may have been an artificial introduction to the island.[42][43][44]<br /> <br /> Prior to widespread knowledge of the differences between the populations (sometimes called races) from different islands and volcanoes, captive collections in zoos were indiscriminately mixed. Fertile offspring resulted from pairings of animals from different races, confirming that they are subspecies and not distinct species. However, captive crosses between tortoises from different races have lower fertility and higher mortality than those between tortoises of the same race[45][46] and captives in mixed herds normally direct courtship only toward members of the same race.[46]<br /> <br /> The valid scientific names of each of the individual populations are not universally accepted,[10][43][47][48] and some researchers consider each subspecies to be a full species.[49][50] The taxonomic status of the various races is not fully resolved.[51]<br /> A map of the Galápagos with labels for names of the islands and their native subspecies of tortoise.<br /> Galápagos archipelago annotated with ranges of currently recognised subspecies of Galápagos tortoise. Islands with surviving subspecies are shaded.<br /> [edit] Evolutionary history<br /> <br /> All subspecies of Galápagos tortoise evolved from common ancestors that arrived from mainland South America by overwater dispersal. The minimal founding population was a pregnant female or a breeding pair.[29] Survival on the 1000-km oceanic journey is accounted for by the fact that the tortoises are buoyant, can breathe by extending their necks above the water, and are able to survive months without food or fresh water. As they are poor swimmers, the journey was probably a passive one facilitated by the Humboldt Current, which diverts westwards towards the Galápagos Islands from the mainland.[38]<br /> <br /> The closest living relative (though not a direct ancestor) of the Galápagos giant tortoise is the Argentine tortoise (Chelonoidis chilensis), a much smaller species from South America. The divergence between C. chilensis and C. nigra probably occurred 6–12 million years ago, an evolutionary event preceding the volcanic formation of the oldest modern Galápagos Islands 5 million years ago.[52] Mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the oldest existing islands (Española and San Cristóbal) were colonised first, and that these populations seeded the younger islands via dispersal in a "stepping stone" fashion via local currents.[53][54] Restricted gene flow between isolated islands then resulted in the independent evolution of the populations into the divergent forms observed in the modern subspecies. The evolutionary relationships between the subspecies thus echo the volcanic history of the islands.[29]<br /> [edit] Subspecies genetics<br /> <br /> Modern DNA methods have revealed new information on the relationships between the subspecies:<br /> <br /> Isabela Island<br /> <br /> A distinct population was once thought to inhabit each of the five main volcanoes of the largest island Isabela: (Wolf, Darwin, Alcedo, Sierra Negra, and Cerro Azul). The four southern populations on Isabela, though separated from each other by barren stretches of lava between volcanoes, are in fact a single genetic unit derived from colonists from Santa Cruz. The genetically distinct Volcán Wolf subspecies in northern Isabela (becki) is probably the result of a separate colonisation event from Santiago.[29] Tortoises from Sierra Negra in southern Isabela (formerly guentheri) are possibly the ancestral source of dispersal to the volcanoes Darwin (formely microphyes), Alcedo (formerly vandenburghi) and Cerro Azul (vicina).[55] On this basis, the southern populations on Isabela may be considered as a single subspecies vicina, with morphological differences attributable to age, sex or local environment.[56]<br /> <br /> Floreana Island<br /> <br /> Phylogenetic analysis may help to "resurrect" the extinct subspecies of Floreana (nigra). The subspecies was only known from subfossil remains.[40] Some tortoises from Isabela were found to be a partial match for the genetic profile of Floreana specimens from museum collections, possibly indicating the presence of hybrids from a population transposed by humans from Floreana to Isabela[50] speculated to be caused either by deliberate moving between the islands[57] or from individuals thrown overboard ships to lighten loads.[18] Nine Floreana descendants have been identified in the captive population of the Fausto Llerena Breeding Center on Santa Cruz. This permits the possibility of re-establishing a reconstructed subspecies from selective breeding of the hybrid animals.[58]<br /> <br /> Pinta Island<br /> <br /> The Pinta Island subspecies (abingdoni, now extinct in the wild) is most closely related to the subspecies on the islands of San Cristóbal (chathamensis) and Española (hoodensis) which lie over 300 kilometres (190 mi) away,[29] rather than neighbouring Isabela as previously assumed. This relationship is attributable to dispersal by the strong local current from San Cristóbal towards Pinta.[59] The discovery informed further attempts for the preservation of the abingdoni lineage and the search for an appropriate mate for Lonesome George, who had been penned with females from Isabela.[60] This hope was bolstered by the discovery of an abingdoni hybrid male in the Volcán Wolf population on northern Isabela, raising the possibility that there are more living undiscovered Pinta descendants.[61]<br /> <br /> Santa Cruz Island<br /> <br /> Mitochondrial DNA studies of tortoises on Santa Cruz show up to three genetically distinct lineages found in non-overlapping population distributions around the regions of Cerro Monturra, Cerro Fatal and La Caseta.[62] Although currently united in a single subspecies (porteri), the lineages are all more closely related to tortoises on other islands than to each other;[63] Cerro Monturra tortoises are most closely related to duncanensis from Pinzón, Cerro Fatal to chathamensis from San Cristóbal, and La Caseta to the four southern races of Isabela.[64]<br /> <br /> Subspecies of doubtful existence<br /> <br /> Subspecies were described from three other islands, but their existence is based on scant evidence. The purported Rabida island subspecies (wallacei) was described from a single specimen removed by the Academy of Sciences in 1906,[32] which has since been lost. This individual was probably an artificial introduction from another island that was originally penned on Rabida next to a good anchorage, as no contemporary whaling or sealing logs mention removing tortoises from this island.[44] The phantastica subspecies from Fernandina is known from a single specimen from the voyage of 1906, an old male.[32] No other tortoises or remains have been found on the island, suggesting the specimen was an artificial introduction from elsewhere.[43][44][57] Fernandina has neither human settlements nor feral mammals, so if this subspecies ever did exist its extinction must have been by natural means, such as volcanic activity.[43] The Santa Fe subspecies has no binomial name, having been described from the limited evidence of bone fragments (but no shells, the most durable part) of 14 individuals, old eggs and old dung found on the island in 1906.[32] The island has never been inhabited by man nor had any introduced predators.[57] The remains are considered artificial introductions,[43] possibly from camping at the good anchorage on the island.[57]<br /> [edit] Description<br /> <br /> The tortoises have a large bony shell (carapace) of a dull brown colour. The plates of the carapace are fused with the ribs in a rigid protective structure that is integral to the skeleton. Lichens can grow on the shells of the slow-moving animals.[65] Tortoises keep a characteristic scute (shell segment) pattern on their shell throughout life, though the annual growth bands are not useful for determining age, because the outer layers are worn off with time. A tortoise can withdraw its head, neck and forelimbs into its shell for protection. The legs are large, stumpy, with dry scaly skin and hard scales. The front legs are five-clawed, and the back legs are four-clawed.[32]<br /> [edit] Gigantism<br /> <br /> The discoverer of the Galápagos Islands, Fray Tomás de Berlanga, Bishop of Panama, wrote in 1535 of "such big tortoises that each could carry a man on top of himself."[66] Naturalist Charles Darwin remarked after his trip three centuries later in 1835, "These animals grow to an immense size ... several so large that it required six or eight men to lift them from the ground".[67] The largest recorded individuals have reached weights of over 400 kilograms (882 lb)[68] and lengths of 1.87 meters (6 ft).[69][3] The tortoises' gigantism was probably a preadapted condition for successful colonisation of these remote oceanic islands rather than an example of evolved insular gigantism. Large tortoises would have a greater chance of surviving the journey over water from the mainland as they can hold their heads a greater height above the water level and have a surface area/volume ratio, which reduces osmotic water loss. Their significant water and fat reserves would allow the tortoises to survive long ocean crossings without food or fresh water, and to endure the drought-prone climate of the islands. A larger size allowed them to better tolerate extremes of temperature due to gigantothermy.[70] Fossil giant tortoises from mainland South America have been described that support this hypothesis of preadapted gigantism.[71]<br /> [edit] Shell shape<br /> <br /> Galápagos tortoise shell varieties<br /> A tortoise of the abingdoni subspecies. It has a distinctively saddle shaped shell that flares above the neck and limbs.<br /> Saddleback (abingdoni)<br /> A tortoise of the chathamensis subspecies. It has a slightly saddle shaped shell.<br /> Intermediate (chathamensis)<br /> A tortoise of the porteri subspecies. It has a rounded shell shaped like a dome.<br /> Domed (porteri)<br /> <br /> Galapágos tortoises are the only lineage of giant tortoise exhibiting different types of shell shape.[63] They exhibit a spectrum of carapace morphology ranging from "saddleback" (denoting upward arching of the front edge of the shell resembling a saddle) to "domed" (denoting a rounded convex surface resembling a dome). When saddleback tortoises withdraw their head and forelimbs into their shells, a large unprotected gap remains over their neck, evidence of the lack of predation during the evolution of this structure. There is no saddleback/domed dualism, as tortoises can be of intermediate type with characteristics of both. Larger islands with humid highlands over 800 metres (2,600 ft) in elevation, such as Santa Cruz have abundant vegetation near the ground.[48] Native tortoises in these environments tend to have domed shells and are larger, with shorter necks and limbs. Saddleback tortoises originate from small islands less than 500 metres (1,600 ft) in elevation with dry habitats (e.g. Española and Pinzón) that are more limited in food and other resources.[38]<br /> <br /> Evolutionary implications<br /> <br /> In combination with proportionally longer necks and limbs,[32] the unusual saddleback carapace structure is thought to be an adaptation to increase vertical reach, which enables the tortoise to browse tall vegetation, such as the Opuntia (prickly pear) cactus that grows in arid environments.[72] Saddlebacks are more territorial[69][73] and smaller than domed varieties, possibly adaptations to their limited resources. Alternatively, larger tortoises may be better-suited to high elevations, because they can resist the cooler temperatures when there is cloud cover or fog.[47]<br /> <br /> A competing hypothesis is that rather than being principally a feeding adaptation, the distinctive saddle shape and longer extremities might have been a secondary sexual characteristic of saddleback males. Male competition over mates is settled by dominance displays on the basis of vertical neck height rather than body size[47] (see below). This correlates with the observation that saddleback males are more aggressive than domed males.[74] The shell distortion and elongation of the limbs and neck in saddlebacks is probably the evolutionary compromise between the need for a small body size in dry conditions and a high vertical reach for dominance displays.[47]<br /> <br /> The saddleback carapace probably evolved independently several times in dry habitats,[69] since genetic similarity between populations does not correspond to carapace shape.[75] Saddleback tortoises are therefore not necessarily more closely related to each other than to domed counterparts, as shape is not determined by a similar genetic background, but by a similar ecological one.[47]<br /> <br /> Sexual dimorphism<br /> <br /> Sexual dimorphism is most pronounced in saddleback populations, in which males have more angled and higher front openings, giving a more extreme saddled appearance.[74] Males of all varieties generally have a longer tail and a shorter, concave undershell with thickened knobs at the back edge to facilitate mating. Males are larger than females: adult males weigh around 272–317 kilograms (600–700 lb) while females are 136–181 kilograms (300–400 lb).[47]<br /> [edit] Behaviour<br /> A tortoise semi-submerged in a green outdoor pool full of algae<br /> A tortoise bathing in a pool<br /> <br /> Routine<br /> <br /> The tortoises are ectothermic (cold-blooded) and therefore bask for 1–2 hours after dawn to absorb the sun's heat through their dark shells before actively foraging for 8–9 hours a day.[43] They travel mostly in the early morning or late afternoon between resting and grazing areas. They have been observed to walk at a speed of 0.3 kilometres per hour (0.2 mph).[67]<br /> <br /> On the larger and more humid islands, the tortoises seasonally migrate down between low elevations, which become grassy plains in the wet season, to meadowed areas of higher elevation (up to 2,000 ft[32]) in the dry season. The same routes have been used for many generations, creating well-defined paths through the undergrowth known as "tortoise highways".[48] On these wetter islands, the domed tortoises are gregarious and often found in large herds, in contrast to the more solitary and territorial disposition of the saddleback tortoises.<br /> <br /> Tortoises sometimes rest in mud wallows or rain-formed pools, which may be both a thermoregulatory response during cool nights, and a protection from parasites such as mosquitoes and ticks.[48] Parasites are countered by taking dust baths in loose soil. Tortoises have been noted to shelter at night under overhanging rocks.[76] Other tortoises are observed to sleep in a snug depression in the earth or brush called a "pallet". Local tortoises using the same pallet sites, such as on Volcán Alcedo, results in the formation of small sandy pits.[77]<br /> <br /> Diet<br /> <br /> An adult tortoise with a mouthful of green leaves.<br /> A tortoise feeding<br /> <br /> The tortoises are herbivores that consume a diet of cacti, grasses, leaves, lichens, and berries. They have been documented to feed on Hippomane mancinella ('poison apple'), the endemic guava Psidium galapageium, the water fern Azolla microphylla, and the bromeliad Tillandsia insularis.[78] A tortoise eats an average of 32–36 kilograms (70–80 lb) per day, though inefficient digestion means that much of this passes through without nutritional extraction.[79]<br /> <br /> Tortoises acquire most of their moisture from the dew and sap in vegetation (particularly the Opuntia cactus); therefore, they can spend long periods without drinking water. They can endure 18 months when deprived of all food and water,[80] surviving by breaking down their body fat to produce water as a by-product. When thirsty they may drink large quantities of water very quickly, storing it in their bladders and the "root of the neck" (the pericardium[43]), both of which used to make them useful water sources on ships.[80] On arid islands, tortoises lick morning dew from boulders, and the repeated action over many generations has formed half-sphere depressions in the rock.[43]<br /> <br /> Senses<br /> <br /> Regarding their senses, Charles Darwin observed that: "The inhabitants believe that these animals are absolutely deaf; certainly they do not overhear a person walking near behind them. I was always amused, when overtaking one of these great monsters as it was quietly pacing along, to see how suddenly, the instant I passed, it would draw in its head and legs, and uttering a deep hiss fall to the ground with a heavy sound, as if struck dead."[67] Although they are not deaf,[32] tortoises depend far more on vision and smell as stimuli.[48]<br /> <br /> Mutualism<br /> <br /> Tortoises share a mutualistic relationship with some species of Galápagos finch and mockingbirds. Small groups of finches initiate the process by hopping on the ground in an exaggerated fashion facing the tortoise. The tortoise signals it is ready by rising up and extending its neck and legs, enabling the birds to reach otherwise inaccessible spots on the tortoise's body such as the neck, rear legs, cloacal opening, and skin between plastron and carapace. The birds benefit from the food source and the tortoises get rid of irritating ectoparasites.[81]<br /> <br /> Some tortoises have been observed to insidiously exploit this mutualistic relationship. After rising and extending its limbs, the bird may go beneath the tortoise to investigate, whereupon suddenly the tortoise withdraws its limbs to drop flat and kill the bird. It then steps back to eat the bird, presumably to supplement its diet with protein.[82]<br /> <br /> Mating<br /> <br /> Two tortoises with their necks extended.<br /> A pair of tortoises engaging in a dominance display<br /> <br /> Mating occurs at any time of the year, although it does have seasonal peaks between February and June in the humid uplands during the rainy season.[48] When mature males meet in the mating season they will face each other in a ritualised dominance display, rise up on their legs and stretch up their necks with their mouths gaping open. Occasionally, head-biting occurs, but usually the shorter tortoise will back off, conceding mating rights to the victor. The behaviour is most pronounced in saddleback subspecies, which are more aggressive and have longer necks.[74]<br /> <br /> The prelude to mating can be very aggressive, as the male forcefully rams the female's shell with his own and nips her legs.[20] Mounting is an awkward process and the male must stretch and tense to maintain equilibrium in a slanting position. The concave underside of the male's shell helps him to balance when straddled over the female's shell, and brings his cloacal vent (which houses the penis) closer to the female's dilated cloaca. During mating, the male vocalises with hoarse bellows and grunts,[76] described as "rhythmic groans".[48] This is one of the few vocalisations the tortoise makes; other noises are made during aggressive encounters, when struggling to right themselves, and hissing as they withdraw into their shells due to the forceful expulsion of air.[83]<br /> A tour guide holds up a tortoise egg and a small tortoise. The egg comfortably rests in the palm of a hand. It is spherical and the size of a billiard ball. It has a smooth white surface with a light layer of dirt on it. The tortoise is held by the other hand, above the egg. The width of the tortoise is only marginally wider than the egg.<br /> A young tortoise and a tortoise egg<br /> <br /> Egg-laying<br /> <br /> Females then journey up to several kilometres in July to November to reach nesting areas of dry, sandy coast. Nest digging is a tiring and elaborate task which may take the female several hours a day over many days to complete.[48] It is carried out blindly using only the hind legs to dig a 30 cm (12 in) deep cylindrical hole, into which she lays up to sixteen spherical, hard-shelled eggs ranging from 82 to 157 grams (2.9 to 5.5 oz) in mass,[43] and the size of a billiard ball.[65] Some observations suggest that the average clutch size for domed populations (9.6 per clutch for porteri on Santa Cruz) is larger than that of saddlebacks (4.6 per clutch for duncanensis on Pinzón).[44] The female makes a muddy plug for the nest hole out of soil mixed with urine, seals the nest by pressing down firmly with her plastron, and leaves them to be incubated by the sun. Females may lay 1–4 clutches per season. Temperature plays a role in the sex of the hatchling, with lower temperature nests producing more males and higher temperature nests producing more females. This is related closely to incubation time, since clutches laid early will incubate during the cool season and have longer incubation periods (producing more males), while nests that are laid later incubate for a shorter period in the hot season (producing more females).[84]<br /> <br /> Early life and maturation<br /> <br /> Young animals emerge from the nest after four to eight months and may weigh only 50 grams (1.8 oz) and measure 6 centimetres (2.4 in).[48] When the young tortoises emerge from their shells, they must dig their way to the surface, which can take up several weeks, though their yolk sac can sustain them for up to seven months.[65] In particularly dry conditions, the hatchlings may die underground if they are encased by hardened soil, while flooding of the nest area can drown them. Subspecies are initially indistinguishable as they all have domed carapaces. The young stay in warmer lowland areas for their first 10–15 years,[43] encountering hazards such as falling into cracks, being crushed by falling rock, or excessive heat stress. The Galápagos Hawk was formerly the sole native predator of the tortoise hatchlings, as Darwin wrote: "The young tortoises, as soon as they are hatched, fall prey in great numbers to the buzzard".[67] The hawk is now much rarer, but introduced feral pigs, dogs, cats and black rats have become predators of eggs and young tortoises.[85] The adult tortoises have no natural predators apart from humans, as Darwin noted: "The old ones seem generally to die from accidents, as from falling down precipices. At least several of the inhabitants told me, they had never found one dead without some such apparent cause".[67]<br /> <br /> Sex can be determined only when the tortoise is about 15 years old, and sexual maturity is reached at around 20–25 years in captivity, possibly 40 years in the wild (when they reach their full size). Life expectancy in the wild is thought to be over 100 years,[86][87] making it one of the longest lived species in the animal kingdom. Harriet was the oldest known Galápagos tortoise, having reached an estimated age of more than 170 years before her death in 2006 in Australia Zoo.[88] Chambers notes that Harriet was probably 169 years old in 2004. The individual died in 2006 (although media outlets claimed the greater age of 175 based on a less reliable timeline.[89]<br /> [edit] Darwin's development of theory of evolution<br /> Three quarter length portrait of Darwin aged about 30, with straight brown hair receding from his high forehead and long side-whiskers, smiling quietly, in wide lapelled jacket, waistcoat and high collar with cravat.<br /> Charles Darwin as a young man, probably subsequent to the Galápagos visit<br /> <br /> Charles Darwin visited the Galápagos for five weeks on the second voyage of HMS Beagle in 1835 and saw Galápagos tortoises on San Cristobal (Chatham) and Santiago (James) Islands.[90] They appeared several times in his writings and journals, and played a role in the development of the theory of evolution.<br /> <br /> Darwin wrote in his account of the voyage:<br /> <br /> "I have not as yet noticed by far the most remarkable feature in the natural history of this archipelago; it is, that the different islands to a considerable extent are inhabited by a different set of beings. My attention was first called to this fact by the Vice-Governor, Mr. Lawson, declaring that the tortoises differed from the different islands, and that he could with certainty tell from which island any one was brought ... The inhabitants, as I have said, state that they can distinguish the tortoises from the different islands; and that they differ not only in size, but in other characters. Captain Porter has described* those from Charles and from the nearest island to it, namely, Hood Island, as having their shells in front thick and turned up like a Spanish saddle, while the tortoises from James Island are rounder, blacker, and have a better taste when cooked."[91]<br /> <br /> The significance of the differences in tortoises between islands did not strike him as important until it was too late, as he continued,<br /> <br /> "I did not for some time pay sufficient attention to this statement, and I had already partially mingled together the collections from two of the islands. I never dreamed that islands, about fifty or sixty miles apart, and most of them in sight of each other, formed of precisely the same rocks, placed under a quite similar climate, rising to a nearly equal height, would have been differently tenanted".[91]<br /> <br /> Although the Beagle departed from the Galápagos with over 30 adult tortoises on deck, these were not for scientific study but a source of fresh meat for their Pacific crossing. Their shells and bones were thrown overboard, leaving no remains with which to test any hypotheses.[92] It has been suggested[93] that this oversight was made because Darwin only reported seeing tortoises on San Cristóbal[94] (chathamensis) and Santiago[95] (darwini), both of which have an intermediate type of shell shape and are not particularly morphologically distinct from each other. Though he did visit Floreana, the nigra subspecies found there was already nearly extinct and he was unlikely to have seen any mature animals.[41]<br /> Line drawing of the HMS Beagle by F. G. King, a colleague of Darwin's. Galápagos tortoises were stacked in the lower hold.<br /> <br /> Darwin did however have four live juvenile specimens to compare from different islands. These were pet tortoises taken by himself (from San Salvador), his captain FitzRoy (two from Española) and his servant Syms Covington (from Floreana).[96] Unfortunately they could not help to determine whether each island had its own variety because the specimens were not mature enough to exhibit morphological differences.[97] Although the British Museum had a few specimens, their provenance within the Galápagos was unknown.[98] However, conversations with the naturalist Gabriel Bibron, who had seen the mature tortoises of the Paris Natural History Museum confirmed to Darwin that there were distinct varieties.[99]<br /> <br /> Darwin later compared the different tortoise forms with those of mockingbirds, in the first[100] tentative statement linking his observations from the Galapagos with the possibility of species transmuting:<br /> <br /> "When I recollect the fact that [from] the form of the body, shape of scales and general size, the Spaniards can at once pronounce from which island any tortoise may have been brought; when I see these islands in sight of each other and possessed of but a scanty stock of animals, tenanted by these birds, but slightly differing in structure and filling the same place in nature; I must suspect they are only varieties ... If there is the slightest foundation for these remarks, the zoology of archipelagos will be well worth examining; for such facts would undermine the stability of species."[101]<br /> <br /> His views on the mutability of species were restated in his notebooks: "animals on separate islands ought to become different if kept long enough apart with slightly differing circumstances. – Now Galapagos Tortoises, Mocking birds, Falkland Fox, Chiloe fox, – Inglish and Irish Hare."[102] These observations served as counterexamples to the prevailing contemporary view that species were individually created.<br /> <br /> Darwin also found these "antediluvian animals"[94] to be a source of diversion: "I frequently got on their backs, and then giving a few raps on the hinder part of their shells, they would rise up and walk away;—but I found it very difficult to keep my balance".[67]<br /> [edit] Conservation<br /> <br /> Several waves of human exploitation of the tortoises as a food source caused a decline in the total wild population from around 250,000[87] when first discovered in the 16th century to a low of 3,060 individuals in a 1974 census. Modern conservation efforts have subsequently brought tortoise numbers up to 19,317 (estimate for 1995–2009).[103]<br /> <br /> The subspecies C. n. nigra became extinct by human exploitation in the 19th century. Another subspecies, C. n. abingdoni, is now extinct in the wild and represented in captivity by a single male specimen, Lonesome George. It is the only known living specimen of the Pinta Island tortoise and the world's "rarest living creature".[104] All the other surviving subspecies are listed by the IUCN as at least "Vulnerable" in conservation status, if not worse.<br /> [edit] Historical exploitation<br /> <br /> An estimated 200,000 animals were taken before the 20th century.[43] The relatively immobile and defenceless tortoises were collected and stored live on board ships, where they could survive for at least a year without food or water (some anecdotal reports suggest individuals surviving two years[105]), providing valuable fresh meat, while their diluted urine and water stored in their neck bags could be used as drinking water. The 17th century British pirate, explorer and naturalist William Dampier wrote that "They are so extraordinarily large and fat, and so sweet, that no pullet eats more pleasantly,"[106] while Captain James Colnett of the British Navy wrote of "the land tortoise which in whatever way it was dressed, was considered by all of us as the most delicious food we had ever tasted."[107] US Navy captain David Porter declared that, "after once tasting the Gallipagos tortoises, every other animal food fell off greatly in our estimation ... The meat of this animal is the easiest of digestion, and a quantity of it, exceeding that of any other food, can be eaten without experiencing the slightest of inconvenience."[80] Darwin was less enthusiastic about tortoise meat, writing "the breast-plate roasted (as the Gauchos do "carne con cuero"), with the flesh on it, is very good; and the young tortoises make excellent soup; but otherwise the meat to my taste is indifferent."[108]<br /> <br /> In the 17th century, pirates started to use the Galápagos Islands as a base for resupply, restocking on food, water and repairing vessels before attacking Spanish colonies on the South American mainland. However, the Galápagos tortoises did not struggle for survival at this point because the islands were distant to busy shipping routes and harboured few valuable natural resources. As such they remained unclaimed by any nation, uninhabited and uncharted. In comparison, the tortoises of the islands in the Indian Ocean were already facing extinction by the late 17th century.[109]<br /> <br /> Between the 1790s and the 1860s, whaling ships and fur-sealers systematically collected tortoises in far greater numbers than the buccaneers preceding them.[110] They were used for food and many more were killed for high grade "turtle oil" from the late 19th century onward for lucrative sale to continental Ecuador.[111] A total of over 13,000 tortoises is recorded in the logs of whaling ships between 1831 and 1868, and an estimated 100,000 were taken before 1830.[105] Since it was easiest to collect tortoises around coastal zones, females were most vulnerable to depletion during the nesting season. The collection by whalers came to a halt eventually through a combination of the scarcity of tortoises that they had created and the competition from crude oil as a cheaper energy source.[112]<br /> <br /> Population decline accelerated with the early settlement of the islands in the early 19th century leading to unregulated hunting for meat, habitat clearance for agriculture and the introduction of alien mammal species.[44] Feral pigs, dogs, cats and black rats have become predators of eggs and young tortoises, whilst goats, donkeys and cattle compete for grazing and trample nest sites. The extinction of the Floreana subspecies in the mid-19th century has been attributed to the combined pressures of hunting for the penal colony on the relatively small island, the conversion of the grazing highlands into land for farming and fruit plantations, and the introduction of feral mammals.[113]<br /> <br /> Scientific collection expeditions took 661 tortoises between 1888 and 1930, and more than 120 tortoises have been taken by poachers since 1990. Threats continue today with the rapid expansion of the tourist industry and increasing size of human settlements on the islands.[114]<br /> [edit] Modern conservation<br /> <br /> The remaining subspecies of tortoise range in IUCN classification from extinct in the wild to vulnerable. Slow growth rate, late sexual maturity and island endemism make the tortoises particularly prone to extinction without the efforts of conservationists.[63] The Galápagos giant tortoise has become a flagship species for conservation efforts throughout the Galápagos.<br /> Two Galápagos tortoises occupy the foreground, apparently unconcerned by the presence of several tourists a few feet behind them. The tourists wear assorted sunglasses and sunhats, and most are taking pictures of the tortoises with their digital cameras.<br /> Tourists see tortoises at the Charles Darwin Research station.<br /> <br /> Legal protection<br /> <br /> The Galápagos giant tortoise is now strictly protected and is listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.[37] The listing requires that trade in the taxon and its products are subject to strict regulation by ratifying states, and international trade for primarily commercial purposes is prohibited. In 1936 the Ecuadorian government listed the giant tortoise as a protected species. In 1959, it declared all uninhabited areas in the Galápagos to be a National Park[115] and established the Charles Darwin Foundation. In 1970, capturing or removing many species from the islands (including tortoises and their eggs) was banned.[116] To halt trade in the tortoises altogether, it became illegal to export the tortoises from Ecuador, captive or wild, continental or insular in provenance. The banning of their exportation resulted in automatic prohibition of importation to the United States under Public Law 91-135 (1969).[117] A 1971 Ecuadorian decree made it illegal to damage, remove, alter or disturb any organism, rock or other natural object in the National Park.[118]<br /> <br /> Captive breeding<br /> <br /> Breeding and releasing programs began in 1965 and have successfully brought seven of the eight endangered subspecies up to less perilous population levels. Young tortoises are raised at several breeding centres across the islands to improve their survival during their vulnerable early development. Eggs are collected from threatened nesting sites, and the hatched young are given a head start by being kept in captivity for four to five years to reach a size with a much better chance of survival to adulthood before release onto their native ranges.[85][103]<br /> <br /> The most significant population recovery was that of the Española Tortoise (hoodensis), which was saved from near-certain extinction. The population had been depleted to 3 males and 12 females that had been so widely dispersed that no mating in the wild had occurred.[119] They were brought to the Charles Darwin Research Station in 1971 for a captive breeding program.[120] In the following 33 years, these 15 tortoises gave rise to over 1,200 tortoises released onto their home island, which themselves have begun to reproduce naturally.[121][122]<br /> <br /> Island restoration<br /> <br /> The Galápagos National Park Service systematically culls feral predators and competitors. Goat eradication on islands including Pinta was achieved by the technique of using "Judas" goats with electronic collars to locate the herds. Marksmen shot all the goats except the Judas, then returned weeks later to find the "Judas" and shoot the herd to which it had relocated, repeating until only the "Judas" remained, which was then killed.[123] Other measures have included dog eradication from San Cristóbal, and fencing off nests to protect them from feral pigs.[85]<br /> <br /> Efforts are now underway to repopulate islands formerly inhabited by tortoises in order to restore their ecosystems (island restoration) to their pre-human condition. The tortoises are a keystone species, acting as ecosystem engineers[123] which help in plant seed dispersal, trampling down brush and thinning the understory of vegetation (allowing light to penetrate and germination to occur). Birds such as flycatchers perch on and fly around tortoises in order to hunt the insects they displace from the brush.[65] In May 2010, 39 sterilised tortoises of hybrid origin were introduced to Pinta Island, the first tortoises there since the evacuation of Lonesome George 38 years ago in 1972.[124] Sterile tortoises were released so that the problem of interbreeding between subspecies would be avoided if any fertile tortoises were to be released in the future. It is hoped that with the recent identification of a hybrid abingdoni tortoise, the approximate genetic constitution of the original inhabitants of Pinta may eventually be restored with the identification and relocation of appropriate specimens to this island.[61] This approach may be used to "re-tortoise" Floreana in the future, since captive individuals have been found to be descended from the extinct original stock.[58]erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-16446320176031183732011-05-04T04:19:00.001-07:002011-05-04T04:19:19.032-07:00Chichen Itza<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> Pre-Hispanic City of Chichen-Itza*<br /> UNESCO World Heritage Site<br /> Chichen-Itza-Castillo-Seen-From-East.JPG<br /> State Party Mexico<br /> Type Cultural<br /> Criteria i, ii, iii<br /> Reference 483<br /> Region** Latin America and the Caribbean<br /> Inscription history<br /> Inscription 1988 (12th Session)<br /> * Name as inscribed on World Heritage List.<br /> ** Region as classified by UNESCO.<br /> Map of central Chichen Itza<br /> <br /> Chichen Itza (play /tʃiːˈtʃɛn iːˈtsɑː/;[1] from Yucatec Maya: Chi'ch'èen Ìitsha',[2] "at the mouth of the well of the Itza") is a large pre-Columbian archaeological site built by the Maya civilization located in the northern center of the Yucatán Peninsula, in the Municipality of Tinúm, Yucatán state, present-day Mexico.<br /> <br /> Chichen Itza was a major focal point in the northern Maya lowlands from the Late Classic through the Terminal Classic and into the early portion of the Early Postclassic period. The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, from what is called “In the Mexican Origin” and reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico to the Puuc style found among the Puuc Maya of the northern lowlands. The presence of central Mexican styles was once thought to have been representative of direct migration or even conquest from central Mexico, but most contemporary interpretations view the presence of these non-Maya styles more as the result of cultural diffusion.<br /> <br /> The ruins of Chichen Itza are federal property, and the site’s stewardship is maintained by Mexico’s Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (National Institute of Anthropology and History, INAH). The land under the monuments had been privately-owned until March 29, 2010, when it was purchased by the state of Yucatán.[3]<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 Name and orthography<br /> * 2 History<br /> o 2.1 Ascendancy<br /> + 2.1.1 Political organization<br /> + 2.1.2 Economy<br /> o 2.2 Decline<br /> o 2.3 Spanish arrival<br /> * 3 Site description<br /> o 3.1 Great North Platform<br /> + 3.1.1 El Castillo<br /> + 3.1.2 Great Ball Court<br /> + 3.1.3 Tzompantli<br /> + 3.1.4 Platform of the Eagles and the Jaguars<br /> + 3.1.5 Platform of Venus<br /> + 3.1.6 Sacbe Number One<br /> + 3.1.7 Cenote Sagrado<br /> + 3.1.8 Temple of the Tables<br /> + 3.1.9 Temple of the Warriors<br /> + 3.1.10 Group of a Thousand Columns<br /> + 3.1.11 Steam Bath<br /> + 3.1.12 El Mercado<br /> o 3.2 Ossario Group<br /> + 3.2.1 Ossario<br /> + 3.2.2 Temple of Xtoloc<br /> + 3.2.3 House of the Metates and House of the Mestizas<br /> o 3.3 The Casa Colorada Group<br /> + 3.3.1 Casa Colorada<br /> + 3.3.2 The House of the Deer<br /> o 3.4 Central Group<br /> + 3.4.1 Las Monjas<br /> + 3.4.2 El Caracol<br /> + 3.4.3 Akab Dzib<br /> o 3.5 Old Chichen<br /> + 3.5.1 Other structures<br /> * 4 Caves of Balankanche<br /> * 5 Archaeological investigations<br /> * 6 Tourism<br /> * 7 Photo gallery<br /> * 8 See also<br /> * 9 Notes<br /> * 10 References<br /> * 11 Further reading<br /> * 12 External links<br /> <br /> [edit] Name and orthography<br /> Feathered Serpent, bottom of "El Castillo" staircase<br /> <br /> The Maya name "Chich'en Itza" means "At the mouth of the well of the Itza." This derives from chi', meaning "mouth" or "edge", and ch'e'en, meaning "well." Itzá is the name of an ethnic-lineage group that gained political and economic dominance of the northern peninsula. The name is believed to derive from the Maya itz, meaning "magic," and (h)á, meaning "water." Itzá in Spanish is often translated as "Brujas del Agua (Witches of Water)" but a more precise translation would be Magicians of Water.[citation needed]<br /> <br /> The name is often represented as Chichén Itzá in Spanish and when translated into other languages from Spanish to show that both parts of the name are stressed on their final syllables. Other references prefer to employ a more rigorous orthography in which the word is written according to the Maya language, using Chich'en Itzá (pronounced IPA: [t?it?'en itsá?]). This form preserves the phonemic distinction between ch' and ch, since the base word ch'e'en (which, however, does have a neutral tone vowel "e" in Maya and is not accented or stressed in Maya) begins with a glottalized affricate. The word "Itzá'" has a high rise final "a" that is followed by a glottal stop (indicated by the apostrophe).<br /> <br /> There is evidence in the Chilam Balam books that there was another, earlier name for this city prior to the arrival of the Itza hegemony in northern Yucatán. This name is difficult to define because of the absence of a single standard of orthography, but it is represented variously as Uuc Yabnal,[4] Uuc Hab Nal,[5] or Uc Abnal.[6] While most sources agree the first word means seven, there is considerable debate as to the correct translation of the rest. Among the translations suggested are “Seven Bushes,” “Seven Great Houses,” or “Seven Lines of Abnal.”<br /> [edit] History<br /> Cenote Sagrado<br /> <br /> Northern Yucatán is arid, and the rivers in the interior all run underground. There are two large, natural sink holes, called cenotes, that could have provided plentiful water year round at Chichen, making it attractive for settlement. Of the two cenotes, the "Cenote Sagrado" or Sacred Cenote (also variously known as the Sacred Well or Well of Sacrifice), is the most famous. According to post-Conquest sources (Maya and Spanish), pre-Columbian Maya sacrificed objects and human beings into the cenote as a form of worship to the Maya rain god Chaac. Edward Herbert Thompson dredged the Cenote Sagrado from 1904 to 1910, and recovered artifacts of gold, jade, pottery, and incense, as well as human remains.[7] A recent study of human remains taken from the Cenote Sagrado found that they had wounds consistent with human sacrifice.[8]<br /> Kukulcan's Jaguar Throne, interior temple of "El Castillo"<br /> [edit] Ascendancy<br /> <br /> Chichen Itza rose to regional prominence towards the end of the Early Classic period (roughly 600 AD). It was, however, towards the end of the Late Classic and into the early part of the Terminal Classic that the site became a major regional capital, centralizing and dominating political, sociocultural, economic, and ideological life in the northern Maya lowlands. The ascension of Chichen Itza roughly correlates with the decline and fragmentation of the major centers of the southern Maya lowlands.<br /> <br /> Some ethnohistoric sources claim that in about 987 a Toltec king named Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl arrived here with an army from central Mexico, and (with local Maya allies) made Chichen Itza his capital, and a second Tula. The art and architecture from this period shows an interesting mix of Maya and Toltec styles. However, the recent re-dating of Chichen Itza's decline (see below) indicates that Chichen Itza is largely a Late/Terminal Classic site, while Tula remains an Early Postclassic site (thus reversing the direction of possible influence).<br /> [edit] Political organization<br /> Columns in the Temple of a Thousand Warriors<br /> <br /> Several archaeologists in late 1980s suggested that unlike previous Maya polities of the Early Classic, Chichen Itza may not have been governed by an individual ruler or a single dynastic lineage. Instead, the city’s political organization could have been structured by a "multepal" system, which is characterized as rulership through council composed of members of elite ruling lineages.[9] This theory was popular in the 1990s, but in recent years, the research that supported the concept of the "multepal" system has been called into question, if not discredited. The current belief trend in Maya scholarship is toward the more traditional model of the Maya kingdoms of the Classic southern lowlands.[10]<br /> [edit] Economy<br /> <br /> Chichen Itza was a major economic power in the northern Maya lowlands during its apogee. Participating in the water-borne circum-peninsular trade route through its port site of Isla Cerritos, Chichen Itza was able to obtain locally unavailable resources from distant areas such as central Mexico (obsidian) and southern Central America (gold).<br /> [edit] Decline<br /> <br /> According to Maya chronicles (e.g., the Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel), Hunac Ceel, ruler of Mayapan, conquered Chichen Itza in the 13th century. Hunac Ceel supposedly prophesied his own rise to power. According to custom at the time, individuals thrown into the Cenote Sagrado were believed to have the power of prophecy if they survived. During one such ceremony, the chronicles state, there were no survivors, so Hunac Ceel leaped into the Cenote Sagrado, and when removed, prophesied his own ascension.<br /> <br /> While there is some archaeological evidence that indicates Chichén Itzá was at one time looted and sacked,[11] there appears to be greater evidence that it could not have been by Mayapan, at least not when Chichén Itzá was an active urban center. Archaeological data now indicates that Chichen Itza fell by around AD 1000, some two centuries before the rise of Mayapan.[12] Ongoing research at the site of Mayapan may help resolve this chronological conundrum.<br /> <br /> While Chichén Itzá “collapsed” (meaning elite activities ceased and the site rapidly depopulated) it does not appear to have been completely abandoned. According to post-Conquest sources, both Spanish and Maya, the Cenote Sagrado remained a place of pilgrimage.<br /> [edit] Spanish arrival<br /> See also: Spanish conquest of Yucatán<br /> <br /> In 1526 Spanish Conquistador Francisco de Montejo (a veteran of the Grijalva and Cortés expeditions) successfully petitioned the King of Spain for a charter to conquer Yucatán. His first campaign in 1527, which covered much of the Yucatán peninsula, decimated his forces but ended with the establishment of a small fort at Xaman Ha', south of what is today Cancún. Montejo returned to Yucatán in 1531 with reinforcements and established his main base at Campeche on the west coast.[13] He sent his son, Francisco Montejo The Younger, in late 1532 to conquer the interior of the Yucatán Peninsula from the north. The objective from the beginning was to go to Chichén Itzá and establish a capital.[14]<br /> <br /> Montejo the Younger eventually arrived at Chichen Itza, which he renamed Ciudad Real. At first he encountered no resistance, and set about dividing the lands around the city and awarding them to his soldiers. The Maya became more hostile over time, and eventually they laid siege to the Spanish, cutting off their supply line to the coast, and forcing them to barricade themselves among the ruins of ancient city. Months passed, but no reinforcements arrived. Montejo the Younger attempted an all out assault against the Maya and lost 150 of his remaining forces. He was forced to abandon Chichén Itzá in 1534 under cover of darkness. By 1535, all Spanish had been driven from the Yucatán Peninsula.[15]<br /> <br /> Montejo eventually returned to Yucatán and, by recruiting Maya from Campeche and Champoton, built a large Indio-Spanish army and conquered the peninsula.[16] The Spanish crown later issued a land grant that included Chichen Itza and by 1588 it was a working cattle ranch.[17]<br /> [edit] Site description<br /> site map of Chichen Itza.<br /> <br /> The site[18] contains many fine stone buildings in various states of preservation, and many have been restored. The buildings are connected by a dense network of formerly paved roads, called sacbeob.[19] Archaeologists have found almost 100 sacbeob criss-crossing the site, and extending in all directions from the city.[20]<br /> <br /> The buildings of Chichén Itza are grouped in a series of architectonic sets, and each set was at one time separated from the other by a series of low walls. The three best known of these complexes are the Great North Platform, which includes the monuments of El Castillo, Temple of Warriors and the Great Ball Court; The Ossario Group, which includes the pyramid of the same name as well as the Temple of Xtoloc; and the Central Group, which includes the Caracol, Las Monjas, and Akab Dzib.<br /> <br /> South of Las Monjas, in an area known as Chichén Viejo (Old Chichén) and only open to archaeologists, are several other complexes, such as the Group of the Initial Series, Group of the Lintels, and Group of the Old Castle.<br /> [edit] Great North Platform<br /> [edit] El Castillo<br /> Main article: El Castillo, Chichen Itza<br /> High-resolution photo showing the restored sides of El Castillo<br /> The serpent effect demonstrated with artificial light during night-time.<br /> <br /> Dominating the center of Chichén is the Temple of Kukulkan (the Maya name for Quetzalcoatl), often referred to as "El Castillo" (the castle). This step pyramid has a ground plan of square terraces with stairways up each of the four sides to the temple on top. On the Spring and Autumn equinox, at the rising and setting of the sun, the corner of the structure casts a shadow in the shape of a plumed serpent – Kukulcan, or Quetzalcoatl – along the west side of the north staircase. On these two annual occasions, the shadows from the corner tiers slither down the northern side of the pyramid with the sun's movement to the serpent's head at the base.<br /> East side of El Castillo<br /> <br /> Mesoamerican cultures periodically built larger pyramids atop older ones, and this is one such example. In the mid 1930s, the Mexican government sponsored an excavation of El Castillo. After several false starts, they discovered a staircase under the north side of the pyramid. By digging from the top, they found another temple buried below the current one. Inside the temple chamber was a Chac Mool statue and a throne in the shape of Jaguar, painted red and with spots made of inlaid jade.<br /> <br /> The Mexican government excavated a tunnel from the base of the north staircase, up the earlier pyramid’s stairway to the hidden temple, and opened it to tourists. In 2006, INAH closed the throne room to the public.<br /> [edit] Great Ball Court<br /> <br /> Archaeologists have identified several courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame in Chichén, but the Great Ball Court about 150 metres (490 ft) to the north-west of the Castillo is by far the most impressive. It is the largest ball court in ancient Mesoamerica. It measures 166 by 68 metres (545 × 223 ft). The imposing walls are 12 metres (39 ft) high, and in the center, high up on each of the long walls, are rings carved with intertwining serpents.[21]<br /> <br /> At the base of the high interior walls are slanted benches with sculpted panels of teams of ball players. In one panel, one of the players has been decapitated and from the wound emits seven streams of blood; six become wriggling serpents and the center becomes a winding plant.<br /> <br /> At one end of the Great Ball Court is the North Temple, popularly called the Temple of the Bearded Man. This small masonry building has detailed bas relief carving on the inner walls, including a center figure that has carving under his chin that resembles facial hair.[22] At the south end is another, much bigger temple, but in ruins.<br /> <br /> Built into the east wall are the Temples of the Jaguar. The Upper Temple of the Jaguar overlooks the ball court and has an entrance guarded by two, large columns carved in the familiar feathered serpent motif. Inside there is a large mural, much destroyed, which depicts a battle scene.<br /> <br /> In the entrance to the Lower Temple of the Jaguar, which opens behind the ball court, is another Jaguar throne, similar to the one in the inner temple of El Castillo, except that it is well worn and missing paint or other decoration. The outer columns and the walls inside the temple are covered with elaborate bas-relief carvings.<br /> <br /> <br /> Great Ball Court<br /> [edit] Tzompantli<br /> Chichen Itza tzompantli<br /> <br /> Of all the monuments, the Tzompantli is the closest to what one would find in the Mexican Plateau. This monument, a low, flat platform, is surrounded with carved depictions of human skulls.<br /> [edit] Platform of the Eagles and the Jaguars<br /> <br /> Next to El Castillo are a series of platforms. The Platform of the Eagles and the Jaguars is built in a combination Maya and Toltec styles. Each side has a staircase to the top. Carved into the sides are panels depicting Harpy Eagles[23] and Jaguars consuming what appear to be human hearts.<br /> [edit] Platform of Venus<br /> <br /> This platform is dedicated to the planet Venus. In its interior archaeologists discovered a collection of large cones carved out of stone, the purpose of which is unknown. This platform is placed between El Castillo and the Cenote Sagrado.<br /> [edit] Sacbe Number One<br /> <br /> This sacbe, which leads to the Cenote Sagrado, is the largest and most elaborate at Chichen Itza. This “white road” is 270 metres (890 ft) long with an average width of 9 metres (30 ft). It begins at a low wall a few metres from the Platform of Venus. According to archaeologists there once was an extensive building with columns at the beginning of the road.<br /> [edit] Cenote Sagrado<br /> Main article: Sacred Cenote<br /> <br /> The Yucatán Peninsula is a limestone plain, with no rivers or streams. The region is pockmarked with natural sinkholes, called cenotes, which expose the water table to the surface. One of the most impressive breats is the Cenote Sagrado, which is 60 metres (200 ft) in diameter, and sheer cliffs that drop to the water table some 27 metres (89 ft) below.<br /> <br /> The Cenote Sagrado was a place of pilgrimage for ancient Maya people who, according to ethnohistoric sources, would conduct sacrifices during times of drought. Archaeological investigations support this as thousands of objects have been removed from the bottom of the cenote, including material such as gold, jade, obsidian, shell, wood, cloth, as well as skeletons of children and men.<br /> [edit] Temple of the Tables<br /> <br /> To the east of El Castillo is a series of buildings, the northernmost is the Temple of the Tables. Its name comes from a series of altars at the top of the structure that are supported by small carved figures of men with upraised arms, called “atlantes.”<br /> [edit] Temple of the Warriors<br /> Templo de los Guerreros (Temple of the Warriors)<br /> Detail of Temple of the Warriors showing Chac Mool<br /> <br /> The Temple of the Warriors complex consists of a large stepped pyramid fronted and flanked by rows of carved columns depicting warriors. This complex is analogous to Temple B at the Toltec capital of Tula, and indicates some form of cultural contact between the two regions. The one at Chichen Itza, however, was constructed on a larger scale. At the top of the stairway on the pyramid’s summit (and leading towards the entrance of the pyramid’s temple) is a Chac Mool. This temple encases or entombs a former structure called The Temple of the Chac Mool. The archeological expedition and restoration of this building was done by the Carnegie Institute of Washington from 1925–1928. A key member of this restoration was Earl H. Morris who published the work from this expedition in two volumes entitled Temple of the Warriors.<br /> [edit] Group of a Thousand Columns<br /> <br /> Along the south wall of the Temple of Warriors are a series of what are today exposed columns, although when the city was inhabited these would have supported an extensive roof system. The columns are in three distinct sections: an east group, that extends the lines of the front of the Temple of Warriors; a north group, which runs along the south wall of the Temple of Warriors and contains pillars with carvings of soldiers in bas-relief; and a northeast group, which was apparently formed a small temple at the southeast corner of the Temple of Warriors, which contains a rectangular decorated with carvings of people or gods, as well as animals and serpents. The northeast column temple also covers a small marvel of engineering, a channel that funnels all the rainwater from the complex some 40 metres (130 ft) away to a rejollada, a former cenote.<br /> <br /> To the south of the Group of a Thousand Columns is a group of three, smaller, interconnected buildings. The Temple of the Carved Columns is a small elegant building that consists of a front gallery with an inner corridor that leads to an altar with a Chac Mool. There are also numerous columns with rich, bas-relief carvings of some 40 personages. The Temple of the Small Tables which has an exterior motif of x’s and o’s. And the Palace of Ahau Balam Kauil (also known as Thompson’s Temple), a small building with two levels that has friezes depicting Jaguars (balam in Maya) as well as glyphs of the Maya god Kahuil.<br /> [edit] Steam Bath<br /> <br /> This unique building has three parts: a waiting gallery, a water bath, and a steam chamber that operated by means of heated stones.<br /> [edit] El Mercado<br /> <br /> This square structure anchors the southern end of the Temple of Warriors complex. It is so named for the shelf of stone that surrounds a large gallery and patio that early explorers theorized was used to display wares as in a marketplace. Today, archaeologists believe that its purpose was more ceremonial than commerce.<br /> [edit] Ossario Group<br /> <br /> South of the North Group is a smaller platform that has many important structures, several of which appear to be oriented toward the second largest cenote at Chichen Itza, Xtoloc.<br /> [edit] Ossario<br /> Ossario.<br /> <br /> Like El Castillo, this step-pyramid temple dominates the platform, only on a smaller scale. Like its larger neighbor, it has four sides with staircases on each side. There is a temple on top, but unlike El Castillo, at the center is an opening into the pyramid which leads to a natural cave 12 metres (39 ft) below. Edward H. Thompson excavated this cave in the late 19th century, and because he found several skeletons and artifacts such as jade beads, he named the structure The High Priests' Temple. Archaeologists today believe neither that the structure was a tomb nor that the personages buried in it were priests.<br /> [edit] Temple of Xtoloc<br /> <br /> Outside the Ossario Platform is this recently restored temple which overlooks the other large cenote at Chichen Itza, named after the Maya word for iguana, "Xtoloc." The temple contains a series of pilasters carved with images of people, as well as representations of plants, birds and mythological scenes.<br /> <br /> Between the Xtoloc temple and the Ossario are several aligned structures: Platform of Venus (which is similar in design to the structure of the same name next to El Castillo), Platform of the Tombs, and a small, round structure that is unnamed. These three structures were constructed in a row extending from the Ossario. Beyond them the Ossario platform terminates in a wall, which contains an opening to a sacbe that runs several hundred feet to the Xtoloc temple.<br /> [edit] House of the Metates and House of the Mestizas<br /> <br /> South of the Ossario, at the boundary of the platform, there are two small buildings that archaeologists believe were residences for important personages.<br /> [edit] The Casa Colorada Group<br /> <br /> South of the Ossario Group is another small platform that has several structures that are among the oldest in the Chichen Itza archaeological zone.<br /> [edit] Casa Colorada<br /> <br /> The Casa Colorada, which is Spanish for Red House, is one of the best preserved buildings at Chichen Itza. It also has a Maya name, Chichanchob, which according to INAH may mean "small holes." In one chamber there are extensive carved hieroglyphs that mention rulers of Chichen Itza and possibly of the nearby city of Ek Balam, and contain a Maya date inscribed which correlates to 869 a.d.e., one of the oldest such dates found in all of Chichen Itza.<br /> <br /> In 2009, INAH restored a small ball court that adjoined the back wall of the Casa Colorada.[24]<br /> [edit] The House of the Deer<br /> <br /> While the Casa Colorada is in a good state of preservation, other buildings in the group, with one exception, are decrepit mounds. One building is half standing, named Casa del Venado (House of the Deer). The origin of the name is unknown, as there are no representations of deer or other animals on the building.<br /> [edit] Central Group<br /> [edit] Las Monjas<br /> "La Iglesia" in Las Monjas complex of buildings.<br /> <br /> One of the more notable structures at Chichen Itza is a complex of Terminal Classic buildings constructed in the Puuc architectural style. The Spanish nicknamed this complex Las Monjas ("The Nuns" or "The Nunnery") but was actually a governmental palace. Just to the east is a small temple (nicknamed La Iglesia, "The Church") decorated with elaborate masks of the rain god Chaac.<br /> [edit] El Caracol<br /> Main article: El Caracol, Chichen Itza<br /> "El Caracol" observatory temple.<br /> <br /> To the north of Las Monjas is a cockeyed, round building on a large square platform. It's nicknamed El Caracol ("the snail") because of the stone spiral staircase inside. The structure with its unusual placement on the platform and its round shape (the others are rectangular, in keeping with Maya practice), is theorized to have been a proto-observatory with doors and windows aligned to astronomical events, specifically around the path of Venus as it traverses the heavens.[25]<br /> [edit] Akab Dzib<br /> Main article: Akab Dzib<br /> <br /> Located to the east of the Caracol, Akab Dzib means, in Maya, "Dark (in the "Mysterious" sense) Writing." An earlier name of the building, according to a translation of glyphs in the Casa Colorada, is Wa(k)wak Puh Ak Na, "the flat house with the excessive number of chambers,” and it was the home of the administrator of Chichén Itzá, kokom Yahawal Cho' K’ak’.[26] INAH completed a restoration of the building in 2007. It is relatively short, only 6 metres (20 ft) high, and is 50 metres (160 ft) in length and 15 metres (49 ft) wide. The long, western-facing facade has seven doorways. The eastern facade has only four doorways, broken by a large staircase that leads to the roof. This apparently was the front of the structure, and looks out over what is today a steep, but dry, cenote. The southern end of the building has one entrance. The door opens into a small chamber and on the opposite wall is another doorway, above which on the lintel are intricately carved glyphs—the “mysterious” or “obscure” writing that gives the building its name today. Under the lintel in the door jamb is another carved panel of a seated figure surrounded by more glyphs. Inside one of the chambers, near the ceiling, is a painted hand print.<br /> [edit] Old Chichen<br /> <br /> "Old Chichen" is the nickname for a group of structures to the south of the central site. It includes the Initial Series Group, the Phallic Temple, the Platform of the Great Turtle, the Temple of the Owls, and the Temple of the Monkeys.<br /> [edit] Other structures<br /> <br /> Chichen Itza also has a variety of other structures densely packed in the ceremonial center of about 5 square kilometres (1.9 sq mi) and several outlying subsidiary sites.<br /> [edit] Caves of Balankanche<br /> Composite Laser scan image of Chichen Itza's Cave of Balankanche, showing how the shape of its great limestone column is strongly evocative of the World Tree in Maya mythological belief systems.<br /> Photo of the great limestone column in the Cave of Balankanche, surrounded by Tlaloc-themed incense burners<br /> <br /> Approximately 4 km (2.5 mi) west of the Chichen Itza archaeological zone are a network of sacred caves known as Balankanche (Spanish: Gruta de Balankanche), Balamka'anche' in Modern Maya). In the caves, a large selection of ancient pottery and idols may be seen still in the positions where they were left in pre-Columbian times.<br /> <br /> The location of the cave has been well known in modern times. Edward Thompson and Alfred Tozzer visited it in 1905. A.S. Pearse and a team of biologists explored the cave in 1932 and 1936. E. Wyllys Andrews IV also explored the cave in the 1930s. Edwin Shook and R.E. Smith explored the cave on behalf of the Carnegie Institution in 1954, and dug several trenches to recover potsherds and other artifacts. Shook determined that the cave had been inhabited over a long period, at least from the Preclassic to the post-conquest era.[27]<br /> <br /> On 15 September 1959, José Humberto Gómez, a local guide, discovered a false wall in the cave. Behind it he found an extended network of caves with significant quantities of undisturbed archaeological remains, including pottery and stone-carved censers, stone implements and jewelry. INAH converted the cave into an underground museum, and the objects after being catalogued were returned to their original place so visitors can see them in situ.[28]<br /> [edit] Archaeological investigations<br /> <br /> Chichen Itza entered the popular imagination in 1843 with the book Incidents of Travel in Yucatan by John Lloyd Stephens (with illustrations by Frederick Catherwood). The book recounted Stephens’ visit to Yucatán and his tour of Maya cities, including Chichén Itzá. The book prompted other explorations of the city. In 1860, Desire Charnay surveyed Chichén Itzá and took numerous photographs that he published in Cités et ruines américaines (1863).<br /> <br /> In 1875, Augustus Le Plongeon and his wife Alice Dixon Le Plongeon visited Chichén, and excavated a statue of a figure on its back, knees drawn up, upper torso raised on its elbows with a plate on its stomach. Augustus Le Plongeon called it “Chaacmol” (later renamed “Chac Mool,” which has been the term to describe all types of this statuary found in Mesoamerica). Teobert Maler and Alfred Maudslay explored Chichén in the 1880s and both spent several weeks at the site and took extensive photographs. Maudslay published the first long-form description of Chichen Itza in his book, Biologia Centrali-Americana.<br /> <br /> In 1894 the United States Consul to Yucatán, Edward H. Thompson purchased the Hacienda Chichén, which included the ruins of Chichen Itza. For 30 years, Thompson explored the ancient city. His discoveries included the earliest dated carving upon a lintel in the Temple of the Initial Series and the excavation of several graves in the Ossario (High Priest’s Temple). Thompson is most famous for dredging the Cenote Sagrado (Sacred Cenote) from 1904 to 1910, where he recovered artifacts of gold, copper and carved jade, as well as the first-ever examples of what were believed to be pre-Columbian Maya cloth and wooden weapons. Thompson shipped the bulk of the artifacts to the Peabody Museum at Harvard University.<br /> <br /> In 1913, archaeologist Sylvanus G. Morley persuaded the Carnegie Institution to fund an extensive archaeological project at Chichen Itza, which included mapping the ruins and restoring several of the monuments. The Mexican Revolution and the following government instability prevented the Carnegie from beginning work until 1924. Over the course of 10 years, the Carnegie researchers excavated and restored the Temple of Warriors and the Caracol. At the same time, the Mexican government excavated and restored El Castillo and the Great Ball Court.<br /> Excavations next to El Castillo began in 2009<br /> <br /> In 1926, the Mexican government charged Edward Thompson with theft, claiming he stole the artifacts from the Cenote Sagrado and smuggled them out of the country. The government seized the Hacienda Chichén. Thompson, who was in the United States at the time, never returned to Yucatán. He wrote about his research and investigations of the Maya culture in a book People of the Serpent published in 1932. He died in New Jersey in 1935. In 1944 the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that Thompson had broken no laws and returned Chichen Itza to his heirs. The Thompsons sold the hacienda to tourism pioneer Fernando Barbachano Peon.[29]<br /> <br /> There have been two later expeditions to recover artifacts from the Cenote Sagrado, in 1961 and 1967. The first was sponsored by the National Geographic, and the second by private interests. Both projects were supervised by Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH). INAH has conducted an ongoing effort to excavate and restore other monuments in the archaeological zone, including the Ossario, Akab D’zib, and several buildings in Chichén Viejo (Old Chichen).<br /> <br /> In 2009, to investigate construction that predated El Castillo, archaeologists began excavations adjacent to El Castillo.<br /> [edit] Tourism<br /> ChichenItzaWS.ogg<br /> Play video<br /> Video tour of the main sights of Chichen Itza<br /> <br /> Tourism has been a factor at Chichen Itza for more than a century. John Lloyd Stephens, who popularized the Maya Yucatán in the public’s imagination with his book Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, inspired many to make a pilgrimage to Chichén Itzá. Even before the book was published, Benjamin Norman and Baron Emanuel von Friedrichsthal traveled to Chichen after meeting Stephens, and both published the results of what they found. Friedrichsthal was the first to photograph Chichen Itza, using the recently invented daguerreotype.[30]<br /> <br /> After Edward Thompson in 1894 purchased the Hacienda Chichén, which included Chichen Itza, he received a constant stream of visitors. In 1910 he announced his intention to construct a hotel on his property, but abandoned those plans, probably because of the Mexican Revolution.<br /> <br /> In the early 1920s, a group of Yucatecans, led by writer/photographer Francisco Gomez Rul, began working toward expanding tourism to Yucatán. They urged Governor Felipe Carrillo Puerto to build roads to the more famous monuments, including Chichen Itza. In 1923, Governor Carrillo Puerto officially opened the highway to Chichen Itza. Gomez Rul published one of the first guidebooks to Yucatán and the ruins.<br /> <br /> Gomez Rul's son-in-law, Fernando Barbachano Peon (a grandnephew of former Yucatán Governor Miguel Barbachano), started Yucatán’s first official tourism business in the early 1920s. He began by meeting passengers that arrived by steamship to Progreso, the port north of Mérida, and persuading them to spend a week in Yucatán, after which they would catch the next steamship to their next destination. In his first year Barbachano Peon reportedly was only able to convince seven passengers to leave the ship and join him on a tour. In the mid-1920s Barbachano Peon persuaded Edward Thompson to sell 5 acres (20,000 m2) next to Chichen for a hotel. In 1930, the Mayaland Hotel opened, just north of the Hacienda Chichén, which had been taken over by the Carnegie Institution.[31]<br /> <br /> In 1944, Barbachano Peon purchased all of the Hacienda Chichén, including Chichen Itza, from the heirs of Edward Thompson.[29] Around that same time the Carnegie Institution completed its work at Chichen Itza and abandoned the Hacienda Chichén, which Barbachano turned into another seasonal hotel.<br /> <br /> In 1972, Mexico enacted the Ley Federal Sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arqueológicas, Artísticas e Históricas (Federal Law over Monuments and Archeological, Artistic and Historic Sites) that put all the nation's pre-Columbian monuments, including those at Chichen Itza, under federal ownership.[32] There were now hundreds, if not thousands, of visitors every year to Chichen Itza, and more were expected with the development of the Cancún resort area to the east.<br /> Serpent visible during the spring equinox<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chichen Itza began to receive an influx of visitors on the day of the spring equinox. Today several thousand show up to see the light-and-shadow effect on the Temple of Kukulcan in which the feathered serpent god supposedly can be seen to crawl down the side of the pyramid.[33]<br /> <br /> Chichen Itza, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the second-most visited of Mexico's archaeological sites.[34] The archaeological site draws many visitors from the popular tourist resort of Cancún, who make a day trip on tour buses. In 2007, Chichen Itza's El Castillo was named one of the New Seven Wonders of the World after a worldwide vote. Despite the fact that the vote was sponsored by a commercial enterprise, and that its methodology was criticized, the vote was embraced by government and tourism officials in Mexico who project that as a result of the publicity the number of tourists expected to visit Chichen will double by 2012.[35]<br /> <br /> The ensuing publicity re-ignited debate in Mexico over the ownership of the site, which culminated on 29 March 2010 when the state of Yucatán purchased the land upon which the most recognized monuments rest from owner Hans Juergen Thies Barbachano.[36]<br /> <br /> Over the past several years, INAH, which manages the site, has been closing monuments to public access. While visitors can walk around them, they can no longer climb them or go inside their chambers. The most recent was El Castillo, which was closed after a San Diego, California, woman fell to her death in 2006.[37]<br /> [edit] Photo galleryerdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-75927311309612204982011-05-04T04:15:00.001-07:002011-05-04T04:15:47.026-07:00Mount Everest<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> "Everest" redirects here. For other uses, see Everest (disambiguation).<br /> Mount Everest<br /> Nepali: सगरमाथा<br /> Chomolungmaཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ<br /> Qomolangma 珠穆朗玛峰<br /> <br /> Everest from Kala Patthar in Nepal<br /> Elevation 8,848 m (29,029 ft) [1]<br /> Ranked 1st<br /> Prominence 8,848 m (29,029 ft) <br /> Notice special definition for Everest.<br /> Listing Seven Summits<br /> Eight-thousander<br /> Country high point<br /> Ultra<br /> Location<br /> Mount Everest is located in Nepal<br /> Mount Everest<br /> Location on the Sagarmatha Zone, Nepal – Tibet, China border<br /> Location Nepal Solukhumbu District, Sagarmatha Zone, Nepal<br /> People's Republic of China Tingri County, Xigazê Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region, People's Republic of China[2]<br /> Range Mahalangur Himal, Himalayas<br /> Coordinates 27°59′17″N 86°55′31″E / 27.98806°N 86.92528°E / 27.98806; 86.92528Coordinates: 27°59′17″N 86°55′31″E / 27.98806°N 86.92528°E / 27.98806; 86.92528[3]<br /> Climbing<br /> First ascent 29 May 1953<br /> New Zealand Edmund Hillary<br /> Nepal Tenzing Norgay<br /> Easiest route South Col (Nepal)<br /> <br /> Mount Everest -- also called Mount Chomolungma in Tibetan and Sagarmāthā (Nepali: सगरमाथा) -- is the world's highest mountain at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) above sea level . Everest is in the Mahalangur section of the Himalaya on the Nepal-China (Tibet) border. Its massif includes neighboring peaks Lhotse 8516m, Nuptse 7855m and Changtse 7580m.<br /> <br /> In 1856, the Great Trigonometric Survey of British India established the first published height of Everest, then known as Peak XV, at 29,002 ft (8,840 m). In 1865, Everest was given its official English name by the Royal Geographical Society upon recommendation of Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India at the time, who named it after his predecessor in the post, and former chief, Sir George Everest.[4] Chomolungma had been in common use by Tibetans for centuries, but Waugh was unable to propose an established local name because Nepal and Tibet were closed to foreigners.<br /> <br /> The highest mountain in the world attracts many well-experienced mountaineers as well as novice climbers who are willing to pay substantial sums to professional mountain guides to complete a successful climb. The mountain, while not posing substantial technical climbing difficulty on the standard route (other eight-thousanders such as K2 or Nanga Parbat are much more difficult), still has many inherent dangers such as altitude sickness, weather, and wind.<br /> <br /> By the end of the 2008 climbing season, there had been 4,102 ascents to the summit by about 2,700 individuals.[5] Climbers are a significant source of tourist revenue for Nepal, whose government also requires all prospective climbers to obtain an expensive permit, costing up to US$25,000 per person.[6] By the end of 2009 Everest had claimed 216 lives,[5] including eight who perished during a 1996 storm high on the mountain. Conditions are so difficult in the death zone (altitudes higher than 8,000 m/26,246 ft) that most corpses have been left where they fell. Some of them are visible from standard climbing routes.[7]<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 Identifying the highest mountain<br /> * 2 Naming<br /> * 3 Measurement<br /> o 3.1 Comparisons<br /> * 4 Climbing routes<br /> o 4.1 Southeast ridge<br /> o 4.2 Northeast ridge<br /> * 5 Ascents<br /> o 5.1 Early expeditions<br /> o 5.2 First successful ascent by Tenzing and Hillary<br /> o 5.3 First ascents without supplemental oxygen and first solo ascent<br /> o 5.4 First winter ascent<br /> o 5.5 1996 disaster<br /> o 5.6 2005: Helicopter landing<br /> o 5.7 2006: David Sharp controversy<br /> o 5.8 Various records<br /> * 6 Death zone<br /> * 7 Using bottled oxygen<br /> * 8 Thefts and other crimes<br /> * 9 Flora and fauna<br /> * 10 Geology<br /> * 11 See also<br /> * 12 References<br /> * 13 Further reading<br /> * 14 External links<br /> <br /> [edit] Identifying the highest mountain<br /> Mount Everest is located in Earth<br /> Location on Earth<br /> Mount Everest relief map<br /> <br /> In 1808, the British began the Great Trigonometric Survey of India to determine the location and names of the world's highest mountains. Starting in southern India, the survey teams gradually moved northward using giant 500 kg (1,100 lb) theodolites (each requiring 12 men to carry) to measure heights as accurately as possible. They reached the Himalayan foothills by the 1830s, but Nepal was unwilling to allow the British to enter the country because of suspicions of political aggression and possible annexation. Several requests by the surveyors to enter Nepal were turned down.[8]<br /> <br /> The British were forced to continue their observations from Terai, a region south of Nepal which is parallel to the Himalayas. Conditions in Terai were difficult owing to torrential rains and malaria—three survey officers died from malaria while two others had to retire owing to failing health.[8]<br /> <br /> Nonetheless, in 1847, the British pressed on and began detailed observations of the Himalayan peaks from observation stations up to 240 km (150 mi) away. Weather restricted work to the last three months of the year. In November 1847, Andrew Waugh, the British Surveyor General of India made several observations from Sawajpore station located in the eastern end of the Himalayas. Kangchenjunga was then considered the highest peak in the world, and with interest he noted a peak beyond it, some 230 km (140 mi) away. John Armstrong, one of Waugh's officials, also saw the peak from a location further west and called it peak 'b'. Waugh would later write that the observations indicated that peak 'b' was higher than Kangchenjunga, but given the great distance of the observations, closer observations were required for verification. The following year, Waugh sent a survey official back to Terai to make closer observations of peak 'b', but clouds thwarted all attempts.[8]<br /> <br /> In 1849, Waugh dispatched James Nicolson to the area. Nicolson made two observations from Jirol, 190 km (120 mi) away. Nicolson then took the largest theodolite and headed east, obtaining over 30 observations from five different locations, with the closest being 174 km (108 mi) away from the peak.[8]<br /> <br /> Nicolson retreated to Patna on the Ganges to perform the necessary calculations based on his observations. His raw data gave an average height of 9,200 m (30,200 ft) for peak 'b', but this did not consider light refraction, which distorts heights. The number clearly indicated, however, that peak 'b' was higher than Kangchenjunga. However, Nicolson came down with malaria and was forced to return home, calculations unfinished. Michael Hennessy, one of Waugh's assistants, had begun designating peaks based on roman numerals, with Kangchenjunga named Peak IX, while peak 'b' now became known as Peak XV.[8]<br /> <br /> In 1852, stationed at the survey's headquarters in Dehradun, Radhanath Sikdar, an Indian mathematician and surveyor from Bengal, was the first to identify Everest as the world's highest peak, using trigonometric calculations based on Nicolson's measurements.[9] An official announcement that Peak XV was the highest was delayed for several years as the calculations were repeatedly verified. Waugh began work on Nicolson's data in 1854, and along with his staff spent almost two years working on the calculations, having to deal with the problems of light refraction, barometric pressure, and temperature over the vast distances of the observations. Finally, in March 1856 he announced his findings in a letter to his deputy in Kolkata. Kangchenjunga was declared to be 28,156 ft (8,582 m), while Peak XV was given the height of 29,002 ft (8,840 m). Waugh concluded that Peak XV was "most probably the highest in the world".[8] Peak XV (measured in feet) was calculated to be exactly 29,000 ft (8,839.2 m) high, but was publicly declared to be 29,002 ft (8,839.8 m). The arbitrary addition of 2 ft (61 cm) was to avoid the impression that an exact height of 29,000 feet (8,839.2 m) was nothing more than a rounded estimate.[10]<br /> [edit] Naming<br /> <br /> With the height now established, what to name the peak was clearly the next challenge. While the survey was anxious to preserve local names if possible (e.g. Kangchenjunga and Dhaulagiri), Waugh argued that he could not find any commonly used local name. Waugh's search for a local name was hampered by Nepal and Tibet's exclusion of foreigners. Many local names existed, with perhaps the best known in Tibet for several centuries being Chomolungma, which had appeared on a 1733 map published in Paris by the French geographer D'Anville. However, Waugh argued that with the plethora of local names, it would be difficult to favour one name over all others. So, he decided that Peak XV should be named after George Everest, his predecessor as Surveyor General of India.[8][11] He wrote:<br /> <br /> I was taught by my respected chief and predecessor, Colonel Sir George Everest to assign to every geographical object its true local or native appellation. But here is a mountain, most probably the highest in the world, without any local name that we can discover, whose native appellation, if it has any, will not very likely be ascertained before we are allowed to penetrate into Nepal. In the meantime the privilege as well as the duty devolves on me to assign...a name whereby it may be known among citizens and geographers and become a household word among civilized nations.[12]<br /> <br /> George Everest opposed the name suggested by Waugh and told the Royal Geographical Society in 1857 that Everest could not be written in Hindi nor pronounced by "the native of India". Waugh's proposed name prevailed despite the objections, and in 1865, the Royal Geographical Society officially adopted Mount Everest as the name for the highest mountain in the world.[8] Interestingly, the modern pronunciation of Everest English pronunciation: /ˈɛvərɨst, ˈɛvrɨst/[13] is in fact different from Sir George's pronunciation of his surname, which was /ˈiːvrɨst/.[14]<br /> Aerial view of Mount Everest from the south<br /> <br /> The Tibetan name for Mount Everest is Chomolungma or Qomolangma (ཇོ་མོ་གླིང་མ, which means "Saint Mother"), phonetically transliterated into Chinese as Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng (simplified Chinese: 珠穆朗玛峰; traditional Chinese: 珠穆朗瑪峰), or translated by meaning as Shèngmǔ Fēng (simplified Chinese: 圣母峰; traditional Chinese: 聖母峰), literally "Holy Mother". According to English accounts of the mid-19th century, the local name in Darjeeling for Mount Everest was Deodungha (meaning "holy mountain").[15]<br /> <br /> In the late 19th century, many European cartographers incorrectly believed that a native name for the mountain was Gaurisankar.[16] This was a result of confusion of Mount Everest with Gauri Sankar, which, when viewed from Kathmandu, stands almost directly in front of Everest.[citation needed]<br /> <br /> In the early 1960s, the Nepalese government gave Mount Everest the official name Sagarmāthā (सगरमाथा).[17] This name had not previously been used; the local inhabitants knew the mountain as Chomolungma. The mountain was not known and named in ethnic Nepal (that is, the Kathmandu valley and surrounding areas).[citation needed] The government set out to find a Nepalese name for the mountain because the Sherpa/Tibetan name Chomolungma was not acceptable, as it would have been against unification (Nepalization) of the country.[citation needed]<br /> <br /> In 2002, the Chinese People's Daily newspaper published an article making a case against the continued use of the English name for the mountain in the Western world, insisting that it should be referred to by its Tibetan name. The newspaper argued that the Chinese use of the Tibetan name preceded the English one, as Mount Qomolangma was marked on a Chinese map more than 280 years ago.[18]<br /> [edit] Measurement<br /> Another aerial view of Mount Everest from the south, with Lhotse in front and Nuptse on the left<br /> <br /> In 1856, Andrew Waugh announced Everest (then known as Peak XV) as 29,002 ft (8,840 m) high, after several years of calculations based on observations made by the Great Trigonometric Survey.<br /> <br /> The 8,848 m (29,029 ft) height given in this article is officially recognised by Nepal and China.[19] On 9 October 2005, after several months of measurement and calculation, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping officially announced the height of Everest as 8,844.43 m (29,017.16 ft) with accuracy of ±0.21 m (0.69 ft). They claimed it was the most accurate and precise measurement to date.[20] This height is based on the actual highest point of rock and not on the snow and ice covering it. The Chinese team also measured a snow/ice depth of 3.5 m (11 ft),[21] which is in agreement with a net elevation of 8,848 m (29,029 ft). The snow and ice thickness varies over time, making a definitive height of the snow cap impossible to determine.<br /> <br /> The elevation of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) was first determined by an Indian survey in 1955, made closer to the mountain, also using theodolites.[citation needed] It was subsequently reaffirmed by a 1975 Chinese measurement 8,848.13 m (29,029.30 ft).[21] In both cases the snow cap, not the rock head, was measured. In May 1999 an American Everest Expedition, directed by Bradford Washburn, anchored a GPS unit into the highest bedrock. A rock head elevation of 8,850 m (29,035 ft), and a snow/ice elevation 1 m (3 ft) higher, were obtained via this device.[22] Although it has not been officially recognized by Nepal,[23] this figure is widely quoted. Geoid uncertainty casts doubt upon the accuracy claimed by both the 1999 and 2005 surveys.<br /> <br /> A detailed photogrammetric map (at a scale of 1:50,000) of the Khumbu region, including the south side of Mount Everest, was made by Erwin Schneider as part of the 1955 International Himalayan Expedition, which also attempted Lhotse. An even more detailed topographic map of the Everest area was made in the late 1980s under the direction of Bradford Washburn, using extensive aerial photography.[24]<br /> <br /> It is thought that the plate tectonics of the area are adding to the height and moving the summit northeastwards. Two accounts suggest the rates of change are 4 mm (0.16 in) per year (upwards) and 3 to 6 mm (0.12 to 0.24 in) per year (northeastwards),[22][25] but another account mentions more lateral movement (27 mm/1.1 in),[26] and even shrinkage has been suggested.[27]<br /> [edit] Comparisons<br /> <br /> The summit of Everest is the point at which the Earth's surface reaches the greatest distance above sea level. Several other mountains are sometimes claimed as alternative "tallest mountains on Earth". Mauna Kea in Hawaii is tallest when measured from its base;[28] it rises over 10,200 m (6.3 mi) when measured from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above sea level.<br /> <br /> By the same measure of base[28] to summit, Mount McKinley, in Alaska, is also taller than Everest. Despite its height above sea level of only 6,193.6 m (20,320 ft), Mount McKinley sits atop a sloping plain with elevations from 300 m (980 ft) to 900 m (3,000 ft), yielding a height above base in the range of 5,300 to 5,900 m (17,400 to 19,400 ft); a commonly quoted figure is 5,600 m (18,400 ft).[29] By comparison, reasonable base elevations for Everest range from 4,200 m (13,800 ft) on the south side to 5,200 m (17,100 ft) on the Tibetan Plateau, yielding a height above base in the range of 3,650 to 4,650 m (11,980 to 15,260 ft).[24]<br /> <br /> The summit of Chimborazo in Ecuador is 2,168 m (7,113 ft) farther from the Earth's centre (6,384.4 km (3,967.1 mi)) than that of Everest (6,382.3 km (3,965.8 mi)), because the Earth bulges at the Equator. However, Chimborazo attains a height of only 6,267 m (20,561 ft) above sea level, and by this criterion it is not even the highest peak of the Andes.<br /> [edit] Climbing routes<br /> Southern and northern climbing routes as seen from the International Space Station.<br /> <br /> Mt. Everest has two main climbing routes, the southeast ridge from Nepal and the northeast ridge from Tibet, as well as many other less frequently climbed routes.[30] Of the two main routes, the southeast ridge is technically easier and is the more frequently used route. It was the route used by Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953 and the first recognized of fifteen routes to the top by 1996.[30] This was, however, a route decision dictated more by politics than by design as the Chinese border was closed to the western world in the 1950s after the People's Republic of China invaded Tibet.[31]<br /> View from space showing South Col route and North Col/Ridge route<br /> <br /> Most attempts are made during May before the summer monsoon season. As the monsoon season approaches, a change in the jet stream at this time pushes it northward, thereby reducing the average wind speeds high on the mountain.[32][33] While attempts are sometimes made after the monsoons in September and October, when the jet stream is again temporarily pushed northward, the additional snow deposited by the monsoons and the less stable weather patterns (tail end of the monsoon) makes climbing extremely difficult.<br /> [edit] Southeast ridge<br /> <br /> The ascent via the southeast ridge begins with a trek to Base Camp at 5,380 m (17,700 ft) on the south side of Everest in Nepal. Expeditions usually fly into Lukla (2,860 m) from Kathmandu and pass through Namche Bazaar. Climbers then hike to Base Camp, which usually takes six to eight days, allowing for proper altitude acclimatization in order to prevent altitude sickness.[34] Climbing equipment and supplies are carried by yaks, dzopkyos (yak hybrids) and human porters to Base Camp on the Khumbu Glacier. When Hillary and Tenzing climbed Everest in 1953, they started from Kathmandu Valley, as there were no roads further east at that time.<br /> <br /> Climbers will spend a couple of weeks in Base Camp, acclimatizing to the altitude. During that time, Sherpas and some expedition climbers will set up ropes and ladders in the treacherous Khumbu Icefall. Seracs, crevasses and shifting blocks of ice make the icefall one of the most dangerous sections of the route. Many climbers and Sherpas have been killed in this section. To reduce the hazard, climbers will usually begin their ascent well before dawn when the freezing temperatures glue ice blocks in place. Above the icefall is Camp I at 6,065 metres (19,900 ft).<br /> <br /> From Camp I, climbers make their way up the Western Cwm to the base of the Lhotse face, where Camp II or Advanced Base Camp (ABC) is established at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). The Western Cwm is a flat, gently rising glacial valley, marked by huge lateral crevasses in the centre which prevent direct access to the upper reaches of the Cwm. Climbers are forced to cross on the far right near the base of Nuptse to a small passageway known as the "Nuptse corner". The Western Cwm is also called the "Valley of Silence" as the topography of the area generally cuts off wind from the climbing route. The high altitude and a clear, windless day can make the Western Cwm unbearably hot for climbers.[35]<br /> <br /> From ABC, climbers ascend the Lhotse face on fixed ropes up to Camp III, located on a small ledge at 7,470 m (24,500 ft). From there, it is another 500 metres to Camp IV on the South Col at 7,920 m (26,000 ft). From Camp III to Camp IV, climbers are faced with two additional challenges: The Geneva Spur and The Yellow Band. The Geneva Spur is an anvil shaped rib of black rock named by the 1952 Swiss expedition. Fixed ropes assist climbers in scrambling over this snow covered rock band. The Yellow Band is a section of interlayered marble, phyllite, and semischist which also requires about 100 metres of rope for traversing it.[35]<br /> <br /> On the South Col, climbers enter the death zone. Climbers typically only have a maximum of two or three days they can endure at this altitude for making summit bids. Clear weather and low winds are critical factors in deciding whether to make a summit attempt. If weather does not cooperate within these short few days, climbers are forced to descend, many all the way back down to Base Camp.<br /> verest base camp.jpg<br /> A view of Everest southeast ridge base camp. The Khumbu Icefall can be seen in the left. In the center are the remnants of a helicopter that crashed in 2003.<br /> <br /> From Camp IV, climbers will begin their summit push around midnight with hopes of reaching the summit (still another 1,000 metres above) within 10 to 12 hours. Climbers will first reach "The Balcony" at 8,400 m (27,600 ft), a small platform where they can rest and gaze at peaks to the south and east in the early light of dawn. Continuing up the ridge, climbers are then faced with a series of imposing rock steps which usually forces them to the east into waist deep snow, a serious avalanche hazard. At 8,750 m (28,700 ft), a small table-sized dome of ice and snow marks the South Summit.[35]<br /> <br /> From the South Summit, climbers follow the knife-edge southeast ridge along what is known as the "Cornice traverse" where snow clings to intermittent rock. This is the most exposed section of the climb as a misstep to the left would send one 2,400 m (8,000 ft) down the southwest face while to the immediate right is the 3,050 m (10,000 ft) Kangshung face. At the end of this traverse is an imposing 12 m (40 ft) rock wall called the "Hillary Step" at 8,760 m (28,740 ft).[35]<br /> <br /> Hillary and Tenzing were the first climbers to ascend this step and they did it with primitive ice climbing equipment and with ropes. Nowadays, climbers will ascend this step using fixed ropes previously set up by Sherpas. Once above the step, it is a comparatively easy climb to the top on moderately angled snow slopes–though the exposure on the ridge is extreme especially while traversing large cornices of snow. With increasing numbers of people climbing the mountain in recent years, the Step has frequently become a bottleneck, with climbers forced to wait significant amounts of time for their turn on the ropes, leading to problems in getting climbers efficiently up and down the mountain. After the Hillary Step, climbers also must traverse a loose and rocky section that has a large entanglement of fixed ropes that can be troublesome in bad weather. Climbers will typically spend less than a half-hour on the "top of the world" as they realize the need to descend to Camp IV before darkness sets in, afternoon weather becomes a serious problem, or supplemental oxygen tanks run out.<br /> [edit] Northeast ridge<br /> Mount Everest north face from Rongbuk in Tibet<br /> <br /> The northeast ridge route begins from the north side of Everest in Tibet. Expeditions trek to the Rongbuk Glacier, setting up Base Camp at 5,180 m (16,990 ft) on a gravel plain just below the glacier. To reach Camp II, climbers ascend the medial moraine of the east Rongbuk Glacier up to the base of Changtse at around 6,100 m (20,000 ft). Camp III (ABC – Advanced Base Camp) is situated below the North Col at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). To reach Camp IV on the north col, climbers ascend the glacier to the foot of the col where fixed ropes are used to reach the North Col at 7,010 m (23,000 ft). From the North Col, climbers ascend the rocky north ridge to set up Camp V at around 7,775 m (25,500 ft). The route crosses the North Face in a diagonal climb to the base of the Yellow Band reaching the site of Camp VI at 8,230 m (27,000 ft). From Camp VI, climbers will make their final summit push. Climbers face a treacherous traverse from the base of the First Step: 27,890 feet (8,500 m) – 28,000 feet (8,500 m), to the crux of the climb, the Second Step: 28,140 feet (8,580 m) – 28,300 feet. (The Second Step includes a climbing aid called the "Chinese ladder", a metal ladder placed semi-permanently in 1975 by a party of Chinese climbers. It has been almost continuously in place since, and ladders have been used by virtually all climbers on the route.) Once above the Second Step the inconsequential Third Step is clambered over: 28,510 feet (8,690 m) – 28,870 feet (8,800 m). Once above these steps, the summit pyramid is climbed by a snow slope of 50 degrees, to the final summit ridge along which the top is reached.[36]<br /> <br /> See also: the Three Steps<br /> [edit] Ascents<br /> Main article: Timeline of climbing Mount Everest<br /> [edit] Early expeditions<br /> Rongbuk Monastery in Tibet with the north side of Everest in the background.<br /> <br /> In 1885, Clinton Thomas Dent, president of the Alpine Club, suggested that climbing Mount Everest was possible in his book Above the Snow Line.[37]<br /> <br /> The northern approach to the mountain was discovered by George Mallory on the first expedition in 1921. It was an exploratory expedition not equipped for a serious attempt to climb the mountain. With Mallory leading (and thus becoming the first European to set foot on Everest's flanks) they climbed the North Col 7,007 metres (22,989 ft). From there, Mallory espied a route to the top, but the party was unprepared for the great task of climbing any further and descended.<br /> <br /> The British returned for a 1922 expedition. George Finch ("The other George") climbed using oxygen for the first time. He ascended at a remarkable speed—950 feet (290 m) per hour, and reached an altitude of 8,320 m (27,300 ft), the first time a human climbed higher than 8,000m. This feat was entirely lost on the British climbing establishment—except for its "unsporting" nature. Mallory and Col. Felix Norton made a second unsuccessful attempt. Mallory was faulted for leading a group down from the North Col which got caught in an avalanche. Mallory was pulled down too, but seven native porters were killed.<br /> <br /> The next Expedition was in 1924. The initial attempt by Mallory and Bruce was aborted when weather conditions precluded the establishment of Camp VI. The next attempt was that of Norton and Somervell who climbed without oxygen and in perfect weather, traversing the North Face into the Great Couloir. Norton managed to reach 8,558 metres (28,077 ft), though he ascended only 100 feet (30 m) or so in the last hour. Mallory rustled up oxygen equipment for a last-ditch effort. He chose the young Andrew Irvine as his partner.<br /> <br /> On 8 June 1924 George Mallory and Andrew Irvine made an attempt on the summit via the North Col/North Ridge/Northeast Ridge route from which they never returned. On 1 May 1999 the Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition found Mallory's body on the North Face in a snow basin below and to the west of the traditional site of Camp VI. Controversy has raged in the mountaineering community whether one or both of them reached the summit 29 years before the confirmed ascent (and of course, safe descent) of Everest by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953.<br /> <br /> In 1933, Lady Houston, a British millionaire ex-showgirl, funded the Houston Everest Flight of 1933, which saw a formation of aircraft led by the Marquess of Clydesdale fly over the summit in an effort to deploy the British Union Flag at the top.[38][39][40]<br /> <br /> Early expeditions—such as Bruce's in the 1920s and Hugh Ruttledge's two unsuccessful attempts in 1933 and 1936—tried to make an ascent of the mountain from Tibet, via the north face. Access was closed from the north to western expeditions in 1950, after the Chinese asserted control over Tibet. In 1950, Bill Tilman and a small party which included Charles Houston, Oscar Houston and Betsy Cowles undertook an exploratory expedition to Everest through Nepal along the route which has now become the standard approach to Everest from the south.[41]<br /> <br /> The Swiss expedition of 1952, led by Edouard Wyss-Dunant, was granted permission to attempt a climb from Nepal. The expedition established a route through the Khumbu ice fall and ascended to the South Col at an elevation of 7,986 metres (26,201 ft). No attempt at an ascent of Everest was ever under consideration in this case.[42] Raymond Lambert and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay were able to reach a height of about 8,595 metres (28,199 ft) on the southeast ridge, setting a new climbing altitude record. Tenzing's experience was useful when he was hired to be part of the British expedition in 1953.[43]<br /> [edit] First successful ascent by Tenzing and Hillary<br /> <br /> In 1953, a ninth British expedition, led by John Hunt, returned to Nepal. Hunt selected two climbing pairs to attempt to reach the summit. The first pair (Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans) came within 100 m (300 feet) of the summit on 26 May 1953, but turned back after becoming exhausted. As planned, their work in route finding and breaking trail and their caches of extra oxygen were of great aid to the following pair. Two days later, the expedition made its second and final assault on the summit with its second climbing pair, the New Zealander Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay, a Nepali sherpa climber. They reached the summit at 11:30 a.m. local time on 29 May 1953 via the South Col Route. At the time, both acknowledged it as a team effort by the whole expedition, but Tenzing revealed a few years later that Hillary had put his foot on the summit first.[44] They paused at the summit to take photographs and buried a few sweets and a small cross in the snow before descending.<br /> <br /> News of the expedition's success reached London on the morning of Queen Elizabeth II's coronation, June 2. Returning to Kathmandu a few days later, Hunt (a Briton) and Hillary (a New Zealander) discovered that they had been promptly knighted in the Order of the British Empire, a KBE, for the ascent. Tenzing (a subject of the King of Nepal) was granted the George Medal by the UK. Hunt was ultimately made a life peer in Britain, while Hillary became a founding member of the Order of New Zealand. Hillary and Tenzing are also nationally recognized in Nepal, where annual ceremonies in schools and offices celebrate their accomplishment.[45]<br /> [edit] First ascents without supplemental oxygen and first solo ascent<br /> <br /> On 8 May 1978, Reinhold Messner (Italy) and Peter Habeler (Austria) made the first ascent without supplemental oxygen, using the southeast ridge route.[30][46] On 20 August 1980, Messner reached the summit of the mountain solo for the first time, without supplementary oxygen or support, on the more difficult Northwest route via the North Col to the North Face and the Great Couloir. He climbed for three days entirely alone from his base camp at 6,500 metres (21,300 ft).[30]<br /> [edit] First winter ascent<br /> <br /> In 1980, a team from Poland led by Andrzej Zawada, Leszek Cichy, and Krzysztof Wielicki became the first to reach the summit during the winter season.<br /> [edit] 1996 disaster<br /> Main article: 1996 Mount Everest disaster<br /> <br /> During the 1996 season, 15 people died while climbing on Mount Everest, making it the deadliest single year in the mountain's history. Eight of them died on 11 May alone. The disaster gained wide publicity and raised questions about the commercialization of climbing Mount Everest.<br /> <br /> Journalist Jon Krakauer, on assignment from Outside magazine, was in one of the affected parties, and afterwards published the bestseller Into Thin Air, which related his experience. Anatoli Boukreev, a guide who felt impugned by Krakauer's book, co-authored a rebuttal book called The Climb. The dispute sparked a debate within the climbing community. In May 2004, Kent Moore, a physicist, and John L. Semple, a surgeon, both researchers from the University of Toronto, told New Scientist magazine that an analysis of weather conditions on 11 May suggested that freak weather caused oxygen levels to plunge approximately 14%.[47][48]<br /> <br /> The storm's impact on climbers on the North Ridge of Mount Everest, where several climbers also died, was detailed in a first-hand account by British filmmaker and writer Matt Dickinson in his book The Other Side of Everest. 16-year-old Mark Pfetzer was on the climb and wrote about it in his account, Within Reach: My Everest Story.<br /> [edit] 2005: Helicopter landing<br /> <br /> On 14 May 2005, pilot Didier Delsalle of France landed a Eurocopter AS 350 B3 helicopter on the summit of Mount Everest[49] (without any witness) and took off after about four minutes. (His rotors were continually engaged, constituting a "hover landing", and avoiding the risks of relying on the snow to support the aircraft.) He thereby set rotorcraft world records, for highest of both landing (de facto) and take-off (formally).[50]<br /> <br /> Delsalle had also performed, two days earlier, a take-off from the South Col; some press reports suggested that the report of the summit landing was a misunderstanding of a South Col landing.[51]<br /> [edit] 2006: David Sharp controversy<br /> <br /> Double-amputee climber Mark Inglis revealed in an interview with the press on 23 May 2006,[52] that his climbing party, and many others, had passed a distressed climber, David Sharp, on 15 May, sheltering under a rock overhang 450 metres (1,480 ft) below the summit, without attempting a rescue. The revelation sparked wide debate on climbing ethics, especially as applied to Everest. The climbers who left him said that the rescue efforts would have been useless and only have caused more deaths. Much of this controversy was captured by the Discovery Channel while filming the television program Everest: Beyond the Limit. A crucial decision affecting the fate of Sharp is shown in the program, where an early returning climber (Max Chaya) is descending and radios to his base camp manager (Russell Brice) that he has found a climber in distress. He is unable to identify Sharp, who had chosen to climb solo without any support and so did not identify himself to other climbers. The base camp manager assumes that Sharp is part of a group that has abandoned him, and informs his climber that there is no chance of him being able to help Sharp. As Sharp's condition deteriorates through the day and other descending climbers pass him, his opportunities for rescue diminish: his legs and feet curl from frostbite, preventing him from walking; the later descending climbers are lower on oxygen and lack the strength to offer aid; time runs out for any Sherpas to return and rescue him. Most importantly, Sharp's decision to forgo all support left him with no margin for recovery.<br /> <br /> As this debate raged, on 26 May, Australian climber Lincoln Hall was found alive, after being declared dead the day before. He was found by a party of four climbers (Dan Mazur, Andrew Brash, Myles Osborne and Jangbu Sherpa) who, giving up their own summit attempt, stayed with Hall and descended with him and a party of 11 Sherpas sent up to carry him down. Hall later fully recovered. Similar actions have been recorded since, including on 21 May 2007, when Canadian climber Meagan McGrath initiated the successful high-altitude rescue of Nepali Usha Bista.<br /> [edit] Various records<br /> <br /> The youngest person to climb Mount Everest was 13-year-old Jordan Romero in May 2010.[53] Apa Sherpa holds the record for reaching the summit more times than any other person (20 times as of May 2010[update]).<br /> <br /> The fastest ascent over the northeast ridge was accomplished in 2007 by Austrian climber Christian Stangl, who needed 16h 42min for the 10 km distance from Camp III to the summit, just barely beating Italian Hans Kammerlander's record of 17 hours, accomplished in 1996. Both men climbed alone and without supplementary oxygen. The fastest oxygen-supported ascent over the southeast ridge was Nepalese Pemba Dorjie Sherpa's 2004 climb, using 8h 10min for the 17 km route. The fastest ascent without supplementary oxygen over the southeast ridge was accomplished by French Marc Batard who reached the summit in 22h 30min in 1988.[54]<br /> <br /> The first descent by paraglider was by Jean-Marc Boivin on 26 September 1988,[55] and the first descent by ski was in 2000 by Davo Karnicar.[56]<br /> <br /> The oldest climber to reach Mt. Everest's summit is 76-year-old Min Bahadur Sherchan, who did so 25 May 2008 from the Nepal side. Sherchan beat the previous record set in 2007 by 71 year old Katsusuke Yanagisawa.[57] The oldest climber to summit Mt. Everest from both sides (Nepal and Tibet) of the mountain is 60-year-old Julio Bird, a Puerto Rican cardiologist who reached the summit of Mt. Everest from the north side on May 17, 2010.[58]<br /> [edit] Death zone<br /> Main article: Death zone<br /> <br /> At the higher regions of Mount Everest, climbers seeking the summit typically spend substantial time within the "death zone" (altitudes higher than 8,000 m/26,246 ft), and face significant challenges to survival. Temperatures can dip to very low levels, resulting in frostbite of any body part exposed to the air. Since temperatures are so low, snow is well-frozen in certain areas and death or injury by slipping and falling can occur. High winds at these altitudes on Everest are also a potential threat to climbers.<br /> <br /> Another significant threat to climbers is low atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure at the top of Everest is about a third of sea level pressure, resulting in the availability of only about a third as much oxygen to breathe.[59]<br /> <br /> In May 2007, the Caudwell Xtreme Everest undertook a medical study of oxygen levels in human blood at extreme altitude. Over 200 volunteers climbed to Everest Base Camp where various medical tests were performed to examine blood oxygen levels. A small team also performed tests on the way to the summit.[60]<br /> <br /> Even at base camp, the low level of oxygen had direct effect on blood oxygen saturation levels. At sea level, blood oxygen saturation is generally 98% to 99%. At base camp, blood saturation fell to between 85% and 87%. Blood samples taken at the summit indicated very low oxygen levels in the blood. A side effect of low blood oxygen is a vastly increased breathing rate, often 80–90 breaths per minute as opposed to a more typical 20–30. Exhaustion can occur merely attempting to breathe.[61]<br /> <br /> Lack of oxygen, exhaustion, extreme cold, and climbing hazards all contribute to the death toll. An injured person who cannot walk is in serious trouble, since rescue by helicopter is generally impractical and carrying the person off the mountain is very risky. People who die during the climb are typically left behind. About 150 bodies have never been recovered. It is not uncommon to find corpses near the standard climbing routes.[62]<br /> [edit] Using bottled oxygen<br /> Northern panoramic view of Everest from Tibetan Plateau<br /> <br /> Most expeditions use oxygen masks and tanks above 8,000 m (26,246 ft).[63] Everest can be climbed without supplementary oxygen, but at increased risk to the climber. Humans do not think clearly with low oxygen, and the combination of extreme weather, low temperatures, and steep slopes often require quick, accurate decisions.<br /> <br /> The use of bottled oxygen to ascend Mount Everest has been controversial. It was first used in 1922 by George Finch ("the other George") and Geoffrey Bruce who climbed up to 25,500 ft (7,800 m) at a spectacular speed of 1000 vertical feet per hour. Pinned down by a fierce storm, they escaped death by breathing oxygen from a jury-rigged set-up during the night. The next day they climbed to 26,500 ft (8,100 m) at 900 vf/h--nearly three times as fast as non-oxygen users. Yet the use of oxygen was considered so unsportsmanlike that none of the rest of the Alpine world recognized this high ascent rate, confusing the facts with emotional considerations. George Mallory himself described the use of such oxygen as unsportsmanlike, but he later concluded that it would be impossible for him to summit without it and consequently used it in his ill-fated attempt in 1924.[64] When Tenzing and Hillary made the first successful summit in 1953, they used bottled oxygen. For the next twenty-five years, bottled oxygen was considered standard for any successful summit.<br /> <br /> Reinhold Messner was the first climber to break the bottled oxygen tradition and in 1978, with Peter Habeler, made the first successful climb without it. Although critics alleged that he sucked mini-bottles of oxygen – a claim that Messner denied – Messner silenced them when he summited the mountain solo, without supplemental oxygen or any porters or climbing partners, on the more difficult northwest route, in 1980. Once the climbing community was satisfied that the mountain could be climbed without supplemental oxygen, many purists then took the next logical step of insisting that's how it should be climbed.[65]<br /> <br /> The aftermath of the 1996 disaster further intensified the debate. Jon Krakauer's Into Thin Air (1997) expressed the author's personal criticisms of the use of bottled oxygen. Krakauer wrote that the use of bottled oxygen allowed otherwise unqualified climbers to attempt to summit, leading to dangerous situations and more deaths. The 10-11 May 1996 disaster was partially caused by the sheer number of climbers (34 on that day) attempting to ascend, causing bottlenecks at the Hillary Step and delaying many climbers, most of whom summitted after the usual 2 p.m. turnaround time. He proposed banning bottled oxygen except for emergency cases, arguing that this would both decrease the growing pollution on Everest—many bottles have accumulated on its slopes—and keep marginally qualified climbers off the mountain.<br /> <br /> The 1996 disaster also introduced the issue of the guide's role in using bottled oxygen.[66] Guide Anatoli Boukreev's decision not to use bottled oxygen was sharply criticized by Jon Krakauer. Boukreev's supporters (who include G. Weston DeWalt, who co-wrote The Climb) state that using bottled oxygen gives a false sense of security.[67] Krakauer and his supporters point out that, without bottled oxygen, Boukreev could not directly help his clients descend.[68] They state that Boukreev said that he was going down with client Martin Adams,[68] but just below the South Summit, Boukreev determines that Adams was doing fine on the descent and so descends at a faster pace, leaving Adams behind. Adams states in The Climb: "For me, it was business as usual, Anatoli's going by, and I had no problems with that."[69]<br /> 2004 photo mosaic the Himalayas with Makalu and Mount Everest from the International Space Station, Expedition 8.<br /> [edit] Thefts and other crimes<br /> <br /> Some climbers have reported life-threatening thefts from supply caches. Vitor Negrete, the first Brazilian to climb Everest without oxygen and part of David Sharp's party, died during his descent, and theft from his high-altitude camp may have contributed.[70]<br /> <br /> In addition to theft, the 2008 book High Crimes by Michael Kodas describes unethical guides and Sherpas, prostitution and gambling at the Tibet Base Camp, fraud related to the sale of oxygen bottles, and climbers collecting donations under the pretense of removing trash from the mountain.[71][72]<br /> [edit] Flora and fauna<br /> <br /> Euophrys omnisuperstes, a minute black jumping spider, has been found at elevations as high as 6,700 metres (22,000 ft), possibly making it the highest confirmed non-microscopic permanent resident on Earth. It lurks in crevices and may feed on frozen insects that have been blown there by the wind. It should be noted that there is a high likelihood of microscopic life at even higher altitudes.[73] Birds, such as the Bar-headed Goose, have been seen flying at the higher altitudes of the mountain, while others, such as the Chough, have been spotted as high as the South Col (7,920 m)[74] scavenging on food, or even corpses, left by prior climbing expeditions.<br /> [edit] Geology<br /> The last rays of sunlight on Mount Everest on 5 May 2007<br /> <br /> Geologists have subdivided the rocks comprising Mount Everest into three units called "formations".[75][76] Each formation is separated from the other by low-angle faults, called “detachments”, along which they have been thrust over each other. From the summit of Mount Everest to its base these rock units are the Qomolangma Formation, the North Col Formation, and the Rongbuk Formation.<br /> <br /> From its summit to the top of the Yellow Band, about 8,600 m (28,000 ft) above sea level, the top of Mount Everest consists of the Qomolangma Formation, which has also been designated as either the Everest Formation or Jolmo Lungama Formation. It consists of grayish to dark gray or white, parallel laminated and bedded, Ordovician limestone interlayered with subordinate beds of recrystallized dolomite with argillaceous laminae and siltstone. Gansser first reported finding microscopic fragments of crinoids in these limestones.[77] Later petrographic analysis of samples of the limestones from near the summit revealed them to be composed of carbonate pellets and finely fragmented remains of trilobites, crinoids, and ostracods. Other samples were so badly sheared and recrystallized that their original constituents could not be determined. A thick, white-weathering thrombolite bed that is 60 m (200 ft) thick comprises the foot of the "Third Step," and base of the summit pyramid of Everest. This bed, which crops out starting about 70 m (300 ft) below the summit of Mount Everest, consists of sediments trapped, bound, and cemented by the biofilms of microorganisms, especially cyanobacteria, in shallow marine waters. The Qomolangma Formation is broken up by several high-angle faults that terminate at the low angle thrust fault, the Qomolangma Detachment. This detachment separates it from the underlying Yellow Band. The lower five metres of the Qomolangma Formation overlying this detachment are very highly deformed.[75][76][78]<br /> <br /> The bulk of Mount Everest, between 7,000 and 8,600 m (23,000 and 28,200 ft), consists of the North Col Formation, of which the Yellow Band forms its upper part between 8,200 to 8,600 m (26,900 to 28,200 ft). The Yellow Band consists of intercalated beds of Middle Cambrian diopside-epidote-bearing marble, which weathers a distinctive yellowish brown, and muscovite-biotite phyllite and semischist. Petrographic analysis of marble collected from about 8,300 m (27,200 ft) found it to consist as much as five percent of the ghosts of recrystallized crinoid ossicles. The upper five metres of the Yellow Band lying adjacent to the Qomolangma Detachment is badly deformed. A 5–40 cm (2–16 in) thick fault breccia separates it from the overlying Qomolangma Formation.[75][76][78]<br /> <br /> The remainder of the North Col Formation, exposed between 7,000 to 8,200 m (23,000 to 26,900 ft) on Mount Everest, consists of interlayered and deformed schist, phyllite, and minor marble. Between 7,600 and 8,200 m (24,900 and 26,900 ft), the North Col Formation consists chiefly of biotite-quartz phyllite and chlorite-biotite phyllite intercalated with minor amounts of biotite-sericite-quartz schist. Between 7,000 and 7,600 m (23,000 and 24,900 ft), the lower part of the North Col Formation consists of biotite-quartz schist intercalated with epidote-quartz schist, biotite-calcite-quartz schist, and thin layers of quartzose marble. These metamorphic rocks appear to be the result of the metamorphism of Middle to Early Cambrian deep sea flysch composed of interbedded, mudstone, shale, clayey sandstone, calcareous sandstone, graywacke, and sandy limestone. The base of the North Col Formation is a regional thrust fault called the "Lhotse detachment".[75][76][78]<br /> <br /> Below 7,000 m (23,000 ft), the Rongbuk Formation underlies the North Col Formation and forms the base of Mount Everest. It consists of sillminite-K-feldspar grade schist and gneiss intruded by numerous sills and dikes of leucogranite ranging in thickness from 1 cm to 1,500 m (0.4 in to 4,900 ft).[76][79]erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-47563502690274425432011-05-04T04:14:00.001-07:002011-05-04T04:14:41.649-07:00Angkor Wat<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> Angkor Wat<br /> Angkor Wat is located in Cambodia<br /> Angkor Wat<br /> Location in Cambodia<br /> Coordinates: 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E / 13.4125°N 103.866667°E / 13.4125; 103.866667Coordinates: 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E / 13.4125°N 103.866667°E / 13.4125; 103.866667<br /> Name<br /> Proper name: Prasat Angkor Wat<br /> Location<br /> Country: Cambodia<br /> Location: Angkor<br /> Architecture and culture<br /> Primary deity: Vishnu<br /> Architectural styles: Khmer, Dravidian<br /> History<br /> Date built: 12th century<br /> Creator: Suryavarman II<br /> <br /> Angkor Wat (Khmer: អង្គរវត្ត) is a temple complex at Angkor, Cambodia, built for the king Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious centre since its foundation – first Hindu, dedicated to the god Vishnu, then Buddhist. It is the world's largest religious building.[1] The temple is at the top of the high classical style of Khmer architecture. It has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the country's prime attraction for visitors. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple mountain and the later galleried temple, based on early South Indian Hindu architecture, with key features such as the Jagati. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs and for the numerous devatas (guardian spirits) adorning its walls.<br /> <br /> The modern name, Angkor Wat, means "City Temple"; Angkor is a vernacular form of the word នគរ nokor which comes from the Sanskrit word नगर nagara meaning capital or city. Wat is the Khmer word for temple. Prior to this time the temple was known as Preah Pisnulok, after the posthumous title of its founder, Suryavarman II.[2]<br /> <br /> <br /> This article contains Khmer text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Khmer script.<br /> This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 History<br /> * 2 Architecture<br /> o 2.1 Site and plan<br /> o 2.2 Style<br /> o 2.3 Features<br /> + 2.3.1 Outer enclosure<br /> + 2.3.2 Central structure<br /> + 2.3.3 Decoration<br /> o 2.4 Construction techniques<br /> * 3 Angkor Wat today<br /> * 4 Notes<br /> * 5 References<br /> * 6 External links<br /> <br /> [edit] History<br /> King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat<br /> Henri Mouhot popularised the temple in the west in the mid 19th-century<br /> <br /> Angkor Wat lies 5.5 km north of the modern town of Siem Reap, and a short distance south and slightly east of the previous capital, which was centred at Baphuon. It is in an area of Cambodia where there is an important group of ancient structures. It is the southernmost of Angkor's main sites.<br /> <br /> The initial design and construction of the temple took place in the first half of the 12th century, during the reign of Suryavarman II (ruled 1113 – c. 1150). Dedicated to Vishnu, it was built as the king's state temple and capital city. As neither the foundation stela nor any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple have been found, its original name is unknown, but it may have been known as Vrah Vishnulok after the presiding deity. Work seems to have ended shortly after the king's death, leaving some of the bas-relief decoration unfinished.[3] In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter the empire was restored by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and state temple (Angkor Thom and the Bayon respectively) a few kilometres to the north.<br /> <br /> In the late 13th century, Angkor Wat gradually moved from Hindu to Theravada Buddhist use, which continues to the present day. Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was somewhat neglected after the 16th century it was never completely abandoned, its preservation being due in part to the fact that its moat also provided some protection from encroachment by the jungle.[4]<br /> <br /> One of the first Western visitors to the temple was Antonio da Magdalena, a Portuguese monk who visited in 1586 and said that it "is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of".[5] However, the temple was popularised in the West only in the mid-19th century on the publication of Henri Mouhot's travel notes. The French explorer wrote of it:<br /> Facade of Angkor Wat, a drawing by Henri Mouhot<br /> <br /> "One of these temples—a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michelangelo—might take an honourable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged."[6]<br /> <br /> Mouhot, like other early Western visitors, found it difficult to believe that the Khmers could have built the temple, and mistakenly dated it to around the same era as Rome. The true history of Angkor Wat was pieced together only from stylistic and epigraphic evidence accumulated during the subsequent clearing and restoration work carried out across the whole Angkor site.<br /> <br /> There were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement including cooking utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually found at ancient sites. Instead there is the evidence of the monuments themselves.[7]<br /> French postcard about Angkor Wat in 1911<br /> <br /> Angkor Wat required considerable restoration in the 20th century, mainly the removal of accumulated earth and vegetation.[8] Work was interrupted by the civil war and Khmer Rouge control of the country during the 1970s and 1980s, but relatively little damage was done during this period other than the theft and destruction of mostly post-Angkorian statues.[9]<br /> <br /> The temple is a powerful symbol of Cambodia, and is a source of great national pride that has factored into Cambodia's diplomatic relations with its neighbour Thailand, France and the United States. A depiction of Angkor Wat has been a part of Cambodian national flags since the introduction of the first version circa 1863.[10]<br /> <br /> The splendid artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region led directly to France adopting Cambodia as a protectorate on 11 August 1863. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the country that had been under Thai control since the Thai invasion of 1431 AD.[11] Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953 and has controlled Angkor Wat since that time.<br /> <br /> During the midst of the Vietnam War, Chief of State Norodom Sihanouk hosted Jacqueline Kennedy in Cambodia to fulfill her "lifelong dream of seeing Angkor Wat."[12]<br /> <br /> In January 2003 riots erupted in Phnom Penh when a false rumour circulated that a Thai soap opera actress had claimed that Angkor Wat belonged to Thailand.[13]<br /> [edit] Architecture<br /> [edit] Site and plan<br /> General plan of Angkor Wat with central structure in the middle<br /> Detailed plan of the central structure<br /> <br /> Angkor Wat, located at 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E / 13.4125°N 103.866667°E / 13.4125; 103.866667, is a unique combination of the temple mountain, the standard design for the empire's state temples, the later plan of concentric galleries, and influences from Orissa and the Chola of Tamil Nadu, India. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean.[14] Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level.[15]<br /> <br /> Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east. This has led many (including Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple.[16] Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—prasavya in Hindu terminology—as this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services.[8] The archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been a funerary jar which was recovered from the central tower.[17] It has been nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse.[18] Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west.[14]<br /> <br /> A further interpretation of Angkor Wat has been proposed by Eleanor Mannikka. Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, she argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honor and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above."[19][20] Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles.[17] She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation Draco.[21]<br /> [edit] Style<br /> Upper gallery at Angkor Wat<br /> <br /> Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of Khmer architecture—the Angkor Wat style—to which it has given its name. By the 12th century Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of sandstone (rather than brick or laterite) as the main building material. Most of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and for hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified, although natural resins or slaked lime have been suggested.[22]<br /> <br /> Angkor Wat has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design, which has been compared to the architecture of ancient Greece and Rome. According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style."[23]<br /> <br /> Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work.[24] Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors.[25]<br /> <br /> The Angkor Wat style was followed by that of the Bayon period, in which quality was often sacrificed to quantity.[26] Other temples in the style are Banteay Samré, Thommanon, Chao Say Tevoda and the early temples of Preah Pithu at Angkor; outside Angkor, Beng Mealea and parts of Phanom Rung and Phimai.<br /> [edit] Features<br /> Aerial view of Angkor Wat<br /> [edit] Outer enclosure<br /> The Temple viewed from the northwest<br /> <br /> The outer wall, 1024 by 802 m and 4.5 m high, is surrounded by a 30 m apron of open ground and a moat 190 m wide. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge.[27] There are gopuras at each of the cardinal points; the western is by far the largest and has three ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper.[28] Under the southern tower is a statue of Vishnu, known as Ta Reach, which may originally have occupied the temple's central shrine.[27] Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances on either side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between the pillars is decorated with lotus rosettes; the west face of the wall with dancing figures; and the east face of the wall with balustered windows, dancing male figures on prancing animals, and devatas, including (south of the entrance) the only one in the temple to be showing her teeth.<br /> <br /> The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres (203 acres), which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets.[29] Most of the area is now covered by forest. A 350 m causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper, with naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side. Each side also features a library with entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure.[29]<br /> [edit] Central structure<br /> Miniature model of the central structure of Angkor Wat. In the foreground the cruciform terrace which lies in front of the central structure.<br /> <br /> The temple stands on a terrace raised higher than the city. It is made of three rectangular galleries rising to a central tower, each level higher than the last. Mannikka interprets these galleries as being dedicated to the king, Brahma, the moon, and Vishnu.[3] Each gallery has a gopura at each of the points, and the two inner galleries each have towers at their corners, forming a quincunx with the central tower. Because the temple faces west, the features are all set back towards the east, leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same reason the west-facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides.<br /> <br /> The outer gallery measures 187 by 215 m, with pavilions rather than towers at the corners. The gallery is open to the outside of the temple, with columned half-galleries extending and buttressing the structure. Connecting the outer gallery to the second enclosure on the west side is a cruciform cloister called Preah Poan (the "Hall of a Thousand Buddhas"). Buddha images were left in the cloister by pilgrims over the centuries, although most have now been removed. This area has many inscriptions relating the good deeds of pilgrims, most written in Khmer but others in Burmese and Japanese. The four small courtyards marked out by the cloister may originally have been filled with water.[30] North and south of the cloister are libraries.<br /> <br /> Beyond, the second and inner galleries are connected to each other and to two flanking libraries by another cruciform terrace, again a later addition. From the second level upwards, devatas abound on the walls, singly or in groups of up to four. The second-level enclosure is 100 by 115 m, and may originally have been flooded to represent the ocean around Mount Meru.[31] Three sets of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery. The very steep stairways represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the gods.[32] This inner gallery, called the Bakan, is a 60 m square with axial galleries connecting each gopura with the central shrine, and subsidiary shrines located below the corner towers. The roofings of the galleries are decorated with the motif of the body of a snake ending in the heads of lions or garudas. Carved lintels and pediments decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. The tower above the central shrine rises 43 m to a height of 65 m above the ground; unlike those of previous temple mountains, the central tower is raised above the surrounding four.[33] The shrine itself, originally occupied by a statue of Vishnu and open on each side, was walled in when the temple was converted to Theravada Buddhism, the new walls featuring standing Buddhas. In 1934, the conservator George Trouvé excavated the pit beneath the central shrine: filled with sand and water it had already been robbed of its treasure, but he did find a sacred foundation deposit of gold leaf two metres above ground level.[34]<br /> [edit] Decoration<br /> Devatas are characteristic of the Angkor Wat style.<br /> The bas-relief of the Churning of the Sea of Milk shows Vishnu in the centre, his turtle Avatar Kurma below, asuras and devas to left and right, and apsaras and Indra above.<br /> <br /> Integrated with the architecture of the building, and one of the causes for its fame is Angkor Wat's extensive decoration, which predominantly takes the form of bas-relief friezes. The inner walls of the outer gallery bear a series of large-scale scenes mainly depicting episodes from the Hindu epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Higham has called these, "the greatest known linear arrangement of stone carving".[35] From the north-west corner anti-clockwise, the western gallery shows the Battle of Lanka (from the Ramayana, in which Rama defeats Ravana) and the Battle of Kurukshetra (from the Mahabharata, showing the mutual annihilation of the Kaurava and Pandava clans). On the southern gallery follow the only historical scene, a procession of Suryavarman II, then the 32 hells and 37 heavens of Hindu mythology.<br /> <br /> On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk, showing 92[36] asuras and 88 devas using the serpent Vasuki to churn the sea under Vishnu's direction (Mannikka counts only 91 asuras, and explains the asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days from the winter solstice to the spring equinox, and from the equinox to the summer solstice).[37] It is followed by Vishnu defeating asuras (a 16th-century addition). The northern gallery shows Krishna's victory over Bana (where according to Glaize, "The workmanship is at its worst"[38]) and a battle between the Hindu gods and asuras. The north-west and south-west corner pavilions both feature much smaller-scale scenes, some unidentified but most from the Ramayana or the life of Krishna.<br /> [edit] Construction techniques<br /> <br /> The stones, as smooth as polished marble, were laid without mortar with very tight joints that were sometimes hard to find. The blocks were held together by mortise and tenon joints in some cases, while in others they used dovetails and gravity. The blocks were presumably put in place by a combination of elephants, coir ropes, pulleys and bamboo scaffolding. Henri Mouhot noted that most of the blocks had holes 2.5 cm in diameter and 3 cm deep, with more holes on the larger blocks. Some scholars have suggested that these were used to join them together with iron rods, but others claim they were used to hold temporary pegs to help manoeuvre them into place. The Khmer architects never made the curved arches used by the Romans. They did create a corbelled arch, but this often proved unstable and collapsed.<br /> <br /> The monument was made out of enormous amounts of sandstone, as much as Khafre's pyramid in Egypt (over 5 million tons). This sandstone had to be transported from Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately 25 miles (40 km) to the northeast. The stone was presumably transported by raft along the Siem Reap river. This would have to have been done with care to avoid overturning the rafts with such a large amount of weight. One modern engineer estimated it would take 300 years to complete Angkor Wat today.[39] Yet the monument was begun soon after Suryavarman came to the throne and was finished shortly after his death, no more than 40 years.<br /> <br /> Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels even roofs are carved. There are miles of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots as well as warriors following an elephant mounted leader and celestial dancing girls with elaborate hair styles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost 1,000 square metres of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets. These were highly prized in ancient times and were a prime target for robbers. While excavating Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stone mason and sculptor, recreated a stone sculpture under 4 feet (1.2 m), this took about 60 days to carve.[40] Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone.[41] The labour force to quarry, transport, carve and install this much sandstone must have run into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans. The skill required to carve these sculptures was developed hundreds of years earlier, as demonstrated by some artifacts found that were dated to the seventh century before the Khmer came into power.[18][39]...<br /> View of the moat surrounding Angkor Wat<br /> [edit] Angkor Wat today<br /> WMF Angkor Wat.ogv<br /> Play video<br /> World Monuments Fund video on conservation of Angkor Wat<br /> <br /> The Archaeological Survey of India carried out restoration work on the temple between 1986 and 1992.[42] Since the 1990s, Angkor Wat has seen continued conservation efforts and a massive increase in tourism. The temple is part of the Angkor World Heritage Site, established in 1992, which has provided some funding and has encouraged the Cambodian government to protect the site.[43] The German Apsara Conservation Project (GACP) is working to protect the devatas and other bas-reliefs which decorate the temple from damage. The organisation's survey found that around 20% of the devatas were in very poor condition, mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone but in part also due to earlier restoration efforts.[44] Other work involves the repair of collapsed sections of the structure, and prevention of further collapse: the west facade of the upper level, for example, has been buttressed by scaffolding since 2002,[45] while a Japanese team completed restoration of the north library of the outer enclosure in 2005.[46] World Monuments Fund began work on the Churning of the Sea of Milk Gallery in 2008.<br /> <br /> Angkor Wat has become a major tourist destination. In 2004 and 2005, government figures suggest that, respectively, 561,000 and 677,000 foreign visitors arrived in Siem Reap province, approximately 50% of all foreign tourists in Cambodia for both years.[47] The site has been managed by the private SOKIMEX group since 1990, which rented it from the Cambodian government. The influx of tourists has so far caused relatively little damage, other than some graffiti; ropes and wooden steps have been introduced to protect the bas-reliefs and floors, respectively. Tourism has also provided some additional funds for maintenance—as of 2000 approximately 28% of ticket revenues across the whole Angkor site was spent on the temples—although most work is carried out by foreign government-sponsored teams rather than by the Cambodian authorities.[48]erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-12047749329355203652011-05-04T04:12:00.001-07:002011-05-04T04:12:41.287-07:00Hagia Sophia<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> For other uses, see Hagia Sophia (disambiguation).<br /> "Aghia Sophia" redirects here. For the steamship, see SS Aghia Sophia.<br /> Hagia Sophia<br /> Ἁγία Σοφία<br /> Hagia Sophia<br /> A view on the Ayasofya, İstanbul.<br /> Location Istanbul (historically Constantinople) Turkey<br /> Designer Isidore of Miletus<br /> Anthemius of Tralles<br /> Type Currently a Museum, formerly an Imperial Mosque (1453-1931) and Roman Catholic Cathedral (1204-1261); originally constructed as an Eastern Orthodox Cathedral (562-1204, 1261-1453).<br /> Material Ashlar, brick<br /> Length 82 m (269 ft)<br /> Width 73 m (240 ft)<br /> Height 55 m (180 ft)<br /> Beginning date 532<br /> Completion date 537<br /> Interior view of the Hagia Sophia, showing Islamic elements in the ceiling.<br /> Interior view of the Hagia Sophia<br /> <br /> Hagia Sophia (from the Greek: Ἁγία Σοφία, "Holy Wisdom"; Latin: Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia; Turkish: Aya Sofya) is a former Orthodox patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, and now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey. From the date of its dedication in 360 until 1453, it served as the cathedral of Constantinople, except between 1204 and 1261, when it was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople of the Western Crusader established Latin Empire. The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1931, when it was secularized. It was opened as a museum on 1 February 1935.[1]<br /> <br /> The Church was dedicated to the Logos, the second person of the Holy Trinity,[2] its dedication feast taking place on December 25, the anniversary of the incarnation of the Logos in Christ.[2] Although it is sometimes referred to as Sancta Sophia (as though it were named after Saint Sophia), sophia is the phonetic spelling in Latin of the Greek word for wisdom - the full name in Greek being Ναός τῆς Ἁγίας τοῦ Θεοῦ Σοφίας, "Church of the Holy Wisdom of God".[3][4]<br /> <br /> Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and is said to have "changed the history of architecture."[5] It was the largest cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years, until Seville Cathedral was completed in 1520. The current building was originally constructed as a church between 532 and 537 on the orders of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian and was the third Church of the Holy Wisdom to occupy the site, the previous two having both been destroyed by rioters. It was designed by the Greek scientists Isidore of Miletus, a physicist, and Anthemius of Tralles, a mathematician.[6]<br /> <br /> The church contained a large collection of holy relics and featured, among other things, a 49 foot (15 m) silver iconostasis. It was the seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople and the religious focal point of the Eastern Orthodox Church for nearly one thousand years. It is the church in which Cardinal Humbert in 1054 excommunicated Michael I Cerularius - which is commonly considered the start of the Great Schism.<br /> <br /> In 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mehmed II, who subsequently ordered the building converted into a mosque.[7] The bells, altar, iconostasis, and sacrificial vessels were removed and many of the mosaics were plastered over. Islamic features — such as the mihrab, minbar, and four minarets — were added while in the possession of the Ottomans. It remained a mosque until 1931 when it was closed to the public for four years. It was re-opened in 1935 as a museum by the Republic of Turkey.<br /> <br /> For almost 500 years the principal mosque of Istanbul, Hagia Sophia served as a model for many other Ottoman mosques, such as the Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque of Istanbul), the Şehzade Mosque, the Süleymaniye Mosque, the Rüstem Pasha Mosque and the Kılıç Ali Paşa Mosque.<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 History<br /> o 1.1 First church<br /> o 1.2 Second church<br /> o 1.3 Third church (current structure)<br /> o 1.4 Mosque (1453-1935)<br /> o 1.5 Museum (1943-present)<br /> * 2 Architecture<br /> o 2.1 Dome<br /> o 2.2 Lustration urns<br /> o 2.3 Narthex and portals<br /> o 2.4 Upper Gallery<br /> o 2.5 Loge of the Empress<br /> o 2.6 Marble Door<br /> o 2.7 Decorations<br /> * 3 Mosaics<br /> o 3.1 Imperial Gate mosaic<br /> o 3.2 Southwestern entrance mosaic<br /> o 3.3 Apse mosaics<br /> o 3.4 Emperor Alexander mosaic<br /> o 3.5 Empress Zoe mosaics<br /> o 3.6 Comnenus mosaics<br /> o 3.7 Deësis mosaic<br /> o 3.8 Northern tympanon mosaics<br /> o 3.9 20th-century restoration<br /> * 4 Minarets<br /> * 5 See also<br /> * 6 Notes<br /> * 7 References<br /> * 8 Literature<br /> o 8.1 Articles<br /> o 8.2 Mosaics<br /> * 9 External links<br /> o 9.1 Mosaics<br /> <br /> [edit] History<br /> [edit] First church<br /> <br /> The first church was known as the Μεγάλη Ἐκκλησία (Megálē Ekklēsíā, "Great Church"), or in Latin "Magna Ecclesia",[8] because of its larger dimensions in comparison to the contemporary churches in the City.[2] Inaugurated on 15 February 360 (during the reign of Constantius II) by the Arian bishop Eudoxius of Antioch,[9] it was built next to the area where the imperial palace was being developed. The nearby Hagia Eirene ("Holy Peace") church was completed earlier and served as cathedral until the Hagia Sophia was completed. Both churches acted together as the principal churches of the Byzantine Empire.<br /> <br /> Writing in 440, Socrates of Constantinople claimed that the church was built by Constantius II, who was working on it in 346.[9] A tradition which is not older than the 7th - 8th century, reports that the edifice was built by Constantine the Great.[9] Zonaras reconciles the two opinions, writing that Constantius had repaired the edifice consecrated by Eusebius of Nicomedia, after it had collapsed.[9] Since Eusebius was bishop of Constantinople from 339 to 341, and Constantine died in 337, it seems possible that the first church was erected by the latter.[9] The edifice was built as a traditional Latin colonnaded basilica with galleries and a wooden roof. It was preceded by an atrium. It was claimed to be one of the world's most outstanding monuments at the time.<br /> <br /> The Patriarch of Constantinople John Chrysostom came into a conflict with Empress Aelia Eudoxia, wife of the emperor Arcadius, and was sent into exile on 20 June 404. During the subsequent riots, this first church was largely burned down.[9] Nothing remains of the first church today.<br /> [edit] Second church<br /> Stone remains of the basilica ordered by Theodosius II, showing the Lamb of God<br /> Marble blocks from the second church<br /> <br /> A second church was ordered by Theodosius II, who inaugurated it on 10 October 415. The basilica with a wooden roof was built by architect Rufinus. A fire started during the tumult of the Nika Revolt and burned the second Hagia Sophia to the ground on 13–14 January 532<br /> <br /> Several marble blocks from the second church survive to the present; among them are reliefs depicting 12 lambs representing the 12 apostles. Originally part of a monumental front entrance, they now reside in an excavation pit adjacent to the museum's entrance. Discovered in 1935 beneath the western courtyard by A. M. Schneider, further digging was forsaken for fear of impinging on the integrity of the Hagia Sophia.<br /> [edit] Third church (current structure)<br /> <br /> On 23 February 532, only a few days after the destruction of the second basilica, Emperor Justinian I elected to build a third and entirely different basilica, larger and more majestic than its predecessors.<br /> Construction of church depicted in codex Manasses Chronicle<br /> <br /> Justinian chose physicist Isidore of Miletus and mathematician Anthemius of Tralles as architects; Anthemius, however, died within the first year of the endeavor. The construction is described in the Byzantine historian Procopius' On Buildings (Peri ktismatōn, Latin: De aedificiis). The emperor had material brought from all over the empire - such as Hellenistic columns from the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, large stones from quarries in porphyry from Egypt, green marble from Thessaly, black stone from the Bosporus region, and yellow stone from Syria. More than ten thousand people were employed. This new church was contemporaneously recognized as a major work of architecture. The theories of Heron of Alexandria may have been utilized to address the challenges presented by building such an expansive dome over so large a space[citation needed]. The emperor, together with the patriarch Eutychius, inaugurated the new basilica on 27 December 537 with much pomp. The mosaics inside the church were, however, only completed under the reign of Emperor Justin II (565–578).<br /> <br /> Hagia Sophia was the seat of the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople and a principal setting for Byzantine imperial ceremonies, such as coronations. The basilica also offered asylum to wrongdoers.<br /> <br /> Earthquakes in August 553 and on 14 December 557 caused cracks in the main dome and eastern half-dome. The main dome collapsed completely during a subsequent earthquake on 7 May 558,[citation needed] destroying the ambon, altar, and ciborium. Anyway, the crash was due mainly to the too high bearing load and to the enormous shearing load of the dome, which was too flat. [10] These caused the deformation of the piers which sustained the dome. [10] The emperor ordered an immediate restoration. He entrusted it to Isidorus the Younger, nephew of Isidore of Miletus, who used lighter materials and elevated the dome by "30 feet" [10] (about 6.25 metres (20.5 ft)) - giving the building its current interior height of 55.6 metres (182 ft). [11]Moreover, Isidorus changed the dome type, erecting a ribbed dome with pendentives, whose diameter lied between 32.7 and 33.5 m. [10] This reconstruction, giving the church its present 6th-century form, was completed in 562. The Byzantine poet Paul the Silentiary composed a long epic poem (still extant), known as Ekphrasis, for the rededication of the basilica presided over by Patriarch Eutychius on 23 December 562.<br /> <br /> In 726 the emperor Leo the Isaurian issued a series of edicts against the veneration of images, ordering the army to destroy all icons - ushering in the period of Byzantine iconoclasm. At that time, all religious pictures and statues were removed from the Hagia Sophia. After a brief reprieve under Empress Irene (797–802), the iconoclasts made a comeback. Emperor Theophilus (829–842) was strongly influenced by Islamic art,[citation needed] which forbids graven images[clarification needed]. He had a two-winged bronze door with his monograms installed at the southern entrance of the church.<br /> <br /> The basilica suffered damage, first in a great fire in 859, and again in an earthquake on 8 January 869, that made a half-dome collapse. Emperor Basil I ordered the church repaired.<br /> <br /> After the great earthquake of 25 October 989, which ruined the great dome, the Byzantine emperor Basil II asked for the Armenian architect Trdat, creator of the great churches of Ani and Argina, to repair the dome.[12] His main repairs were to the western arch and a portion of the dome. The extent of the damage required six years of repair and reconstruction; the church was re-opened on 13 May 994.<br /> <br /> In his book De caerimoniis aulae Byzantinae ("Book of Ceremonies"), Emperor Constantine VII (913–919) wrote a detailed account of the ceremonies held in the Hagia Sophia by the emperor and the patriarch.<br /> 19th Century marker of the tomb of Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice who commanded the Sack of Constantinople in 1204, inside the Hagia Sophia<br /> <br /> Upon the capture of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade, the church was ransacked and desecrated by the Latin Christians. The Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates described the capture of Constantinople; many reputed relics from the church - such as a stone from the tomb of Jesus, the Virgin Mary's milk, the shroud of Jesus, and bones of several saints - were sent to churches in the West and can be seen there now in various museums. During the Latin occupation of Constantinople (1204–1261) the church became a Roman Catholic cathedral. Baldwin I of Constantinople was crowned emperor on 16 May 1204 in Hagia Sophia, at a ceremony which closely followed Byzantine practices. Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice who commanded the sack and invasion of the city by the Latin Crusaders in 1204, is buried inside the church. The tomb inscription carrying his name, which has become a part of the floor decoration, was spat upon by many of the angry Byzantines who recaptured Constantinople in 1261.[citation needed] However, restoration carried out during the period 1847–1849 cast doubt upon the authenticity of the doge's grave; it is more likely a symbolic memorial rather than burial site.<br /> <br /> After the recapture in 1261 by the Byzantines, the church was in a dilapidated state. In 1317, emperor Andronicus II ordered four new buttresses (Πυραμὶδας, Greek:"Piramídas") to be built in the eastern and northern parts of the church, financing them with the inheritance of his deceased wife, Irene. [13] New cracks developed in the dome after the earthquake of October 1344, and several parts of the building collapsed on 19 May 1346; consequently, the church was closed until 1354, when repairs were undertaken by architects Astras and Peralta.<br /> [edit] Mosque (1453-1935)<br /> <br /> In 1453 Sultan Mehmed laid siege to Constantinople, driven in part by a desire to convert the city to Islam.[14] The Sultan promised his troops three days of unbridled pillage if the city fell, after which he would claim its contents himself.[15][16] The Hagia Sophia was not exempted from the pillage, becoming its focal point as the invaders believed it to contain the greatest treasures of the city.[17] Shortly after the city’s defenses collapsed, pillagers made their way to the Hagia Sophia and battered down its doors.[18] Throughout the siege the Holy Liturgy and Prayer of the Hours were performed at the Hagia Sophia, and the church formed a refuge for many of those who were unable to contribute to the city’s defense.[19][20] Trapped in the church, congregants and refugees became booty to be divided amongst the invaders. The building was desecrated and looted, and occupants enslaved or slaughtered;[17] a few of the elderly and infirm were killed, and the remainder chained.[18] Priests purportedly continued to perform Christian rites until stopped by the invaders.[18] When the Sultan and his cohort entered the church, one of the Ulama climbed the pulpit and recited the Shahada, transforming at once the church into a mosque.[21] [13]<br /> Fountain (Şadırvan) for ritual ablutions<br /> The mihrab located in the apse where the altar used to stand, pointing towards Mecca<br /> <br /> As written above, immediately after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II converted Hagia Sophia into the Ayasofya Mosque.[7] [22] [23] [13] As described by several Western visitors (such as the Córdoban nobleman Pero Tafur[24] and the Florentine Cristoforo Buondelmonti),[25] the church was in a dilapidated state, with several of its doors off; sultan Mehmed II ordered the cleanup of the church and its conversion. He attended the first Friday prayer in the mosque on June 1st, 1453. [23] Hagia Sofia became the first imperial mosque of Istanbul. [26] To the corresponding Waqf were endowed most of the existing houses in the city and the area of the future Topkapi Palace. [13] Through the imperial charters of 1520 / 926H and 1547 / 954 H shops and parts of the Grand Bazaar and other markets were added to the foundation. [13] Before 1481 a small minaret was erected on the SW corner of the building, above the stair tower. [13] Later, the subsequent sultan, Bayezid II (1481–1512), built another minaret at the NE corner. [13] One of these crashed because of the earthquake of 1509, [13] and around the middle of the 16th century they were both replaced by two diagonally opposite minarets built at the E and W corners of the edifice. [13]<br /> <br /> In the 16th century the sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566) brought back two colossal candles from his conquest of Hungary. They were placed on both sides of the mihrab. During the reign of Selim II (1566–1577), the building started showing signs of fatigue and was extensively strengthened with the addition of structural supports to its exterior by the great Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan, who is also considered one of the world's first earthquake engineers.[27] In addition to strengthening the historic Byzantine structure, Sinan built the two additional large minarets at the western end of the building, the original sultan's loge, and the mausoleum of Selim II to the southeast of the building (then a mosque) in 1577. The mausoleums of Murad III and Mehmed III were built next to it in the 17th century.<br /> <br /> Later additions were the sultan's gallery, a minbar decorated with marble, a dais for a sermon and a loggia for a muezzin.<br /> <br /> The sultan Murad III (1574–1595) had two large alabaster Hellenistic urns transported from Pergamon and placed on two sides of the nave.<br /> <br /> Sultan Mahmud I ordered the restoration of the building in 1739 and added a medrese (a Koranic school, now the library of the museum), a soup kitchen (for distribution to the poor) and a library, and in 1740 a fountain for ritual ablutions (Şadirvan), thus transforming it into a külliye, i.e. a social complex. At the same time a new sultan's gallery and a new mihrab were built inside.<br /> <br /> The most famous restoration of the Hagia Sophia was ordered by Sultan Abdülmecid and completed by eight hundred workers between 1847 and 1849, under the supervision of the Swiss-Italian architect brothers Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati. The brothers consolidated the dome and vaults, straightened the columns, and revised the decoration of the exterior and the interior of the building. The mosaics in the upper gallery were cleaned. The old chandeliers were replaced by new pendant ones. New gigantic circular-framed disks or medallions were hung on columns. They were inscribed with the names of Allah, the Prophet Muhammad, the first four caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali, and the two grandchildren of Mohammed: Hassan and Hussain, by the calligrapher Kazasker İzzed Effendi (1801–1877). In 1850 the architect Fossati built a new sultan's gallery in a Neo-Byzantine style connected to the royal pavilion behind the mosque. Outside the Hagia Sophia, a timekeeper's building and a new madrasah were built. The minarets were altered so that they were of equal height. When the restoration was finished, the mosque was re-opened with ceremonial pomp on 13 July 1849.<br /> [edit] Museum (1943-present)<br /> <br /> In 1935, the first Turkish President and founder of the Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, transformed the building into a museum. The carpets were removed and the marble floor decorations such as the Omphalion appeared for the first time in centuries, while the white plaster covering many of the mosaics was removed. Nevertheless, the condition of the structure deteriorated, and the World Monuments Fund placed Hagia Sophia on 1996 World Monuments Watch, and again in 1998. The building's copper roof had cracked, causing water to leak down over the fragile frescoes and mosaics. Moisture entered from below as well. Rising ground water had raised the level of humidity within the monument, creating an unstable environment for stone and paint. With the help of financial services company American Express, WMF secured a series of grants from 1997 to 2002 for the restoration of the dome. The first stage of work involved the structural stabilization and repair of the cracked roof, which was undertaken with the participation of the Turkish Ministry of Culture. The second phase, the preservation of the dome’s interior, afforded the opportunity to employ and train young Turkish conservators in the care of mosaics. By 2006, the WMF project was complete, though other areas of Hagia Sophia continue to require conservation.[28]<br /> <br /> Today, use of the complex as a place of worship (mosque or church) is strictly prohibited.[29] However, in 2006, it was reported that the Turkish government allowed the allocation of a small room in the museum complex to be used as a prayer room for Christian and Muslim museum staff.[30]<br /> <br /> Turkish fine arts photographer Ahmet Ertuğ's close-up pictures of the restored mosaics can be viewed in the upper northern gallery of the Hagia Sophia in a permanent exhibition.[31]<br /> [edit] Architecture<br /> A section of the original architecture of Hagia Sophia<br /> Groundplan of the Hagia Sophia<br /> One of the mighty stone columns with metal clasps<br /> <br /> Hagia Sophia is one of the greatest surviving examples of Byzantine architecture. Of great artistic value was its decorated interior with mosaics and marble pillars and coverings. The temple itself was so richly and artistically decorated that Justinian proclaimed, "Solomon, I have outdone thee!" (Νενίκηκά σε Σολομών). Justinian himself had overseen the completion of the greatest cathedral ever built up to that time, and it was to remain the largest cathedral for 1,000 years up until the completion of the cathedral in Seville in Spain.<br /> <br /> Justinian's basilica was at once the culminating architectural achievement of late antiquity and the first masterpiece of Byzantine architecture. Its influence, both architecturally and liturgically, was widespread and enduring in the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Muslim worlds alike. The largest columns are of granite, about 19 or 20 metres high and at least 1.5 metres in diameter; the largest weigh well over 70 tons apiece. Under Justinian's orders, eight Corinthian columns were disassembled from Baalbek, Lebanon and shipped to Constantinople for the construction of Hagia Sophia.[32]<br /> <br /> The vast interior has a complex structure. The nave is covered by a central dome 55.6 metres (182 ft 5 in) from floor level, supported in part by an arcade of 40 arched windows. Repairs to structure have left the dome somewhat elliptical - with the diameter varying between 31.24 m (102 ft 6 in) and 30.86 m (101 ft 3 in).<br /> <br /> The dome is carried on four concave triangular pendentives that serve to transition from the circular base of the dome to its rectangular base.[33] The weight of the dome passes through the pendentives to four massive piers at the corners; these were reinforced with buttresses during Ottoman times, under the guidance of the architect Mimar Sinan.<br /> <br /> At the western entrance and eastern liturgical side, the arched openings are extended by half domes carried on smaller semi-domed exedras; a hierarchy of dome-headed elements built up to create a vast oblong interior, crowned by the main dome. Despite all of the aforementioned features, the weight of the dome remained a problem, requiring the addition of external buttresses.<br /> <br /> Interior surfaces are sheathed with polychrome marbles, green and white with purple porphyry, and gold mosaics.<br /> <br /> The exterior, clad in stucco, was tinted yellow and red during a restorations in the 19th century on the direction of the architect Fossati.<br /> [edit] Dome<br /> See also: List of Byzantine inventions<br /> Interior of the Hagia Sophia by John Singer Sargent, 1891<br /> <br /> The dome of Hagia Sophia has spurred particular interest for many art historians, architects and engineers because of the innovative way the original architects envisioned the dome. The dome is supported by pendentives which had never been used before the building of this structure. The pendentive enables the dome to transition gracefully into the square shape of the piers below. The pendentives not only achieve a pleasing aesthetic quality, but they also restrain the lateral forces of the dome and allow the weight of the dome to flow downward.<br /> Hagia Sophia Dome Paintings, Photographed in 2010. The face of one of the four cherubs (the one in the upper left corner) covered by the Ottomans, is visible again since 2009.<br /> <br /> Although this design stabilizes the dome and the surrounding walls and arches, the actual construction of the walls of Hagia Sophia weakened the overall structure. The bricklayers used more mortar than brick, which weakened the walls. The structure would have been more stable if the builders at least let the mortar cure before they began the next layer; however, they did not do this. When the dome was placed atop the building, the weight of the dome caused the walls to lean outward because of the wet mortar underneath. When Isidorus the Younger rebuilt the original dome, he had to first build up the interior of the walls so that they were vertical in order to support the weight of the new dome. Another probable change in the design of the dome when it was rebuilt was the actual height of the dome. Isidore the Younger raised the height of the dome by approximately six metres so that the lateral forces would not be as strong and the weight of the dome would flow more easily down the walls.<br /> <br /> A second interesting fact about the original structure of the dome was how the architects were able to place forty windows around the base of the dome. Hagia Sophia is famous for the mystical quality of light that reflects everywhere in the interior of the nave, which gives the dome the appearance of hovering above the nave. This design is possible because the dome is shaped like a scalloped shell or the inside of an umbrella with ribs that extend from the top of the dome down to the base. These ribs allow the weight of the dome to flow between the windows, down the pendentives, and ultimately to the foundation.<br /> <br /> The unique character of the design of Hagia Sophia shows how this structure is one of the most advanced and ambitious monuments of late antiquity.<br /> [edit] Lustration urns<br /> Lustration urn from Pergamon<br /> <br /> Two huge marble lustration urns were brought from Pergamon during the reign of Sultan Murad III. Originally from the Hellenistic period, they are carved from single blocks of marble.<br /> [edit] Narthex and portals<br /> Imperial Gate<br /> <br /> The Imperial Gate was the main entrance between the exo- and esonarthex. It was reserved only for the emperor. The Byzantine mosaic above the portal depicts Christ and Emperor Leo VI the Wise.<br /> <br /> A long ramp from the northern part of the outer narthex leads up to the upper gallery.<br /> [edit] Upper Gallery<br /> <br /> The upper gallery is laid out in a horseshoe shape that encloses the nave until the apse. Several mosaics are preserved in the upper gallery, an area traditionally reserved for the empress and her court. The best-preserved mosaics are located in the southern part of the gallery.<br /> [edit] Loge of the Empress<br /> The Loge of the Empress<br /> <br /> The Loge of the Empress is located in the centre of the upper enclosure, or gallery, of the Hagia Sophia. From there the empress and the court-ladies would watch the proceedings down below. A round, green stone marks the spot where the throne of the empress stood.<br /> [edit] Marble Door<br /> Marble Door<br /> <br /> The Marble Door inside the Hagia Sophia is located in the southern upper enclosure, or gallery. It was used by the participants in synods, they entered and left the meeting chamber through this door.<br /> [edit] Decorations<br /> <br /> Originally, under Justinian's reign, the interior decorations consisted of abstract designs of the marble slabs on the walls and mosaics on the curving vaults. Of these, one can still see the two archangels Gabriel and Michael in the spandrels of the bema. There were already a few figurative decorations, as attested by the eulogy of Paul the Silentiary. The spandrels of the gallery are revetted in opus sectile, showing patterns and figures of flowers and birds in precisely cut pieces of white marble set against a background of black marble. In later stages figurative mosaics were added, which were destroyed during the iconoclastic controversy (726–843). Present mosaics are from the post-iconoclastic period. The number of treasures, relics and miracle-working, painted icons of the Hagia Sophia grew progressively richer into an amazing collection. Apart from the mosaics, a large number of figurative decorations were added during the second half of the 9th century: an image of Christ in the central dome; Orthodox saints, prophets and Church Fathers in the tympana below; historical figures connected with this church, such as Patriarch Ignatius; some scenes from the gospel in the galleries. Basil II let paint on each of the four pendentives a giant six-winged Cherub.[34] The Ottomans covered their face with a golden halo,[34] but in 2009 one of them has been restored to the original state.[35]<br /> [edit] Mosaics<br /> Mosaics with geometric pattern decorate the upper imperial gallery<br /> <br /> The church was richly decorated with mosaics throughout the centuries. They either depicted the Virgin Mother, Jesus, saints, or emperors and empresses. Other parts were decorated in a purely decorative style with geometric patterns.<br /> <br /> During the Sack of Constantinople in 1204, the Latin Crusaders vandalized valuable items in every important Byzantine structure of the city, including the golden mosaics of the Hagia Sophia. Many of these items were shipped to Venice, whose Doge, Enrico Dandolo, had organized the invasion and sack of Constantinople.<br /> <br /> Following the building's conversion into a mosque in 1453, many of its mosaics were covered with plaster, due to Islam's ban on representational imagery. This process was not completed at once, and reports exist from the 17th century in which travellers note that they could still see Christian images in the former church. In 1847–49, the building was restored by two Swiss Italian brothers, Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati, and Sultan Abdülmecid allowed them to also document any mosaics they might discover during this process. This work did not include repairing the mosaics and after recording the details about an image, the Fossatis painted it over again. This work included covering the previously uncovered faces of two seraphim mosaics located in the centre of the building. The building currently features a total of four of these images and two of them are restorations in paint created by the Fossatis to replace two images of which they could find no surviving remains. In other cases, the Fossatis recreated damaged decorative mosaic patterns in paint, sometimes redesigning them in the process. The Fossati records are the primary sources about a number of mosaic images now believed to have been completely or partially destroyed in an earthquake in 1894. These include a great mosaic of Christ Pantocrator in the dome, a mosaic over a now-unidentified Door of the Poor, a large image of a jewel-encrusted cross, and a large number of images of angels, saints, patriarchs, and church fathers. Most of the missing images were located in the building's two tympana. The Fossatis also added a pulpit (minbar) and the four large medallions on the walls of the nave bearing the names of Muhammad and Islam's first caliphs.<br /> Imperial gate mosaics<br /> [edit] Imperial Gate mosaic<br /> <br /> * Imperial Gate mosaics: located in the tympanum above the gate, used only by the emperors when entering the church. Based on style analysis, it has been dated to the late 9th or early 10th century. The emperor with a nimbus or halo could possibly represent emperor Leo VI the Wise or his son Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus bowing down before Christ Pantocrator, seated on a jeweled throne, giving His blessing and holding in His left hand an open book.[36] The text on the book reads as follows: "Peace be with you. I am the light of the world". (John 20:19; 20:26; 8:12) On each side of Christ's shoulders is a circular medallion: on His left the Archangel Gabriel , holding a staff, on His right His Mother Mary.<br /> <br /> [edit] Southwestern entrance mosaic<br /> Virgin and Child flanked by Justinian I and Constantine I<br /> <br /> * Southwestern entrance mosaics, situated in the tympanum of the southwestern entrance, date from 944. They were rediscovered during the restorations of 1849 by Fossati. The Virgin sits on a throne without a back, her feet resting on a pedestal, embellished with precious stones. The Child Christ sits on her lap, giving His blessing and holding a scroll in His left hand. On her left side stands emperor Constantine in ceremonial attire, presenting a model of the city to Mary. The inscription next to him says: "Great emperor Constantine of the Saints". On her right side stands emperor Justinian I, offering a model of the Hagia Sophia. The medallions on both sides of the Virgin's head carry the monograms MP and ΘY, an abbreviation of "Mētēr" and "Theou", meaning "Mother of God".<br /> <br /> <br /> [edit] Apse mosaics<br /> Apse mosaic of the Theotokos (Virgin Mother and Child)<br /> <br /> * Virgin and Child: this was the first of the post-iconoclastic mosaics. It was inaugurated on 29 March 867 by Patriarch Photius and the emperors Michael III and Basil I. This mosaic is situated in a high location on the half dome of the apse. Mary is sitting on a throne without a back, holding the Child Jesus on her lap. Her feet rest on a pedestal. Both the pedestal and the throne are adorned with precious stones. These mosaics were believed to be a reconstruction of the mosaics of the 6th century that were previously destroyed during the iconoclastic era by the Byzantines of that time, as represented in the inaugural sermon by the patriarch Photios. However, no record of figural decoration of Hagia Sophia exists before this time. The mosaics are set against the original golden background of the 6th century. The portraits of the archangels Gabriel and Michael (largely destroyed) in the bema of the arch also date from the 9th century.<br /> <br /> [edit] Emperor Alexander mosaic<br /> <br /> * The Emperor Alexander mosaic is not easy to find for the first-time visitor, located in the second floor in a dark corner of the ceiling. It depicts Emperor Alexander in full regalia, holding a scroll in his right hand and a globus cruciger in his left. A drawing by Fossati showed that the mosaic survived until 1849, and that Thomas Whittemore, founder of the Byzantine Institute of America who was granted permission to preserve the mosaics, assumed that it had been destroyed in the earthquake of 1894. Eight years after his death, the mosaic was discovered in 1958 largely through the researches of Robert Van Nice. Unlike most of the other mosaics in Hagia Sophia, which had been covered over by ordinary plaster, the Alexander mosaic was simply painted over and reflected the surrounding mosaic patterns and thus was well hidden. It was duly cleaned by the Byzantine Institute's successor to Whittemore, Paul A. Underwood.[37]<br /> <br /> [edit] Empress Zoe mosaics<br /> Empress Zoe mosaics<br /> <br /> * The Empress Zoe mosaics on the eastern wall of the southern gallery date from the 11th century. Christ Pantocrator, clad in the dark blue robe (as always the custom in Byzantine art), is seated in the middle against a golden background, giving His blessing with the right hand and holding the Bible in His left hand. On either side of His head are the monograms IC and XC, meaning Iēsous Khristos. He is flanked by Constantine IX Monomachus and Empress Zoe, both in ceremonial costumes. He is offering a purse, as symbol of the donation he made to the church, while she is holding a scroll, symbol of the donations she made. The inscription over the head of the emperor says : "Constantine, pious emperor in Christ the God, king of the Romans, Monomachus". The inscription over the head of the empress reads as follows : "Zoë, the very pious Augusta". The previous heads have been scraped off and replaced by the three present ones. Perhaps the earlier mosaic showed her first husband Romanus III Argyrus or her adopted son Michael IV. Another theory is that these mosaics were made for an earlier emperor and empress, with their heads changed into the present ones.<br /> <br /> *<br /> <br /> [edit] Comnenus mosaics<br /> Comnenus mosaic<br /> <br /> * The Comnenus mosaics, equally located on the eastern wall of the southern gallery, date from 1122. The Virgin Mary is standing in the middle, depicted, as usual in Byzantine art, in a dark blue gown. She holds the Child Christ on her lap. He gives His blessing with His right hand while holding a scroll in His left hand. On her right side stands emperor John II Comnenus, represented in a garb embellished with precious stones. He holds a purse, symbol of an imperial donation to the church. Empress Irene stands on the left side of the Virgin, wearing ceremonial garments and offering a document. Their eldest son Alexius Comnenus is represented on an adjacent pilaster. He is shown as a beardless youth, probably representing his appearance at his coronation aged seventeen. In this panel one can already see a difference with the Empress Zoe mosaics that is one century older. There is a more realistic expression in the portraits instead of an idealized representation. The empress is shown with plaited blond hair, rosy cheeks and grey eyes, revealing her Hungarian descent. The emperor is depicted in a dignified manner.<br /> <br /> [edit] Deësis mosaic<br /> <br /> Mosaic-1041.jpg<br /> The Deësis mosaic with Christ as ruler<br /> Detail of Deësis mosaic<br /> <br /> * The Deësis ('Δέησις' in Greek, meaning Entreaty) mosaic probably dates from 1261. It was commissioned to mark the end of 57 years of Roman Catholic use and the return to the Orthodox faith. It is the third panel situated in the imperial enclosure of the upper galleries. It is widely considered the finest in Hagia Sophia, because of the softness of the features, the humane expressions and the tones of the mosaic. The style is close to that of the Italian painters of the late 13th or early 14th century, such as Duccio. In this panel the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist (Ioannes Prodromos), both shown in three-quarters profile, are imploring the intercession of Christ Pantocrator for humanity on Judgment Day. The bottom part of this mosaic is badly deteriorated. This mosaic is considered as the beginning of the Renaissance in Byzantine pictorial art.<br /> <br /> [edit] Northern tympanon mosaics<br /> Mosaic in the northern tympanon depicting Saint John Chrysostom<br /> <br /> * The northern tympanon mosaics feature various saints. They have been able to survive due to the very high and unreachable location. They depict Saints John Chrysostom and Ignatius the Younger standing, clothed in white robes with crosses, and holding richly jewelled Holy Bibles. The names of each saint is given around the statues in Greek, in order to enable an identification for the visitor. The other mosaics in the other tympani have not survived probably due to the frequent earthquakes as opposed to any deliberate destruction by the Ottoman conquerors.<br /> <br /> [edit] 20th-century restoration<br /> The interior of the dome undergoing restoration<br /> <br /> A large number of mosaics were uncovered in the 1930s by a team from the Byzantine Institute of America led by Thomas Whittemore. The team chose to let a number of simple cross images remain covered by plaster, but uncovered all major mosaics found.<br /> <br /> Because of its long history as both a church and a mosque, a particular challenge arises in the restoration process. The Christian iconographic mosaics are being gradually uncovered. However, in order to do so, important, historic Islamic art would have to be destroyed. Restorers have attempted to maintain a balance between both Christian and Islamic cultures. In particular, much controversy rests upon whether the Islamic calligraphy on the dome of the cathedral should be removed, in order to permit the underlying Pantocrator mosaic of Christ as Master of the World, to be exhibited (assuming the mosaic still exists).[citation needed]<br /> [edit] Minarets<br /> <br /> One of the minarets (at southwest) was built from red brick while the other three were built from white limestone and sand stone; of which the slender one at northeast was erected by Sultan Bayezid II while the two larger minarets at west were erected by Sultan Selim II and designed by the famous Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan.[citation needed]<br /> [edit] See also<br /> <br /> * Church of the Holy Apostles — formerly the second most important church of Constantinople<br /> * Hagia Irene — neighbouring church<br /> * Chora Church — the best preserved Byzantine church in Istanbul, now a museum too<br /> * Oldest churches in the world<br /> * Pammakaristos Church; its parekklesion - also a museum - is decorated with beautiful mosaics<br /> * Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı — bath commissioned by Roxelana for the Hagia Sophia community<br /> * Caferağa Medresseh — former Koranic school next to Hagia Sophia<br /> * Soğukçeşme Sokağı — historical street between the Hagia Sophia and Topkapı Palace<br /> * Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev<br /> * Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod<br /> * Saint Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk<br /> * Hagia Sophia Church (Sofia)<br /> * Saint Clement Catholic Church, Chicago — the designer was said to have been influenced by Hagia Sophia<br /> * List of megalithic sites<br /> * Conversion of non-Muslim places of worship into mosques<br /> <br /> [edit] Notes<br /> <br /> 1. ^ Magdalino, Paul, et. al. "Istanbul: Buildings, Hagia Sophia" in Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. http://www.oxfordartonline.com. accessed 28 Feb. 2010.<br /> 2. ^ a b c Janin (1953), p. 471.<br /> 3. ^ McKenzie, Steven L. (1998). The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues. M. Patrick Graham. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 149. ISBN 0-6642-5652-X. <br /> 4. ^ Binns, John (2002). An Introduction to the Christian Orthodox Churches. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 57. ISBN 0-5216-6738-0. <br /> 5. ^ Simons, Marlise (22 August 1993). "Center of Ottoman Power". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html. Retrieved 2009-06-04. <br /> 6. ^ Kleiner, Fred S.; Christin J. Mamiya (2008). Gardner's Art Through the Ages: Volume I, Chapters 1-18 (12th ed.). Mason, OH: Wadsworth. p. 329. ISBN 0495467405. <br /> 7. ^ a b "Hagia Sophia." ArchNet.<br /> 8. ^ Alessandro E. FONI, George PAPAGIANNAKIS, Nadia MAGNENAT-THALMANN. "Virtual Hagia Sophia: Restitution, Visualization and Virtual Life Simulation" (PDF). Archived from the original on 2007-07-09. http://web.archive.org/web/20070709194035/http://www.virtualworldheritage.org/papers/3181_976-Virtual_Hagia_Sophia.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-03. <br /> 9. ^ a b c d e f Janin (1953), p. 472.<br /> 10. ^ a b c d Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 86.<br /> 11. ^ Emporis: Haghia Sophia<br /> 12. ^ Maranci, Christina. "The Architect Trdat: Building Practices and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Byzantium and Armenia." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 62, No. 3, Sep. 2003, pp. 294-305.<br /> 13. ^ a b c d e f g h i Müller-Wiener (1977), p. 91.<br /> 14. ^ Ali, Daniel and Spencer, Robert. Inside Islam. West Chester: Ascension Press, 2003, pp. 108-110, 112-118.<br /> 15. ^ Runciman, Steven (1965). The Fall of Constantinople, 1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 145. ISBN 0-5213-9832-0. <br /> 16. ^ Nicol, Donald M. The End of the Byzantine Empire. London: Edward Arnold Publishers, 1979, p. 88.<br /> 17. ^ a b Nicol. The End of the Byzantine Empire, p. 90.<br /> 18. ^ a b c Runciman. The Fall of Constantinople, p. 147.<br /> 19. ^ Runciman. The Fall of Constantinople, pp. 133-134.<br /> 20. ^ Nicol, Donald M. The Last Centuries of Byzantium 1261-1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972, p. 389.<br /> 21. ^ Runciman. The Fall of Constantinople, p. 149.<br /> 22. ^ Janin (1953), p. 475.<br /> 23. ^ a b Mamboury (1953), p. 288.<br /> 24. ^ Tafur, Pero (1926). Travels and Adventures, 1435-1439. Trans. M. Letts. London: G. Routledge. pp. 138–148. <br /> 25. ^ G. Gerola, “Le vedute di Costantinopoli di Cristoforo Buondemonti,” SBN 3 (1931): 247–79.<br /> 26. ^ Necipoglu (2005), pg. 13<br /> 27. ^ Mungan, I. (2004). Hagia Sophia and Mimar Sinan. Mungan & Wittek (eds); Taylor & Francis Group, London. pp. 383–384. ISBN 90 5809 642 4. http://books.google.be/books?hl=nl&lr=&id=6j5nuvAd44QC&oi=fnd&pg=PA383&dq=Sinan+earthquake+%22Hagia+Sophia%22&ots=HFASNZ8r-P&sig=zS-hO7E6RtwfhN55LGn6ulpRIE0#PPA383,M1. <br /> 28. ^ World Monuments Fund - Hagia Sophia<br /> 29. ^ http://www.istanbul.gov.tr/Default.aspx?pid=343<br /> 30. ^ İbadete açık Ayasofya (Turkish)<br /> 31. ^ Index of Ahmet Ertuğ's exhibitions.<br /> 32. ^ ____ Baalbek keeps its secrets<br /> 33. ^ Kleiner and Mamiya. Gardner's Art Through the Ages, p. 331.<br /> 34. ^ a b Mamboury (1953), p. 287<br /> 35. ^ Ronchey (2010), p. 157<br /> 36. ^ The Hagia Sophia Church<br /> 37. ^ Lord Kinross. "Hagia Sophia: A History of Constantinople." Newsweek,erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-60603286105061962612011-05-04T04:09:00.001-07:002011-05-04T04:09:58.988-07:00Grand Canyon<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> This article is about the canyon in the southwestern United States. For other Grand Canyons, see Grand Canyon (disambiguation).<br /> Grand Canyon<br /> <br /> View of the Colorado River flowing through the Grand Canyon from Hermit's Rest.<br /> Grand Canyon is located in Arizona<br /> Grand Canyon<br /> Arizona, United States<br /> Floor elevation approx. 2,600 feet (800 m)<br /> Long-axis length 277 miles (446 km)<br /> Width 4 to 18 miles (6.4 to 29 km)<br /> Coordinates 36°06′N 112°06′W / 36.1°N 112.1°W / 36.1; -112.1Coordinates: 36°06′N 112°06′W / 36.1°N 112.1°W / 36.1; -112.1<br /> <br /> The Grand Canyon is a steep-sided canyon carved by the Colorado River in the United States in the state of Arizona. It is largely contained within the Grand Canyon National Park, one of the first national parks in the United States. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of preservation of the Grand Canyon area, and visited it on numerous occasions to hunt and enjoy the scenery.<br /> <br /> The Grand Canyon is 277 miles (446 km) long, up to 18 miles (29 km) wide and attains a depth of over a mile (6,000 feet / 1,800 metres)[1] Nearly two billion years of the Earth's geological history have been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut their channels through layer after layer of rock while the Colorado Plateau was uplifted.[2] While the specific geologic processes and timing that formed the Grand Canyon are the subject of debate by geologists,[3] recent evidence suggests the Colorado River established its course through the canyon at least 17 million years ago.[4][5] Since that time, the Colorado River continued to erode and form the canyon to its present-day configuration.[6]<br /> <br /> Before European immigration, the area was inhabited by Native Americans who built settlements within the canyon and its many caves. The Pueblo people considered the Grand Canyon ("Ongtupqa" in Hopi language) a holy site and made pilgrimages to it.[7] The first European known to have viewed the Grand Canyon was García López de Cárdenas from Spain, who arrived in 1540.[8]<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 Geography<br /> * 2 Geology<br /> * 3 Human history<br /> o 3.1 Native Americans<br /> o 3.2 European arrival and settlement<br /> + 3.2.1 Spanish explorers<br /> + 3.2.2 American exploration<br /> + 3.2.3 Settlers in and near the canyon<br /> + 3.2.4 Federal protection<br /> * 4 South Rim buildings<br /> * 5 Weather<br /> o 5.1 Air pollution<br /> * 6 Biology and ecology<br /> o 6.1 Plants<br /> o 6.2 Animals<br /> o 6.3 Life zones and communities<br /> + 6.3.1 Lower Sonoran<br /> + 6.3.2 Upper Sonoran and Transition<br /> + 6.3.3 Canadian and Hudsonian<br /> * 7 Grand Canyon tourism<br /> o 7.1 Activities<br /> o 7.2 Viewing the canyon<br /> * 8 Grand Canyon fatalities<br /> o 8.1 1956 air disaster<br /> * 9 Evacuation<br /> * 10 See also<br /> * 11 References<br /> * 12 External links<br /> <br /> [edit] Geography<br /> Question book-new.svg<br /> This section needs additional citations for verification.<br /> Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2011)<br /> Satellite image of the Grand Canyon area<br /> <br /> The Grand Canyon is a huge rift in the Colorado Plateau that exposes uplifted Proterozoic and Paleozoic strata, and is also one of the 19 distinct physiographic sections of the Colorado Plateau province. It is not the deepest canyon in the world (Kali Gandaki Gorge in Nepal is far deeper), nor the widest (Capertee Valley in Australia is about 0.6 mi/1 km wider and longer than Grand Canyon); however, the Grand Canyon is known for its visually overwhelming size and its intricate and colorful landscape. Geologically it is significant because of the thick sequence of ancient rocks that are beautifully preserved and exposed in the walls of the canyon. These rock layers record much of the early geologic history of the North American continent.<br /> A map of the Grand Canyon and surrounding areas, circa 1908.<br /> <br /> Uplift associated with mountain formation later moved these sediments thousands of feet upward and created the Colorado Plateau. The higher elevation has also resulted in greater precipitation in the Colorado River drainage area, but not enough to change the Grand Canyon area from being semi-arid. The uplift of the Colorado Plateau is uneven, and the Kaibab Plateau that Grand Canyon bisects is over a thousand feet higher at the North Rim (about 1,000 ft/300 m) than at the South Rim. Almost all runoff from the North Rim (which also gets more rain and snow) flows toward the Grand Canyon, while much of the runoff on the plateau behind the South Rim flows away from the canyon (following the general tilt). The result is deeper and longer tributary washes and canyons on the north side and shorter and steeper side canyons on the south side.<br /> <br /> Temperatures on the North Rim are generally lower than the South Rim because of the greater elevation (averaging 8,000 ft/2,438 m above sea level).[9] Heavy rains are common on both rims during the summer months. Access to the North Rim via the primary route leading to the canyon (State Route 67) is limited during the winter season due to road closures. Views from the North Rim tend to give a better impression of the expanse of the canyon than those from the South Rim.<br /> [edit] Geology<br /> Main article: Geology of the Grand Canyon area<br /> Diagram showing the placement, age and thickness of the rock units exposed in the Grand Canyon.<br /> Rockfalls in recent times, along with other mass wasting, have further widened the canyon.<br /> <br /> The Colorado River basin (of which the Grand Canyon is a part) has developed in the past 40 million years. A recent study places the origins of the canyon beginning some 17 million years ago. Previous estimates had placed the age of the canyon at 5 to 6 million years. The study, which was published in the journal Science in 2008, used uranium-lead dating to analyze calcite deposits found on the walls of nine caves throughout the canyon.[10] There is a substantial amount of controversy because this research suggests such a substantial departure from prior widely supported scientific consensus.[11]<br /> <br /> The result of all this erosion is one of the most complete geologic columns on the planet.<br /> <br /> The major geologic exposures in the Grand Canyon range in age from the 2 billion year old Vishnu Schist at the bottom of the Inner Gorge to the 230 million year old Kaibab Limestone on the Rim. There is a gap of about one billion years between the stratum that is about 500 million years old and the lower level, which is about 1.5 billion years old. This large unconformity indicates a period of erosion between two periods of deposition.<br /> <br /> Many of the formations were deposited in warm shallow seas, near-shore environments (such as beaches), and swamps as the seashore repeatedly advanced and retreated over the edge of a proto-North America. Major exceptions include the Permian Coconino Sandstone, which contains abundant geological evidence of aeolian sand dune deposition. Several parts of the Supai Group also were deposited in non–marine environments.<br /> <br /> The great depth of the Grand Canyon and especially the height of its strata (most of which formed below sea level) can be attributed to 5,000 to 10,000 feet (1500 to 3000 m) of uplift of the Colorado Plateau, starting about 65 million years ago (during the Laramide Orogeny). This uplift has steepened the stream gradient of the Colorado River and its tributaries, which in turn has increased their speed and thus their ability to cut through rock (see the elevation summary of the Colorado River for present conditions).<br /> <br /> Weather conditions during the ice ages also increased the amount of water in the Colorado River drainage system. The ancestral Colorado River responded by cutting its channel faster and deeper.<br /> <br /> The base level and course of the Colorado River (or its ancestral equivalent) changed 5.3 million years ago when the Gulf of California opened and lowered the river's base level (its lowest point). This increased the rate of erosion and cut nearly all of the Grand Canyon's current depth by 1.2 million years ago. The terraced walls of the canyon were created by differential erosion.[12]<br /> <br /> Between three million and 100,000 years ago, volcanic activity deposited ash and lava over the area which at times completely obstructed the river. These volcanic rocks are the youngest in the canyon.<br /> [edit] Human history<br /> Main article: History of the Grand Canyon area<br /> Grand Canyon from the South Rim, near the NPS Visitor Center<br /> Ancestral Puebloean granaries at Nankoweap Creek.<br /> Eagle Rock (located at Eagle Point) on the west rim, aptly named for its shape, is considered sacred by the Hualapai Indians.<br /> [edit] Native Americans<br /> Main article: Ancient Pueblo Peoples<br /> <br /> The Ancient Pueblo People were a Native American culture centered on the present-day Four Corners area of the United States. The Ancient Puebloans were the first people to live in the Grand Canyon area. The cultural group has often been referred to in archaeology as the Anasazi, although the term is not preferred by the modern Puebloan peoples. The word "Anasazi" is Navajo for "Ancient Ones" or "Ancient Enemy".[13]<br /> <br /> Archaeologists still debate when this distinct culture emerged. The current consensus, based on terminology defined by the Pecos Classification, suggests their emergence around 1200 BC, during the archaeologically designated Basketmaker II Era. Beginning with the earliest explorations and excavations, researchers have believed that the Ancient Puebloans are ancestors of the modern Pueblo peoples.[13]<br /> <br /> In addition to the Ancestral Puebloans, a number of distinct cultures inhabited the Grand Canyon area. The Cohonina lived to the west of the Grand Canyon, between 500 and 1200 AD.[14][15] The Cohonina were ancestors of the Yuman, Havasupai, and Walapai peoples who inhabit the area today.[16]<br /> <br /> The Sinagua were a cultural group occupying an area to the southeast of the Grand Canyon, between the Little Colorado River and the Salt River, between approximately 500 AD and 1425 AD. The Sinagua may have been ancestors of several Hopi clans.<br /> <br /> By the time of the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century, newer cultures had evolved. The Hualapai inhabited a 100-mile (160 km) stretch along the pine-clad southern side of the Grand Canyon. The Havasupai lived in the area near Cataract Canyon since 1200 AD, occupying an area the size of Delaware.[17] The Southern Paiutes lived in what is now southern Utah and northern Arizona. The Navajo or Diné, lived in a wide area stretching from the San Francisco Peaks eastwards towards the Four Corners. Archaeological and linguistic evidence suggests the Navajo descended from the Athabaskan people near Great Slave Lake, Canada, who migrated in approximately 1000 AD.[18]<br /> [edit] European arrival and settlement<br /> [edit] Spanish explorers<br /> <br /> In September 1540, under orders from the conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado to search for the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola, Captain Garcia Lopez de Cardenas, along with Hopi guides and a small group of Spanish soldiers, traveled to the South Rim of the Grand Canyon between Desert View and Moran Point. Pablo de Melgrossa, Juan Galeras, and a third soldier descended some one third of the way into the Canyon until they were forced to return because of lack of water. In their report, they noted that some of the rocks in the Canyon were "bigger than the great tower of Seville."[19] It is speculated that their Hopi guides must have been reluctant to lead them to the river, since they must have known routes to the canyon floor. Afterwards, no Europeans visited the Canyon for over two hundred years.<br /> <br /> Fathers Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante were two Spanish priests who, with a group of Spanish soldiers, explored southern Utah and traveled along the North Rim of the Canyon in Glen and Marble Canyons in search of a route from Santa Fe to California in 1776. They eventually found a crossing that today lies under Lake Powell.<br /> <br /> Also in 1776, Fray Francisco Garces, a Franciscan missionary, spent a week near Havasupai, unsuccessfully attempting to convert a band of Native Americans to Christianity. He described the Canyon as "profound".[19]<br /> [edit] American exploration<br /> Question book-new.svg<br /> This section needs additional citations for verification.<br /> Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2011)<br /> <br /> James Ohio Pattie, along with a group of American trappers and mountain men, may have been the next European to reach the Canyon in 1826.[20]<br /> <br /> Jacob Hamblin, (a Mormon missionary), was sent by Brigham Young in the 1850s to locate easy river crossing sites in the Canyon. Building good relations with local Native Americans and white settlers, he discovered the Crossing of the Fathers, Lee's Ferry in 1858 and Pierce Ferry (later operated by, and named for, Harrison Pierce) – the latter two the only two sites suitable for ferry operation.[citation needed] He also acted as an advisor to John Wesley Powell before his second expedition to the Grand Canyon, serving as a diplomat between Powell and the local native tribes to ensure the safety of his party.<br /> <br /> In 1857, Edward Fitzgerald Beale was superintendent of an expedition to survey a wagon road along the 35th parallel from Fort Defiance, Arizona to the Colorado River. He led a small party of men in search of water on the Coconino Plateau near the Canyon's South Rim. On September 19, near present day National Canyon, they came upon what May Humphreys Stacey described in his journal as "...a wonderful canyon four thousand feet deep. Everyone (in the party) admitted that he never before saw anything to match or equal this astonishing natural curiosity."<br /> <br /> Also in 1857, the U.S. War Department asked Lieutenant Joseph Ives to lead an expedition to assess the feasibility of an up-river navigation from the Gulf of California. Also in a stern wheeler steamboat "Explorer", after two months and 350 miles (560 km) of difficult navigation, his party reached Black Canyon some two months after George Johnson.[citation needed] The "Explorer" struck a rock and was abandoned. Ives led his party east into the Canyon — they may have been the first Europeans to travel the Diamond Creek drainage and traveled eastwards along the South Rim. In his "Colorado River of the West" report to the Senate in 1861 he states that "One or two trappers profess to have seen the canon."<br /> Noon rest in Marble Canyon, second Powell Expedition, 1872<br /> <br /> According to the San Francisco Herald, in a series of articles run in 1853, they give this honor to Captain Joseph R. Walker, who in January 1851 with his nephew James T. Walker and six men, traveled up the Colorado River to a point where it joined the Virgin River and continued east into Arizona, traveling along the Grand Canyon and making short exploratory side trips along the way.<br /> <br /> Walker said he wanted to visit the Moqui Indians, as the Hopi were then called by whites. He had met these people briefly in previous years, thought them exceptionally interesting and wanted to become better acquainted. The Herald reporter took it from there, writing: "We believe that Capt. Joe Walker is the only white man in this country that has ever visited this strange people."<br /> <br /> In 1858, John Strong Newberry became probably the first geologist to visit the Grand Canyon.<br /> <br /> In 1869, Major John Wesley Powell led the first expedition down the Grand Canyon. Powell set out to explore the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon. Gathering nine men, four boats and food for 10 months, he set out from Green River, Wyoming on May 24. Passing through dangerous rapids, the group passed down the Green River to its confluence with the Colorado River, near present-day Moab, Utah and completed the journey with many hardships through the Grand Canyon on August 13, 1869.[21]<br /> <br /> In 1889, Frank M. Brown wanted to build a railroad along the Colorado River to carry coal. He, his chief engineer Robert Brewster Stanton, and 14 others started to explore the Grand Canyon in poorly-designed cedar wood boats, with no life preservers. Brown drowned in an accident near Marble Canyon: Stanton made new boats and proceeded to explore the Colorado all of the way to the Gulf of California.[22]<br /> <br /> In 1908, the Grand Canyon[23] became an official national monument and became a national park in 1919.<br /> [edit] Settlers in and near the canyon<br /> <br /> * Miners: "Captain" John Hance, William W. Bass, Louis Boucher "The Hermit", Seth Tanner, Charles Spencer, D. W. "James" Mooney<br /> * Lees Ferry: John Doyle Lee, Emma Lee French (17th of John Lee's 19 wives), J. S. Emmett, Charles Spencer<br /> * Phantom Ranch: David Rust, Mary Colter<br /> * Grand Canyon Village: Ralph H. Cameron<br /> <br /> [edit] Federal protection<br /> <br /> U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt visited the Grand Canyon in 1903. An avid outdoorsman and staunch conservationist, he established the Grand Canyon Game Preserve on November 28, 1906. Livestock grazing was reduced, but predators such as mountain lions, eagles, and wolves were eradicated. Roosevelt added adjacent national forest lands and redesignated the preserve a U.S. National Monument on January 11, 1908. Opponents such as land and mining claim holders blocked efforts to reclassify the monument as a U.S. National Park for 11 years. Grand Canyon National Park was finally established as the 17th U.S. National Park by an Act of Congress signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on February 26, 1919.[14]<br /> <br /> The federal government administrators who manage park resources face many challenges. These include issues related to the recent reintroduction into the wild of the highly endangered California condor, air tour overflight noise levels, water rights disputes with various tribal reservations that border the park, and forest fire management. The Grand Canyon National Park superintendent is Steve Martin. Martin was named superintendent on February 5, 2007, to replace retiring superintendent Joe Alston. Martin was previously the National Park Service Deputy Director and superintendent of several other national parks, including Denali and Grand Teton.[24] Federal officials started a flood in the Grand Canyon in hopes of restoring its ecosystem on March 5, 2008. The canyon's ecosystem was permanently changed after the construction of the Glen Canyon Dam in 1963.[25]<br /> <br /> Between 2003 and 2011, 2,215 mining claims have been requested that are adjacent to the Canyon, including claims for uranium mines. Mining has been suspended since 2009, when U.S. Interior Secretary Ken Salazar temporarily withdrew 1 million acres (4,000 km2) from the permitting process, pending assessment of the environmental impact of mining. Critics of the mines are concerned that, once mined, the uranium will leach into the water of the Colorado River and contaminate the water supply for up to 18 million people.[26]<br /> [edit] South Rim buildings<br /> <br /> There are several historical buildings located along the South Rim with most in the vicinity of Grand Canyon Village.<br /> Desert View Watchtower in 2004<br /> <br /> * Buckey O'Neill Cabin was built during the 1890s by William Owen "Buckey" O'Neill. He built the cabin because of a copper deposit that was nearby. He had several occupations such as miner, judge, politician, author and tour guide. This cabin is the longest continually standing structure in the South Rim. It is currently used as a guest house; booking is required well in advance.<br /> <br /> * Kolb Studio was built in 1904 by brothers Ellsworth and Emery Kolb. They were photographers who made a living by photographing visitors walking down the Bright Angel Trail. In 1911, the Kolb brothers filmed their journey down the Green and Colorado Rivers. Emery Kolb showed this movie regularly in his studio until 1976, when he died at the age of 95. Today the building serves as an art gallery and exhibit.<br /> <br /> * The El Tovar Hotel was built in 1905 and is the most luxurious lodging on the South Rim. The hotel consists of 4 stories with a rustic chalet appearance. It was designed by Charles Whittlesley. A gift shop and restaurant are located inside the hotel.<br /> <br /> * Hopi House was built by Mary Jane Colter in 1905. It is based on structures that were built in an ancient Hopi settlement called Old Oraibi, located on the Third Mesa in eastern Arizona. It served as a residence for the Hopi Indians who sold arts and crafts to visitors in the South Rim.<br /> <br /> * Verkamp's Curios, which stands next to the Hopi House, was built by John Verkamp in 1905. He sold arts and crafts as well as souvenirs. Until September 2008, it was run by his descendants; in November 2008 the building reopened as a visitor center focusing on the history of the Grand Canyon Village community.<br /> <br /> * Grand Canyon Railway Depot was built in 1909 and contains 2 levels. Gordon Chappell, Regional Historian for the Park Service, claims that this depot building is one of only three log-cabin-style train stations currently standing out of fourteen ever built in the U.S.[27] The depot is the northern terminus of the Grand Canyon Railway which begins in Williams, Arizona.<br /> <br /> * Lookout Studio was built in 1914 and is another structure that was designed by Mary Colter. Photography artwork, books, souvenirs, and rock and fossil specimens are sold here. A great view of Bright Angel Trail can be seen here.<br /> <br /> * Desert View Watchtower was built in 1932 and is one of Mary Colter's best-known works. Situated at the far eastern end of the South Rim, 27 miles (43 km) from Grand Canyon Village, the tower sits on a 7,400 foot (2,256 m) promontory. It offers one of the few views of the bottom of the Canyon and the Colorado River. It is designed to mimic an Anasazi watchtower though it is larger than existing ones.[28]<br /> <br /> * Bright Angel Lodge was built of logs and stone in 1935. Mary Colter designed the lodge and it was built by Fred Harvey. Inside the lodge is a small museum honoring Fred Harvey, who played a major role in popularizing the Grand Canyon. In the history room is a fireplace that is made of stone from the South Rim that is layered in the same sequence as in the canyon.<br /> <br /> [edit] Weather<br /> A storm over the Grand Canyon<br /> <br /> Weather in the Grand Canyon varies according to elevation. The forested rims are high enough to receive winter snowfall, but along the Colorado River in the Inner Gorge, temperatures are similar to those found in Tucson and other low elevation desert locations in Arizona. Conditions in the Grand Canyon region are generally dry, but substantial precipitation occurs twice annually, during seasonal pattern shifts in winter (when Pacific storms usually deliver widespread, moderate rain and high-elevation snow to the region from the west) and in late summer (due to the North American Monsoon, which delivers waves of moisture from the southeast, causing dramatic, localized thunderstorms fueled by the heat of the day).[29] Average annual precipitation on the South Rim is less than 16 inches (35 cm), with 60 inches (132 cm) of snow, the higher North Rim usually receives 27 inches (59 cm) of moisture, with a typical snowfall of 144 inches (317 cm), and Phantom Ranch, far below the Canyon's rims along the Colorado River at 2,500 feet (762 m) gets just 8 inches (17.6 cm) of rain, and snow is a rarity. The weather is different on the north rim and south rim.<br /> Grand Canyon covered with snow<br /> <br /> Temperatures vary wildly throughout the year, with summer highs within the Inner Gorge commonly exceeding 100 °F (37.8 °C) and winter minimum temperatures sometimes falling below zero degrees Fahrenheit (−17.8 °C) along the canyon's rims.[29] Visitors are often surprised by these potentially extreme conditions, and this, along with the high altitude of the canyon's rims, can lead to unpleasant side effects such as dehydration, sunburn, and hypothermia.<br /> <br /> Weather conditions can greatly affect hiking and canyon exploration, and visitors should obtain accurate forecasts because of hazards posed by exposure to extreme temperatures, winter storms and late summer monsoons. While the park service posts weather information at gates and visitor centers, this is a rough approximation only, and should not be relied upon for trip planning. For accurate weather in the Canyon, hikers should consult the National Weather Service's NOAA weather radio or the official National Weather Service website.[30]<br /> <br /> The National Weather Service has had a cooperative station on the South Rim since 1903. The record high temperature on the South Rim was 105°F on June 26, 1974, and the record low temperature was −20°F on January 1, 1919, February 1, 1985, and December 23, 1990.[31][32][33]<br /> [edit] Air pollution<br /> Brown cloud of air pollution visible from Yavapai Point, April 2007<br /> <br /> The Grand Canyon has suffered some problems with air pollution, attributed to the nearby Navajo Generating Station, a coal-burning power plant. In 1991 an agreement was reached with the Navajo Generating Station in Page, Arizona, to add air pollution control devices to their smokestacks.[34]<br /> [edit] Biology and ecology<br /> [edit] Plants<br /> <br /> There are approximately 1,737 known species of vascular plants, 167 species of fungi, 64 species of moss and 195 species of lichen found in Grand Canyon National Park.[35] This variety is largely due to the 8,000 foot elevation change from the Colorado River up to the highest point on the North Rim.[35] Grand Canyon boasts a dozen endemic plants (known only within the Park's boundaries) while only ten percent of the Park's flora is exotic.[35] Sixty-three plants found here have been given special status by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.[35]<br /> <br /> The Mojave Desert influences the western sections of the canyon, Sonoran Desert vegetation covers the eastern sections, and ponderosa and pinyon pine forests grow on both rims.[36]<br /> <br /> Natural seeps and springs percolating out of the canyon walls are home to 11% of all the plant species found in the Grand Canyon.[36] The Canyon itself can act as a connection between the east and the west by providing corridors of appropriate habitat along its length.[36] The canyon can also be a genetic barrier to some species, like the Tassel-eared squirrel.[36]<br /> <br /> The aspect, or direction a slope faces, also plays a major role in adding diversity to the Grand Canyon. North-facing slopes receive about one-third the normal amount of sunlight, so plants growing there are similar to plants found at higher elevations, or in more northern latitudes.[36] The south-facing slopes receive the full amount of sunlight and are covered in vegetation typical of the Sonoran Desert.[36]<br /> [edit] Animals<br /> <br /> Of the 34 mammal species found along the Colorado River corridor, 15 are rodents and eight are bats.[37]<br /> [edit] Life zones and communities<br /> <br /> The Park contains several major ecosystems.[9] Its great biological diversity can be attributed to the presence of five of the seven life zones and three of the four desert types in North America.[9] The five life zones represented are the Lower Sonoran, Upper Sonoran, Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian.[9] This is equivalent to traveling from Mexico to Canada. Differences in elevation and the resulting variations in climate are the major factors that form the various life zones and communities in and around the canyon. Grand Canyon National Park contains 129 vegetation communities, and the composition and distribution of plant species is influenced by climate, geomorphology and geology.[35]<br /> [edit] Lower Sonoran<br /> A bighorn ewe at the Grand Canyon, 2008<br /> <br /> The Lower Sonoran life zone spans from the Colorado River up to 3500 feet. Along the Colorado River and its perennial tributaries, a riparian community exists.[35] Coyote willow, arrowweed, seep-willow, western honey mesquite, catclaw acacia, and exotic tamarisk (saltcedar) are the predominant species.[35] Hanging gardens, seeps and springs often contain rare plants such as the white-flowering western redbud, stream orchid, and McDougall's flaveria.[35] Endangered fish in the river include the humpback chub and the razorback sucker.[38]<br /> <br /> The three most common amphibians in these riparian communities are the canyon tree frog, red-spotted toad, and Woodhouse’s Rocky Mountain toad.[39] Leopard frogs are very rare in the Colorado River corridor, and are known to exist at only a few sites.[39] There are 33 crustacean species found in the Colorado River and its tributaries within Grand Canyon National Park. Of these 33, 16 are considered true zooplankton organisms.[40]<br /> <br /> Only 48 bird species regularly nest along the river, while others use the river as a migration corridor or as overwintering habitat. The bald eagle is one species that uses the river corridor as winter habitat.[41]<br /> <br /> River otters may have disappeared from the park in late 20th century, and muskrats are extremely rare.[37] Beavers cut willows, cottonwoods, and shrubs for food, and can significantly affect the riparian vegetation.[37] Other rodents, such as antelope squirrels and pocket mice, are mostly omnivorous, using many different vegetation types.[37] Grand Canyon bats typically roost in desert uplands, but forage on the abundance of insects along the river and its tributaries.[37] In addition to bats, coyotes, ringtails, and spotted skunks are the most numerous riparian predators and prey on invertebrates, rodents, and reptiles.[37]<br /> <br /> Raccoons, weasels, bobcats, gray foxes, and mountain lions are also present, but are much more rare.[37] Mule deer and desert bighorn sheep are the ungulates that frequent the river corridor. Since the removal of 500 feral burros in the early 1980s, bighorn sheep numbers have rebounded.[37] Mule deer are generally not permanent residents along the river, but travel down from the rim when food and water resources there become scarce.[37]<br /> <br /> The insect species commonly found in the river corridor and tributaries are midges, caddis flies, mayflies, stoneflies, black flies, mites, beetles, butterflies, moths, and fire ants.[42] Numerous species of spiders and several species of scorpions including the bark scorpion and the giant desert hairy scorpion inhabit the riparian zone.[42]<br /> <br /> Eleven aquatic and 26 terrestrial species of mollusks have been identified in and around Grand Canyon National Park.[43] Of the aquatic species, two are bivalves (clams) and nine are gastropods (snails).[43] Twenty-six species of terrestrial gastropods have been identified, primarily land snails and slugs.[43]<br /> <br /> There are a approximately 47 reptile species in Grand Canyon National Park. Ten are considered common along the river corridor and include lizards and snakes.[44] Lizard density tends to be highest along the stretch of land between the water's edge and the beginning of the upland desert community.[44] The two largest lizards in the Canyon are gila monsters and chuckwallas.[44] Many snake species, which are not directly dependent on surface water, may be found both within the inner gorge and the Colorado River corridor. Six rattlesnake species have been recorded in the park.[44]<br /> <br /> Above the river corridor a desert scrub community, composed of North American desert flora, thrives. Typical warm desert species such as creosote bush, white bursage, brittle brush, catclaw acacia, ocotillo, mariola, western honey mesquite, four-wing saltbush, big sagebrush, blackbrush and rubber rabbitbrush grow in this community.[35] The mammalian fauna in the woodland scrub community consists of 50 species, mostly rodents and bats.[37] Three of the five Park woodrat species live in the desert scrub community.[37]<br /> <br /> Except for the western (desert) banded gecko, which seems to be distributed only near water along the Colorado River, all of the reptiles found near the river also appear in the uplands, but in lower densities.[44] The desert gopher tortoise, a threatened species, inhabits the desert scrublands in the western end of the park.[44]<br /> <br /> Some of the common insects found at elevations above 2,000 feet are orange paper wasps, honey bees, black flies, tarantula hawks, stink bugs, beetles, black ants, and monarch and swallowtail butterflies.[42] Solpugids, wood spiders, garden spiders, black widow spiders and tarantulas can are found in the desert scrub and higher elevations.[42]<br /> [edit] Upper Sonoran and Transition<br /> A California Condor in flight, photographed from Navajo Bridge at Marble Canyon, 2008. Wild condors are numbered to aid wildlife researchers. As of April 2009, there were 172 wild California condors known.<br /> <br /> The Upper Sonoran Life Zone includes most of the inner canyon and South Rim at elevations from 3,500 to 7,000 feet.[36] This zone is generally dominated by blackbrush, sagebrush, and pinyon-juniper woodlands. Elevations of 3,500 to 4,000 feet are in the Mojave Desert Scrub community of the Upper Sonoran. This community is dominated by the four-winged saltbush and creosote bush; other important plants include Utah agave, narrowleaf mesquite, ratany, catclaw, and various cacti species.[36]<br /> <br /> Approximately 30 bird species breed primarily in the desert uplands and cliffs of the inner canyon.[41] Virtually all bird species present breed in other suitable habitats throughout the Sonoran and Mohave deserts.[41] The abundance of bats, swifts, and riparian birds provides ample food for peregrines, and suitable eyrie sites are plentiful along the steep canyon walls. Also, several endangered California Condors that were re-introduced to the Colorado Plateau on the Arizona Strip, have made the eastern part of the Park their home.[41]<br /> <br /> The conifer forests provide habitat for 52 mammal species.[37] Porcupines, shrews, red squirrels, tassel eared Kaibab and Abert's squirrels, black bear, mule deer, and elk are found at the park's higher elevations on the Kaibab Plateau.[37]<br /> <br /> Above the desert scrub and up to 6,200 feet is a pinyon pine forest and one seed juniper woodland.[35] Within this woodland one can find big sagebrush, snakeweed, Mormon tea, Utah agave, banana and narrowleaf Yucca, winterfat, Indian ricegrass, dropseed, and needlegrass.[35] There are a variety of snakes and lizards here, but one species of reptile, the mountain short-horned Lizard, is a particularly abundant inhabitant of the piñon-juniper and ponderosa pine forests.[44]<br /> <br /> Ponderosa pine forests grow at elevations between 6,500 feet and 8,200 feet, on both North and South rims in the Transition life zone.[35] The South Rim is includes species such as gray fox, mule deer, bighorn sheep, rock squirrels, pinyon pine and Utah juniper.[36] Additional species such as Gambel oak, New Mexico locust, mountain mahogany, elderberry, creeping mahonia, and fescue have been identified in these forests.[35] The Utah tiger salamander and the Great Basin spadefoot toad are two amphibians that are common in the rim forests.[39] Of the approximately 90 bird species that breed in the coniferous forests, 51 are summer residents and at least 15 of these are known to be neotropical migrants.[41]<br /> [edit] Canadian and Hudsonian<br /> <br /> Elevations of 8,200 to 9,000 feet are in the Canadian Life Zone, which includes the North Rim and the Kaibab Plateau.[36] Spruce-fir forests characterized by Englemann spruce, blue spruce, Douglas fir, white fir, aspen, and mountain ash, along with several species of perennial grasses, groundsels, yarrow, cinquefoil, lupines, sedges, and asters, grow in this sub-alpine climate.[35] Mountain lions, Kaibab squirrels, and northern goshawks are found here.[36]<br /> <br /> Montane meadows and subalpine grassland communities of the Hudsonian life zone are rare and located only on the North Rim.[35] Both are typified by many grass species. Some of these grasses include blue and black grama, big galleta, Indian ricegrass and three-awns.[35] The wettest areas support sedges and forbs.[35]<br /> [edit] Grand Canyon tourism<br /> <br /> Grand Canyon National Park is one of the world’s premier natural attractions, attracting about five million visitors per year. Overall, 83% were from the United States: California (12.2%), Arizona (8.9%), Texas (4.8%), Florida (3.4%) and New York (3.2%) represented the top domestic visitors. Seventeen percent of visitors were from outside the United States; the most prominently represented nations were the United Kingdom (3.8%), Canada (3.5%), Japan (2.1%), Germany (1.9%) and The Netherlands (1.2%).[45]<br /> [edit] Activities<br /> Further information: Grand Canyon travel guide from Wikitravel<br /> Rafters in the Grand Canyon pass one of the rapids of the (mud-)"colored" Colorado River<br /> <br /> Aside from casual sightseeing from the South Rim (averaging 7,000 feet [2,100 m] above sea level), rafting, hiking, running and helicopter tours[46] are especially popular. In October 2010 the North Rim is the host to an ultramarathon. The Grand Canyon Ultra Marathon is a 78-mile (126 km) race over 24 hours. The floor of the valley is accessible by foot, muleback, or by boat or raft from upriver. Hiking down to the river and back up to the rim in one day is discouraged by park officials because of the distance, steep and rocky trails, change in elevation, and danger of heat exhaustion from the much higher temperatures at the bottom. Rescues are required annually of unsuccessful rim-to-river-to-rim travelers. Nevertheless, hundreds of fit and experienced hikers complete the trip every year.<br /> <br /> Camping on the North and South Rims is generally restricted to established campgrounds and reservations are highly recommended, especially at the busier South Rim. There is at large camping available along many parts of the North Rim managed by Kaibab National Forest. Keep in mind North Rim campsites are only open seasonally due to road closures from weather and winter snowpack. All overnight camping below the rim requires a backcountry permit from the Backcountry Office (BCO).[47] Each year Grand Canyon National Park receives approximately 30,000 requests for backcountry permits. The park issues 13,000 permits, and close to 40,000 people camp overnight.[47] The earliest a permit application is accepted is the first of the month, four months before the proposed start month.<br /> Grand canyon.ogg<br /> Play video<br /> A 6 minute video of a flight over the Grand Canyon (view in high quality)<br /> <br /> Tourists wishing for a more vertical perspective can board helicopters and small airplanes in Las Vegas, Phoenix and Grand Canyon National Park Airport (seven miles from the South Rim) for canyon flyovers. Scenic flights are no longer allowed to fly within 1500 feet of the rim within the national park because of a late 1990s crash. Maverick Helicopter offers a tour that descends and lands 3,500 feet into the Grand Canyon in Hualapai Indian Territory.[48] The last aerial video footage from below the rim was filmed in 1984. However, some helicopter flights land on the Havasupai and Hualapai Indian Reservations within Grand Canyon (outside of the park boundaries). Recently, the Hualapai Tribe opened the glass-bottomed Grand Canyon Skywalk on their property, Grand Canyon West. The Skywalk has seen mixed reviews since the site is only accessible by driving down a 10-mile (16 km) dirt road, costs a minimum of $85 in total for reservation fees, a tour package and admission to the Skywalk itself and the fact that cameras or other personal equipment are not permitted on the Skywalk at any time due to the hazard of damaging the glass if dropped. The Skywalk is some 24 miles (39 km) west of Grand Canyon Village at the South Rim.<br /> [edit] Viewing the canyon<br /> Guano Point - a popular vantage point for tourists, situated on the West Rim of the Grand Canyon<br /> <br /> Lipan Point is a promontory located on the South Rim. This point is located to the east of the Grand Canyon Village along the Desert View Drive. There is a parking lot for visitors who care to drive along with the Canyon's bus service that routinely stops at the point. The trailhead to the Tanner Trail is located just before the parking lot. The view from Lipan Point shows a wide array of rock strata and the Unkar Creek area in the inner canyon.<br /> Aerial view of the less-visited lower Grand Canyon, down river from (west of) Toroweap Overlook<br /> <br /> The canyon can be seen from the Toroweap (or Tuweep) Overlook situated 3000 vertical feet above the Colorado River, about 50 miles downriver from the South Rim and 70 upriver from the Grand Canyon Skywalk. This region — "one of the most remote in the United States" according to the National Park Service — is reached only by one of three lengthy dirt tracks beginning in from St. George, Utah, Colorado City or near Pipe Spring National Monument (both in Arizona). Each road traverses wild, uninhabited land for 97, 62 and 64 miles respectively. The Park Service manages the area for primitive value with minimal improvements and services.<br /> [edit] Grand Canyon fatalities<br /> Grand Canyon rescue Helicopter, 1978<br /> <br /> About 600 deaths have occurred in the Grand Canyon since the 1870s. Some of these deaths occurred as the result of overly zealous photographic endeavors, some were the result of airplane collisions within the canyon, and some visitors drowned in the Colorado River.[citation needed] Many hikers overestimate their fitness level, become dehydrated and confused, and must be rescued. The Park Service now posts a picture of an attractive and fit young man at several trailheads with the caption "Every year we rescue hundreds of people from the Canyon. Most of them look like him", in an attempt to discourage hikers from feats which are beyond their abilities.<br /> <br /> Of the fatalities, 53 have resulted from falls; 65 deaths were attributable to environmental causes, including heat stroke, cardiac arrest, dehydration, and hypothermia; 7 were caught in flash floods; 79 were drowned in the Colorado River; 242 perished in airplane and helicopter crashes (128 of them in the 1956 disaster mentioned below); 25 died in freak errors and accidents, including lightning strikes and rock falls; 48 committed suicide; and 23 were the victims of homicides.[49]<br /> [edit] 1956 air disaster<br /> Main article: 1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision<br /> <br /> In 1956 the Grand Canyon was the site of the deadliest commercial aviation disaster in history at the time.<br /> <br /> On the morning of June 30, 1956, a TWA Lockheed Super Constellation and a United Airlines Douglas DC-7 departed Los Angeles International Airport within three minutes of one another on eastbound transcontinental flights. Approximately 90 minutes later, the two propeller-driven airliners collided above the canyon while both were flying in unmonitored airspace.<br /> <br /> The wreckage of both planes fell into the eastern portion of the canyon, on Temple and Chuar Buttes, near the confluence of the Colorado and Little Colorado rivers. The disaster killed all 128 passengers and crew members aboard both planes.<br /> <br /> This accident led to the institution of high-altitude airways and positive control by en route ground controllers.erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-64318557571970202112011-05-04T04:07:00.001-07:002011-05-04T04:07:53.522-07:00Colosseum<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> For other uses, see Colosseum (disambiguation).<br /> Page semi-protected<br /> <br /> Colosseum<br /> '<br /> Location IV Templum Pacis (Latin, "Temple of Peace")<br /> Built in ca. 70–80 AD<br /> Built by/for Vespasian, Titus<br /> Type of structure Amphitheatre<br /> Related articles None.<br /> Blue pog.svg<br /> The Colosseum<br /> This article's tone or style may not reflect the formal tone used on Wikipedia. Specific concerns may be found on the talk page. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (September 2010)<br /> <br /> The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.<br /> <br /> Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started in 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).<br /> <br /> Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.<br /> <br /> Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]<br /> <br /> The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 Name<br /> * 2 History<br /> o 2.1 Ancient<br /> o 2.2 Medieval<br /> o 2.3 Modern<br /> * 3 Physical description<br /> o 3.1 Exterior<br /> o 3.2 Interior seating<br /> o 3.3 Arena and hypogeum<br /> o 3.4 Supporting buildings<br /> * 4 Use<br /> o 4.1 Today<br /> * 5 Christians and the Colosseum<br /> * 6 Flora<br /> * 7 Popular culture references<br /> * 8 References<br /> o 8.1 Bibliography<br /> o 8.2 Notes<br /> * 9 External links<br /> <br /> Name<br /> <br /> The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]<br /> <br /> The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes)[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.<br /> <br /> In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.<br /> <br /> The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]<br /> <br /> The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).<br /> History<br /> Ancient<br /> A map of central Rome during the Roman Empire, with the Colosseum at the upper right corner<br /> <br /> Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72 AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]<br /> <br /> Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70 AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories,[12] placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.<br /> <br /> The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.<br /> <br /> In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.[12]<br /> Medieval<br /> Map of medieval Rome depicting the Colosseum<br /> <br /> The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.<br /> <br /> Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.<br /> Modern<br /> Interior of the Colosseum, Rome. Thomas Cole, 1832. Note the Stations of the Cross around the arena and the extensive vegetation, both removed later in the 19th century.<br /> <br /> During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.<br /> The Colosseum in a 1757 engraving by Giovanni Battista Piranesi<br /> <br /> In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.[12]<br /> Between 1993 and 2000, parts of the outer wall were cleaned (left) to repair the Colosseum from automobile exhaust damage (right)<br /> <br /> The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.[17]<br /> Today, the Colosseum is a background to the busy metropolis that is modern Rome.<br /> <br /> Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).<br /> Physical description<br /> Exterior<br /> The exterior of the Colosseum, showing the partially intact outer wall (left) and the mostly intact inner wall (right)<br /> Original façade of the Colosseum<br /> Entrance LII of the Colosseum, with Roman numerals still visible<br /> Cross-section from the Lexikon der gesamten Technik (1904)<br /> <br /> Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.<br /> <br /> The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.<br /> <br /> The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.<br /> <br /> Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]<br /> <br /> The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]<br /> <br /> Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.<br /> Interior seating<br /> Side view of Colosseum seating<br /> <br /> According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.<br /> <br /> The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.<br /> <br /> Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.[12]<br /> <br /> Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.[23]<br /> Arena and hypogeum<br /> The Colosseum arena, showing the hypogeum. The wooden walkway is a modern structure.<br /> Detail of the hypogeum<br /> <br /> The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]<br /> <br /> The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]<br /> <br /> Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.<br /> Supporting buildings<br /> The Colosseum - a view from the Oppian Hill<br /> <br /> The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.<br /> <br /> Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.<br /> <br /> Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.[12]<br /> <br /> Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.<br /> Use<br /> Pollice Verso ("Thumbs Down") by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1872<br /> <br /> The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.<br /> <br /> During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]<br /> <br /> Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.<br /> Today<br /> <br /> The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]<br /> <br /> The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.[6]<br /> <br /> In 2011, Italy’s shoe magnate, Diego Della Valle, entered into an agreement with local officials to sponsor a €25 million restoration of the Colosseum. Work is planned to begin at the end of 2011 and take up to two and a half years.[28]<br /> A panorama of the interior of the Colosseum in 2008.<br /> Christians and the Colosseum<br /> The Christian Martyrs' Last Prayer, by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1883).<br /> <br /> In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.<br /> <br /> It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.<br /> <br /> Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.<br /> <br /> At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.<br /> Flora<br /> Plants on the inner walls of the Colosseum<br /> <br /> The Colosseum has a wide and well-documented history of flora ever since Domenico Panaroli made the first catalogue of its plants in 1643. Since then, 684 species have been identified there. The peak was in 1855 (420 species). Attempts were made in 1871 to eradicate the vegetation, because of concerns over the damage that was being caused to the masonry, but much of it has returned.[12] 242 species have been counted today and of the species first identified by Panaroli, 200 remain.<br /> <br /> The variation of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome through the centuries. Additionally, bird migration, flower blooming, and the growth of Rome that caused the Colosseum to become embedded within the modern city centre rather than on the outskirts of the ancient city, as well as deliberate transport of species, are also contributing causes. One other romantic reason often given is their seeds being unwittingly transported on the animals brought there from all corners of the empire.<br /> Popular culture references<br /> <br /> The iconic status of the Colosseum has led it to be featured in numerous films and other items of popular culture:<br /> The Colosseum from Colle Oppio gardens<br /> <br /> * Cole Porter's song "You're the Top" from the musical Anything Goes (1934) includes the line "You're the Top, You're the Coliseum".<br /> * In the 1953 film Roman Holiday, the Colosseum famously serves as the backdrop for several scenes.<br /> * In the 1954 film Demetrius and the Gladiators, the Emperor Caligula anachronistically sentences the Christian Demetrius to fight in the Colosseum.<br /> * The conclusion of the 1957 film 20 Million Miles to Earth takes place at the Colosseum.<br /> * In the 1972 film Way of the Dragon, Bruce Lee fought Chuck Norris in the Colosseum.<br /> * In 1998 the Colosseum becomes a featured Santa Cam location for the annual NORAD Tracks Santa tracking effort.[29]<br /> * In Ridley Scott's 2000 film Gladiator, the Colosseum was re-created via computer-generated imagery (CGI) to "restore" it to the glory of its heyday in the 2nd century. The depiction of the building itself is generally accurate and it gives a good impression of what the underground hypogeum would have been like.[citation needed]<br /> * In the 2003 science fiction film The Core, a huge lightning superstorm destroys buildings and streets in Rome, culminating in the destruction of the Colosseum.<br /> * In 2003, the Colosseum appeared in the video game Mario Kart: Double Dash!!, with the race track Wario Colosseum located in the building.<br /> * In 2004, the remaining girls of America's Next Top Model, Cycle 2 did a photoshoot in the Colosseum for Solstice Sunglasses.<br /> * In the 2008 film Jumper, the Colosseum was used as the location for one of the battles between the jumpers and the paladins.<br /> * In the 2010 Ubisoft game, Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood. The player is able to climb and explore the structure. It plays a large part in the main story for the game's protagonist.<br /> <br /> The Colosseum's fame as an entertainment venue has also led the name to be re-used for modern entertainment facilities, particularly in the United States, where theaters, music halls and large buildings used for sport or exhibitions have commonly been called Colosseums or Coliseums.[30]<br /> <br /> * The optical disc authoring software program Nero Burning ROM uses an image of the Colosseum on fire as one of its main icons, even though Emperor Nero's Great Fire of Rome (which the program's name and icon refer to) occurred in 64 AD, before the Colosseum was built.<br /> * In 2009 Nickelback used the Colosseum to film their latest Music Video, entitled "Gotta be somebody".<br /> * In 2010, an episode of Life After People: The Series titled "Wrath of God" features the structure's long demise after the disappearance of humans.erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-20200940575114130372011-05-03T03:21:00.001-07:002011-05-03T03:21:31.781-07:00Motorcycle<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> (Redirected from Motocycle)<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> For other uses, see Motorcycle (disambiguation).<br /> A 1954 Triumph T110 650 cc motorcycle<br /> A Ural motorcycle with sidecar<br /> <br /> A motorcycle (also called a motorbike, bike, or cycle) is a single-track, engine-powered,[1] two-wheeled[2] motor vehicle. Motorcycles vary considerably depending on the task for which they are designed, such as long distance travel, navigating congested urban traffic, cruising, sport and racing, or off-road conditions.<br /> <br /> Motorcycles are one of the most affordable forms of motorised transport in many parts of the world and, for most of the world's population, they are also the most common type of motor vehicle.[3][4][5] There are around 200 million motorcycles (including mopeds, motor scooters and other powered two and three-wheelers) in use worldwide,[6] or about 33 motorcycles per 1000 people. This compares to around 590 million cars, or about 91 per 1000 people. Most of the motorcycles, 58%, are in the developing countries of Asia—Southern and Eastern Asia, and the Asia Pacific countries, excluding Japan—while 33% of the cars (195 million) are concentrated in the United States and Japan. As of 2002[update], India with an estimated 37 million motorcycles/mopeds was home to the largest number of motorised two wheelers in the world. China came a close second with 34 million motorcycles/mopeds.[7][8]<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 History<br /> * 2 Technical aspects<br /> o 2.1 Construction<br /> o 2.2 Fuel economy<br /> + 2.2.1 Electric motorcycles<br /> o 2.3 Dynamics<br /> o 2.4 Accessories<br /> * 3 Social aspects<br /> o 3.1 Popularity<br /> o 3.2 Subcultures<br /> o 3.3 Mobility<br /> o 3.4 Safety<br /> * 4 Types<br /> * 5 Motorcycle rider postures<br /> * 6 Legal definitions and restrictions<br /> * 7 Environmental impact<br /> o 7.1 United States emissions limits<br /> o 7.2 Europe<br /> * 8 See also<br /> * 9 References<br /> * 10 External links<br /> <br /> [edit] History<br /> Main article: Motorcycle history<br /> Replica of the Daimler-Maybach Petroleum Reitwagen.<br /> <br /> The first internal combustion, petroleum fueled motorcycle was the Petroleum Reitwagen. It was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt, Germany in 1885.[9] This vehicle was unlike either the safety bicycles or the boneshaker bicycles of the era in that it had zero degrees of steering axis angle and no fork offset, and thus did not use the principles of bicycle and motorcycle dynamics developed nearly 70 years earlier. Instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning.[10] The inventors called their invention the Reitwagen ("riding car"). It was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle.[11][12] Many authorities who exclude steam powered, electric or diesel two-wheelers from the definition of a motorcycle, credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the world's first motorcycle.[13][14][15]<br /> <br /> If a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle, then the first was the French Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede of 1868.[11][12] This was followed by the American Roper steam velocipede of 1869, built by Sylvester H. Roper Roxbury, Massachusetts.[11][12] Roper demonstrated his machine at fairs and circuses in the eastern U.S. in 1867,[9] and built a total of 10 examples.[15]<br /> <br /> In 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle (German: Motorrad).[11][12][15][16] In the early period of motorcycle history, many producers of bicycles adapted their designs to accommodate the new internal combustion engine. As the engines became more powerful and designs outgrew the bicycle origins, the number of motorcycle producers increased.<br /> <br /> Until World War I, the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world was Indian,[17][18] producing over 20,000 bikes per year.[19] By 1920, this honour went to Harley-Davidson,[citation needed] with their motorcycles being sold by dealers in 67 countries.[20][21] By the late 1920s or early 1930s, DKW took over as the largest manufacturer.[22][23][24]<br /> <br /> After World War II, the BSA Group became the largest producer of motorcycles in the world, producing up to 75,000 bikes per year in the 1950s.[citation needed] The German company NSU held the position of largest manufacturer from 1955 until the 1970s.[citation needed]<br /> NSU Sportmax streamlined motorcycle, 250 cc class winner of the 1955 Grand Prix season<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, streamlining began to play an increasing part in the development of racing motorcycles and the "dustbin fairing" held out the possibility of radical changes to motorcycle design. NSU and Moto Guzzi were in the vanguard of this development, both producing very radical designs well ahead of their time.[25] NSU produced the most advanced design, but after the deaths of four NSU riders in the 1954–1956 seasons, they abandoned further development and quit Grand Prix motorcycle racing.[26] Moto Guzzi produced competitive race machines, and by 1957 nearly all the Grand Prix races were being won by streamlined machines.[citation needed] The following year, 1958, full enclosure fairings were banned from racing by the FIM in the light of the safety concerns.<br /> <br /> From the 1960s through the 1990s, small two-stroke motorcycles were popular worldwide, partly as a result of East German Walter Kaaden's engine work in the 1950s.[27]<br /> <br /> Today, the motorcycle industry is mainly dominated by Japanese companies such as Honda, Kawasaki, Suzuki, and Yamaha, although Harley-Davidson and BMW continue to be popular and supply considerable markets. Other major manufacturers include Piaggio group of Italy, KTM, Triumph and Ducati.<br /> <br /> In addition to the large capacity motorcycles, there is a large market in smaller capacity (less than 300 cc) motorcycles, mostly concentrated in Asian and African countries. An example is the 1958 Honda Super Cub, which went on to become the biggest selling vehicle of all time, with its 60 millionth unit produced in April 2008.[28] Today, this area is dominated by mostly Indian companies with Hero Honda emerging as the world's largest manufacturer of two wheelers. Other major producers are Bajaj and TVS Motors.[29] For example, its Splendor model has sold more than 8.5 million to date.[30]<br /> [edit] Technical aspects<br /> A Suzuki GS500 with a clearly visible frame (painted silver).<br /> [edit] Construction<br /> See also: Motorcycle construction and Motorcycle design<br /> <br /> Motorcycle construction is the engineering, manufacturing, and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in the performance, cost, and aesthetics desired by the designer. With some exceptions, construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on a steel or aluminium frame, telescopic forks holding the front wheel, and disc brakes. Some other body parts, designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added. A petrol powered engine typically consisting of between one and four cylinders (and less commonly, up to eight cylinders) coupled to a manual five- or six-speed sequential transmission drives the swingarm-mounted rear wheel by a chain, driveshaft or belt.<br /> [edit] Fuel economy<br /> <br /> Motorcycle fuel economy varies greatly with engine displacement and riding style[31] ranging from a low of 29 mpg-US (8.1 L/100 km; 35 mpg-imp) reported by a Honda VTR1000F rider,[32] to 107 mpg-US (2.20 L/100 km; 129 mpg-imp) reported for the Verucci Nitro 50 cc Scooter.[33] A specially designed Matzu Matsuzawa Honda XL125 achieved 470 mpg-US (0.50 L/100 km; 560 mpg-imp) "on real highways - in real conditions."[34] Due to lower engine displacements (100 cc–200 cc), motorcycles in developing countries offer good fuel economy.[citation needed] In the Indian market, the second best selling company, Bajaj, offers two models with superior fuel economy: XCD 125 and Platina. Both are 125 cc motorbikes with a company-claimed fuel economy of 256 mpg-US (0.919 L/100 km; 307 mpg-imp) and 261 mpg-US (0.901 L/100 km; 313 mpg-imp), respectively.[citation needed]<br /> [edit] Electric motorcycles<br /> Main article: Electric motorcycle<br /> <br /> Very high fuel economy equivalents can be derived by electric motorcycles. Electric motorcycles are nearly silent, zero-emission electric motor-driven vehicles. Operating range and top speed suffer because of limitations of battery technology.[citation needed] Fuel cells and petroleum-electric hybrids are also under development to extend the range and improve performance of the electric motors.<br /> [edit] Dynamics<br /> Racing motorcycles leaning in a turn.<br /> Main article: Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics<br /> <br /> Different types of motorcycles have different dynamics and these play a role in how a motorcycle performs in given conditions. For example, one with a longer wheelbase provides the feeling of more stability by responding less to disturbances.[35] Motorcycle tyres have a large influence over handling.<br /> <br /> Motorcycles must be leaned in order to make turns. This lean is induced by the method known as countersteering, in which the rider momentarily steers the handlebars in the direction opposite of the desired turn. Because it is counter-intuitive this practice is often very confusing to novices—and even to many experienced motorcyclists.[36]<br /> <br /> Short wheelbase motorcycles, such as sport bikes, can generate enough torque at the rear wheel, and enough stopping force at the front wheel, to lift the opposite wheel off the road. These actions, if performed on purpose, are known as wheelies and stoppies respectively. If carried past the point of recovery the resulting upset is known as an "endo" (short for "end-over-end"), or "looping" the vehicle.<br /> [edit] Accessories<br /> Main article: Motorcycle accessories<br /> <br /> Various features and accessories may be attached to a motorcycle either as OEM (factory-fitted) or after-market. Such accessories are selected by the owner to enhance the motorcycle's appearance, safety, performance, or comfort, and may include anything from mobile electronics to sidecars and trailers.<br /> [edit] Social aspects<br /> Main article: Motorcycling<br /> [edit] Popularity<br /> Motorbikes are the primary form of transportation in Vietnam.<br /> <br /> In numerous cultures, motorcycles are the primary means of motorised transport. According to the Taiwanese government, for example, "the number of automobiles per ten thousand population is around 2,500, and the number of motorcycles is about 5,000."[37] In places such as Vietnam, motorised traffic consist of mostly motorbikes[4] due to a lack of public transport and low income levels that put automobiles out of reach for many.[3]<br /> <br /> The four largest motorcycle markets in the world are all in Asia: China, India, Indonesia, and Vietnam.[3] The motorcycle is also popular in Brazil's frontier towns.[5] Amid the global economic downturn of 2008, the motorcycle market grew by 6.5%.[38]<br /> <br /> Recent years have seen an increase in the popularity of motorcycles elsewhere. In the USA, registrations increased by 51% between 2000 and 2005.[39] This is mainly attributed to increasing fuel prices and urban congestion.[40] A Consumer Reports subscribers' survey of mainly United States motorcycle and scooter owners reported that they rode an average of only 1,000 miles (1,600 km) per year, 82% for recreation and 38% for commuting.[41] Americans put 10,000–12,000 miles (16,000–19,000 km) per year on their cars and light trucks.[42]<br /> [edit] Subcultures<br /> Sunbeam motorcycle owners rally, 2008.<br /> A Hells Angels wall mural in Southampton, UK<br /> See also: Motorcycle club, Outlaw motorcycle club, and Category:Motorcycling subculture<br /> <br /> Around the world, motorcycles have historically been associated with subcultures. Some of these subcultures have been loose-knit social groups such as the cafe racers of 1950s Britain, and the Mods and Rockers of the 1960s. A few are believed to be criminal gangs. Books about motorcycle subcultures include Hunter S. Thompson's Hells Angels (1966), Lee Gutkind's Bike Fever (1974), and Daniel R. Wolf's The Rebels (1991).<br /> <br /> Social motorcyclist organisations are popular and are sometimes organised geographically, focus on individual makes, or even specific models. Example motorcycle clubs include: American Motorcyclist Association, Harley Owners Group and BMW MOA. Some organisations hold large international motorcycle rallies in different parts of the world that are attended by many thousands of riders.<br /> <br /> Whereas many social motorcycle organisations raise money for charities through organised events and rides, some other motorcycle organisations exist only for the direct benefit of others. Bikers Against Child Abuse (BACA) is one example. BACA assigns members to individual children to help them through difficult situations, or even stay with the child if the child is alone or frightened.[43]<br /> <br /> In recent decades, motorcyclists have formed political lobbying organisations in order to influence legislators to introduce motorcycle-friendly legislation. One of the oldest such organisations, the British Motorcycle Action Group, was founded in 1973 specifically in response to helmet compulsion, introduced without public consultation.[44] In addition, the British Motorcyclists Federation (BMF), originally founded in 1960 as a reaction to the public perception of motorcyclists as leather-jacketed hooligans, has itself moved into political lobbying. Likewise, the U.S. has ABATE, which, like most such organisations, also works to improve motorcycle safety, as well as running the usual charity fund-raising events and rallies, often for motorcycle-related political interests.[45]<br /> <br /> At the other end of the spectrum from the charitable organisations and the motorcycle rights activists are the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs. These are defined by the Provincial Court of Manitoba as: "Any group of motorcycle enthusiasts who have voluntarily made a commitment to band together and abide by their organisations' rigorous rules enforced by violence, who engage in activities that bring them and their club into serious conflict with society and the law".[46] The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Criminal Intelligence Service Canada have designated four MCs as Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMGs), which are the Pagans, Hells Angels, Outlaws MC, and Bandidos,[47][48] known as the "Big Four".[49]<br /> [edit] Mobility<br /> A couple ride on a motorcycle in Udaipur, India. Annual sales of motorcycles in India are expected to exceed 10 million by 2010.[50]<br /> <br /> While people choose to ride motorcycles for various reasons, those reasons are increasingly practical, with riders opting for a powered two-wheeler as a cost-efficient alternative to infrequent and expensive public transport systems, or as a means of avoiding or reducing the effects of urban congestion.[51] In places where it is permitted, lane splitting, also known as filtering, allows motorcycles to use the space between vehicles to move through stationary or slow traffic.[52]<br /> <br /> In the UK, motorcycles are exempt from the £8 per day London congestion charge other vehicles must pay to enter the city during the day. Motorcycles are also exempt from toll charges at some river crossings, such as the Severn Bridge, Dartford Crossing, and Mersey Tunnels. Some cities, such as Bristol, allow motorcycles to use bus lanes and provide dedicated free parking. In the United States, those states that have high-occupancy vehicle lanes also allow for motorcycle travel in them. Other countries have similar policies.<br /> <br /> In New Zealand motorcycle riders are not required to pay for parking that is controlled by a barrier arm;[53] the arm does not occupy the entire width of the lane, and the motorcyclist simply rides around it.[54] Many car parks controlled in this way supply special areas for motorcycles to park, so as not to unnecessarily consume spaces.<br /> <br /> In many cities that have serious parking challenges for cars, such as San Francisco, US and Melbourne, Australia, motorcycles are generally permitted to park on the sidewalk, rather than occupy a space on the street which might otherwise be used by a car.[citation needed]<br /> [edit] Safety<br /> Main articles: Motorcycle safety and Motorcycle safety clothing<br /> <br /> Motorcycles have a higher rate of fatal accidents than automobiles. United States Department of Transportation data for 2005 from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System show that for passenger cars, 18.62 fatal crashes occur per 100,000 registered vehicles. For motorcycles this figure is higher at 75.19 per 100,000 registered vehicles – four times higher than for cars.[55] The same data shows that 1.56 fatalities occur per 100 million vehicle miles travelled for passenger cars, whereas for motorcycles the figure is 43.47 – 28 times higher than for cars (37 times more deaths per mile travelled in 2007).[56] Furthermore for motorcycles the accident rates have increased significantly since the end of the 1990s, while the rates have dropped for passenger cars.<br /> Wearing a motorcycle helmet reduces the chances of death or injury in a motorcycle crash<br /> <br /> The two major causes of motorcycle accidents in the United States are: motorists pulling out or turning in front of motorcyclists and violating their rights-of-way and motorcyclists running wide through turns. The former is sometimes called a SMIDSY, an acronym formed from the motorists' common response of "Sorry mate, I didn't see you".[57] The latter is more commonly caused by operating a motorcycle while intoxicated.[58] Motorcyclists can anticipate and avoid some of these crashes with proper training, increasing their conspicuousness to other traffic, and separating alcohol and riding.<br /> <br /> The United Kingdom has several organisations which are dedicated to improving motorcycle safety by providing advanced rider training over and above what is necessary to pass the basic motorcycle test. These include the Institute of Advanced Motorists (IAM) and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA). Along with increased personal safety, riders with these advanced qualifications often benefit from reduced insurance costs.<br /> <br /> In South Africa, the Think Bike campaign is dedicated to increasing both motorcycle safety and the awareness of motorcycles on the country's roads. The campaign, while strongest in the Gauteng province, has representation in Western Cape, KwaZulu Natal and the Free State. It has dozens of trained marshals available for various events such as cycle races and is deeply involved in numerous other projects such as the annual Motorcycle Toy Run.[59]<br /> An MSF rider course for novices<br /> <br /> Motorcycle Safety Education is offered throughout the United States by organisations ranging from state agencies to non-profit organisations to corporations. Most states use the courses designed by the Motorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF), while Oregon and Idaho developed their own. All of the training programs include a Basic Rider Course, an Intermediate Rider Course and an Advanced Rider Course.<br /> <br /> In the UK (except Northern Ireland) and some Australian jurisdictions, such as Victoria, New South Wales,[60] the Australian Capital Territory,[61] Tasmania[62] and the Northern Territory,[63] it is compulsory to undertake a rider training course before being issued a Learners Licence.<br /> <br /> In Canada, motorcycle rider training is compulsory in Quebec and Manitoba only, but all provinces and territories have Graduated Licensing programs which place restrictions on new drivers until they have gained experience. Eligibility for a full motorcycle licence or endorsement for completing a Motorcycle Safety course varies by province. The Canada Safety Council, a non-profit safety organisation, offers the Gearing Up program across Canada and is endorsed by the Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council.[64] Training course graduates may qualify for reduced insurance premiums.<br /> [edit] Types<br /> Main article: Types of motorcycles<br /> A boulevard cruiser (front) and a sportbike (background)<br /> French police motorcyclist<br /> <br /> There are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many different sub-types of motorcycles for many different purposes.<br /> <br /> Street bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, and many other types. Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well.<br /> <br /> Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture.<br /> [edit] Motorcycle rider postures<br /> <br /> The motorcyclist's riding position depends on rider body-geometry (anthropometry) combined with the geometry of the motorcycle itself. These factors create a set of three basic postures.[65]<br /> <br /> * Sport — the rider leans forwards into the wind and the weight of the upper torso is supported by air pressure as long as the motorcycle is travelling at speed, typically above 50 mph (80 km/h). The footpegs are below the rider or to the rear. The reduced frontal area cuts wind resistance and allow higher speeds. However, at low-speed this position throws the weight of the rider onto the arms instead, and this is quickly tiring to the wrists of unfamiliar riders. Moreover, the sports position makes it more difficult for the rider to look around and foot through traffic. Many sport bikes have narrow, swept-back handlebars, or clip-ons (short stubs clamped to the telescopic fork tubes). Following the style of racing bikes, many sports machines have full-fairings and come with almost complete engine enclosure.<br /> * Standard — the rider sits upright or leans forwards slightly. The feet are below the rider, not too far to the front or back. These are straightforward, versatile motorcycles that are not too specialised for one task, but do not excel in one area either.[66] The standard posture is used with touring and commuting as well as dirt and dual-sport bikes, and is good for beginners.[67] The rider enjoys the benefits of freedom of head movement, good visibility in all directions, and easier use of the feet while moving through stationary traffic.<br /> * Cruiser — the rider sits at a lower seat height with the upper torso upright or leaning slightly rearwards. Legs are extended forwards, sometimes out of reach of the regular controls on cruiser pegs. The low seat heights can be a consideration for new or short riders. Handlebars tend to be high, and wide. Harley-Davidsons are exemplars of this style.[68] The emphasis is on comfort, while compromising cornering ability because of low ground clearance and the greater likelihood of scraping foot pegs, floor boards, or other parts if turns are taken at the speeds other types of motorcycles can do.[69][70]<br /> <br /> Factors of a motorcycle's ergonomic geometry that determine the seating posture include the height, angle and location of footpegs, seat and handlebars. Factors in a rider's physical geometry that contribute to seating posture include torso, arm, thigh and leg length, and overall rider height.<br /> [edit] Legal definitions and restrictions<br /> Main article: Legal definition of motorcycle<br /> <br /> A motorcycle is broadly defined by law in most countries for the purposes of registration, taxation and rider licensing as a powered two-wheel motor vehicle. Most countries distinguish between mopeds of 49 cc and the more powerful, larger, vehicles (scooters do not count as a separate category). Many jurisdictions include some forms of three-wheelers as motorcycles.<br /> [edit] Environmental impact<br /> Crystal Clear app kedit.svg<br /> This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards, as the dispute in the Europe section over LA Times citation up in the intro section is disjointed and confusing. See talk. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (September 2009)<br /> <br /> In 2007 and 2008, motorcycles and scooters, due to good fuel efficiency, attracted interest in the United States from environmentalists and those affected by increased fuel prices.[71][72] Piaggio Group Americas supported this interest with the launch of a "Vespanomics" website and platform, citing lower per-mile carbon emissions of 0.4 lb/mile (113 g/km) less than the average car, a 65% reduction, and better fuel economy.[73]<br /> <br /> Other sources, however, claim that while motorcycles produce much less pollution in terms of greenhouse gases, a motorcycle can in some cases emit 10–20 times the quantity of nitrogen oxides (NOx) when compared to the NOx emissions of a car.[71][74] This is because many motorcycles lack a catalytic converter to reduce NOx emissions, and while catalytic converters have been used in cars long enough that they are now commonplace, they are a relatively new technology in motorcycles.[71] Many newer motorcycles (such as later models of the Yamaha R1 and Suzuki GSXR1000, as well as most BMWs which have included catalytic converers since the 1990s) now have factory fitted catalytic converters. Along with other technologies that have taken longer to appear in motorcycles (e.g. fuel injection, anti-lock brake systems),[citation needed] catalytic converters are becoming increasingly commonplace.<br /> <br /> United States Environmental Protection Agency 2007 certification result reports for all vehicles versus on highway motorcycles (which also includes scooters),[75] the average certified emissions level for 12,327 vehicles tested was 0.734. The average "Nox+Co End-Of-Useful-Life-Emissions" for 3,863 motorcycles tested was 0.8531, for a difference of about 16%, not the claimed 10X factor. Likewise, if one looks at how many of the 2007 motorcycles tested were also catalytic equipped, 54% of them, 2,092, were equipped with a catalytic converter.<br /> [edit] United States emissions limits<br /> <br /> The following table shows maximum acceptable legal emissions of the combination of hydrocarbon and nitrous oxides, as well as carbon monoxide, for new Class III motorcycles (280 cc or larger displacement) sold in the United States.[76]<br /> Tier Model year HC+NOx (g/km) CO (g/km)<br /> Tier 1 2006–2009 1.4 12.0<br /> Tier 2 2010 and later 0.8 12.0<br /> <br /> The maximum acceptable legal emissions of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide for new Class I and II motorcycles (50 cc–169 cc and 170 cc–279 cc respectively) sold in the United States are as follows:[76]<br /> Model year HC (g/km) CO (g/km)<br /> 2006 and later 1.0 12.0<br /> [edit] Europe<br /> <br /> European emission standards for motorcycles are similar to those for cars. New motorcycles must meet Euro III standards,[77] while cars must meet Euro V standards. Therefore, the difference in total pollution between motorcycles and cars that pass European emission standards would be small, certainly much smaller than the 10X factor claimed by the referenced LA Times article. Motorcycle emissions controls are being updated and it has been proposed to update to Euro IV in 2012 and Euro V in 2015[78]erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-62212241365539913802011-05-03T03:17:00.001-07:002011-05-03T03:17:45.894-07:00Automobile<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> (Redirected from Car)<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> For the magazine, see Automobile Magazine.<br /> "Car" and "Cars" redirect here. For other uses, see Car (disambiguation).<br /> Page semi-protected<br /> Automobile<br /> Benz-velo.jpg<br /> Karl Benz's "Velo" model (1894) – entered into an early automobile race<br /> Classification Vehicle<br /> Industry Various<br /> Application Conveyance<br /> Fuel Source Gasoline, Diesel, Electric<br /> Powered Yes<br /> Self-Propelled Yes<br /> Wheels 3–4<br /> Axles 0–2<br /> Inventor Ferdinand Verbiest<br /> Passenger cars in 2000<br /> World map of passenger cars per 1000 people.<br /> <br /> An automobile, motor car or car is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers, which also carries its own engine or motor. Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles are designed to run primarily on roads, to have seating for one to eight people, to typically have four wheels, and to be constructed principally for the transport of people rather than goods.[1]<br /> <br /> The term motorcar has also been used in the context of electrified rail systems to denote a car which functions as a small locomotive but also provides space for passengers and baggage. These locomotive cars were often used on suburban routes by both interurban and intercity railroad systems.[2]<br /> <br /> There are approximately 600 million passenger cars worldwide (roughly one car per eleven people).[3][4] Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007; they burn over a billion cubic meters (260 billion US gallons) of petrol/gasoline and diesel fuel yearly. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China and India.[5]<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 Etymology<br /> * 2 History<br /> * 3 Production<br /> * 4 Fuel and propulsion technologies<br /> * 5 Safety<br /> * 6 Costs and benefits<br /> * 7 Environmental impact<br /> * 8 Other negative effects<br /> * 9 Driverless cars<br /> * 10 Future car technologies<br /> * 11 Open source development<br /> * 12 Alternatives to the automobile<br /> * 13 Industry<br /> * 14 Market<br /> * 15 See also<br /> * 16 References<br /> * 17 Further reading<br /> * 18 External links<br /> <br /> Etymology<br /> Look up automobile in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.<br /> <br /> The word automobile comes, via the French automobile, from the Ancient Greek word αὐτός (autós, "self") and the Latin mobilis ("movable"); meaning a vehicle that moves itself, rather than being pulled or pushed by a separate animal or another vehicle. The alternative name car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum ("wheeled vehicle"), or the Middle English word carre ("cart") (from Old North French), or from the Gaulish word karros (a Gallic Chariot).[6][7]<br /> History<br /> Main article: History of the automobile<br /> <br /> The first working steam-powered vehicle was probably designed by Ferdinand Verbiest, a Flemish member of a Jesuit mission in China around 1672. It was a 65 cm-long scale-model toy for the Chinese Emperor, that was unable to carry a driver or a passenger.[8][9][10] It is not known if Verbiest's model was ever built.[9]<br /> <br /> In 1752, Leonty Shamshurenkov, a Russian peasant, constructed a human-pedalled four-wheeled "auto-running" carriage, and subsequently proposed to equip it with odometer and to use the same principle for making a self-propelling sledge.[11]<br /> <br /> Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is widely credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in about 1769; he created a steam-powered tricycle.[12] He also constructed two steam tractors for the French Army, one of which is preserved in the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts.[13] His inventions were however handicapped by problems with water supply and maintaining steam pressure.[13] In 1801, Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated his Puffing Devil road locomotive, believed by many to be the first demonstration of a steam-powered road vehicle. It was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods, and was of little practical use.<br /> <br /> In the 1780s, a Russian inventor, Ivan Kulibin, developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with an elementary differential transmission of power from the pedals to the axle.[14]<br /> <br /> In 1807 Nicéphore Niépce and his brother Claude probably created the world's first internal combustion engine which they called a Pyréolophore, but they chose to install it in a boat on the river Saone in France.[15] Coincidentally, in 1807 the Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz designed his own 'internal combustion engine' and used it to develop the world's first vehicle, to be powered by such an engine. The Niépces' Pyréolophore was fuelled by a mixture of Lycopodium powder (dried Lycopodium moss), finely crushed coal dust and resin that were mixed with oil, whereas de Rivaz used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen.[15] Neither design was very successful, as was the case with others, such as Samuel Brown, Samuel Morey, and Etienne Lenoir with his hippomobile, who each produced vehicles (usually adapted carriages or carts) powered by clumsy internal combustion engines.[16]<br /> <br /> In November 1881, French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled automobile powered by electricity at the International Exposition of Electricity, Paris.[17]<br /> <br /> Although several other German engineers (including Gottlieb Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach, and Siegfried Marcus) were working on the problem at about the same time, Karl Benz generally is acknowledged as the inventor of the modern automobile.[16]<br /> <br /> An automobile powered by his own four-stroke cycle gasoline engine was built in Mannheim, Germany by Karl Benz in 1885, and granted a patent in January of the following year under the auspices of his major company, Benz & Cie., which was founded in 1883. It was an integral design, without the adaptation of other existing components, and included several new technological elements to create a new concept. He began to sell his production vehicles in 1888.<br /> A photograph of the original Benz Patent-Motorwagen, first built in 1885 and awarded the patent for the concept<br /> <br /> In 1879, Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which had been designed in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle.<br /> <br /> His first Motorwagen was built in 1885, and he was awarded the patent for its invention as of his application on January 29, 1886. Benz began promotion of the vehicle on July 3, 1886, and about 25 Benz vehicles were sold between 1888 and 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced along with a model intended for affordability. They also were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz automobile to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early automobiles, initially more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany.<br /> <br /> In 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustion flat engine, called boxermotor. During the last years of the nineteenth century, Benz was the largest automobile company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and, because of its size, Benz & Cie., became a joint-stock company.<br /> <br /> Daimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG) in Cannstatt in 1890, and sold their first automobile in 1892 under the brand name, Daimler. It was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer, that they retrofitted with an engine of their design. By 1895 about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after disputes with their backers. Benz, Maybach and the Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each others' early work. They never worked together; by the time of the merger of the two companies, Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG.<br /> <br /> Daimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed an engine named Daimler-Mercedes, that was placed in a specially ordered model built to specifications set by Emil Jellinek. This was a production of a small number of vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country. Two years later, in 1902, a new model DMG automobile was produced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine which generated 35 hp. Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to the Daimler brand name were sold to other manufacturers.<br /> Karl Benz<br /> <br /> Karl Benz proposed co-operation between DMG and Benz & Cie. when economic conditions began to deteriorate in Germany following the First World War, but the directors of DMG refused to consider it initially. Negotiations between the two companies resumed several years later when these conditions worsened and, in 1924 they signed an Agreement of Mutual Interest, valid until the year 2000. Both enterprises standardized design, production, purchasing, and sales and they advertised or marketed their automobile models jointly, although keeping their respective brands. On June 28, 1926, Benz & Cie. and DMG finally merged as the Daimler-Benz company, baptizing all of its automobiles Mercedes Benz, as a brand honoring the most important model of the DMG automobiles, the Maybach design later referred to as the 1902 Mercedes-35 hp, along with the Benz name. Karl Benz remained a member of the board of directors of Daimler-Benz until his death in 1929, and at times, his two sons participated in the management of the company as well.<br /> <br /> In 1890, Émile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of the automobile industry in France.<br /> <br /> The first design for an American automobile with a gasoline internal combustion engine was drawn in 1877 by George Selden of Rochester, New York, who applied for a patent for an automobile in 1879, but the patent application expired because the vehicle was never built. After a delay of sixteen years and a series of attachments to his application, on November 5, 1895, Selden was granted a United States patent (U.S. Patent 549,160) for a two-stroke automobile engine, which hindered, more than encouraged, development of automobiles in the United States. His patent was challenged by Henry Ford and others, and overturned in 1911.<br /> <br /> In Britain, there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success, with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860.[18] Santler from Malvern is recognized by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made the first petrol-powered car in the country in 1894[19] followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895, but these were both one-offs.[19] The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from the Daimler Motor Company, a company founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896, after purchasing the right to use the name of the engines. Lawson's company made its first automobiles in 1897, and they bore the name Daimler.[19]<br /> <br /> In 1892, German engineer Rudolf Diesel was granted a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine". In 1897, he built the first Diesel Engine.[16] Steam-, electric-, and gasoline-powered vehicles competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s.<br /> <br /> Although various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston and crankshaft design, only Mazda's version of the Wankel engine has had more than very limited success.<br /> Production<br /> Ransom E. Olds<br /> <br /> The large-scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by Ransom Olds at his Oldsmobile factory in 1902. This concept was greatly expanded by Henry Ford, beginning in 1914.<br /> <br /> As a result, Ford's cars came off the line in fifteen minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, increasing productivity eightfold (requiring 12.5 man-hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower.[20] It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only Japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colors available before 1914, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926. This is the source of Ford's apocryphal remark, "any color as long as it's black".[20] In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.[20]<br /> Portrait of Henry Ford (ca. 1919)<br /> <br /> Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called "Fordism," and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.<br /> <br /> In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide seeing the founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921, Citroen was the first native European manufacturer to adopt the production method. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke; by 1930, 250 companies which did not, had disappeared.[20]<br /> <br /> Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering, for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910–1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes.<br /> Ford Model T, 1927, regarded as the first affordable American automobile<br /> <br /> Since the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs, so marketing plans often have heavily influenced automobile design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one company, so buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved.<br /> <br /> Reflecting the rapid pace of change, makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1930s, LaSalles, sold by Cadillac, used cheaper mechanical parts made by Oldsmobile; in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac; by the 1990s, corporate powertrains and shared platforms (with interchangeable brakes, suspension, and other parts) were common. Even so, only major makers could afford high costs, and even companies with decades of production, such as Apperson, Cole, Dorris, Haynes, or Premier, could not manage: of some two hundred American car makers in existence in 1920, only 43 survived in 1930, and with the Great Depression, by 1940, only 17 of those were left.[20]<br /> <br /> In Europe much the same would happen. Morris set up its production line at Cowley in 1924, and soon outsold Ford, while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford's practise of vertical integration, buying Hotchkiss (engines), Wrigley (gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators), for instance, as well as competitors, such as Wolseley: in 1925, Morris had 41% of total British car production. Most British small-car assemblers, from Abbey to Xtra had gone under. Citroen did the same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault's 10CV and Peugeot's 5CV, they produced 550,000 cars in 1925, and Mors, Hurtu, and others could not compete.[20] Germany's first mass-manufactured car, the Opel 4PS Laubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line at Russelsheim in 1924, soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany, with 37.5% of the market.[20]<br /> See also: Automotive industry<br /> Fuel and propulsion technologies<br /> A radio taxi in New Delhi. A court order requires all commercial vehicles including trucks, buses and taxis in Delhi to run on Compressed Natural Gas<br /> Main article: Automobile propulsion technologies<br /> See also: Alternative fuel vehicle<br /> <br /> Older automobiles were generally powered by a steam engine, which was fed by burning gasoline.[21] Most automobiles in use today however are propelled by a internal combustion engine, fueled by deflagration of gasoline (also known as petrol) or diesel. Both fuels are known to cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming.[22] Increasing costs of oil-based fuels, tightening environmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for automobiles. Efforts to improve or replace existing technologies include the development of hybrid vehicles, electric and hydrogen vehicles that do not release pollution into the air.[citation needed]<br /> Safety<br /> Main articles: Car safety and Automobile accident<br /> Result of a serious automobile accident<br /> <br /> While road traffic injuries represent the leading cause in worldwide injury-related deaths,[23] their popularity undermines this statistic.<br /> <br /> Mary Ward became one of the first documented automobile fatalities in 1869 in Parsonstown, Ireland[24] and Henry Bliss one of the United States' first pedestrian automobile casualties in 1899 in New York.[25] There are now standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like the EuroNCAP and the US NCAP tests,[26] as well as insurance-backed IIHS tests.[27]<br /> Costs and benefits<br /> Further information: Automotive industry<br /> Main article: Economics of automobile usage<br /> <br /> The costs of automobile usage, which may include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs, maintenance, fuel, depreciation, injury, driving time, parking fees, tire replacement, taxes, and insurance,[28] are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits – perceived and real – of vehicle usage. The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence and convenience.[10]<br /> Main article: Effects of the automobile on societies<br /> <br /> Similarly the costs to society of encompassing automobile use, which may include those of: maintaining roads, land use, pollution, public health, health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life, can be balanced against the value of the benefits to society that automobile use generates. The societal benefits may include: economy benefits, such as job and wealth creation, of automobile production and maintenance, transportation provision, society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from the tax opportunities. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far reaching implications for the nature of societies.[29]<br /> Environmental impact<br /> See also: automobile emissions<br /> Globe icon.<br /> The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (June 2010)<br /> <br /> Transportation is a major contributor to air pollution in most industrialised nations. According to the American Surface Transportation Policy Project nearly half of all Americans are breathing unhealthy air. Their study showed air quality in dozens of metropolitan areas has worsened over the last decade.[30] In the United States the average passenger car emits 11,450 pounds (5,190 kg) of carbon dioxide annually, along with smaller amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen.[31]<br /> <br /> Animals and plants are often negatively impacted by automobiles via habitat destruction and pollution. Over the lifetime of the average automobile the "loss of habitat potential" may be over 50,000 square meters (540,000 sq ft) based on primary production correlations.[32]<br /> <br /> Fuel taxes may act as an incentive for the production of more efficient, hence less polluting, car designs (e.g. hybrid vehicles) and the development of alternative fuels. High fuel taxes may provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive. On average, today's automobiles are about 75 percent recyclable, and using recycled steel helps reduce energy use and pollution.[33] In the United States Congress, federally mandated fuel efficiency standards have been debated regularly, passenger car standards have not risen above the 27.5 miles per US gallon (8.55 L/100 km; 33.0 mpg-imp) standard set in 1985. Light truck standards have changed more frequently, and were set at 22.2 miles per US gallon (10.6 L/100 km; 26.7 mpg-imp) in 2007.[34] Alternative fuel vehicles are another option that is less polluting than conventional petroleum powered vehicles.<br /> Other negative effects<br /> <br /> Residents of low-density, residential-only sprawling communities are also more likely to die in car collisions[original research?] which kill 1.2 million people worldwide each year, and injure about forty times this number.[23] Sprawl is more broadly a factor in inactivity and obesity, which in turn can lead to increased risk of a variety of diseases.[35]<br /> <br /> Millions of animals are also killed every year on roads by automobiles—so-called Roadkill.<br /> Driverless cars<br /> Main article: Driverless car<br /> A robotic Volkswagen Passat shown at Stanford University is a driverless car<br /> <br /> Fully autonomous vehicles, also known as robotic cars, or driverless cars, already exist in prototype, and are expected to be commercially available around 2020. According to urban designer and futurist Michael E. Arth, driverless electric vehicles—in conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work, travel, and pleasure—could reduce the world's 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades.[36] This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers, which are not in use and parked 90% of the time, would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near constant use. This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle for the particular need—a bus could come for a group of people, a limousine could come for a special night out, and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person. Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety, DUIs would no longer exist, and 41,000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone.[37][38]<br /> Future car technologies<br /> Main article: Future car technologies<br /> Question book-new.svg<br /> This section needs additional citations for verification.<br /> Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2010)<br /> <br /> Automobile propulsion technology under development include gasoline/electric and plug-in hybrids, battery electric vehicles, hydrogen cars, biofuels, and various alternative fuels.<br /> <br /> Research into future alternative forms of power include the development of fuel cells, Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), stirling engines,[39] and even using the stored energy of compressed air or liquid nitrogen.<br /> <br /> New materials which may replace steel car bodies include duraluminum, fiberglass, carbon fiber, and carbon nanotubes.<br /> <br /> Telematics technology is allowing more and more people to share cars, on a pay-as-you-go basis, through such schemes as City Car Club in the UK, Mobility in mainland Europe, and Zipcar in the US.<br /> <br /> Communication is also evolving due to connected car systems.<br /> Open source development<br /> <br /> There have been several projects aiming to develop a car on the principles of open design. The projects include OScar, Riversimple (through 40fires.org)[40] and c,mm,n.[41] None of the projects have reached significant success in terms of developing a car as a whole both from hardware and software perspective and no mass production ready open-source based design have been introduced as of late 2009. Some car hacking through on-board diagnostics (OBD) has been done so far.[42]<br /> Alternatives to the automobile<br /> Main article: Alternatives to the automobile<br /> <br /> Established alternatives for some aspects of automobile use include public transit (buses, trolleybuses, trains, subways, monorails, tramways), cycling, walking, rollerblading, skateboarding, horseback riding and using a velomobile. Car-share arrangements and carpooling are also increasingly popular–the US market leader in car-sharing has experienced double-digit growth in revenue and membership growth between 2006 and 2007, offering a service that enables urban residents to "share" a vehicle rather than own a car in already congested neighborhoods.[43] Bike-share systems have been tried in some European cities, including Copenhagen and Amsterdam. Similar programs have been experimented with in a number of US Cities.[44] Additional individual modes of transport, such as personal rapid transit could serve as an alternative to automobiles if they prove to be socially accepted.[45]<br /> Industry<br /> Main article: Automotive industry<br /> <br /> The automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world's motor vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, including cars and commercial vehicles were produced worldwide.[46]<br /> <br /> In 2007, a total of 71.9 million new automobiles were sold worldwide: 22.9 million in Europe, 21.4 million in Asia-Pacific, 19.4 million in USA and Canada, 4.4 million in Latin America, 2.4 million in the Middle East and 1.4 million in Africa.[47] The markets in North America and Japan were stagnant, while those in South America and other parts of Asia grew strongly. Of the major markets, China, Russia, Brazil and India saw the most rapid growth.<br /> <br /> About 250 million vehicles are in use in the United States. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007; they burn over 260 billion gallons of gasoline and diesel fuel yearly. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China and India.[5] In the opinion of some, urban transport systems based around the car have proved unsustainable, consuming excessive energy, affecting the health of populations, and delivering a declining level of service despite increasing investments. Many of these negative impacts fall disproportionately on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars.[48][49][50] The sustainable transport movement focuses on solutions to these problems.<br /> <br /> In 2008, with rapidly rising oil prices, industries such as the automotive industry, are experiencing a combination of pricing pressures from raw material costs and changes in consumer buying habits. The industry is also facing increasing external competition from the public transport sector, as consumers re-evaluate their private vehicle usage.[51] Roughly half of the US's fifty-one light vehicle plants are projected to permanently close in the coming years, with the loss of another 200,000 jobs in the sector, on top of the 560,000 jobs lost this decade.[52] Combined with robust growth in China, in 2009, this resulted in China becoming the largest automobile producer and market in the world.<br /> Market<br /> Main article: Automotive market<br /> <br /> The automotive market is formed by the demand and the industry. This article is about the general, major trends in the automotive market, mainly from the demand side.<br /> <br /> The European automotive market has always boasted a higher number of smaller cars than the United States. With the high fuel prices and the world petroleum crisis, the United States may see its automotive market become more like the European market with fewer large vehicles on the road and more small cars.[53]<br /> <br /> For luxurious cars, with the current volatility in oil prices, going for smaller cars is not only smart, but also trendy. And because fashion is of high importance with the upper classes, the little green cars with luxury trimmings become quite plausible.[54]erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-78107403277604198422011-05-03T03:13:00.001-07:002011-05-03T03:13:46.853-07:00Bicycle<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> For other uses, see Bicycle (disambiguation).<br /> A mountain bike, a popular multi-use bicycle.<br /> <br /> A bicycle, also known as a bike, pushbike or cycle, is a pedal-driven, human-powered, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A person who rides a bicycle is called a cyclist or a bicyclist.<br /> <br /> Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century and now number about one billion worldwide, twice as many as automobiles.[1] They are the principal means of transportation in many regions.[where?] They also provide a popular form of recreation, and have been adapted for such uses as children's toys, adult fitness, military and police applications, courier services and bicycle racing.<br /> <br /> The basic shape and configuration of a typical upright bicycle has changed little since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885.[2] However, many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and computer-aided design. These have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for particular types of cycling.<br /> <br /> The invention of the bicycle has had an enormous impact on society, both in terms of culture and of advancing modern industrial methods. Several components that eventually played a key role in the development of the automobile were originally invented for the bicycle, including ball bearings, pneumatic tires, chain-driven sprockets, and spoke-tensioned wheels.[3]<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 History<br /> * 2 Uses<br /> * 3 Technical aspects<br /> o 3.1 Types<br /> o 3.2 Dynamics<br /> o 3.3 Performance<br /> o 3.4 Construction and parts<br /> + 3.4.1 Frame<br /> + 3.4.2 Drivetrain and gearing<br /> + 3.4.3 Steering and seating<br /> + 3.4.4 Brakes<br /> + 3.4.5 Suspension<br /> + 3.4.6 Wheels and tires<br /> + 3.4.7 Accessories, repairs, and tools<br /> + 3.4.8 Standards<br /> + 3.4.9 Parts<br /> * 4 Social and historical aspects<br /> o 4.1 In daily life<br /> o 4.2 Female emancipation<br /> o 4.3 Economic implications<br /> o 4.4 Manufacturing<br /> o 4.5 Legal requirements<br /> * 5 See also<br /> * 6 Notes<br /> * 7 References<br /> * 8 External links<br /> <br /> History<br /> Main article: History of the bicycle<br /> Wooden draisine (around 1820), the first two-wheeler and as such the archetype of the bicycle<br /> <br /> Being the first human means of transport to use only two wheels in tandem, the Draisienne, Laufmaschine, or dandy horse, invented by the German Baron Karl von Drais, is regarded as the forerunner of the modern bicycle. It was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817 and in Paris in 1818.[4] Its rider sat astride a wooden frame supported by two in-line wheels and pushed the vehicle along with his/her feet while steering the front wheel.<br /> Michaux' son on velocipede 1868<br /> Thomas McCall in 1869 on his velocipede<br /> <br /> The first mechanically-propelled 2-wheel vehicle was built by Kirkpatrick MacMillan, a Scottish blacksmith, in 1839. He is also associated with the first recorded instance of a cycling traffic offence, when a Glasgow newspaper reported in 1842 an accident in which an anonymous "gentleman from Dumfries-shire... bestride a velocipede... of ingenious design" knocked over a little girl in Glasgow and was fined five shillings. [5]<br /> <br /> In the early 1860s, Frenchmen Pierre Michaux and Pierre Lallement took bicycle design in a new direction by adding a mechanical crank drive with pedals on an enlarged front wheel (the velocipede). Another French inventor by the name of Douglas Grasso had a failed prototype of Pierre Lallement's bicycle several years earlier. Several inventions followed using rear wheel drive, the best known being the rod-driven velocipede by Scotsman Thomas McCall in 1869. The French creation, made of iron and wood, developed into the "penny-farthing" (historically known as an "ordinary bicycle", a retronym, since there was then no other kind).[6] It featured a tubular steel frame on which were mounted wire-spoked wheels with solid rubber tires. These bicycles were difficult to ride due to their very high seat and poor weight distribution. In 1868 a Michaux cycle was brought to Coventry, England by Rowley Turner, sales agent of the Coventry Sewing Machine Company (which soon became the Coventry Machinist Company). His uncle, Josiah Turner, together with business partner James Starley used this as a basis for the 'Coventry Model' in what became Britain's first cycle factory.[7]<br /> A penny-farthing or ordinary bicycle photographed in the Škoda Auto museum in the Czech Republic<br /> Bicycle in Plymouth, England at the start of the 20th century<br /> <br /> The dwarf ordinary addressed some of these faults by reducing the front wheel diameter and setting the seat further back. This necessitated the addition of gearing, effected in a variety of ways, to efficiently use the power available. However, having to both pedal and steer via the front wheel remained a problem. J. K. Starley (nephew of James Starley), J. H. Lawson, and Shergold solved this problem by introducing the chain drive (originated by the unsuccessful "bicyclette" of Englishman Henry Lawson),[8] connecting the frame-mounted cranks to the rear wheel. These models were known as dwarf safeties, or safety bicycles, for their lower seat height and better weight distribution. (Although without pneumatic tires the ride of the smaller wheeled bicycle would be much rougher than that of the larger wheeled variety.) Starley's 1885 Rover, manufactured in Coventry, England,[9] is usually described as the first recognizably modern bicycle. Soon, the seat tube was added, creating the double-triangle diamond frame of the modern bike.<br /> <br /> Further innovations increased comfort and ushered in a second bicycle craze, the 1890s' Golden Age of Bicycles. In 1888, Scotsman John Boyd Dunlop introduced the first practical pneumatic tire, which soon became universal. Soon after, the rear freewheel was developed, enabling the rider to coast. This refinement led to the 1890s invention[10] of coaster brakes. Derailleur gears and hand-operated cable-pull brakes were also developed during these years, but were only slowly adopted by casual riders. By the turn of the century, cycling clubs flourished on both sides of the Atlantic, and touring and racing became widely popular.<br /> <br /> Bicycles and horse buggies were the two mainstays of private transportation just prior to the automobile, and the grading of smooth roads in the late 19th century was stimulated by the widespread advertising, production, and use of these devices.<br /> Uses<br /> Transporting milk churns in Kolkata, India<br /> <br /> Bicycles have been and are employed for many uses:<br /> Working bicycle in Amsterdam, Netherlands<br /> <br /> * Utility: bicycle commuting and utility cycling<br /> * Work: mail delivery, paramedics, police, couriering, and general delivery.<br /> * Recreation: bicycle touring, mountain biking, BMX and physical fitness.<br /> * Racing: track racing, criterium, roller racing and time trial to multi-stage events like the Tour of California, Giro d'Italia, the Tour de France, the Vuelta a España, the Volta a Portugal, among others.<br /> * Military: scouting, troop movement, supply of provisions, and patrol. See bicycle infantry.<br /> * Show: entertainment and performance, e.g. circus clowns.<br /> * As a novelty musical instrument; e.g. Frank Zappa and P. D. Q. Bach.<br /> <br /> Technical aspects<br /> A Half Wheeler trailer bike at the Golden Gate Bridge<br /> <br /> The bicycle has undergone continual adaptation and improvement since its inception. These innovations have continued with the advent of modern materials and computer-aided design, allowing for a proliferation of specialized bicycle types.<br /> Types<br /> Main article: List of bicycle types<br /> A BMX bike, an example of a bicycle designed for sport<br /> <br /> Bicycles can be categorized in different ways: e.g. by function, by number of riders, by general construction, by gearing or by means of propulsion. The more common types include utility bicycles, mountain bicycles, racing bicycles, touring bicycles, hybrid bicycles, cruiser bicycles, and BMX Bikes. Less common are tandems, lowriders, tall bikes, fixed gear, folding models, amphibious bicycles and recumbents (one of which was used to set the IHPVA Hour record).<br /> <br /> Unicycles, tricycles and quadracycles are not strictly bicycles, as they have respectively one, three and four wheels, but are often referred to informally as "bikes".<br /> Bicycles leaning in a turn<br /> Dynamics<br /> Main article: Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics<br /> <br /> A bicycle stays upright while moving forward by being steered so as to keep its center of gravity over the wheels.[11] This steering is usually provided by the rider, but under certain conditions may be provided by the bicycle itself.[12]<br /> <br /> The combined center of mass of a bicycle and its rider must lean into a turn to successfully navigate it. This lean is induced by a method known as countersteering, which can be performed by the rider turning the handlebars directly with the hands[13] or indirectly by leaning the bicycle.[14]<br /> <br /> Short-wheelbase or tall bicycles, when braking, can generate enough stopping force at the front wheel to flip longitudinally.[15] The act of purposefully using this force to lift the rear wheel and balance on the front without tipping over is a trick known as a stoppie, endo or front wheelie.<br /> Performance<br /> Main article: Bicycle performance<br /> <br /> The bicycle is extraordinarily efficient in both biological and mechanical terms. The bicycle is the most efficient self-powered means of transportation in terms of energy a person must expend to travel a given distance.[16] From a mechanical viewpoint, up to 99% of the energy delivered by the rider into the pedals is transmitted to the wheels, although the use of gearing mechanisms may reduce this by 10–15%.[17][18] In terms of the ratio of cargo weight a bicycle can carry to total weight, it is also an efficient means of cargo transportation.<br /> A recumbent bicycle<br /> <br /> A human traveling on a bicycle at low to medium speeds of around 10–15 mph (15–25 km/h) uses only the energy required to walk. Air drag, which is proportional to the square of speed, requires dramatically higher power outputs as speeds increase. If the rider is sitting upright, the rider's body creates about 75% of the total drag of the bicycle/rider combination. Drag can be reduced by seating the rider in a supine position or a prone position, thus creating a recumbent bicycle or human powered vehicle. Drag can also be reduced by covering the bicycle with an aerodynamic fairing.<br /> <br /> In addition, the carbon dioxide generated in the production and transportation of the food required by the bicyclist, per mile traveled, is less than 1/10 that generated by energy efficient cars.[19]<br /> Construction and parts<br /> <br /> In its early years, bicycle construction drew on pre-existing technologies. More recently, bicycle technology has in turn contributed ideas in both old and new areas.<br /> Frame<br /> Main article: Bicycle frame<br /> Diagram of a bicycle.<br /> <br /> The great majority of today's bicycles have a frame with upright seating which looks much like the first chain-driven bike.[2] Such upright bicycles almost always feature the diamond frame, a truss consisting of two triangles: the front triangle and the rear triangle. The front triangle consists of the head tube, top tube, down tube and seat tube. The head tube contains the headset, the set of bearings that allows the fork to turn smoothly for steering and balance. The top tube connects the head tube to the seat tube at the top, and the down tube connects the head tube to the bottom bracket. The rear triangle consists of the seat tube and paired chain stays and seat stays. The chain stays run parallel to the chain, connecting the bottom bracket to the rear fork ends. The seat stays connect the top of the seat tube (at or near the same point as the top tube) to the rear fork ends.<br /> A Triumph with a step-through frame.<br /> <br /> Historically, women's bicycle frames had a top tube that connected in the middle of the seat tube instead of the top, resulting in a lower standover height at the expense of compromised structural integrity, since this places a strong bending load in the seat tube, and bicycle frame members are typically weak in bending. This design, referred to as a step-through frame, allows the rider to mount and dismount in a dignified way while wearing a skirt or dress. While some women's bicycles continue to use this frame style, there is also a variation, the mixte, which splits the top tube laterally into two thinner top tubes that bypass the seat tube on each side and connect to the rear fork ends. The ease of stepping through is also appreciated by those with limited flexibility or other joint problems. Because of its persistent image as a "women's" bicycle, step-through frames are not common for larger frames.<br /> <br /> Another style is the recumbent bicycle. These are inherently more aerodynamic than upright versions, as the rider may lean back onto a support and operate pedals that are on about the same level as the seat. The world's fastest bicycle is a recumbent bicycle but this type was banned from competition in 1934 by the Union Cycliste Internationale.[20]<br /> <br /> Historically, materials used in bicycles have followed a similar pattern as in aircraft, the goal being high strength and low weight. Since the late 1930s alloy steels have been used for frame and fork tubes in higher quality machines. Celluloid found application in mudguards, and aluminum alloys are increasingly used in components such as handlebars, seat post, and brake levers. In the 1980s aluminum alloy frames became popular for their lightness, and their affordability now makes them common. More expensive carbon fiber and titanium frames are now also available, as well as advanced steel alloys and even bamboo.[21]<br /> Drivetrain and gearing<br /> A set of rear sprockets (also known as a cassette) and a derailleur<br /> For more details on this topic, see Bicycle drivetrain systems.<br /> <br /> The drivetrain begins with pedals which rotate the cranks, which are held in axis by the bottom bracket. Most bicycles use a chain to transmit power to the rear wheel. A relatively small number of bicycles use a shaft drive to transmit power. A very small number of bicycles (mainly single-speed bicycles intended for short-distance commuting) use a belt drive as an oil-free way of transmitting power.<br /> <br /> Since cyclists' legs are most efficient over a narrow range of pedaling speeds (cadence), a variable gear ratio helps a cyclist to maintain an optimum pedalling speed while covering varied terrain. As a first approximation, utility bicycles often use a hub gear with a small number (3 to 8) of widely spaced gears, road bicycles and racing bicycles use derailleur gears with a moderate number (10 to 22) of closely spaced gear ratios, while mountain bicycles, hybrid bicycles, and touring bicycles use dérailleur gears with a larger number (15 to 33) of moderately spaced gear ratios, often including an extremely low gear ("granny gear") for climbing steep hills.<br /> <br /> Different gears and ranges of gears are appropriate for different people and styles of cycling. Multi-speed bicycles allow gear selection to suit the circumstances: a cyclist could use a high gear when cycling downhill, a medium gear when cycling on a flat road, and a low gear when cycling uphill. In a lower gear every turn of the pedals leads to fewer rotations of the rear wheel. This allows the energy required to move the same distance to be distributed over more pedal turns, reducing fatigue when riding uphill, with a heavy load, or against strong winds. A higher gear allows a cyclist to make fewer pedal turns to maintain a given speed, but with more effort per turn of the pedals.<br /> A bicycle with shaft drive instead of a chain<br /> <br /> With a chain drive transmission, a chainring attached to a crank drives the chain, which in turn rotates the rear wheel via the rear sprocket(s) (cassette or freewheel). There are four gearing options: two-speed hub gear integrated with chain ring, up to 3 chain rings, up to 11 sprockets, hub gear built in to rear wheel (3-speed to 14-speed). The most common options are either a rear hub or multiple chain rings combined with multiple sprockets (other combinations of options are possible but less common).<br /> <br /> With a shaft drive transmission, a gear set at the bottom bracket turns the shaft, which then turns the rear wheel via a gear set connected to the wheel's hub. There is some small loss of efficiency due to the two gear sets needed. The only gearing option with a shaft drive is to use a hub gear.<br /> Steering and seating<br /> <br /> The handlebars turn the fork and the front wheel via the stem, which rotates within the headset. Three styles of handlebar are common. Upright handlebars, the norm in Europe and elsewhere until the 1970s, curve gently back toward the rider, offering a natural grip and comfortable upright position. Drop handlebars "drop" as they curve forward and down, offering the cyclist best braking power from a more aerodynamic "crouched" position, as well as more upright positions in which the hands grip the brake lever mounts, the forward curves, or the upper flat sections for increasingly upright postures. Mountain bikes generally feature a 'straight handlebar' or 'riser bar' with varying degrees of sweep backwards and centimeters rise upwards, as well as wider widths which can provide better handling due to increased leverage against the wheel.<br /> A Selle San Marco saddle designed for women<br /> <br /> Saddles also vary with rider preference, from the cushioned ones favored by short-distance riders to narrower saddles which allow more room for leg swings. Comfort depends on riding position. With comfort bikes and hybrids, cyclists sit high over the seat, their weight directed down onto the saddle, such that a wider and more cushioned saddle is preferable. For racing bikes where the rider is bent over, weight is more evenly distributed between the handlebars and saddle, the hips are flexed, and a narrower and harder saddle is more efficient. Differing saddle designs exist for male and female cyclists, accommodating the genders' differing anatomies, although bikes typically are sold with saddles most appropriate for men.<br /> <br /> A recumbent bicycle has a reclined chair-like seat that some riders find more comfortable than a saddle, especially riders who suffer from certain types of seat, back, neck, shoulder, or wrist pain. Recumbent bicycles may have either under-seat or over-seat steering.<br /> Brakes<br /> Main article: Bicycle brake systems<br /> Linear-pull brake, also known by the Shimano trademark: V-Brake, on rear wheel of a mountain bike<br /> <br /> Modern bicycle brakes may be: rim brakes, in which friction pads are compressed against the wheel rims; internal hub brakes, in which the friction pads are contained within the wheel hubs; or disc brakes, with a separate rotor for braking. Disc brakes are more common for off-road bicycles, tandems and recumbent bicycles than on road-specific bicycles.<br /> A front disc brake, mounted to the fork and hub<br /> <br /> With hand-operated brakes, force is applied to brake levers mounted on the handlebars and transmitted via Bowden cables or hydraulic lines to the friction pads. A rear hub brake may be either hand-operated or pedal-actuated, as in the back pedal coaster brakes which were popular in North America until the 1960s, and are common in children's bicycles.<br /> <br /> Track bicycles do not have dedicated brakes. Brakes are not required for riding on a track because all riders ride in the same direction around a track which does not necessitate sharp deceleration. Track riders are still able to slow down because all track bicycles are fixed-gear, meaning that there is no freewheel. Without a freewheel, coasting is impossible, so when the rear wheel is moving, the crank is moving. To slow down, the rider applies resistance to the pedals – this acts as a braking system which can be as effective as a friction-based rear wheel brake, but not as effective as a front wheel brake.[22]<br /> Suspension<br /> Main article: Bicycle suspension<br /> <br /> Bicycle suspension refers to the system or systems used to suspend the rider and all or part of the bicycle. This serves two purposes:<br /> <br /> * To keep the wheels in continuous contact with rough surfaces to improve control.<br /> <br /> * To isolate the rider and luggage from jarring due to rough surfaces.<br /> <br /> Bicycle suspensions are used primarily on mountain bicycles, but are also common on hybrid bicycles, and can even be found on some road bicycles, as they can help deal with problematic vibration. Suspension is especially important on recumbent bicycles, since while an upright bicycle rider can stand on the pedals to achieve some of the benefits of suspension, a recumbent rider cannot.<br /> Wheels and tires<br /> Main article: Bicycle wheel<br /> <br /> The wheel axle fits into fork ends in the frame and forks. A pair of wheels may be called a wheelset, especially in the context of ready-built "off the shelf", performance-oriented wheels.<br /> Main article: Bicycle tire<br /> <br /> Tires vary enormously. Skinny 18 to 25 millimeters wide, road-racing tires may be completely smooth, or (slick). On the opposite extreme, off-road tires are 38 to 64 millimeters wide and usually have a deep tread for gripping in muddy conditions or metal studs for ice.<br /> Accessories, repairs, and tools<br /> Touring bicycle equipped with front and rear racks, fenders/mud-guards, water bottles in cages, four panniers and a handlebar bag.<br /> Puncture repair kit with tire levers, sandpaper to clean off an area of the inner tube around the puncture, a tube of rubber solution (vulcanizing fluid), round and oval patches, a metal grater and piece of chalk to make chalk powder (to dust over excess rubber solution). Kits often also include a wax crayon to mark the puncture location.<br /> <br /> Some components, which are often optional accessories on sports bicycles, are standard features on utility bicycles to enhance their usefulness and comfort. Mudguards, or fenders, protect the cyclist and moving parts from spray when riding through wet areas and chainguards protect clothes from oil on the chain while preventing clothing from being caught between the chain and crankset teeth. Kick stands keep a bicycle upright when parked, while a bike lock will help prevent it from being stolen. Front-mounted baskets for carrying goods are often used. Luggage carriers and panniers mounted above the rear tire can be used to carry equipment or cargo. Parents sometimes add rear-mounted child seats and/or an auxiliary saddle fitted to the crossbar to transport children.<br /> <br /> Toe-clips and toestraps and clipless pedals help keep the foot locked in the proper position on the pedals, and enable the cyclist to pull as well as push the pedals—although not without their hazards, e.g. may lock foot in when needed to prevent a fall. Technical accessories include cyclocomputers for measuring speed, distance, heart rate, GPS data etc. Other accessories include lights, reflectors, security locks, mirror, water bottles and cages, and bell.[23]<br /> <br /> Bicycle helmets may help reduce injury in the event of a collision or accident, and a certified helmet is legally required for some riders in some jurisdictions. Helmets are classified as an accessory[23] or an item of clothing by others.[24]<br /> <br /> Many cyclists carry tool kits. These may include a tire patch kit (which, in turn, may contain any combination of a hand pump or CO2 Pump, tire levers, spare tubes, self-adhesive patches, or tube-patching material, an adhesive, a piece of sandpaper or a metal grater (for roughing the tube surface to be patched),[25][26] and sometimes even a block of French chalk.), wrenches, hex keys, screwdrivers, and a chain tool. There are also cycling specific multi-tools that combine many of these implements into a single compact device. More specialized bicycle components may require more complex tools, including proprietary tools specific for a given manufacturer.<br /> <br /> Some bicycle parts, particularly hub-based gearing systems, are complex, and many cyclists prefer to leave maintenance and repairs to professional bicycle mechanics. In some areas it is possible to purchase road-side assistance from companies such as the Better World Club. Other cyclists maintain their own bicycles, perhaps as part of their enjoyment of the hobby of cycling or simply for economic reasons. The ability to repair and maintain your own bicycle is also celebrated within the DIY movement.<br /> Standards<br /> <br /> A number of formal and industry standards exist for bicycle components to help make spare parts exchangeable and to maintain a minimum product safety.<br /> <br /> The International Organization for Standardization, ISO, has a special technical committee for cycles, TC149, that has the following scope: "Standardization in the field of cycles, their components and accessories with particular reference to terminology, testing methods and requirements for performance and safety, and interchangeability."<br /> <br /> CEN, European Committee for Standardisation, also has a specific Technical Committee, TC333, that defines European standards for cycles. Their mandate states that EN cycle standards shall harmonize with ISO standards. Some CEN cycle standards were developed before ISO published their standards, leading to strong European influences in this area. European cycle standards tend to describe minimum safety requirements, while ISO standards have historically harmonized parts geometry.[27]<br /> Parts<br /> <br /> For details on specific bicycle parts, see list of bicycle parts and category:bicycle parts.<br /> Social and historical aspects<br /> <br /> The bicycle has had a considerable effect on human society, in both the cultural and industrial realms.<br /> In daily life<br /> <br /> Around the turn of the 20th century, bicycles reduced crowding in inner-city tenements by allowing workers to commute from more spacious dwellings in the suburbs. They also reduced dependence on horses. Bicycles allowed people to travel for leisure into the country, since bicycles were three times as energy efficient as walking and three to four times as fast.<br /> A bike-sharing station in Barcelona<br /> <br /> Recently, several European cities and Montreal have implemented successful schemes known as community bicycle programs or bike-sharing. These initiatives complement a city's public transport system and offer an alternative to motorized traffic to help reduce congestion and pollution. In Europe, especially in The Netherlands and parts of Germany and Denmark, commuting by bicycle is very common. In the Danish capital of Copenhagen, a cyclists' organization runs a Cycling Embassy, that promotes biking for commuting and sightseeing. In the UK there's a tax break scheme (IR 176) that allows employees to buy a new bicycle tax free to use for commuting.[citation needed]<br /> <br /> In The Netherlands, all train stations are equipped with provisions for bicycle parking for a small fee and the larger ones also with bicycle repair shops, and cycling is so popular that the parking capacity is sometimes exceeded.[28] In Trondheim in Norway, the Trampe bicycle lift has been developed to encourage cyclists by giving assistance on a steep hill. Action buses In Canberra, Australia, offers bicycle rack on the front of the bus to allow riders to mount their bicycle free of charge, and previously it would allow bicycle riders to ride on buses for free.<br /> <br /> In cities where the bicycle is not an integral part of the planned transportation system, commuters often use bicycles as elements of a mixed-mode commute, where the bike is used to travel to and from train stations or other forms of rapid transit. Folding bicycles are useful in these scenarios, as they are less cumbersome when carried aboard. Los Angeles removed a small amount of seating on some trains to make more room for bicycles and wheel chairs.[29]<br /> <br /> Bicycles offer an important mode of transport in many developing countries. Until recently, bicycles have been a staple of everyday life throughout Asian countries. They are the most frequently used method of transport for commuting to work, school, shopping, and life in general.[citation needed]<br /> Female emancipation<br /> Woman with bicycle, 1890s<br /> <br /> The safety bicycle gave women unprecedented mobility, contributing to their emancipation in Western nations. As bicycles became safer and cheaper, more women had access to the personal freedom they embodied, and so the bicycle came to symbolize the New Woman of the late 19th century, especially in Britain and the United States. The bicycle was recognized by 19th-century feminists and suffragists as a "freedom machine" for women. American Susan B. Anthony said in a New York World interview on February 2, 1896: "Let me tell you what I think of bicycling. I think it has done more to emancipate women than anything else in the world. It gives women a feeling of freedom and self-reliance. I stand and rejoice every time I see a woman ride by on a wheel...the picture of free, untrammeled womanhood." In 1895 Frances Willard, the tightly laced president of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, wrote a book called How I Learned to Ride the Bicycle, in which she praised the bicycle she learned to ride late in life, and which she named "Gladys", for its "gladdening effect" on her health and political optimism. Willard used a cycling metaphor to urge other suffragists to action, proclaiming, "I would not waste my life in friction when it could be turned into momentum."<br /> <br /> The bicycle craze in the 1890s also led to a movement for so-called rational dress, which helped liberate women from corsets and ankle-length skirts and other restrictive garments, substituting the then-shocking bloomers.<br /> Economic implications<br /> Columbia Bicycles advertisement from 1886<br /> <br /> Bicycle manufacturing proved to be a training ground for other industries and led to the development of advanced metalworking techniques, both for the frames themselves and for special components such as ball bearings, washers, and sprockets. These techniques later enabled skilled metalworkers and mechanics to develop the components used in early automobiles and aircraft.<br /> <br /> They also served to teach the industrial models later adopted, including mechanization and mass production (later copied and adopted by Ford and General Motors),[30] vertical integration[31] (also later copied and adopted by Ford), aggressive advertising[32] (as much as 10% of all advertising in U.S. periodicals in 1898 was by bicycle makers),[33] lobbying for better roads (which had the side benefit of acting as advertising, and of improving sales by providing more places to ride),[34] all first practised by Pope.[34] In addition, bicycle makers adopted the annual model change[35][36] (later derided as planned obsolescence, and usually credited to General Motors), which proved very successful.[37]<br /> <br /> Furthermore, early bicycles were an example of conspicuous consumption, being adopted by the fashionable elites.[38] In addition, by serving as a platform for accessories, which could ultimately cost more than the bicycle itself, it paved the way for the likes of the Barbie doll.[39]<br /> <br /> Moreover, they helped create, or enhance, new kinds of businesses, such as bicycle messengers,[40] travelling seamstresses,[41] riding academies,[42] and racing rinks[43] (Their board tracks were later adapted to early motorcycle and automobile racing.) Also, there were a variety of new inventions, such as spoke tighteners,[44] and specialized lights,[45] socks and shoes,[46] and even cameras (such as the Eastman Company's Poco).[47] Probably the best known and most widely used of these inventions, adopted well beyond cycling, is Charles Bennett's Bike Web, which came to be called the "jock strap".[48]<br /> A man uses a bicycle to carry goods in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso<br /> <br /> They also presaged a move away from public transit[49] that would explode with the introduction of the automobile.<br /> <br /> J. K. Starley's company became the Rover Cycle Company Ltd. in the late 1890s, and then simply the Rover Company when it started making cars. The Morris Motor Company (in Oxford) and Škoda also began in the bicycle business, as did the Wright brothers.[50] Alistair Craig, whose company eventually emerged to become the engine manufacturers Ailsa Craig, also started from manufacturing bicycles, in Glasgow in March 1885.<br /> <br /> In general, U.S. and European cycle manufacturers used to assemble cycles from their own frames and components made by other companies, although very large companies (such as Raleigh) used to make almost every part of a bicycle (including bottom brackets, axles, etc.) In recent years, those bicycle makers have greatly changed their methods of production. Now, almost none of them produce their own frames.<br /> <br /> Many newer or smaller companies only design and market their products; the actual production is done by Asian companies. For example, some 60% of the world's bicycles are now being made in China. Despite this shift in production, as nations such as China and India become more wealthy, their own use of bicycles has declined due to the increasing affordability of cars and motorcycles.[51] One of the major reasons for the proliferation of Chinese-made bicycles in foreign markets is the lower cost of labor in China.[52]<br /> <br /> One of the profound economic implications of bicycle use is that it liberates the user from oil consumption (Ballantine, 1972). The bicycle is a inexpensive, fast, healthy and environmentally friendly mode of transport (Illich, 1974)<br /> Manufacturing<br /> <br /> The global bicycle market is $61 billion in 2011.[53] 130 million bicycles are sold every year globally and 66% of them are made in China.[54]<br /> Legal requirements<br /> Reflectors for riding after dark<br /> <br /> Early in its development, as with automobiles, there were restrictions on the operation of bicycles. Along with advertising, and to gain free publicity, Albert A. Pope litigated on behalf of cyclists.[55]<br /> <br /> The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic of the United Nations considers a bicycle to be a vehicle, and a person controlling a bicycle (whether actually riding or not) is considered an operator. The traffic codes of many countries reflect these definitions and demand that a bicycle satisfy certain legal requirements before it can be used on public roads. In many jurisdictions, it is an offense to use a bicycle that is not in a roadworthy condition.<br /> <br /> In most jurisdictions, bicycles must have functioning front and rear lights when ridden after dark. As some generator or dynamo-driven lamps only operate while moving, rear reflectors are frequently also mandatory. Since a moving bicycle makes little noise, some countries insist that bicycles have a warning bell for use when approaching pedestrians, equestrians, and other cyclists.<br /> <br /> Some countries require child and/or adult cyclists to wear helmets, as this may protect riders from head trauma. Countries which require adult cyclists to wear helmets include Spain, Canada, New Zealand and Australia.erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-2903329671429526592011-04-26T04:59:00.001-07:002011-04-26T04:59:44.654-07:00Jakarta<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> This article is about the capital city of Indonesia. For other uses, see Jakarta (disambiguation).<br /> Jakarta<br /> Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta<br /> Special Capital Territory of Jakarta<br /> (From top, left to right): Jakarta Old Town, Hotel Indonesia Roundabout, Jakarta Skyline, Gelora Bung Karno Stadium, Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Monumen Nasional, Merdeka Palace, Istiqlal Mosque<br /> <br /> Seal<br /> Nickname(s): The Big Durian[1]<br /> Motto: Jaya Raya (Indonesian)<br /> (Victorious and Great)<br /> Jakarta is located in Indonesia<br /> Jakarta<br /> Location of Jakarta in Indonesia<br /> Coordinates: 6°12′S 106°48′E / 6.2°S 106.8°E / -6.2; 106.8Coordinates: 6°12′S 106°48′E / 6.2°S 106.8°E / -6.2; 106.8<br /> Country Indonesia<br /> Province Jakarta<br /> Government<br /> - Type Special administrative area<br /> - Governor Fauzi Bowo<br /> Area<br /> - City 740.28 km2 (285.8 sq mi)<br /> - Land 662.33 km2 (255.7 sq mi)<br /> - Water 6,977.5 km2 (2,694 sq mi)<br /> Elevation 7 m (23 ft)<br /> Population (2010)[2] 9,580,000<br /> - City 9,580,000<br /> - Density 14,464.08/km2 (37,461.8/sq mi)<br /> - Metro 26,600,000<br /> [3][4]<br /> Time zone WIB (UTC+7)<br /> Area code(s) +62 21<br /> Website www.jakarta.go.id (official site)<br /> <br /> Jakarta (English pronunciation: /dʒəˈkɑrtə/[5] Indonesian: Ltspkr.png Jakarta formerly Batavia and officially the Special Capital Territory of Jakarta), is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of Java, it has an area of 661 square kilometres (255 sq mi) and a 2010 census count population of 9,580,000.[4] Jakarta is the country's economic, cultural and political centre. It is the most populous city in Indonesia and in Southeast Asia, and is the tenth-largest city in the world. The urban area, Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world. Jakarta is listed as a global city in the 2008 Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC) research.[6] The city's name is derived from the Old Javanese word "Jayakarta" which translates as "victorious deed", "complete act", or "complete victory".<br /> <br /> Established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It grew as the capital of the colonial Dutch East Indies. It was made capital of Indonesia when the country became independent after World War II. It was formerly known as Sunda Kelapa (397–1527), Jayakarta (1527–1619), Batavia (1619–1942), and Djakarta (1942–1972). Jakarta has also been known as the Big Durian by most Indonesians and some foreigners.[7]<br /> <br /> Landmarks include the National Monument and Istiqlal Mosque. The city is the seat of the ASEAN Secretariat. Jakarta is served by the Soekarno-Hatta International Airport, Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport, and Tanjung Priok Harbour; it is connected by several intercity and commuter railways, and served by several bus lines running on reserved busways.<br /> History<br /> Main article: History of Jakarta<br /> The 5th century Tugu inscription discovered in Tugu district, North Jakarta<br /> [edit] Pre-colonial era<br /> <br /> The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, one of the oldest Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia.[8] Following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda is within the sphere of influence of Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1200, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and western Java (Sunda). The source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles.[9] The harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom.<br /> <br /> The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices.[10] The Kingdom of Sunda made an alliance treaty with Portugal by allowing the Portuguese to build a port in 1522 in order to defend against the rising power of the Sultanate of Demak from central Java.[11] In 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta,[11] and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading center.<br /> The Castle of Batavia, seen from West Kali Besar by Andries Beeckman circa 1656-58<br /> <br /> Through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the British East India Company's first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and sailed on to Banten where they were allowed to build a trading post. This site became the center of British trade in Indonesia until 1682.[12]<br /> <br /> Jayawikarta is thought to have made trading connections with the English merchants, rivals of the Dutch, by allowing them to build houses directly across from the Dutch buildings in 1615.[13]<br /> [edit] Colonial era<br /> <br /> When relations between Prince Jayawikarta and the Dutch deteriorated, Jayawikarta's soldiers attacked the Dutch fortress. Prince Jayakarta's army and the British were defeated by the Dutch, in part owing to the timely arrival of Jan Pieterszoon Coen (J.P. Coen). The Dutch burned the English fort, and forced the English to retreat on their ships. The victory consolidated Dutch power and in 1619 they renamed the city "Batavia."<br /> The former Stadhuis of Batavia, the seat of Governor General of VOC. The building now serves as Jakarta History Museum, Jakarta Old Town area.<br /> Batavia c.1870<br /> <br /> Commercial opportunities in the capital of the Dutch colony attracted Indonesian and especially Chinese immigrants, the increasing numbers creating burdens on the city. Tensions grew as the colonial government tried to restrict Chinese migration through deportations. On 9 October 1740, 5,000 Chinese were massacred by the Dutch and the following year, Chinese inhabitants were moved to Glodok outside the city walls.[14] The city began to move further south as epidemics in 1835 and 1870 encouraged more people to move far south of the port. The Koningsplein, now Merdeka Square was completed in 1818, the housing park of Menteng was started in 1913,[15] and Kebayoran Baru was the last Dutch-built residential area.[14] By 1930 Batavia had more than 500,000 inhabitants,[16] including 37,067 Europeans.[17]<br /> <br /> During the World War II, the city was renamed from Batavia to "Jakarta" (short form of Jayakarta) by the Indonesian nationalists after conquering the city from the Dutch in 1942 with the help of the Japanese forces.[18]<br /> [edit] Independence era<br /> <br /> Following World War II, Indonesian Republicans withdrew from Allied-occupied Jakarta during their fight for Indonesian independence and established their capital in Yogyakarta. In 1950, once independence was secured, Jakarta was once again made the national capital.[14] Indonesia's founding president, Sukarno, envisaged Jakarta as a great international city, and instigated large government-funded projects with openly nationalistic and modernist architecture.[19][20] Projects included a clover-leaf highway, a major boulevard (Jalan MH Thamrin-Sudirman), monuments such as The National Monument, Hotel Indonesia, a shopping centre, and a new parliament building. In October 1965, Jakarta was the site of an abortive coup attempt in which 6 top generals were killed, precipitating a violent anti-communist purge in which half-a million were killed, and the beginning of Suharto's New Order. A monument stands where the generals' bodies were dumped.<br /> <br /> In 1966, Jakarta was declared a "special capital city district" (daerah khusus ibukota), thus gaining a status approximately equivalent to that of a state or province.[21] Lieutenant General Ali Sadikin served as Governor from the mid-60's commencement of the "New Order" through to 1977; he rehabilitated roads and bridges, encouraged the arts, built several hospitals, and a large number of new schools. He also cleared out slum dwellers for new development projects—some for the benefit of the Suharto family[22][23]—and tried to eliminate rickshaws and ban street vendors. He began control of migration to the city in order to stem the overcrowding and poverty.[24] Foreign investment contributed to a real estate boom which changed the face of the city.[25]<br /> <br /> The boom ended with the 1997/98 East Asian Economic crisis putting Jakarta at the center of violence, protest, and political maneuvering. After 32 years in power support from President Suharto began to wane. Tensions reached a peak in when four students were shot dead at Trisakti University by security forces; four days of riots and violence ensued that killed an estimated 1,200, and destroyed or damaged 6,000 buildings.[26] Much of the rioting targeted Chinese Indonesians.[27] Suharto resigned as president, and Jakarta has remained the focal point of democratic change in Indonesia.[28] Jemaah Islamiah-connected bombings occurred almost annually in the city between 2000 and 2005,[14] with another bombing in 2009.[29]<br /> [edit] Administration<br /> [edit] Kota or kotamadya (cities) of Jakarta<br /> Map of the cities (kotamadya) of DKI Jakarta. Each city is divided into subdistricts (kecamatan).<br /> <br /> Officially, Jakarta is not a city, but a province with special status as the capital of Indonesia. It has a governor (instead of a mayor), and is divided into several sub-regions with their own administrative systems. As a province, the official name of Jakarta is Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta ("Special Capital City District of Jakarta"), which in Indonesian is abbreviated to DKI Jakarta.<br /> <br /> Jakarta is divided into five kota or kotamadya ("cities" - formerly municipalities), each headed by a mayor, and one regency (kabupaten) headed by a regent. In August 2007, Jakarta held its first ever election to choose a governor, whereas previously the city's governors were appointed by the local house of representatives. The poll is part of a country-wide decentralization drive, allowing for direct local elections in several areas.[30]<br /> <br /> The cities/municipalities of Jakarta are:<br /> <br /> * Central Jakarta (Jakarta Pusat) is Jakarta's smallest city and home to most of Jakarta's administrative and political center. It is characterized by large parks and Dutch colonial buildings. Landmarks include the National Monument (Monas), the Istiqlal Mosque, the Jakarta Cathedral, and museums.[31]<br /> * West Jakarta (Jakarta Barat) has the highest concentration of small-scale industries in Jakarta. The area includes Jakarta's Chinatown and landmarks include the Chinese Langgam building and the Toko Merah building. West Jakarta contains part of the Jakarta Old Town.[32]<br /> * South Jakarta (Jakarta Selatan), originally planned as a satellite city, is now the location of large upscale shopping centres and affluent residential areas. Jakarta Selatan functions as Jakarta's ground water buffer,[33] but recently the green belt areas are threatened by new developments. Much of the CBD area of Jakarta is concentrated in Setia Budi, South Jakarta, bordering the Tanah Abang/Sudirman area of Central Jakarta.<br /> * East Jakarta (Jakarta Timur) territory is characterized by several industrial sectors erected in this city.[34] There are also still some areas of swamps and rice fields in this city.[34]<br /> * North Jakarta (Jakarta Utara) is the only city in Jakarta that is bounded by the sea (Java Sea). It is the location of the Tanjung Priok Port. Big-scale and medium-scale industries are concentrated in North Jakarta. North Jakarta contains the location of Jakarta Old Town, formerly known as Batavia since the 17th century, and was a centre of VOC trade activity in Dutch East Indies. Also located in North Jakarta is Ancol Dreamland (Taman Impian Jaya Ancol), currently the largest integrated tourism area in South East Asia.[35]<br /> <br /> The only regency (kabupaten) of Jakarta is:<br /> <br /> * Thousand Islands (Kepulauan Seribu), formerly a subdistrict of North Jakarta, is a collection of 105 small islands located on Java Sea. It has a high conservation value because of its unique and special ecosystems. Marine tourism, such as diving, water bicycle, and wind surfing, is the most important touristic activity in this territory. The main transportation between these islands are speed boat or small ferries.[36]<br /> <br /> Jakarta's Cities/Municipalities (Kota Administrasi/Kotamadya) City/Regency↓ Area (km2)↓ Total population (registered)(2007)[37]↓ Total population (2007)[37]↓ Population Density (km2)[37]↓<br /> South Jakarta 141.27 1,730,680 2,100,930 14,872<br /> East Jakarta 188.03 2,159,785 2,421,419 12,878<br /> Central Jakarta 48.13 880,286 889,680 18,485<br /> West Jakarta 129.54 1,562,837 2,172,878 16,774<br /> North Jakarta 146.66 1,200,958 1,453,106 9,908<br /> Thousand Islands 8.7 19,915 19,980 2,297<br /> [edit] Government<br /> <br /> In September 1945, the government of Jakarta City was changed from the Japanese Djakarta Toku-Betsu Shi into the Jakarta National Administration. This first government was held by a Mayor until the end of 1960 when the office was changed to that of a Governor. The last mayor of Jakarta was Sudiro, until he was replaced by Dr Sumarno as Governor.<br /> <br /> In 1974, Based on the Act No. 5 of 1974 relating to the Fundamentals of Regional Government, Jakarta was confirmed as the capital city of Indonesia and one of Indonesia's 26 provinces.[37]<br /> See also: List of Governors of Jakarta<br /> [edit] Geography and climate<br /> [edit] Geography<br /> <br /> Jakarta is located on the northwest coast of Java, at the mouth of the Ciliwung River on Jakarta Bay, which is an inlet of the Java Sea. Officially, the area of the Jakarta Special District is 662 km2 of land area and 6,977 km2 of sea area.[38] Jakarta lies in a low, flat basin, averaging 7 metres (23 ft) above sea level;[citation needed] 40% of Jakarta, particularly the northern areas, is below sea level,[39] while the southern parts are comparatively hilly. Rivers flow from the Puncak highlands to the south of the city, across the city northwards towards the Java Sea; the most important[clarification needed] is the Ciliwung River, which divides the city into the western and eastern principalities. Other rivers include the Pesanggrahan, and Sunter.<br /> <br /> These rivers, combined with Jakarta's low topography make it prone to flooding from swollen rivers in the wet season and high sea tides. Other contributing factors include clogged sewage pipes and waterways that service an increasing population, in addition to deforestation near rapidly urbanizing Bogor and Depok in Jakarta's hinterland. Furthermore, Jakarta is an urban area with complex socio-economic problems that indirectly contribute to triggering a flood event.[40] Major floods occurred in 1996[41][42] when 5,000 hectares of land were flooded [43] and 2007.[44] Losses from infrastructure damage and state revenue were at least 5.2 trillion rupiah (572 million US dollars) and at least 85 people were killed [45] and about 350,000 people forced from their homes.[46] Approximately 70% of Jakarta's total area was flooded with water up to four meters deep in parts of the city.[47][48]<br /> <br /> East Flood Canal (BKT) in eastern Jakarta was a national project which began in 2003 and late 2009 reached the Java sea and will be accomplished in 2011. It was 23.5 kilometers length which linking five rivers: Cipinang, Sunter, Buaran, Jati Kramat and Cakung. It will reduce flood and hope as a 2 kilometers rowing sport venue too.[49]<br /> <br /> The Thousand Islands, which are administratively a part of Jakarta, are located in Jakarta Bay north of the city.<br /> [edit] Climate<br /> <br /> Jakarta has a hot and humid tropical wet and dry climate (Aw) according to the Köppen climate classification system. Despite being located relatively close to the equator, the city has distinct wet and dry seasons. Wet seasons in Jakarta cover the majority of the year, running from November through June. The remaining four months forms the city’s dry season. Located in the western-part of Indonesia, Jakarta's wet season rainfall peak is January with average monthly rainfall of 385 millimetres (15.2 in), and its dry season low point is September with a monthly average of 29 millimetres (1.1 in).<br /> [hide]Climate data for Jakarta<br /> Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year<br /> Average high °C (°F) 31.5<br /> (88.7) 32.3<br /> (90.1) 32.5<br /> (90.5) 33.5<br /> (92.3) 33.5<br /> (92.3) 34.4<br /> (93.9) 33.3<br /> (91.9) 33.0<br /> (91.4) 32.0<br /> (89.6) 31.7<br /> (89.1) 31.3<br /> (88.3) 32.0<br /> (89.6) 31.8<br /> (89.2)<br /> Average low °C (°F) 24.2<br /> (75.6) 24.3<br /> (75.7) 25.2<br /> (77.4) 25.1<br /> (77.2) 25.4<br /> (77.7) 24.8<br /> (76.6) 25.1<br /> (77.2) 24.9<br /> (76.8) 25.5<br /> (77.9) 25.5<br /> (77.9) 24.9<br /> (76.8) 24.9<br /> (76.8) 25.0<br /> (77)<br /> Precipitation mm (inches) 384.7<br /> (15.146) 309.8<br /> (12.197) 100.3<br /> (3.949) 257.8<br /> (10.15) 133.4<br /> (5.252) 83.1<br /> (3.272) 30.8<br /> (1.213) 34.2<br /> (1.346) 29.0<br /> (1.142) 33.1<br /> (1.303) 175.0<br /> (6.89) 84.0<br /> (3.307) 1,655.2<br /> (65.165)<br /> Avg. rainy days 26 20 15 18 13 17 5 24 6 9 22 12 187<br /> Source: World Meteorological Organisation [50]<br /> [edit] Culture<br /> <br /> As the economic and political capital of Indonesia, Jakarta attracts many domestic immigrants who bring their various languages, dialects, foods and customs.<br /> The Golden Snail (Keong Emas), established in 1970s during New Order era, is an IMAX theater located in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, East Jakarta.<br /> <br /> The Betawi (Orang Betawi, or "people of Batavia") is a term used to describe the descendants of the people living in and around Batavia and recognized as an ethnic group from around the 18th-19th century. The Betawi people are mostly descended from various Southeast Asian ethnic groups brought or attracted to Batavia to meet labor needs, and include people from different parts of Indonesia.[51] The language and Betawi culture are distinct from those of the Sundanese or Javanese. The language is mostly based on the East Malay dialect and enriched by loan words from Dutch, Portuguese, Sundanese, Javanese, Chinese, and Arabic. Nowadays, the Jakarta dialect (Bahasa Jakarta) used as a street language by people in Jakarta is loosely based on the Betawi language.<br /> <br /> Betawi arts have a low profile in Jakarta and most Betawi have moved to the suburbs of Jakarta, displaced by new migrants. It is easier to find Java or Minang based wedding ceremonies rather than Betawi weddings in Jakarta. It is easier to find Javanese Gamelan instead of Gambang Kromong (a mixture between Betawi and Chinese music) or Tanjidor (a mixture between Betawi and Portuguese music) or Marawis (a mixture between Betawi and Yaman music). However, some festivals such as the Jalan Jaksa Festival or Kemang Festival include efforts to preserve Betawi arts by inviting artists to give performances.[52]<br /> <br /> There has been a Chinese community in Jakarta for many centuries. Officially, they make up 6% of the Jakartan population, although this number may be under-reported.[53]<br /> <br /> Jakarta has several performing art centers, such as the Taman Ismail Marzuki (TIM) art center in Cikini, Gedung Kesenian Jakarta near Pasar Baru, Balai Sarbini in Plaza Semanggi area, Bentara Budaya Jakarta in Palmerah area, Pasar Seni (Art Market) in Ancol, and traditional Indonesian art performances at the pavilions of some Provinces in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah. Traditional music is often found at high-class hotels, including Wayang and Gamelan performances. Javanese Wayang Orang performance can be found at Wayang Orang Bharata theater near Senen bus terminal. As the nation's largest city and capital, Jakarta has lured much national and regional talent who hope to find a greater audience and more opportunities for success.<br /> <br /> Jakarta hosts several prestigious art and culture festivals, and exhibitions, such as the annual Jakarta International Film Festival (JiFFest), Jakarta International Java Jazz Festival, Jakarta Fashion Week, Jakarta Fashion & Food Festival (JFFF), Indonesia Creative Products and Jakarta Arts and Crafts exhibition. Flona Jakarta is a Flora and Fauna exhibition, held annually in August at Lapangan Banteng park featuring flowers, plant nurseries, and pets. The Jakarta Fair is held annually from mid June to mid July to celebrate the anniversary of the city and is largely centered around a trade fair. However this month-long fair also features entertainment, including arts and music performances by local bands and musicians.<br /> <br /> Several foreign art and culture centers are also established in Jakarta, and mainly serve to promote culture and language through learning centers, libraries, and art galleries. Among these foreign art and cultural centers are Netherlands Erasmus Huis, UK British Council, France Centre Culturel Français, Germany Goethe-Institut, Japan Foundation, and The Jawaharlal Nehru Indian Cultural Center.<br /> [edit] Museums<br /> See also: List of museums and cultural institutions in Indonesia<br /> National Museum of Indonesia in Central Jakarta<br /> <br /> The museums in Jakarta cluster around the Central Jakarta Merdeka Square area, Jakarta Old Town, and Taman Mini Indonesia Indah.<br /> <br /> The Jakarta Old Town contains museums that are former institutional buildings of Colonial Batavia. Some of these museums are the Jakarta History Museum (former City Hall of Batavia), Wayang Museum (former Church of Batavia), the Fine Art and Ceramic Museum (former Court House of Justice of Batavia), the Maritime Museum (former Sunda Kelapa warehouse), Bank Indonesia Museum (former Javasche Bank), and Bank Mandiri Museum (former Nederlandsche Handels Maatschappij).<br /> <br /> Several museums clustered in central Jakarta around the Merdeka Square area are National Museum of Indonesia (also known as Gedung Gajah ("the Elephant Building"), Monas (National Monument), Istiqlal Islamic Museum in Istiqlal mosque, and Jakarta Cathedral Museum on second floor of Jakarta Cathedral. Also in central Jakarta area is the Taman Prasasti Museum (former cemetery of Batavia), and Textile Museum in Tanah Abang area.<br /> <br /> The recreational area of Taman Mini Indonesia Indah in East Jakarta contains fourteen museums such as Indonesia Museum, Purna Bhakti Pertiwi Museum, Asmat Museum, Bayt al-Qur'an Islamic Museum, Pusaka (heirloom) Museum, and other science-based museum such as Research & Technology Information Centre, Komodo Indonesian Fauna Museum, Insect Museum, Petrol and Gas Museum, also Transportation Museum.<br /> <br /> Other museums are Satria Mandala Military Museum, Museum Sumpah Pemuda, and Lubang Buaya.<br /> [edit] Cuisine<br /> <br /> Jakarta has a vast range of food available at hundreds of eating complexes located all over the city, frommodest street-side foodstalls and traveling vendors to the high-class expensive restaurants. The traditional Padang restaurants and low budget Javanese Warteg (Warung Tegal) foodstalls are ubiquitous in the capital. Next to a myriad of selection of Indonesian food and regional specialities from all over Indonesia, there is also international food, especially Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, Indian, American, French, Middle Eastern, and modern fusion food.[54] One of the most popular local dishes in Jakarta is Soto Betawi, which is a cow milk or coconut milk broth with beef tendons, intestines, tripe. The other popular foods are kerak telor, gado-gado, sate, and kue cucur.<br /> [edit] Media<br /> A Metro TV news van parking in Merdeka Square, Jakarta<br /> <br /> Daily newspapers in Jakarta include<br /> <br /> * English language national newspaper: The Jakarta Post, The Jakarta Globe<br /> * Indonesian language national newspaper: Kompas, Koran Tempo, Media Indonesia, Seputar Indonesia, Republika, Suara Pembaruan, Suara Karya, Sinar Harapan, Indo Pos, Jurnal Nasional, Harian Pelita<br /> * Business newspaper: Bisnis Indonesia, Investor Daily, Kontan, Harian Neraca.<br /> * Indonesian language local (Jakarta) newspaper: Pos Kota, Warta Kota, Koran Jakarta, Berita Kota,<br /> * Sport newspaper: Top Skor<br /> <br /> Television stations include:<br /> <br /> * Government television: TVRI.<br /> * Private national television: MNC TV, RCTI, Metro TV, Indosiar, ANTV, SCTV, Trans TV, TV ONE, Trans 7, and Global TV.<br /> * Local television: Jak-TV, O-Channel, Elshinta TV, Da Ai TV, and Space-Toon.<br /> * Cable television: First Media, TelkomVision<br /> * Satellite television: Indovision, TelkomVision, Okevision, Aora TV, Yes TV<br /> <br /> All TV Stations are analog PAL, but some are now are trialling Digital.<br /> [edit] Economy, governance and infrastructure<br /> See also: Indonesian future capital proposal<br /> Arjuna Wijaya chariot statue with towers of Bank Indonesia headquarter. Jakarta's economy depends highly on service sectors, including financial, banking and trading sector.<br /> <br /> Jakarta's economy depends heavily on financial service, trade, and manufacturing. Industry includes electronics, automotive, chemicals, mechanical engineering and biomedical sciences manufacturing.[55] In 2009, 13% of the population had an income per capita in excess of US$ 10,000 (Rp 108,000,000).[56]<br /> <br /> The economic growth of Jakarta in 2007 was 6.44% up from 5.95% the previous year, with the growth in the transportation and communication (15.25%), construction (7.81%) and trade, hotel and restaurant sectors (6.88%).[37] In 2007, GRP (Growth Regional Domestic Product) was Rp. 566.45 trillion. The largest contributions to GDRP was by finance, ownership and business services (28.7%); trade, hotel and restaurant sector (20.4%), and manufacturing industry sector (15.97%).[37] In 2007, per capita GRDP of DKI Jakarta inhabitants was an 11.63% compared to previous year[37]<br /> <br /> Both GRDP by at current market price and GRDP by at 2000 constant price in 2007 for Municipality of Central Jakarta (Jakarta Pusat) is higher than other municipalities in DKI Jakarta, which is 145.81 million rupiahs and 80.78 million rupiahs.[37]<br /> <br /> A new law in 2007 forbids the giving of money to beggars, buskers and hawkers, bans squatter settlements on river banks and highways, and prohibits spitting and smoking on public transportation. Unauthorized people cleaning car windscreens and taking tips for directing traffic at intersections will also be penalized. Critics of the new legislation claim that such laws will be difficult to enforce and it tends to ignore the desperate poverty of many of the capital's inhabitants.[57]<br /> <br /> 2006's survey showed that "less than a quarter of the population was fully served by improved water sources. The rest relied on a variety of sources, including rivers, lakes and private water vendors. Some 7.2 million people were without clean water."[58]<br /> [edit] Demography<br /> <br /> The 2010 census counted some 9.58 million people, well above all government estimates.[59] The area of DKI Jakarta is 662.33 km2, suggesting a population density of 14,464 people/km2. Inwards immigration tended to negate the effect of family planning programs.[37] The population has risen from 1.2 million in 1960 to 8.8 million in 2004, counting only its legal residents.[citation needed]<br /> [edit] 2010 census results<br /> <br /> The population of Greater Jakarta (Jabodetabek Region) is 28,019,545 while that of Jabotabek, without Depok Municipality, is 26,267,849.[60] However, even these definitions of Greater Jakarta are proving old for the Indonesian President Yudhoyono which is considering expanding the definition to include areas such as Purwakarta and Sukabumi,[61] along with possible relocation of government functions to areas without severe congestion, and to improve coordination of government agencies in the capital region. With such a definition, the population easily surpasses 30 million based on 2010 Census figures.[60]<br /> [edit] Tourism and landmarks<br /> West Irian Liberation Statue, one of the many Sukarno era monuments in the city<br /> <br /> Jakarta is primarily a city of government and business. It is seldom viewed as a centre for tourism other than the old part of the city which is a popular tourist destination.[62] However the Jakarta authority saw the opportunity to develop the city's reputation as a service and tourism city. There are many new tourism infrastructures, entertainment centers, and international-class hotels and restaurants being built in Jakarta. Jakarta also possesses many historical places and cultural heritage.[63]<br /> Mal Taman Anggrek, one of the largest shopping malls in Indonesia, is located in Jakarta.<br /> <br /> The National Monument, stands at the center of Merdeka Square, the central park of the city. Near the national monument stands a Mahabharata themed Arjuna Wijaya chariot statue and fountain. Further south through Jalan Thamrin, the main avenue of Jakarta, the "Selamat Datang" (welcome) statue stands on the fountain in the center of Hotel Indonesia roundabout. Other landmarks include the Istiqlal Mosque, the Jakarta Cathedral, and the West Irian Liberation monument. The Wisma 46 building in Central Jakarta is currently the highest building in Jakarta and Indonesia. Tourist attractions include Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Ragunan Zoo, Jakarta Old Town, and the Ancol Dreamland complex on Jakarta Bay, including Dunia Fantasi theme park, Sea World, Atlantis Water Adventure, and Gelanggang Samudra.<br /> <br /> Most of the visitors attracted to Jakarta are domestic tourists from all over Indonesia, the majority of them from the neighboring provinces of West Java, Banten, Lampung, and Central Java. As the gateway of Indonesia, Jakarta often serves as the stop-over for foreign visitors on their way to Indonesian popular tourist destinations such as Bali and Yogyakarta. Most foreign visitors from the neighboring ASEAN countries; such as Malaysia and Singapore, visit Jakarta (to some extent also include Bandung) for shopping purposes, since the city is famous for its cheap but fair quality products, especially textiles, craft and fashion products.<br /> <br /> Jakarta is sprawling with numerous malls, shopping centers, and traditional markets. Jakarta shopping malls with areas in excess of 100,000 metres square, include Grand Indonesia, Pacific Place Jakarta, Plaza Indonesia and Plaza e'X, Senayan City, Plaza Senayan, Pasaraya, Pondok Indah Mall, Mal Taman Anggrek, Mal Kelapa Gading, Mal Artha Gading, and Mall of Indonesia.[64] Other smaller but popular malls are Sarinah Thamrin, Ratu Plaza, Atrium Senen, Mall Ambassador and Pasar Festival. Traditional markets include Blok M, Tanah Abang, Senen, Pasar Baru, Glodok, Mangga Dua, Cempaka Mas, and Jatinegara. In Jakarta there is also a market that sells used goods, such as Surabaya Street and Rawabening Market.<br /> [edit] Parks<br /> The National Monument in the center of Medan Merdeka Park<br /> <br /> Taman Suropati is located in Menteng garden city[disambiguation needed] subdistrict, Central Jakarta. The park is surrounded by several Dutch colonial buildings. Taman Suropati was known as Burgemeester Bishopplein during the Dutch colonial time. The park is circular shaped with a surface area of 16,322 m2. There are several modern statues in the park made by artists of the ASEAN countries, which contributes to the other nickname of the park "Taman persahabatan seniman ASEAN" ("Park of the ASEAN artists friendship").[65] Still located in Menteng area are the parks Taman Menteng and Situ Lembang pond. The Taman Menteng was built on the former Persija soccer Stadium.<br /> <br /> Taman Lapangan Banteng (Buffalo Field Park) is located in Central Jakarta near Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta Cathedral, and Jakarta Central Post Office. It is about 4,5 hectares. Initially it was called Waterlooplein of Batavia and functioned as the ceremonial square during Netherlands Indies. Many of the colonial monuments and memorials erected on the square were demolished during Sukarno era which later built the present monument in the square. The most notable landmark inside the park is the Monumen Pembebasan Irian Barat (Monument of the Liberation of Irian Barat). During the 1980s, the park is used as a bus terminal. In 1993, the park turned into a public space again and has become a recreation place for people and occasionally also used as an exhibition place or other events.[66] The Jakarta Flona (Flora dan Fauna), the flower and decoration plants also pet exhibition is held in this park around August annually.<br /> <br /> Taman Monas (Monas Park) or Taman Medan Merdeka (Medan Merdeka Park) is the park where the symbol of Jakarta, Monas or Monumen Nasional (National Monument) is located. The large open space was created by Dutch Governor General Herman Willem Daendels (1810) and was originally named Koningsplein (Kings Square). On 10 January 1993, President Soeharto initiate the action toward the beautification of the park. Several features in the park is a deer park and 33 trees that represents the 33 provinces of Indonesia.[67]<br /> [edit] Transportation<br /> Jakarta weekly Car Free Day, 2010<br /> <br /> Jakarta is strained by transportation problems.[68] The city still suffers a lack of urban public transport services due to the prioritised development of road networks, which mostly accommodate private vehicles.[69] Most trips, however, are undertaken by non-motorized transportation (particularly walking) and numerous modes of public or demand-responsive transportation services.[70]<br /> Transport mode No. trips ('000) % share<br /> walking 14,073 37.7<br /> small bus 7,818 20.9<br /> motorcycle 4,890 13.1<br /> sedang/kijang (SUV) 2,783 7.5<br /> medium bus 2,012 5.4<br /> large bus 1,224 3.3<br /> ojek (motorcycle taxi) 1,073 2.9<br /> bicycle 787 2.1<br /> school/company bus 466 1.2<br /> economy train 434 1.2<br /> patas AC (bus) 422 1.1<br /> colt/mini cab 298 0.8<br /> omprengan 295 0.8<br /> bajaj 217 0.6<br /> becak 202 0.5<br /> pick up 131 0.4<br /> taxi 126 0.3<br /> express train 39 0.1<br /> truck 33 0.1<br /> other 8 0.0<br /> total 37,330 100<br /> <br /> [71]<br /> [edit] Road transport<br /> TransJakarta bus at Harmoni Central Busway shelter<br /> <br /> Jakarta suffers from traffic congestion. A 'three in one' rule during peak hour was introduced in 1992, prohibiting fewer than three passengers per car on Jakarta busiest avenues. This rule applies to Jalan MH Thamrin, Jalan Jenderal Sudirman, Jalan Majapahit, Jalan Gajah Mada and Hayam Wuruk, from 7:00 AM to 10:00 AM and from 4:30 PM to 7:00 PM.<br /> <br /> "Auto rickshaws", called bajaj, provide local transportation in the back streets of some parts of the city. From the early 1940s to 1991 they were a common form of local transportation in the city.<br /> <br /> In 1966, an estimated 160,000 pedicabs (becak) were operating in the city; as much as fifteen percent of Jakarta's total workforce was engaged in becak driving. In 1971, becak were banned from major roads, and shortly thereafter the government attempted a total ban, which substantially reduced their numbers but did not eliminate them. A campaign to eliminate them succeeded in 1990 and 1991, but during the economic crisis of 1998, some returned amid less effective government attempts to control them.[72]<br /> <br /> The TransJakarta bus rapid transit service (known as Busway) was developed in the context of development reform (or reformasi) and used Bogota's TransMilenio system as a model.[73] Jakarta's first busway line, from Blok M to Jakarta Kota opened in January 2004 and as of December 31, 2010, ten corridors are in use. The city government planned to open all 15 corridors within a decade making the TransJakarta system one of the fastest deployed bus rapid transit systems in the world. However, new developments in the planned metro system have postponed the remaining five corridors.<br /> <br /> A structured road network had been developed in the early 19th century as part of the Java Great Post Road by Daendels, connecting most major cities throughout Java. During the following decades, the road network was expanded to a great extent, although it could not keep up with the rapidly increasing numbers of motorized vehicles, resulting in today's traffic problems. Toll roads connect Jakarta to Soekarno-Hatta International Airport and to the ports of Merak and Tangerang to the west, Bogor and Puncak to the south, and Bekasi, Cikarang, Karawang, Cikampek, Purwakarta and Bandung to the east. The Jakarta inner ring road is a busy toll road circling Jakarta and connecting important centers and interchanges such as Semanggi near the Sudirman business center; Cawang, Tomang and Pluit interchanges; the port of Tanjung Priok, and Soekarno-Hatta International Airport. An outer ring road is under construction, but it is largely operational. Several non-toll long fly over (more than a kilometer) has been initially built such as Kampung Melayu - Tanah Abang fly over.<br /> [edit] Railway<br /> An arrival at the Gambir Train Station<br /> <br /> Long-distance railways and local tram services were first introduced during the Dutch colonial era. While the trams were replaced with buses in the post-colonial era, long-distance railways continued to connect the city to its neighboring regions as well as cities throughout Java. The surrounding cities of Jakarta are served by KRL Jabotabek, a mass rapid transit system which serves commuters both in and around Jakarta. The major rail stations are Gambir, Jakarta Kota, Jatinegara, Pasar Senen, Manggarai, and Tanah Abang. During rush hours, the number of passengers greatly exceeds the system's capacity, and crowding is common.<br /> <br /> There had been plans for a monorail and part of it was already under construction, but the project stalled in 2004 and was officially abandoned as of 2008, mostly due to a lack of investors to fund it all. If completed, the monorail would have been made up of two lines: the green line serving Semanggi-Casablanca Road-Kuningan-Semanggi and the blue line serving Kampung Melayu-Casablanca Road-Tanah Abang-Roxy.[74]<br /> <br /> A two-line metro (MRT) system is currently being developed, with a north-south line between Kota and Lebak Bulus, with connections to both monorail lines; and an east-west line, which will connect to the north-south line at Sawah Besar Station. In the end the JMRT will be a combination of both subways and elevated rails. The metro system will be built beginning in 2011 with a 15.2 km long line between Hotel Indonesia and Lebak Bulus, and the entire MRT network is scheduled to be operational by 2016. Because of this, the five remaining planned busways have been postponed.[75]<br /> [edit] Air<br /> <br /> Soekarno-Hatta International Airport (CGK) is the main airport serving the greater Jakarta area. The airport is named after the first President of Indonesia, Soekarno, and the first vice-president, Mohammad Hatta. The airport is often called Cengkareng by Indonesians. The airport's IATA code, CGK, originates from the name of the Cengkareng locality, a district situated to the northwest of the city. It is Indonesia's busiest airport handling nearly 40 million passengers annually. A second airport, Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport (HLP) serves mostly private and VIP/presidential flights. Other airports in the Jabotabek metropolitan area include Pondok Cabe Airport and an airfield on Pulau Panjang, part of the Thousand Island archipelago.<br /> [edit] Waterway<br /> <br /> On 6 June 2007, the city administration introduced the Waterway (officially Angkutan Sungai), a new river boat service along the Ciliwung River.[68][76] However, because of the large amount of floating garbage which kept jamming the propeller, it is no longer in service. The varying water levels during the dry and wet seasons were also a contributing factor to the close-down.<br /> [edit] Sea<br /> <br /> Jakarta's main seaport Tanjung Priok serves many ferry connections to different parts of Indonesia.<br /> [edit] Education<br /> See also: List of universities in Indonesia and List of schools in Indonesia<br /> <br /> Jakarta is home to a number of universities, of which the University of Indonesia is the largest. It is a state-owned university with campuses in Salemba and Depok.[77] Some other state-owned universities include:<br /> <br /> * Universitas Negeri Jakarta<br /> * Politeknik Negeri Jakarta<br /> * Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta<br /> * Universitas Nasional (UNAS) - the oldest privately owned university in Jakarta.[78]<br /> * Universitas Trisakti[79]<br /> * Universitas Tarumanagara<br /> <br /> STOVIA was the first high school in Jakarta, established in 1851.[80] As the largest city and the capital, Jakarta houses a large number of students from various parts of Indonesia, many of whom reside in dormitories or home-stay residences. For basic education, there are a variety of primary and secondary schools, tagged with public (national), private (national and bi-lingual national plus) and international schools. Two of the major international schools located in Jakarta are the Jakarta International School and the British International School (BIS). Other international schools include the Jakarta International Korean School, Jakarta International Multicultural School,[81] Australian International School,[82] New Zealand International School,[83] Singapore International School, and Sekolah Pelita Harapan[84]<br /> [edit] Sports<br /> The Bung Karno Stadium during soccer match between Indonesia vs South Korea in 2007 AFC Asian Cup<br /> <br /> Jakarta was host to the Asian Games in 1962,[85] host of the Asian Cup 2007 beside Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam ,[86] and has hosted the regional-scale Southeast Asian Games several times. Jakarta's most popular football club is Persija, which plays its matches in the Bung Karno Stadium or Lebak Bulus Stadium. Another premiere division team is Persitara which plays its matches in the Sumantri Brojonegoro Stadium.<br /> <br /> The biggest stadium in Jakarta is the Gelora Bung Karno Stadium with a capacity of 88,083 seats.[87] For basketball, the Kelapa Gading Sport Mall in Kelapa Gading, North Jakarta, with a capacity of 7,000 seats, is the home arena of the Indonesian national basketball team. The Senayan sports complex has several sport venues, including the Bung Karno soccer stadium, Madya Stadium, Istora Senayan, a shooting range, a tennis court and a golf driving range. The Senayan complex was built in 1959 to accommodate the Asian Games in 1962.<br /> <br /> In 2011, Jakarta, together with Palembang, will again host the Southeast Asian Games.erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-15324207754916759262011-04-26T04:48:00.001-07:002011-04-26T04:48:40.473-07:00Indonesia<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> Page semi-protected<br /> Republic of Indonesia<br /> Republik Indonesia<br /> <br /> Flag Coat of arms<br /> Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Old Javanese)<br /> Unity in Diversity<br /> National ideology: Pancasila[1][2]:117<br /> Anthem: <br /> Play sound<br /> Indonesiaraya.ogg<br /> <br /> Indonesia Raya<br /> Capital<br /> (and largest city) Jakarta<br /> 6°10.5′S 106°49.7′E / 6.175°S 106.8283°E / -6.175; 106.8283<br /> Official language(s) Indonesian<br /> Demonym Indonesian<br /> Government Unitary presidential republic<br /> - President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono<br /> - Vice President Boediono<br /> Legislature People's Consultative Assembly<br /> - Upper House Regional Representative Council<br /> - Lower House People's Representative Council<br /> Independence following Dutch colonial rule and Japanese occupation <br /> - Declared 17 August 1945 <br /> - Acknowledged 27 December 1949 <br /> Area<br /> - Land 1,919,440 km2 (16th)<br /> 735,355 sq mi <br /> - Water (%) 4.85<br /> Population<br /> - 2009 estimate 238,000,000[3] (4th)<br /> - 2010 census 237,556,363[4] <br /> - Density 123.76/km2 (84th)<br /> 323.05/sq mi<br /> GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate<br /> - Total $1.029 trillion[5] <br /> - Per capita $4,394[5] <br /> GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate<br /> - Total $706.735 billion[5] <br /> - Per capita $3,015[5] <br /> Gini (2002) 34.3 <br /> HDI (2007) increase 0.600[6] (medium) (108th)<br /> Currency Rupiah (IDR)<br /> Time zone various (UTC+7 to +9)<br /> - Summer (DST) not observed (UTC)<br /> Drives on the Left<br /> ISO 3166 code ID<br /> Internet TLD .id<br /> Calling code +62<br /> <br /> Indonesia (Listeni /ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ or /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/), officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands and thirty three provinces. With over 238 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, and has the world's largest population of Muslims. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the world's eighteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and fifteenth largest by purchasing power parity.<br /> <br /> The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.<br /> <br /> Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The Javanese are the largest—and the politically dominant—ethnic group. Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism including rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread in contemporary Indonesia.[7][8]<br /> Etymology<br /> <br /> The name Indonesia derives from the Latin Indus, and the Greek nesos, meaning "island".[9] The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.[10] In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians — and, his preference, Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".[11] In the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.[12] However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and even Insulinde.[13][14]<br /> <br /> From 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.[14] Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.[10]<br /> History<br /> Main article: History of Indonesia<br /> Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur, circa 800 CE. Indonesian outrigger boats may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the first century CE.[15]<br /> <br /> Fossilized remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago.[16][17][18] Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago.[19] Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and as they spread through the archipelago, confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions.[20]:5–7 Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE,[20]:8–9 allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia’s strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including links with Indian kingdoms and China, which were established several centuries BCE.[20]:15–8 Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.[20]:3,9–11,13–5,18–20,22–3[2]:18–20,60,133–4<br /> The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.<br /> <br /> From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.[20]:22–6[21]:3 Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia.[22]<br /> <br /> Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.[21]:3–14 Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[21]:12–4. The first Europeans arrived in Indonesia in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.[21]:22–4 Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.[21]:24<br /> <br /> For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.[23] Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence. Japanese occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule,[24][21] and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement.[25] Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president.[26][27][28] The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and an armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence[29] (with the exception of the Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 New York Agreement, and the UN-mandated Act of Free Choice of 1969).[30]<br /> Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president<br /> <br /> Sukarno moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the military and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).[21]:237–80 An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.[31][21]:280–4,7–90 Between 500,000 and one million people were killed.[32][33] The head of the military, General Suharto, out-maneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration[34] was supported by the US government,[35][36][37] and encouraged foreign direct investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.[38][39][21] However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition.<br /> <br /> Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the late 1990s Asian Financial Crisis.[40] This increased popular discontent with the New Order and led to popular protest across the country. Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998.[41] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of repression of the East Timorese.[42] Since Suharto's resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism slowed progress, however, in the last five years the economy has performed strongly. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, sectarian discontent and violence has occurred.[43] A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.[44]<br /> Government and politics<br /> Main article: Politics of Indonesia<br /> <br /> Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the central government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia[45] have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches.[46] The president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice president.[47] The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.[48]<br /> A session of the People's Representative Council in Jakarta<br /> <br /> The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president.[49] The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 560 members, and the Regional Representative Council (DPD), with 132 members.[50] The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation.[46] Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance.[51] The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.[52]<br /> <br /> Most civil disputes appear before a State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are heard before the High Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the country's highest court, and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court (Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) to deal with codified Sharia Law cases.[53]<br /> Foreign relations and military<br /> Main articles: Foreign relations of Indonesia and Indonesian National Armed Forces<br /> <br /> In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and tensions with Malaysia, Indonesia's foreign relations since the Suharto "New Order" have been based on economic and political cooperation with Western nations.[54] Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit.[50] The nation restored relations with the People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era.[53] Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950,[55] and was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC).[50] Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the WTO, and has historically been a member of OPEC, although it withdrew in 2008 as it was no longer a net exporter of oil. Indonesia has received humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.[50]<br /> <br /> The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda.[56] The deadliest killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort town of Kuta in 2002.[57] The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesia's tourism industry and foreign investment prospects.[58]<br /> <br /> Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes marines), and Air Force (TNI–AU).[59] The army has about 233,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations.[60] One of the reforms following the 1998 resignation of Suharto was the removal of formal TNI representation in parliament; nevertheless, its political influence remains extensive.[61]<br /> <br /> Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.[62] Following a sporadic thirty-year guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005.[63] In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.[64]<br /> Administrative divisions<br /> Main articles: Provinces of Indonesia and Administrative divisions of Indonesia<br /> Provinces of Indonesia<br /> <br /> Administratively, Indonesia consists of 33 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own political legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), which are further subdivided into districts (kecamatan), and again into village groupings (either desa or kelurahan). Furthermore, a village is divided into several citizen-groups (Rukun-Warga (RW)) which are further divided into several neighbourhood-groups (Rukun-Tetangga (RT)). Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life, and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief).<br /> <br /> The provinces of Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create certain elements of an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia (Islamic law).[65] Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution.[66] Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001 and was separated into Papua and West Papua in February 2003.[67] Jakarta is the country's special capital region.erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-86572587559055414252011-04-26T04:44:00.001-07:002011-04-26T04:44:15.621-07:00hael Jackson<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> For other people named Michael Jackson, see Michael Jackson (disambiguation).<br /> Page semi-protected<br /> Michael Jackson<br /> A mid-twenties African American man wearing a sequined military jacket and dark sunglasses. He is walking while waving his right hand, which is adorned with a white glove. His left hand is bare.<br /> Jackson at the White House in 1984<br /> Background information<br /> Birth name Michael Joseph Jackson[1]<br /> Also known as Michael Joe Jackson<br /> Born August 29, 1958(1958-08-29)<br /> Gary, Indiana, U.S.<br /> Died June 25, 2009(2009-06-25) (aged 50)<br /> Los Angeles, California, U.S.<br /> Genres R&B, pop, rock, soul, dance, new jack swing, funk, disco<br /> Occupations Singer-songwriter, record producer, composer, musician, dancer, choreographer, actor, businessman, philanthropist<br /> Instruments Vocals, piano, drums, beatbox, guitar<br /> Years active 1964–2009<br /> Labels Motown, Epic, Legacy<br /> Associated acts The Jackson 5, Janet Jackson, Slash<br /> Website michaeljackson.com<br /> <br /> Michael Joseph Jackson[1] (August 29, 1958 - June 25, 2009) was an American recording artist, dancer, singer-songwriter, musician, and philanthropist. Referred to as the King of Pop, Jackson is recognized as the most successful entertainer of all time by Guinness World Records. His contribution to music, dance, and fashion, along with a much-publicized personal life, made him a global figure in popular culture for over four decades. The eighth child of the Jackson family, he debuted on the professional music scene along with his brothers as a member of The Jackson 5 in 1964, and began his solo career in 1971.<br /> <br /> In the early 1980s, Jackson became a dominant figure in popular music. The music videos for his songs, including those of "Beat It", "Billie Jean", and "Thriller", were credited with transforming the medium into an art form and a promotional tool, and the popularity of these videos helped to bring the relatively new television channel MTV to fame. Videos such as "Black or White" and "Scream" made him a staple on MTV in the 1990s. Through stage performances and music videos, Jackson popularized a number of dance techniques, such as the robot and the moonwalk. His distinctive musical sound and vocal style have influenced numerous hip hop, pop, contemporary R&B, and rock artists.<br /> <br /> Jackson's 1982 album Thriller is the best-selling album of all time. His other records, including Off the Wall (1979), Bad (1987), Dangerous (1991), and HIStory (1995), also rank among the world's best-selling. Jackson is one of the few artists to have been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice. He was also inducted into the Dance Hall of Fame as the first (and currently only) dancer from the world of pop and rock 'n' roll. Some of his other achievements include multiple Guinness World Records; 13 Grammy Awards (as well as the Grammy Legend Award and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award); 26 American Music Awards (more than any other artist, including the "Artist of the Century"); 13 number-one singles in the United States in his solo career (more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era); and the estimated sale of over 750 million records worldwide. Jackson won hundreds of awards, which have made him the most-awarded recording artists in the history of music. He was also a notable humanitarian and philanthropist, donating and raising hundreds of millions of dollars for beneficial causes and supporting more than 39 charities.<br /> <br /> Aspects of Jackson's personal life, including his changing appearance, personal relationships, and behavior, have generated controversy. In 1993, he was accused of child sexual abuse, but the case was settled out of court and no formal charges were brought. In 2005, he was tried and acquitted of further sexual abuse allegations and several other charges after the jury ruled him not guilty on all counts. While preparing for his concert series This Is It, Jackson died on June 25, 2009, after suffering from cardiac arrest. Before his death, Jackson had mistakenly been administered drugs including propofol and lorazepam. The Los Angeles County Coroner declared his death a homicide, and his personal physician pleaded not guilty to charges of involuntary manslaughter. Jackson's death triggered a global outpouring of grief, and as many as one billion people around the world reportedly watched his public memorial service on live television. In March 2010, Sony Music Entertainment signed a US$250 million deal with Jackson's estate to retain distribution rights to his recordings until 2017, and to release seven posthumous albums over the decade following his death.<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 Life and career<br /> o 1.1 Early life and The Jackson 5 (1958–1975)<br /> o 1.2 Move to Epic and Off the Wall (1975–1981)<br /> o 1.3 Thriller and Motown 25 (1982–83)<br /> o 1.4 Pepsi, "We Are the World" and business career (1984–85)<br /> o 1.5 Appearance, tabloids, Bad, autobiography and films (1986–87)<br /> o 1.6 Autobiography, changing appearance and Neverland (1988–1990)<br /> o 1.7 Dangerous, Heal the World Foundation and Super Bowl XXVII (1991–93)<br /> o 1.8 First child sexual abuse allegations and first marriage (1993–94)<br /> o 1.9 HIStory, second marriage and fatherhood (1995–99)<br /> o 1.10 Label dispute, Invincible and third child (2000–03)<br /> o 1.11 Second child sexual abuse allegations and acquittal (2003–05)<br /> o 1.12 Final years (2006–09)<br /> * 2 Death and memorial<br /> o 2.1 Death aftermath<br /> * 3 Artistry<br /> o 3.1 Influences<br /> o 3.2 Musical themes and genres<br /> o 3.3 Vocal style<br /> o 3.4 Music videos and choreography<br /> * 4 Legacy and influence<br /> * 5 Honors and awards<br /> * 6 Lifetime earnings<br /> * 7 Discography<br /> * 8 Filmography<br /> * 9 Tours<br /> * 10 See also<br /> * 11 Notes<br /> o 11.1 Bibliography<br /> * 12 Further reading<br /> * 13 External links<br /> <br /> Life and career<br /> Early life and The Jackson 5 (1958–1975)<br /> A house surrounded by yellow colored grass, flowers, trees, and a light blue colored sky can be seen. The house has white walls, two windows, a white door with a black door frame, and a black roof. In front of the house there is a walk way, yellow grass and multiple colored flowers and memorabilia. In the background, there are two tall trees and a light blue colored sky that has multiple clouds.<br /> Jackson's childhood home in Gary, Indiana, showing floral tributes after his death.<br /> <br /> Michael Jackson was born on August 29, 1958, the eighth of ten children in an African American working-class family who lived in a small 3-room house in Gary, Indiana,[2] an industrial suburb of Chicago. His mother, Katherine Esther Scruse, was a devout Jehovah's Witness, and his father, Joseph Walter "Joe" Jackson, was a steel mill worker who performed with an R&B band called The Falcons. Jackson had three sisters: Rebbie, La Toya, and Janet, and five brothers: Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, Marlon, and Randy.[3] A sixth brother, Brandon, died shortly after birth.[4]<br /> <br /> Jackson had a troubled relationship with his father, Joe.[5][6][7] Joseph acknowledged in 2003 that he regularly whipped Jackson as a boy.[7] Jackson stated that he was physically and emotionally abused during incessant rehearsals, though he also credited his father's strict discipline with playing a large role in his success.[5] Jackson first spoke openly about his childhood abuse in an interview with Oprah Winfrey, broadcast in February 1993. He admitted that he had often cried from loneliness and he would vomit on the sight of his father. Jackson's father was also said to have verbally abused Jackson, saying that he had a fat nose on numerous occasions.[8] In fact, Michael Jackson's deep dissatisfaction with his appearance, his nightmares and chronic sleep problems, his tendency to remain hyper-compliant especially with his father, and to remain child-like throughout his adult life are in many ways consistent with the effects of this chronic maltreatment he endured as a young child.[9] Also, U.S.-based research studies on impact of "adverse childhood experiences" or ACEs (e.g. a child being abused, violence in the family, extreme stress of poverty, etc.) have shown that having a number of ACEs exponentially increases the risk of addiction (e.g. a male child with six ACEs has a 4,600%/46-fold increase in risk of addiction), mental illnesses, physical illnesses, and early death.[10]<br /> <br /> In an interview with Martin Bashir, later included in the 2003 broadcast of Living with Michael Jackson, Jackson acknowledged that his father hurt him when he was a child, but was nonetheless a "genius", as he admitted his father's strict discipline played a huge role in his success. When Bashir dismissed the positive remark and continued asking about beatings, Jackson put his hand over his face and objected to the questions. He recalled that Joseph sat in a chair with a belt in his hand as he and his siblings rehearsed, and that "if you didn't do it the right way, he would tear you up, really get you".[11][12]<br /> <br /> In 1964, Michael and Marlon joined the Jackson Brothers—a band formed by brothers Jackie, Tito, and Jermaine—as backup musicians playing congas and tambourine. Jackson later began performing backup vocals and dancing. When he was eight, Jackson began sharing the lead vocals with his older brother Jermaine, and the group's name was changed to The Jackson 5.[3] The band toured the Midwest extensively from 1966 to 1968, frequently performing at a string of black clubs known as the "chitlin' circuit", where they often opened stripteases and other adult acts. In 1966, they won a major local talent show with renditions of Motown hits and James Brown's "I Got You (I Feel Good)", led by Michael.[13]<br /> <br /> The Jackson 5 recorded several songs, including "Big Boy", for the local record label Steeltown in 1967, before signing with Motown Records in 1968.[3] Rolling Stone magazine later described the young Michael as "a prodigy" with "overwhelming musical gifts," writing that he "quickly emerged as the main draw and lead singer."[14] The group set a chart record when its first four singles ("I Want You Back", "ABC", "The Love You Save", and "I'll Be There") peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100.[3] Between 1972 and 1975, Jackson released four solo studio albums with Motown, among them Got to Be There and Ben, released as part of the Jackson 5 franchise, and producing successful singles such as "Got to Be There", "Ben", and a remake of Bobby Day's "Rockin' Robin". The group's sales began declining in 1973, and the band members chafed under Motown's strict refusal to allow them creative control or input. Although they scored several top 40 hits, including the top 5 disco single "Dancing Machine" and the top 20 hit "I Am Love", the Jackson 5 left Motown in 1975.[15]<br /> Move to Epic and Off the Wall (1975–1981)<br /> <br /> In June 1975, the Jackson 5 signed with Epic Records, a subsidiary of CBS Records[15] and renamed themselves the Jacksons. Younger brother Randy formally joined the band around this time, while Jermaine left to pursue a solo career.[16] They continued to tour internationally, releasing six more albums between 1976 and 1984, during which Jackson was the lead songwriter, writing hits such as "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)", "This Place Hotel," and "Can You Feel It".[13] In 1978, he starred as the scarecrow in the musical, The Wiz, a box-office disaster. It was here that he teamed up with Quincy Jones, who was arranging the film's musical score. Jones agreed to produce Jackson's next solo album, Off the Wall.[17] In 1979, Jackson broke his nose during a complex dance routine. His subsequent rhinoplasty was not a complete success; he complained of breathing difficulties that would affect his career. He was referred to Dr. Steven Hoefflin, who performed Jackson's second rhinoplasty and subsequent operations.[18]<br /> <br /> Jones and Jackson produced the Off the Wall album together. Songwriters for the album included Jackson, Rod Temperton, Stevie Wonder, and Paul McCartney. Released in 1979, it was the first solo album to generate four U.S. top 10 hits, including the chart-topping singles "Don't Stop 'til You Get Enough" and "Rock with You".[19][20] It reached number three on the Billboard 200 and eventually sold over 20 million copies worldwide.[21] In 1980, Jackson won three awards at the American Music Awards for his solo efforts: Favorite Soul/R&B Album, Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist, and Favorite Soul/R&B Single for "Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough".[22][23] That year, he also won Billboard Year-End for Top Black Artist and Top Black Album and a Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance, also for "Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough".[19] Jackson again won at the American Music Awards in 1981 for Favorite Soul/R&B Album and Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist.[24] Despite its commercial success, Jackson felt Off the Wall should have made a much bigger impact, and was determined to exceed expectations with his next release.[25] In 1980, he secured the highest royalty rate in the music industry: 37 percent of wholesale album profit.[26]<br /> Thriller and Motown 25 (1982–83)<br /> <br /> In 1982, Jackson contributed the song "Someone In the Dark" to the storybook for the film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial; the record won a Grammy for Best Recording for Children in 1984. In the same year he won another seven Grammys and eight American Music Awards (including the Award of Merit, the youngest artist to win it), making him the most awarded in one night for both award shows.[27][28] These awards were thanks to the Thriller album, released in late 1982, which was 1983's best-selling album worldwide[29][30] and became the best-selling album of all time in the United States,[31] as well as the best-selling album of all time worldwide, selling an estimated 110 million copies so far.[32] The album topped the Billboard 200 chart for 37 weeks and was in the top 10 of the 200 for 80 consecutive weeks. It was the first album to have seven Billboard Hot 100 top 10 singles, including "Billie Jean", "Beat It," and "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'."[33] Thriller was certified for 29 million shipments by the RIAA, giving it Double Diamond status in the United States. The album won also another Grammy for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical in 1984, awarding Bruce Swedien for his work.[34] Jackson's attorney John Branca noted that Jackson had the highest royalty rate in the music industry at that point: approximately $2 for every album sold. He was also making record-breaking profits from sales of his recordings. The videocassette of the documentary The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller sold over 350,000 copies in a few months. The era saw the arrival of novelties like dolls modeled after Michael Jackson, which appeared in stores in May 1984 at a price of $12.[35] Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli writes that, "Thriller stopped selling like a leisure item—like a magazine, a toy, tickets to a hit movie—and started selling like a household staple."[36] In 1985, The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Longform.[27] In December 2009, the music video for "Thriller" was selected for the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress, "Thriller" is the first music video ever to be inducted.[37][38][39]<br /> <br /> Time described Jackson's influence at that point as "Star of records, radio, rock video. A one-man rescue team for the music business. A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade. A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street. A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style and color too".[35] The New York Times wrote that, "in the world of pop music, there is Michael Jackson and there is everybody else".[40]<br /> <br /> In March 1983, Jackson reunited with his brothers for a legendary live performance which was taped for a Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever television special. The show aired on May 16, 1983, to an audience of 47 million viewers, and featured the Jacksons and a number of other Motown stars. It is best remembered for Jackson's solo performance of "Billie Jean". Wearing a distinctive black sequin jacket and golf glove decorated with rhinestones, he debuted his signature dance move, the moonwalk, which former Soul Train dancer and Shalamar member, Jeffrey Daniel had taught him three years before. The Jacksons' performance drew comparisons to Elvis Presley's and The Beatles' appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show.[41] Anna Kisselgoff of The New York Times later wrote, "The moonwalk that he made famous is an apt metaphor for his dance style. How does he do it? As a technician, he is a great illusionist, a genuine mime. His ability to keep one leg straight as he glides while the other bends and seems to walk requires perfect timing."[42]<br /> Pepsi, "We Are the World" and business career (1984–85)<br /> A black and white image shows a man standing next to a person dressed in a full dog costume. The man on the left has his left arm around the waist of the other person and is smiling.<br /> Jackson with a Knott's Berry Farm Snoopy mascot in April 1984<br /> <br /> On January 27, 1984, Michael and other members of the Jacksons filmed a Pepsi Cola commercial, overseen by executive Phil Dusenberry,[43] from ad agency BBDO and Pepsi's Worldwide Creative Director, Alan Pottasch at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles. In front of a full house of fans during a simulated concert, pyrotechnics accidentally set Jackson's hair on fire. He suffered second-degree burns to his scalp. Jackson underwent treatment to hide the scars on his scalp, and he also had his third rhinoplasty shortly thereafter.[18] Jackson never recovered from this injury. Pepsi settled out of court, and Jackson donated his $1.5 million settlement to the Brotman Medical Center in Culver City, California, which now has a "Michael Jackson Burn Center" in honor of his donation.[44] Dusenberry later recounted the episode in his memoir, Then We Set His Hair on Fire: Insights and Accidents from a Hall of Fame Career in Advertising.<br /> <br /> On May 14, 1984, Jackson was invited to the White House to receive an award from President Ronald Reagan for his support of charities that helped people overcome alcohol and drug abuse.[45] Jackson won eight awards during the Grammys that year. Unlike later albums, Thriller did not have an official tour to promote it, but the 1984 Victory Tour, headlined by The Jacksons, showcased much of Jackson's new solo material to more than two million Americans. He donated all the funds (around $8 million) raised from the Victory Tour to charity.[46] He also co-wrote the charity single "We Are the World" in 1985 with Lionel Richie, which was released worldwide to aid the poor in the U.S. and Africa. It became one of the best-selling singles of all time, with nearly 30 million copies sold and millions of dollars donated to famine relief. In 1986, "We Are the World" won four Grammys (one for Jackson for Song of the Year). American Music Award directors removed the charity song from the competition because they felt it would be inappropriate, but recognised it with two special honors (one for the creation of the song and one for the USA for Africa idea). They are the only AMAs that Jackson won as non-solo artist.[47][48][49][50]<br /> In the center of the photo four people can be seen. To the farthest left a medium skin colored man wearing a black suit with a white shirt can be seen. Second to the left a Caucasian man wearing a black suit with a white shirt and brown tie has his head turned to the right. To the right of the Caucasian male there is an African American man wearing a white shirt with a blue jacket that has a yellow strap across his chest. He is raising his right hand, which is covered with a white glove. To the farthest right, a Caucasian female with short blonde hair, who is wearing a white outfit, can be seen. In the background a cream colored building with an opened green door can be seen.<br /> Jackson at the White House South Portico with President Ronald Reagan and first lady Nancy Reagan, 1984<br /> <br /> In 1984, ATV Music Publishing, which had the copyrights to nearly 4000 songs, including the Northern Songs catalog that contained the majority of the Lennon/McCartney compositions recorded by The Beatles, was put up for sale by Robert Holmes à Court.[51] Jackson had become interested in owning music catalogs after working with Paul McCartney in the early 1980s: Jackson had learned McCartney made approximately $40 million a year from other people's songs.[52] In 1981,[53] McCartney was offered the ATV music catalog for £20 million ($40 million USD).[52][54] According to McCartney, he contacted Yoko Ono about making a joint purchase by splitting the cost equally at £10 million each, but Ono thought they could buy it for £5 million each.[52][54] When they were unable to make the joint purchase, McCartney let the offer fall through, not wanting to be the sole owner of the Beatles' songs.[53][54]<br /> <br /> According to a negotiator for Holmes à Court in the 1984 sale, "We had given Paul McCartney first right of refusal but Paul didn't want it at that time."[55] Also, an attorney for McCartney assured Jackson's attorney, John Branca, that McCartney was not interested in bidding: McCartney reportedly said "It's too pricey"[52][53] But there were several other companies and investors bidding. In September 1984, Jackson was first informed about the sale by Branca and sent a bid of $46 million on November 20, 1984.[51] Jackson's agents thought they had a deal several times, but encountered new bidders or new areas of debate.[51] In May 1985, Jackson's team walked away from talks after having spent over $1 million on four months of due diligence and on the negotiations.[51]<br /> <br /> In June 1985, Jackson and Branca learned that Charles Koppelman's and Marty Bandier's The Entertainment Co. had made a tentative agreement with Holmes à Court to buy ATV Music for $50 million.[51] But in early August, Holmes à Court's team contacted Jackson and talks resumed. Jackson raised his bid to $47.5 million and it was accepted because he could close the deal more quickly, having already completed due diligence of ATV Music.[51] He also agreed to visit Holmes à Court in Australia, where he would appear on the Channel Seven Perth Telethon.[51][55] Jackson's purchase of ATV Music was finalized August 10, 1985.[51]<br /> Appearance, tabloids, Bad, autobiography and films (1986–87)<br /> See also: Michael Jackson's health and appearance<br /> <br /> Jackson's skin had been a medium-brown color for the entire duration of his youth, but starting in the mid 1980s, it gradually grew paler. The change gained widespread media coverage, including rumors that he was bleaching his skin.[56] According to J. Randy Taraborrelli's biography, in 1986, Jackson was diagnosed with vitiligo and lupus; the vitiligo partially lightened his skin, and the lupus was in remission; both illnesses made him sensitive to sunlight. The treatments he used for his condition further lightened his skin tone, and, with the application of pancake makeup to even out blotches, he could appear very pale.[57] Jackson was also diagnosed with vitiligo in his autopsy.[58] Several surgeons speculated that he had undergone various nasal surgeries, a forehead lift, thinned lips, and cheekbone surgery—although Jackson denied this and insisted that he only had surgery on his nose.[59] Jackson claimed that he had only two rhinoplasties and no other surgery on his face, although at one point he mentioned having a dimple created in his chin.[60] Jackson lost weight in the early 1980s because of a change in diet and a desire for "a dancer's body".[60] Witnesses reported that he was often dizzy and speculated that he was suffering from anorexia nervosa; periods of weight loss would become a recurring problem later in life.[61]<br /> <br /> During the course of his treatment, Jackson made two close friends: his dermatologist, Dr. Arnold Klein, and Klein's nurse Debbie Rowe. Rowe eventually became Jackson's second wife and the mother of his two eldest children. Long before becoming romantically involved with her, Jackson relied heavily on Rowe for emotional support. He also relied heavily on Klein, for medical and business advice.[62]<br /> In the center for the photo, a light skinned male with black hair wearing a red shirt and blue cap can be seen. The male is smiling while titling his head to his right. Behind him, there is a black background and the shoulder of another person.<br /> Jackson two years after he was diagnosed with vitiligo, here in the early stages of the disease<br /> <br /> Jackson became the subject of increasingly sensational reports. In 1986, the tabloids ran a story claiming that Jackson slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber to slow the aging process; he was pictured lying down in a glass box. Although the claim was untrue, according to tabloid reports that are widely cited, Jackson had disseminated the fabricated story himself.[63][64] When Jackson bought a chimpanzee called Bubbles from a laboratory, he was reported to be increasingly detached from reality.[65] It was reported that Jackson had offered to buy the bones of Joseph Merrick (the "elephant man") and although untrue, Jackson did not deny the story.[63][64] Although initially he saw these stories as opportunities for publicity, he stopped leaking untruths to the press as they became more sensational. Consequently the media began making up their own stories.[64][66][67] These reports became embedded in the public consciousness, inspiring the nickname "Wacko Jacko," which Jackson came to despise.[68] Responding to the gossip, Jackson remarked to Taraborrelli:<br /> <br /> Why not just tell people I'm an alien from Mars. Tell them I eat live chickens and do a voodoo dance at midnight. They'll believe anything you say, because you're a reporter. But if I, Michael Jackson, were to say, "I'm an alien from Mars and I eat live chickens and do a voodoo dance at midnight," people would say, "Oh, man, that Michael Jackson is nuts. He's cracked up. You can't believe a single word that comes out of his mouth."[69]<br /> <br /> A black jacket with five round golden medals on its left and right shoulders and a gold band on its left arm sleeve. The jacket has two belt straps on the right bottom sleeve. Underneath the jacket is a golden belt, with a round ornament in its center. There is a red light reflecting on the jacket and belt as well as a gold colored plate on the left side of the jacket and belt.<br /> Jackson wore a gold-plated military style jacket with belt in the Bad era<br /> <br /> Jackson collaborated with Francis Ford Coppola on the 17-minute 3-D film Captain EO, which debuted in September 1986 at both the original Disneyland and at EPCOT in Florida, and in March 1987 at Tokyo Disneyland. The $30 million movie was a popular attraction at all three parks. A Captain EO attraction was later featured at Euro Disneyland after that park opened in 1992. All four parks' Captain EO installations stayed open well into the 1990s: Paris' installation was the last one to close, in 1998.[70] The attraction would later return to Disneyland in 2010 after Jackson's death.[71]<br /> <br /> In 1987, Jackson disassociated himself from the Jehovah's Witnesses, in response to their disapproval of the Thriller video.[72] With the industry expecting another major hit, Jackson's first album in five years, Bad (1987), was highly anticipated.[73] It did not top Thriller as a commercial or artistic triumph, but Bad was still a substantial success in its own right.<br /> <br /> The Bad album spawned seven hit singles in the U.S., five of which ("I Just Can't Stop Loving You", "Bad", "The Way You Make Me Feel", "Man in the Mirror" and "Dirty Diana") reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 charts. This was a record for most number one Hot 100 singles from any one album, including Thriller.[74] Although the title track's video was arguably derivative of the video for the earlier single "Beat It", the "Bad" video still proved to be one of Jackson's iconic moments. It was a gritty but colorful epic set against the backdrop of the New York City Subway system, with costuming and choreography inspired by West Side Story. As of 2008, the album had sold 30 million copies worldwide.[75] Thanks to the Bad album, Bruce Swedien and Humberto Gatica won one Grammy in 1988 for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical and Michael Jackson won one Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form for "Leave Me Alone" in 1989.[27][34] In the same year, Jackson won an Award of Achievement at the American Music Awards because Bad is the first album ever to generate five number one singles in the US, the first album to top in 25 countries and the best-selling album worldwide in 1987 and in 1988.[76][77][78][79] In 1988, "Bad" won an American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Single.[80]<br /> <br /> The Bad World Tour began on September 12 that year, finishing on January 14, 1989.[81] In Japan alone, the tour had 14 sellouts and drew 570,000 people, nearly tripling the previous record of 200,000 in a single tour.[82] Jackson broke a Guinness World Record when 504,000 people attended seven sold-out shows at Wembley Stadium. He performed a total of 123 concerts to an audience of 4.4 million people. The Bad Tour turned out to be the last of Jackson's concert tours to include shows in the continental United States, although later tours did make it to Hawaii.<br /> Autobiography, changing appearance and Neverland (1988–1990)<br /> A male with black hair singing into a microphone. The man is wearing a blue jacket and a white shirt with black pants and a white belt.<br /> Jackson performing "The Way You Make Me Feel"<br /> <br /> In 1988, Jackson released his first and only autobiography, Moonwalk, which took four years to complete and sold 200,000 copies.[83] Jackson wrote about his childhood, The Jackson 5, and the abuse he had suffered.[84] He also wrote about his facial appearance, saying he had had two rhinoplastic surgeries and a dimple created in his chin.[60] He attributed much of the change in the structure of his face to puberty, weight loss, a strict vegetarian diet, a change in hair style, and stage lighting.[60] Moonwalk reached the top position on The New York Times best sellers' list.[85] The musician then released a film called Moonwalker, which featured live footage and short films that starred Jackson and Joe Pesci. The film was originally intended to be released to theaters but due to financial issues, the film was released direct-to-video. It debuted atop the Billboard Top Music Video Cassette chart, staying there for 22 weeks. It was eventually knocked off the top spot by Michael Jackson: The Legend Continues.[86]<br /> <br /> In March 1988, Jackson purchased land near Santa Ynez, California, to build Neverland Ranch at a cost of $17 million. He installed Ferris wheels, a menagerie, and a movie theater on the 2,700-acre (11 km2) property. A security staff of 40 patrolled the grounds. In 2003, it was valued at approximately $100 million.[14][87] In 1989, his annual earnings from album sales, endorsements, and concerts was estimated at $125 million for that year alone.[88] Shortly afterwards, he became the first Westerner to appear in a television ad in the Soviet Union.[86]<br /> <br /> His success resulted in his being dubbed the "King of Pop".[89][90][91][92] The nickname was popularized by Elizabeth Taylor when she presented him with the Soul Train Heritage Award in 1989, proclaiming him "the true king of pop, rock and soul."[93] President George H. W. Bush designated him the White House's "Artist of the Decade".[94] From 1985 to 1990, he donated $500,000 to the United Negro College Fund, and all of the profits from his single "Man in the Mirror" went to charity.[95][96] Jackson's live rendition of "You Were There" at Sammy Davis Jr.'s 60th birthday celebration received an Emmy nomination.[86]<br /> Dangerous, Heal the World Foundation and Super Bowl XXVII (1991–93)<br /> <br /> In March 1991, Jackson renewed his contract with Sony for $65 million, a record-breaking deal at the time,[97] displacing Neil Diamond's renewal contract with Columbia Records.[98] He released his eighth album Dangerous in 1991. As of 2008, Dangerous had shipped seven million copies in the U.S. and had sold 32 million copies worldwide. The Dangerous album was co-produced by Teddy Riley, one of the pioneers of "new jack swing" which convinced Michael to feature a rapper on his album for the first time, the act worked and it turned out to be the best-selling album associated with that movement.[99][100][101] In the United States, the album's first single "Black or White" was its biggest hit, reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and remaining there for seven weeks, with similar chart performances worldwide.[102] The album's second single "Remember the Time" spent eight weeks in the top five in the United States, peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart.[103] At the end of 1992, Dangerous was awarded 1992's best-selling album worldwide and "Black or White" was awarded 1992's best-selling single worldwide at the Billboard Music Awards. Additionally, he won an award as best-selling artist of the '80s.[104] In 1993, Jackson performed the song at the Soul Train Music Awards in a chair, saying he had suffered an injury in rehearsals.[105] In the UK and other parts of Europe, "Heal the World" was the biggest hit from the album; it sold 450,000 copies in the UK and spent five weeks at number two in 1992.[103]<br /> <br /> Jackson founded the Heal the World Foundation in 1992. The charity organization brought underprivileged children to Jackson's ranch to enjoy theme park rides that Jackson had built on the property. The foundation also sent millions of dollars around the globe to help children threatened by war, poverty, and disease. In the same year Jackson published his second book, the bestselling collection of poetry, Dancing the Dream. While it was a commercial success and revealed a more intimate side to Jackson's nature, the collection was mostly critically unacclaimed at the time of release. In 2009, the book was republished by Doubleday and was more positively received by some critics in the wake of Jackson's untimely death. The Dangerous World Tour grossed $100 million. The tour began on June 27, 1992, and finished on November 11, 1993. Jackson performed to 3.5 million people in 67 concerts.[103][106] He sold the broadcast rights to his Dangerous world tour to HBO for $20 million, a record-breaking deal that still stands.[107]<br /> <br /> Following the illness and death of Ryan White, Jackson helped draw public attention to HIV/AIDS, something that was still controversial at the time. He publicly pleaded with the Clinton Administration at Bill Clinton's Inaugural Gala to give more money to HIV/AIDS charities and research.[108][109] In a high-profile visit to Africa, Jackson visited several countries, among them Gabon and Egypt.[110] His first stop to Gabon was greeted with a sizable and enthusiastic reception of more than 100,000 people, some of them carrying signs that read, "Welcome Home Michael."[110] In his trip to Côte d'Ivoire, Jackson was crowned "King Sani" by a tribal chief.[110] He then thanked the dignitaries in French and English, signed official documents formalizing his kingship and sat on a golden throne while presiding over ceremonial dances.[110]<br /> <br /> In January 1993, Jackson made a memorable appearance at the halftime show at Super Bowl XXVII. The performance began with Jackson catapulting onto the stage as fireworks went off behind him. As he landed on the canvas, he maintained a motionless "clenched fist, standing statue stance", dressed in a gold and black military outfit and sunglasses; he remained completely motionless for a minute and a half while the crowd cheered. He then slowly removed his sunglasses, threw them away and sang four songs: "Jam", "Billie Jean", "Black or White" and "Heal the World". It was the first Super Bowl where the audience figures increased during the half-time show, and was viewed by 135 million Americans alone; Jackson's Dangerous album rose 90 places up the album chart.[56] Jackson was given the "Living Legend Award" at the 35th Grammy Awards in Los Angeles. "Black or White" was Grammy-nominated for best vocal performance. "Jam" gained two nominations: Best R&B Vocal Performance and Best R&B Song.[103] The Dangerous album won a Grammy for Best Engineered – Non Classical, awarding the work of Bruce Swedien and Teddy Riley. In the same year, Michael Jackson won three American Music Awards for Favorite Pop/Rock Album (Dangerous), Favorite Soul/R&B Single ("Remember the Time") and was the first to win the International Artist Award, for his global performances and humanitarian concerns. This award will bear his name in the future.[27][34][111]<br /> <br /> First child sexual abuse allegations and first marriage (1993–94)<br /> Main article: 1993 child sexual abuse accusations against Michael Jackson<br /> <br /> Jackson gave a 90-minute interview to Oprah Winfrey in February 1993, his second television interview since 1979. He grimaced when speaking of his childhood abuse at the hands of his father; he believed he had missed out on much of his childhood years, admitting that he often cried from loneliness. He denied tabloid rumors that he had bought the bones of the Elephant Man, slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber, or bleached his skin, stating for the first time that he had vitiligo. The interview was watched by an American audience of 90 million. Dangerous re-entered the album chart in the top 10, more than a year after its original release.[12][56][103]<br /> <br /> In the summer of 1993, Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse by a 13-year-old boy named Jordan Chandler and his father, Dr. Evan Chandler, a dentist.[112][113][114] The Chandler family demanded payment from Jackson, and the singer initially refused. Jordan Chandler eventually told the police that Jackson had sexually abused him.[115] Dr. Chandler was tape-recorded discussing his intention to pursue charges, saying, "If I go through with this, I win big-time. There's no way I lose. I will get everything I want and they will be destroyed forever ... Michael's career will be over". Jordan's mother was, however, adamant that there had been no wrongdoing on Jackson's part.[114] Jackson later used the recording to argue that he was the victim of a jealous father whose only goal was to extort money from the singer.[114]<br /> <br /> Later that year, on December 20, Jackson's home was raided by the police, and Jackson submitted to a 25-minute strip search.[116] Jordan Chandler had reportedly given police a description of Jackson's intimate parts, notably claiming that his bleach-damaged penis was circumcised; the strip search revealed, to the contrary, that Jackson was actually uncircumcised,[117] a fact confirmed in his autopsy.[118] His friends said he never recovered from the humiliation of the strip search. The investigation was inconclusive and no charges were ever filed.[119][120] Jackson described the search in an emotional public statement, and proclaimed his innocence.[112][116][121] On January 1, 1994, Jackson's insurance carrier settled with the Chandlers out of court for $22 million. A Santa Barbara County grand jury and a Los Angeles County grand jury disbanded on May 2, 1994 without indicting Jackson.[122] After which time the Chandlers stopped co-operating with the criminal investigation around July 6, 1994.[123][124][125] The out-of-court settlement's documentation specifically stated Jackson admitted no wrongdoing and no liability; the Chandlers and their family lawyer Larry Feldman signed it without contest.[126] The Chandlers' lawyer Mr. Feldman also explicitly stated "nobody bought anybody's silence".[127] A decade after the fact, during the second round of child abuse allegations, Jackson's lawyers would file a memo stating that the 1994 settlement was done without his consent.[124]<br /> Lisa Marie Presley<br /> Jackson married Lisa Marie Presley, daughter of Elvis Presley, in 1994.<br /> <br /> In May 1994, Jackson married the daughter of Elvis Presley, Lisa Marie Presley. They had first met in 1975, when a seven-year-old Presley attended one of Jackson's family engagements at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino, and were reconnected through a mutual friend.[128] According to a friend of Presley's, "their adult friendship began in November 1992 in L.A."[129] They stayed in contact every day over the telephone. As the child molestation accusations became public, Jackson became dependent on Presley for emotional support; she was concerned about his faltering health and addiction to drugs.[130] Presley explained, "I believed he didn't do anything wrong and that he was wrongly accused and yes I started falling for him. I wanted to save him. I felt that I could do it."[131] She eventually persuaded him to settle the allegations out of court and go into rehabilitation to recover.[130]<br /> <br /> Jackson proposed to Presley over the telephone towards the fall of 1993, saying, "If I asked you to marry me, would you do it?"[130] They married in the Dominican Republic in secrecy, denying it for nearly two months afterwards.[132] The marriage was, in her words, "a married couple's life ... that was sexually active".[133] At the time, the tabloid media speculated that the wedding was a ploy to prop up Jackson's public image.[132] The marriage lasted less than two years and ended with an amicable divorce settlement.[134] In a 2010 interview with Oprah, Presley admitted that they spent four more years after the divorce "getting back together and breaking up", until she decided to stop.[135]<br /> HIStory, second marriage and fatherhood (1995–99)<br /> <br /> In 1995, Jackson merged his ATV Music catalog with Sony's music publishing division creating Sony/ATV Music Publishing. Jackson retained half-ownership of the company, earned $95 million upfront as well as the rights to even more songs.[136][137] He then released the double album HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I. The first disc, HIStory Begins, was a 15-track greatest hits album, and was later reissued as Greatest Hits: HIStory, Volume I in 2001, while the second disc, HIStory Continues, contained 15 new songs. The album debuted at number one on the charts and has been certified for seven million shipments in the US.[138] It is the best-selling multiple-disc album of all-time, with 20 million copies (40 million units) sold worldwide.[102][139] HIStory received a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year.[140]<br /> A close-up image of a pale skinned man with black hair. He is wearing a black jacket with white designs on it.<br /> Michael Jackson at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival<br /> <br /> The first single released from the album was the double A-side "Scream/Childhood". "Scream" was a duet, performed with Jackson's youngest sister Janet. The song fights against the media, mainly for what the media made him out to be during his 1993 child abuse allegations. The single had the highest debut on the Billboard Hot 100 at number five, and received a Grammy nomination for "Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals".[140] "You Are Not Alone" was the second single released from HIStory; it holds the Guinness World Record for the first song ever to debut at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.[88] It was seen as a major artistic and commercial success, receiving a Grammy nomination for "Best Pop Vocal Performance".[140] In late 1995, Jackson was rushed to a hospital after collapsing during rehearsals for a televised performance; the incident was caused by a stress-related panic attack.[141] "Earth Song" was the third single released from HIStory, and topped the UK Singles Chart for six weeks over Christmas 1995; it sold a million copies, making it Jackson's most successful single in the UK.[140] The track "They Don't Care About Us" became controversial when the Anti-Defamation League and other groups criticized its allegedly antisemitic lyrics. Jackson quickly put out a revised version of the song without the offending lyrics.[142] In 1996, Jackson won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form for "Scream" and an American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Male Artist.[27][143]<br /> <br /> The album was promoted with the successful HIStory World Tour. The tour began on September 7, 1996, and finished on October 15, 1997. Jackson performed 82 concerts in 58 cities to over 4.5 million fans, and grossed up a total of $165 million. The show, which visited five continents and 35 countries, became Jackson's most successful in terms of audience figures.[81] During the tour, Jackson married his longtime friend Deborah Jeanne Rowe, a dermatology nurse, in an impromptu ceremony in Sydney, Australia. Rowe was approximately six months pregnant with the couple's first child at the time. Originally, Rowe and Jackson had no plans to marry, but Jackson's mother Katherine persuaded them to do so.[144] Michael Joseph Jackson Jr (commonly known as Prince) was born on February 13, 1997; his sister Paris-Michael Katherine Jackson was born a year later on April 3, 1998.[134][145] The couple divorced in 1999, and Jackson got full custody of the children. The divorce was relatively amicable, but a subsequent custody suit was not settled until 2006.[146][147]<br /> <br /> In 1997, Jackson released Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix, which contained remixes of hit singles from HIStory and five new songs. Worldwide sales stand at 6 million copies as of 2007, it is the best selling remix album ever released.[148] It reached number one in the UK, as did the title track.[148][149] In the US, the album was certified platinum, but only reached number 24.[99][140] Forbes placed his annual income at $35 million in 1996 and $20 million in 1997.[87] Throughout June 1999, Jackson was involved in a number of charitable events. He joined Luciano Pavarotti for a benefit concert in Modena, Italy. The show was in support of the nonprofit organization War Child, and raised a million dollars for the refugees of Kosovo, FR Yugoslavia, as well as additional funds for the children of Guatemala.[150] Later that month, Jackson organized a set of "Michael Jackson & Friends" benefit concerts in Germany and Korea. Other artists involved included Slash, The Scorpions, Boyz II Men, Luther Vandross, Mariah Carey, A. R. Rahman, Prabhu Deva Sundaram, Shobana, Andrea Bocelli and Luciano Pavarotti. The proceeds went to the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, the Red Cross and UNESCO.[151]<br /> Label dispute, Invincible and third child (2000–03)<br /> <br /> At the turn of the century, the American Music Awards honored Jackson as Artist of the '80s.[152] Throughout 2000 and 2001, Jackson worked in the studio with Teddy Riley and Rodney Jerkins, as well as other collaborators. These sessions would result in the album Invincible, released in October 2001. Invincible was Jackson's first full-length album in six years, and it would be the last album of new material he released while still alive. The release of the album was preceded by a dispute between Jackson and his record label, Sony Music Entertainment. Jackson had expected the licenses to the masters of his albums to revert to him sometime in the early 2000s. Once he had the licenses, he would be able to promote the material however he pleased and he would also be able to keep all the profits. However, due to various clauses in the contract, the revert date turned out to be many years away. Jackson discovered that the attorney who represented him in the deal was also representing Sony.[149] Jackson was also concerned about the fact that for a number of years, Sony had been pressuring him to sell his share in their music catalog venture. Jackson feared that Sony might have a conflict of interest, since if Jackson's career failed he would have to sell his share of the catalog at a low price.[153] Jackson sought an early exit from his contract.[149] Just before the release of Invincible, Jackson informed the head of Sony Music Entertainment, Tommy Mottola, that he was leaving Sony.[149] As a result, all singles releases, video shootings and promotions concerning the Invincible album were suspended.<br /> <br /> In September 2001, two 30th Anniversary concerts were held at Madison Square Garden to mark the singer's 30th year as a solo artist. Jackson appeared onstage alongside his brothers for the first time since 1984. The show also featured performances by Mýa, Usher, Whitney Houston, 'N Sync, Destiny's Child, Monica, Luther Vandross, and Slash, among other artists.[154] The second of the two shows took place the night before the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks.[155] After 9/11, Jackson helped organize the United We Stand: What More Can I Give benefit concert at RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C. The concert took place on October 21, 2001, and included performances from dozens of major artists, including Jackson, who performed his song "What More Can I Give" as the finale.[153] Jackson's solo performances were omitted from the televised version of the benefit concert, although he could still be seen singing background vocals. This omission happened because of contractual issues related to the earlier 30th Anniversary concerts: those concerts were boiled down into a two-hour TV special entitled Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration: The Solo Years which debuted in November 2001.<br /> <br /> In spite of the events preceding its release, Invincible came out in October 2001 to much anticipation. Invincible proved to be a hit, debuting atop the charts in 13 countries and going on to sell approximately 13 million copies worldwide. It received double-platinum certification in the US.[99][102][156] However, the sales for Invincible were lower than those of his previous releases, due in part to a lack of promotion, no supporting world tour and the label dispute. The album also came out at a bad time for the music industry in general.[153] The album cost $30 million to record, not including promotional expenditures.[157] Invincible spawned three singles, "You Rock My World", "Cry" and "Butterflies", the latter without a music video. Jackson alleged in July 2002 that Mottola was a "devil" and a "racist" who did not support his African-American artists, using them merely for his own personal gain.[153] He charged that Mottola had called his colleague Irv Gotti a "fat nigger".[158] Sony refused to renew Jackson's contract, and claimed that a $25 million promotional campaign had failed because Jackson refused to tour in the United States.[157]<br /> <br /> In 2002, Michael Jackson won his 22nd American Music Award for Artist of the Century.[159] In the same year, Jackson's third child, Prince Michael Jackson II (nicknamed "Blanket") was born.[160] The mother's identity is unknown, but Jackson has said the child was the result of artificial insemination from a surrogate mother and his own sperm.[146] On November 20 of that year, Jackson brought his newborn son onto the balcony of his room at the Hotel Adlon in Berlin, as fans stood below, holding him in his right arm, with a cloth loosely draped over the baby's face. The baby was briefly extended over a railing, four stories above ground level, causing widespread criticism in the media. Jackson later apologized for the incident, calling it "a terrible mistake".[161] Sony released Number Ones, a compilation of Jackson's hits on CD and DVD. In the US, the album was certified triple platinum by the RIAA; in the UK it was certified six times platinum for shipments of at least 1.2 million units.[99][162]<br /> Second child sexual abuse allegations and acquittal (2003–05)<br /> Further information: Living with Michael Jackson and People v. Jackson<br /> <br /> Beginning in May 2002, Jackson allowed a documentary film crew, led by British TV personality Martin Bashir, to follow him around just about everywhere he went. Bashir's film crew was with Jackson during the "baby-dangling incident" in Berlin. The program was broadcast in March 2003 as Living with Michael Jackson, and painted an extraordinarily unflattering portrait of the singer.<br /> <br /> In a particularly controversial scene, Jackson was seen holding hands and discussing sleeping arrangements with a young boy.[163] As soon as the documentary aired, the Santa Barbara county attorney's office began a criminal investigation. Jackson was arrested in November 2003, and was charged with seven counts of child molestation and two counts of administering an intoxicating agent in relation to the 13 year old boy shown in the film.[163] Jackson denied the allegations, saying the sleepovers were not sexual in nature. The People v. Jackson trial began on January 31, 2005, in Santa Maria, California, and lasted five months, until the end of May. On June 13, 2005, Jackson was acquitted on all counts.[164][165][166] After the trial, in a highly publicized relocation he moved to the Persian Gulf island of Bahrain, as a guest of Sheikh Abdullah.[167]<br /> Final years (2006–09)<br /> A group of adults and a child are shown in the photo. An African American female with short brown hair who is wearing a jean jacket and a light wash pair of jeans with a red shirt is seen holding a video camera, which is pointing forward. To the right of the female there is an opened black umbrella that is held above a light-skinned male with long black hair who is wearing all black clothes. In front of the male there is a child with black hair that is wearing a black cap with a blue shirt, a pair of white pants and black shoes. To the farthest right there are two Caucasian males with dark brown hair. In the background, trees, bushes and people can be seen.<br /> Jackson with his children in Disneyland Paris, 2006<br /> <br /> In March 2006, the main house at the Neverland Ranch was closed as a cost-cutting measure.[168] There were numerous reports around that time that Jackson was having financial problems. Jackson had been delinquent on his repayments of a $270 million loan secured against his music publishing holdings, even though those holdings were reportedly making him as much as $75 million a year.[169] Bank of America sold the debt to Fortress Investments. Sony reportedly proposed a restructuring deal which would give them a future option to buy half of Jackson's stake in their jointly owned publishing company (leaving Jackson with a 25% stake).[137] Jackson agreed to a Sony-backed refinancing deal in April 2006, although the exact details were not made public.[170] Jackson did not have a recording contract in place with Sony or any other major record label at the time.<br /> <br /> In early 2006, there was an announcement that Jackson had signed a contract with a Bahrain-based startup called Two Seas Records. However, nothing ever came of that deal, and the CEO of Two Seas, Guy Holmes, later stated that the deal had never been finalized.[171][172] Throughout 2006, Sony repackaged 20 singles from the 1980s and 1990s as the Michael Jackson: Visionary series, which subsequently became a box set. Most of those singles returned to the charts as a result. In September 2006, Jackson and his ex-wife Debbie Rowe confirmed reports that they had settled their long-running child custody suit. The terms were never made public. Jackson continued to be the custodial parent of the couple's two children.[147] In October 2006, Fox News entertainment reporter Roger Friedman said that Jackson had been recording at a studio in rural Westmeath, Ireland. It was not known at the time what Jackson might be working on, or who might be paying for the sessions, since his publicist had recently issued a statement claiming that he had left Two Seas.[172][173]<br /> <br /> In November 2006, Jackson invited an Access Hollywood camera crew into the studio in Westmeath, and MSNBC broke the story that he was working on a new album, produced by will.i.am of The Black Eyed Peas.[102] Jackson performed at the World Music Awards, in London on November 15, 2006, and accepted a Diamond Award for selling over 100 million records.[102][174] Jackson returned to the United States after Christmas 2006 to attend James Brown's funeral in Augusta, Georgia. He gave one of the eulogies, saying that "James Brown is my greatest inspiration."[175] In the spring of 2007, Jackson and Sony teamed up to buy yet another music publishing company: Famous Music LLC, formerly owned by Viacom. This deal gave him the rights to songs by Eminem, Shakira and Beck, among others.[176] Jackson recorded extensively during this period in New York with songwriter and producer will.i.am and also in Las Vegas with producers Akon and RedOne.[177][177][178] In March 2007, Jackson gave a brief interview to the Associated Press in Tokyo, where he said, "I've been in the entertainment industry since I was 6 years old, and as Charles Dickens would say, 'It's been the best of times, the worst of times.' But I would not change my career ... While some have made deliberate attempts to hurt me, I take it in stride because I have a loving family, a strong faith and wonderful friends and fans who have, and continue, to support me."[179]<br /> <br /> In September 2007 Jackson was reportedly still working with will.i.am, but the album was apparently never completed.[180] However, in 2008, Jackson and Sony released Thriller 25 to mark the 25th anniversary of the original Thriller. This album featured the previously unreleased song "For All Time" (an outtake from the original sessions) as well as remixes, where Jackson collaborated with younger artists who had been inspired by his work.[181] Two of the remixes were released as singles with only modest success: "The Girl Is Mine 2008" (with will.i.am) and "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' 2008" (with Akon). The first single was based on an early demo version, without Paul McCartney. The album itself was a hit, however.[181][182][183][184] In anticipation of Jackson's 50th birthday, Sony BMG released a series of greatest-hits albums called King of Pop. Slightly different versions were released in various countries, based on polls of local fans.[185] King of Pop reached the top 10 in most countries where it was issued, and also sold well as an import in other countries (such as the United States.)[186][187]<br /> <br /> In the fall of 2008, Fortress Investments threatened to foreclose on Neverland Ranch, which Jackson used as collateral for loans running into many tens of millions of dollars. However, Fortress opted to sell Jackson's debts to Colony Capital LLC. In November, Jackson transferred Neverland Ranch's title to Sycamore Valley Ranch Company LLC, which was a joint venture between Jackson and Colony Capital LLC. This deal cleared Jackson's debt, and he reportedly even gained an extra $35 million from the venture. At the time of his death, Jackson still owned a stake in Neverland/Sycamore Valley, but it is unknown how large that stake was.[188][189][190] In September 2008, Jackson entered negotiations with Julien's Auction House to display and auction a large collection of memorabilia amounting to approximately 1,390 lots. The auction was scheduled to take place between April 22 and April 25.[191] An exhibition of the lots opened as scheduled on April 14, but the actual auction was eventually cancelled at Jackson's request.[192]<br /> <br /> In March 2009, Jackson held a press conference at London's O2 Arena and announced a series of comeback concerts titled This Is It. The shows would be Jackson's first major series of concerts since the HIStory World Tour finished in 1997. Jackson suggested possible retirement after the shows; he said it would be his "final curtain call". The initial plan was for 10 concerts in London, followed by shows in Paris, New York City and Mumbai. Randy Phillips, president and chief executive of AEG Live, stated that the first 10 dates alone would earn the singer approximately £50 million.[193] The London residency was increased to 50 dates after record breaking ticket sales: over one million were sold in less than two hours.[194] Jackson rehearsed in Los Angeles in the weeks leading up to the tour under the direction of choreographer Kenny Ortega. Most of these rehearsals took place at the Staples Center, which was owned by AEG.[195] The concerts would have commenced on July 13, 2009, and finished on March 6, 2010. Less than three weeks before the first show was due to begin in London and with all concerts being sold out, Jackson died after suffering cardiac arrest.[196] Some time before his death, it was widely stated that he was starting a clothing line with Christian Audigier; due to his death, the current status of the label remains unknown.[197][198]<br /> <br /> Jackson's first posthumous single was a song entitled "This Is It" which Jackson cowrote in the 1980s with Paul Anka. It was not on the set lists for the concerts, and the recording was based on an old demo tape. The surviving brothers reunited in the studio for the first time since 1989 to record backing vocals. On October 28, 2009, a documentary film about the rehearsals entitled Michael Jackson's This Is It was released.[199] Even though it ran for a limited two-week engagement, it became the highest grossing documentary or concert movie of all time, with earnings of more than $260 million worldwide.[200] Jackson's estate received 90% of the profits.[201] The film was accompanied by a compilation album of the same name. Two versions of the new song appear on the album, which also featured original masters of Jackson's hits in the order in which they appear in the movie, along with a bonus disc with previously unreleased versions of more Jackson hits as well as a spoken word poem entitled "Planet Earth".[202] At the 2009 American Music Awards Jackson won four posthumous awards, two for him and two for his album Number Ones, bringing his total American Music Awards total to 26.[203][204]<br /> Death and memorial<br /> Main articles: Death of Michael Jackson and Michael Jackson memorial service<br /> A pink star with the writing "Michael Jackson" and a gold colored rim. The star is surrounded by a metal silver colored barrier and flowers. There are also blue confetti and pink rose bud pedals on top of the star.<br /> Jackson's fans paid tribute to him at his star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, shortly after the announcement of his death.<br /> <br /> On June 25, 2009, Jackson died in his bed at his rented mansion at 100 North Carolwood Drive in the Holmby Hills district of Los Angeles. Attempts at resuscitating him by Conrad Murray, his personal physician, were unsuccessful.[205] Los Angeles Fire Department paramedics received a 911 call at 12:22 (PDT, 19:22 UTC), arriving three minutes later at Jackson's location.[206][207] He was reportedly not breathing and CPR was performed.[208] Resuscitation efforts continued en route to the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, and for an hour after arriving there at 1:13 (20:13 UTC). He was pronounced dead at 2:26 local time (21:26 UTC).[209][210] Jackson's death triggered a global outpouring of grief.[205]<br /> <br /> The news spread quickly online, causing websites to slow down and crash from user overload. Both TMZ and the Los Angeles Times suffered outages.[211] Google initially believed that the input from millions of people searching for "Michael Jackson" meant that the search engine was under attack. Twitter reported a crash, as did Wikipedia at 3:15 p.m. PDT (6:15 p.m. EDT).[212] The Wikimedia Foundation reported nearly a million visitors to Jackson's biography within one hour, probably the most visitors in a one-hour period to any article in Wikipedia's history.[213] AOL Instant Messenger collapsed for 40 minutes. AOL called it a "seminal moment in Internet history", adding, "We've never seen anything like it in terms of scope or depth."[214]<br /> <br /> Around 15% of Twitter posts—or 5,000 tweets per minute—reportedly mentioned Jackson after the news broke,[215][216] compared to the 5% recalled as having mentioned the Iranian elections or the flu pandemic that had made headlines earlier in the year.[216] Overall, web traffic ranged from 11% to at least 20% higher than normal.[215][217] MTV and Black Entertainment Television (BET) aired marathons of Jackson's music videos.[218] Jackson specials aired on multiple television stations around the world. The British soap opera EastEnders added a last-minute scene, in which one character tells another about the news, to the June 26 episode.[219] Jackson was the topic of every front-page headline in the daily British tabloid The Sun for about two weeks following his death.[220] During the same period, the three major U.S. networks' evening newscasts—ABC World News, CBS Evening News, and NBC Nightly News—devoted 34% of their broadcast time to him.[221] Magazines including Time published commemorative editions.[222] A scene that had featured Jackson's sister La Toya was cut from the film Brüno out of respect toward Jackson's family.[223]<br /> <br /> Jackson's memorial was held on July 7, 2009, at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, preceded by a private family service at Forest Lawn Memorial Park's Hall of Liberty. Jackson's casket was present during the memorial but no information was released about the final disposition of the body. While some unofficial reports claimed a worldwide audience as high as one billion people,[224][225][226] the U.S. audience was estimated by Nielsen to be 31.1 million, an amount comparable to the estimated 35.1 million that watched the 2004 burial of former president Ronald Reagan, and the estimated 33.1 million Americans who watched the 1997 funeral for Princess Diana.[227]<br /> <br /> Mariah Carey, Stevie Wonder, Lionel Richie, John Mayer, Jennifer Hudson, Usher, Jermaine Jackson, and Shaheen Jafargholi performed at the event. Berry Gordy and Smokey Robinson gave eulogies, while Queen Latifah read, "We had him," a poem written for the occasion by Maya Angelou.[228] The Reverend Al Sharpton received a standing ovation with cheers when he told Jackson's children, "Wasn't nothing strange about your daddy. It was strange what your daddy had to deal with. But he dealt with it anyway."[229] Jackson's 11-year-old daughter, Paris Katherine, cried as she told the crowd, "Ever since I was born, Daddy has been the best father you could ever imagine ... I just wanted to say I love him ... so much."[230] Reverend Lucious Smith provided a closing prayer.[231] On August 24, several news outlets quoted anonymous sources as stating that the Los Angeles coroner had decided to treat Jackson's death as a homicide; this was later confirmed by the coroner on August 28.[232][233] At the time of death, Jackson had been administered propofol, lorazepam and midazolam.[234] Law enforcement officials conducted a manslaughter investigation of his personal physician, Conrad Murray.[235] On February 8, 2010, Murray was charged with involuntary manslaughter by prosecutors in Los Angeles.[236] Jackson was entombed on September 3, 2009, at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.[237]<br /> Portrait tribute, other tribute items, mural and messages from 650 Spanish fans, letters, pictures, teddy bears, etc.), sunflowers and other kind of flowers were dropped off by fans from all over the world at Forest Lawn Memorial Park on the first anniversary of Michael Jackson.<br /> Tribute of fans from all over the world in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park on his first anniversary of death<br /> <br /> On June 25, 2010, the first anniversary of Jackson's death, fans came to Los Angeles to pay their tribute to him. They visited Jackson’s star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and his family’s home, as well as Forest Lawn Memorial Park. Many of the fans were carrying sunflowers and other tribute items to drop off at the sites. Members of the Jackson family and close friends arrived to pay their respects.[238][239] Katherine returned to Gary, Indiana to unveil a granite monument constructed in the front yard of the family home. The memorial continued with a candlelight vigil and a special performance of "We Are the World."[240][241] On June 26, there was a protest march in front of the Los Angeles Police Department's Robbery-Homicide Division at the old Parker Center building and a petition with thousands of signatures demanding justice was delivered.[242][243] The Jackson Family Foundation in conjunction with Voiceplate presented "Forever Michael", an event bringing together Jackson family members, celebrities, fans, supporters and the community to celebrate and honor his legacy. A portion of the proceeds were presented to some of Jackson's favorite charities. Katherine also introduced her new book "Never Can Say Goodbye."[244][245][246]<br /> Death aftermath<br /> <br /> After his death, Jackson became the best-selling artist of 2009 in the United States selling over 8.2 million albums and had sold 35 million albums worldwide in the 12 months that followed his death.[247][248] Following this surge in sales, Sony announced that they had extended their relationship with his material. The distribution rights held by Sony Music were due to expire in 2015.[249] On March 16, 2010, Sony Music Entertainment, in a move spearheaded by its Columbia/Epic Label Group division, signed a new deal with the Jackson estate to extend their distribution rights to his back catalogue until at least 2017, as well as to obtain permission to release ten new albums with previously unreleased material and new collections of released work. On November 4, 2010 Sony announced the release of Michael, the first posthumous album set to be released on December 14, with the promotional single released to the radios on November 8, entitled "Breaking News".[250] The deal was unprecedented in the music industry as it is the most expensive music contract pertaining to a single artist in history; it reportedly involved Sony Music paying $250 million for the deal, with the Jackson estate getting the full sum as well as its share of royalties for all works released.[249][251] Video game developer Ubisoft announced it would release a new dancing-and-singing game featuring Michael Jackson for the 2010 holiday season. The game entitled Michael Jackson: The Experience will be among the first to use Kinect and PlayStation Move, the respective motion-detecting camera systems for Microsoft's Xbox 360 and Sony's PlayStation 3 due out later that year.[252] Cirque du Soleil announced on 3 November 2010 that it would launch "Michael Jackson: The Immortal World Tour" in October 2011 in Montreal, while a permanent show will reside in Las Vegas.[253] The 90-minute US$57M production will combine Jackson's iconic musical oeuvre and choreography with the Cirque's signature artistry, dance and aerial displays involving 65 artists.[254] The tour was written and directed by Jamie King[255] and centers on Jackson's "inspirational Giving Tree - the wellspring of creativity where his love of music and dance, fairy tale and magic, and the fragile beauty of nature are unlocked."[256]<br /> <br /> In April 2011, Jackson's longtime friend and billionaire businessman Mohamed Al-Fayed, chairman of Fulham F.C., unveiled a statue of Jackson outside the club's stadium, Craven Cottage.[257] Fulham fans were however bemused by the statue and failed to understand the relevance of Jackson to the club. [258] Al Fayed however defended the statue and told the fans to 'go to hell' if they didn't appreciate the statue. [259]<br /> Artistry<br /> Influences<br /> A silver colored statue of a male. The statue is placed standing up with its arms bent inward and both legs spaced apart. The statue's clothes have wrinkles and it is wearing heeled shoes. In the background, a tree and a light blue sky with multiple clouds can be seen.<br /> One of many identical statues, positioned throughout Europe to promote HIStory<br /> <br /> Jackson's music took root in R&B, pop and soul. He had been influenced by the work of contemporary musicians such as Little Richard, James Brown, Jackie Wilson, Diana Ross, David Ruffin, Gene Kelly, Fred Astaire, Sammy Davis, Jr., The Isley Brothers, and the Bee Gees.[260] While Little Richard had a substantial influence on Jackson,[261] James Brown was Jackson's greatest inspiration. In reference to Brown, Jackson declared: "Ever since I was a small child, no more than like six years old, my mother would wake me no matter what time it was, if I was sleeping, no matter what I was doing, to watch the television to see the master at work. And when I saw him move, I was mesmerized. I had never seen a performer perform like James Brown, and right then and there I knew that was exactly what I wanted to do for the rest of my life because of James Brown."[262]<br /> <br /> The young Michael Jackson owed his vocal technique in large part to Diana Ross. In October 1969, it was decided[why?][by whom?] that Jackson would live with Ross. Not only a mother figure to him, she was often observed in rehearsal as an accomplished performer. He later expressed: "I got to know her well. She taught me so much. I used to just sit in the corner and watch the way she moved. She was art in motion. I studied the way she moved, the way she sang – just the way she was." He told her: "I want to be just like you, Diana." She said: "You just be yourself."[263] But Jackson owed part of his enduring style—especially his use of the oooh interjection—to Ross. From a young age, Jackson often punctuated his verses with a sudden exclamation of oooh. Diana Ross had used this effect on many of the songs recorded with The Supremes.[264]<br /> Musical themes and genres<br /> <br /> Unlike many artists, Jackson did not write his songs on paper. Instead he would dictate into a sound recorder, and when recording he would sing the lyrics from memory.[265] In most of his songs, such as "Billie Jean", "Who Is It", and "Tabloid Junkie", he would beatbox and imitate the instruments using his voice instead of playing the actual instruments, along with other sounds. Jackson noted that it is easier to sing a drum line, or sing a bass, instead of playing a drum line or a bass with an instrument. Several critics have said that Jackson's distinct voice is able to replace any instrument convincingly. Steve Huey of Allmusic said that, throughout his solo career, Jackson's versatility allowed him to experiment with various themes and genres.[266] As a musician, he ranged from Motown's dance fare and ballads to techno and house-edged new jack swing to work that incorporates both funk rhythms and hard rock guitar.[14]<br /> <br /> According to Huey, Thriller refined the strengths of Off the Wall; the dance and rock tracks were more aggressive, while the pop tunes and ballads were softer and more soulful.[266] Notable tracks included the ballads "The Lady in My Life", "Human Nature" and "The Girl Is Mine"; the funk pieces "Billie Jean" and "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'"; and the disco set "Baby Be Mine" and "P.Y.T. (Pretty Young Thing)".[266][267][268][269] With Thriller, Christopher Connelly of Rolling Stone commented that Jackson developed his long association with the subliminal theme of paranoia and darker imagery.[269] Allmusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted this is evident on the songs "Billie Jean" and "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'".[268] In "Billie Jean", Jackson sings about an obsessive fan who alleges he has fathered a child of hers.[266] In "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'" he argues against gossip and the media.[269] "Beat It" decried gang violence in an homage to West Side Story, and was Jackson's first successful rock cross-over piece, according to Huey.[14][266] He also observed that the title track "Thriller" began Jackson's interest with the theme of the supernatural, a topic he revisited in subsequent years.[266] In 1985, Jackson co-wrote the charity anthem "We Are the World"; humanitarian themes later became a recurring theme in his lyrics and public persona.[266]<br /> <br /> "Thriller"<br /> Play sound<br /> One of Jackson's signature pieces, "Thriller", released as a single in 1984, utilizes cinematic sound effects, horror film motifs and vocal trickery to convey a sense of danger.[17]<br /> "Smooth Criminal"<br /> Play sound<br /> A single from the album Bad, released 1988, "Smooth Criminal" features digital drum sounds, keyboard-created bass lines and other percussion elements designed to give the impression of a pulsing heart.[270]<br /> Problems listening to these files? See media help.<br /> <br /> In Bad, Jackson's concept of the predatory lover can be seen on the rock song "Dirty Diana".[271] The lead single "I Just Can't Stop Loving You" is a traditional love ballad, while "Man in the Mirror" is an anthemic ballad of confession and resolution.[73] "Smooth Criminal" was an evocation of bloody assault, rape and likely murder.[73] Allmusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine states that Dangerous presents Jackson as a very paradoxical individual.[272] He comments the album is more diverse than his previous Bad, as it appeals to an urban audience while also attracting the middle class with anthems like "Heal the World".[272] The first half of the record is dedicated to new jack swing, including songs like "Jam" and "Remember the Time".[273] The album is Jackson's first where social ills become a primary theme; "Why You Wanna Trip on Me", for example, protests against world hunger, AIDS, homelessness and drugs.[273] Dangerous contains sexually charged efforts such as the multifaceted love song, "In the Closet".[273] The title track continues the theme of the predatory lover and compulsive desire.[273] The second half includes introspective, pop-gospel anthems such as "Will You Be There", "Heal the World" and "Keep the Faith"; these songs show Jackson opening up about various personal struggles and worries.[273] In the ballad "Gone Too Soon", Jackson gives tribute to his friend Ryan White and the plight of those with AIDS.[274]<br /> <br /> HIStory creates an atmosphere of paranoia.[275] Its content focuses on the hardships and public struggles Jackson went through just prior to its production. In the new jack swing-funk-rock efforts "Scream" and "Tabloid Junkie", along with the R&B ballad "You Are Not Alone", Jackson retaliates against the injustice and isolation he feels, and directs much of his anger at the media.[276] In the introspective ballad "Stranger in Moscow", Jackson laments over his "fall from grace", while songs like "Earth Song", "Childhood", "Little Susie" and "Smile" are all operatic pop pieces.[275][276] In the track "D.S.", Jackson launched a verbal attack against Tom Sneddon. He describes Sneddon as an antisocial, white supremacist who wanted to "get my ass, dead or alive". Of the song, Sneddon said, "I have not—shall we say—done him the honor of listening to it, but I've been told that it ends with the sound of a gunshot".[277] Invincible found Jackson working heavily with producer Rodney Jerkins.[266] It is a record made up of urban soul like "Cry" and "The Lost Children", ballads such as "Speechless", "Break of Dawn" and "Butterflies" and mixes Hip-Hop, Pop and R&B in "2000 Watts", "Heartbreaker" and "Invincible".[278][279]<br /> Vocal style<br /> <br /> Jackson sang from childhood, and over time his voice and vocal style changed noticeably. Between 1971 and 1975, Jackson's voice descended from boy soprano to high tenor.[280] Jackson first used a technique called the "vocal hiccup" in 1973, starting with the song "It's Too Late to Change the Time" from The Jackson 5's G.I.T.: Get It Together album.[281] Jackson did not use the hiccup technique— somewhat like a gulping for air or gasping— fully until the recording of Off the Wall: it can be seen in full force in the "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)" promotional video.[15] With the arrival of Off the Wall in the late 1970s, Jackson's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded. At the time, Rolling Stone compared his vocals to the "breathless, dreamy stutter" of Stevie Wonder. Their analysis was also that "Jackson's feathery-timbred tenor is extraordinarily beautiful. It slides smoothly into a startling falsetto that's used very daringly".[282][283] 1982 saw the release of Thriller, and Rolling Stone was of the opinion that Jackson was then singing in a "fully adult voice" that was "tinged by sadness".[269]<br /> <br /> "Black or White"<br /> Play sound<br /> The lead single from Dangerous, the danceable hard rock song "Black or White" was one of Jackson's most successful recordings.[284][285][286] It contains many features of Jackson's vocal style, including the vocal hiccup he is known for.<br /> <br /> A distinctive deliberate mispronunciation of "come on", used frequently by Jackson, occasionally spelt "cha'mone" or "shamone", is also a staple in impressions and caricatures of him.[287] The turn of the 1990s saw the release of the introspective album Dangerous. The New York Times noted that on some tracks, "he gulps for breath, his voice quivers with anxiety or drops to a desperate whisper, hissing through clenched teeth" and he had a "wretched tone".[273] When singing of brotherhood or self-esteem the musician would return to "smooth" vocals.[273] When commenting on Invincible, Rolling Stone were of the opinion that—at the age of 43—Jackson still performed "exquisitely voiced rhythm tracks and vibrating vocal harmonies".[288] Nelson George summed up Jackson's vocals by stating "The grace, the aggression, the growling, the natural boyishness, the falsetto, the smoothness—that combination of elements mark him as a major vocalist".[270]<br /> Music videos and choreography<br /> <br /> Referred to as the King of Music Videos,[289] Steve Huey of Allmusic observed how Jackson transformed the music video into an art form and a promotional tool through complex story lines, dance routines, special effects and famous cameo appearances; simultaneously breaking down racial barriers.[266] Before Thriller, Jackson struggled to receive coverage on MTV, allegedly because he was African American.[290] Pressure from CBS Records persuaded MTV to start showing "Billie Jean" and later "Beat It", leading to a lengthy partnership with Jackson, also helping other black music artists gain recognition.[291] MTV employees deny any racism in their coverage, or pressure to change their stance. MTV maintains that they played rock music, regardless of race.[292] The popularity of his videos on MTV helped to put the relatively young channel "on the map"; MTV's focus shifted in favor of pop and R&B.[291][293] His performance on Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever changed the scope of live stage show; "That Jackson lip-synced 'Billie Jean' is, in itself, not extraordinary, but the fact that it did not change the impact of the performance is extraordinary; whether the performance was live or lip-synced made no difference to the audience" thus creating an era in which artists re-create the spectacle of music video imagery on stage.[294] Short films like Thriller largely remained unique to Jackson, while the group dance sequence in "Beat It" has frequently been imitated.[295] The choreography in Thriller has become a part of global pop culture, replicated everywhere from Indian films to prisons in the Philippines.[296] The Thriller short film marked an increase in scale for music videos, and has been named the most successful music video ever by the Guinness World Records.[88]<br /> <br /> In the 19-minute music video for "Bad"—directed by Martin Scorsese—Jackson began using sexual imagery and choreography not previously seen in his work. He occasionally grabbed or touched his chest, torso and crotch. When asked by Oprah in the 1993 interview about why he grabbed his crotch, he replied, "I think it happens subliminally" and he described it as something that was not planned, but rather, as something that was compelled by the music. "Bad" garnered a mixed reception from both fans and critics; Time magazine described it as "infamous". The video also featured Wesley Snipes; in the future Jackson's videos would often feature famous cameo roles.[66][297] For "Smooth Criminal", Jackson experimented with an innovative "anti-gravity lean" in his performances. The maneuver required special shoes for which he was granted U.S. Patent No. 5,255,452.[298] Although the music video for "Leave Me Alone" was not officially released in the US, in 1989, it was nominated for four Billboard Music Video Awards, winning three; the same year it won a Golden Lion Award for the quality of the special effects used in its production. In 1990, "Leave Me Alone" won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form.[86]<br /> <br /> The MTV Video Vanguard Artist of the Decade Award was given to Jackson to celebrate his accomplishments in the art form in the 1980s; the following year the award was renamed in his honor.[103] "Black or White" was accompanied by a controversial music video, which, on November 14, 1991, simultaneously premiered in 27 countries with an estimated audience of 500 million people, the largest viewing ever for a music video.[102] It featured scenes construed as having a sexual nature as well as depictions of violence. The offending scenes in the final half of the 14-minute version were edited out to prevent the video from being banned, and Jackson apologized.[299] Along with Jackson, it featured Macaulay Culkin, Peggy Lipton and George Wendt. It helped usher in morphing as an important technology in music videos.[300]<br /> <br /> "Remember the Time" was an elaborate production, and became one of his longest videos at over nine minutes. Set in ancient Egypt, it featured groundbreaking visual effects and appearances by Eddie Murphy, Iman and Magic Johnson, along with a distinct complex dance routine.[301] The video for "In the Closet" was Jackson's most sexually provocative piece. It featured supermodel Naomi Campbell in a courtship dance with Jackson. The video was banned in South Africa because of its imagery.[103]<br /> <br /> The music video for "Scream", directed by Mark Romanek and production designer Tom Foden, is one of Jackson's most critically acclaimed. In 1995, it gained 11 MTV Video Music Award Nominations—more than any other music video—and won "Best Dance Video", "Best Choreography", and "Best Art Direction".[302] The song and its accompanying video are a response to the backlash Jackson received from the media after being accused of child molestation in 1993.[303] A year later, it won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form; shortly afterwards Guinness World Records listed it as the most expensive music video ever made at a cost of $7 million.[140][304]<br /> <br /> "Earth Song" was accompanied by an expensive and well-received music video that gained a Grammy nomination for Best Music Video, Short Form in 1997. The video had an environmental theme, showing images of animal cruelty, deforestation, pollution and war. Using special effects, time is reversed so that life returns, wars end, and the forests re-grow.[140][305] Released in 1997 and premiering at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival, Michael Jackson's Ghosts was a short film written by Jackson and Stephen King and directed by Stan Winston. The video for Ghosts is over 38 minutes long and holds the Guinness World Record as the world's longest music video.[140][149][306][307]<br /> Legacy and influence<br /> See also: Records and achievements of Michael Jackson<br /> A pink star with a gold colored rim and the writing "Michael Jackson" in its center. The star is indented into the ground and is surrounded by a marble colored floor.<br /> Jackson's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, set in 1984<br /> <br /> Jackson throughout his career transformed the art of the music video and paved the way for modern pop music. Daily Telegraph writer Tom Utley described Jackson in 2003 as "extremely important" and a "genius."[308] For much of his career, he had an "unparalleled" level of worldwide influence over the younger generation through his musical and humanitarian contributions.[142] Jackson's music and videos, such as Thriller, fostered racial diversity in MTV's roster, helped to put the relatively new channel into public awareness, and steered the channel's focus from rock to pop music and R&B, shaping the channel into a form that proved enduring. Jackson's work continues to influence numerous hip hop, rock, pop and R&B artists, including Beyoncé,[309] Mariah Carey,[310] Usher,[311] Green Day,[312] Britney Spears,[310] Madonna,[313] Justin Timberlake,[153] and Ludacris, among others.[314]<br /> <br /> Allmusic's Steve Huey describes Jackson as "an unstoppable juggernaut, possessed of all the skills to dominate the charts seemingly at will: an instantly identifiable voice, eye-popping dance moves, stunning musical versatility and loads of sheer star power".[266] In the mid-1980s, Time magazine's pop music critic, Jay Cocks, noted "Jackson is the biggest thing since The Beatles. He is the hottest single phenomenon since Elvis Presley. He just may be the most popular black singer ever".[35] In 1990, Vanity Fair cited Jackson as the most popular artist in the history of show business.[86] In 2007, Jackson said, "Music has been my outlet, my gift to all of the lovers in this world. Through it, my music, I know I will live forever."[315]<br /> <br /> Shortly after Jackson's death, on June 25, 2009, MTV briefly returned to its original music video format to celebrate and pay tribute to his work.[316] The channel aired many hours of Jackson's music videos, accompanied by live news specials featuring reactions from MTV personalities and other celebrities. The temporary shift in MTV's programming culminated the following week in the channel's live coverage of Jackson's memorial service.[317] At the memorial service on July 7, 2009, founder of Motown Records Berry Gordy proclaimed Jackson as "the greatest entertainer that ever lived."[318][319][320]<br /> <br /> In 2010, two university librarians found that Jackson's influence extended into academia, and was detectable in scholarly literature pertaining to a range of subject matter.[321][322] The two researchers combed through various scholars' writings, and compiled an annotated bibliography of those writings that appeared to meet at least one of several criteria. Among these criteria were appearance in a peer-reviewed journal, and the provision of insight into the nature of "popular icons including Jackson".[323] The bibliography located references to Jackson in research reports concerning music, popular culture, and an array of other topics. The bibliographers identified as their most peculiar finding an argument that certain aspects of chemistry can be effectively taught by altering and imitating elements of Jackson's singing.[324] One of the research librarians later reflected that "the fact that someone would take a Michael Jackson song and co-opt it as a means to convey chemistry concepts just shows the pervasiveness of Jackson's influence".[321]<br /> Honors and awards<br /> See also: List of awards received by Michael Jackson<br /> Thriller platinum record on display at the Hard Rock Cafe, Hollywood in Universal City, California.<br /> <br /> Michael Jackson was inducted onto the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1980 as member of The Jacksons and in 1984 as solo artist. Throughout his career he received numerous honors and awards, including the World Music Awards' Best-Selling Pop Male Artist of the Millennium, the American Music Award's Artist of the Century Award and the Bambi Pop Artist of the Millennium Award.[154][325] He was a double-inductee of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, once as a member of The Jackson 5 in 1997 and later as a solo artist in 2001. Jackson was also inducted in several other hall of fames, including Vocal Group Hall of Fame (as The Jackson 5 member) in 1999, Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2002 and Hit Parade Hall of Fame (with his brothers) in 2009.[154][326] In 2010, Jackson was inducted into the Dance Hall of Fame as the first (and currently only) dancer from the world of pop and rock 'n' roll.[327] His awards include many Guinness World Records (eight in 2006 alone),[328] 13 Grammy Awards (as well as the Grammy Legend Award and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award), 26 American Music Awards (24 only as a solo artist, including the "Artist of the Century", but not the poll of "Artist of the '80s")—more than any artist—, 13 number one singles in the US in his solo career—more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era[329]—and estimated sales of up to 750 million records worldwide, making him the world's best selling male solo pop artist.[27][88][102][152][203][204][330][331][332][333][334] On December 29, 2009, the American Film Institute recognized Jackson's passing as a "moment of significance" saying, "Michael Jackson's sudden death in June at age 50 was notable for the worldwide outpouring of grief and the unprecedented global eulogy of his posthumous concert rehearsal movie This Is It."[335] Michael Jackson also received a Doctor of Humane Letters Degree from the United Negro College Fund [336] and also an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Fisk University.[337]erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-31784528889889055242011-04-26T04:40:00.001-07:002011-04-26T04:40:40.566-07:00Albert Einstein<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> "Einstein" redirects here. For other uses, see Einstein (disambiguation).<br /> Good article<br /> Page semi-protected<br /> Albert Einstein<br /> <br /> Albert Einstein in 1921<br /> Born 14 March 1879(1879-03-14)<br /> Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire<br /> Died 18 April 1955(1955-04-18) (aged 76)<br /> Princeton, New Jersey, United States<br /> Residence Germany, Italy, Switzerland, United States<br /> Citizenship <br /> <br /> * Württemberg/Germany (until 1896)<br /> * Stateless (1896–1901)<br /> * Switzerland (from 1901)<br /> * Austria (1911–12)<br /> * Germany (1914–33)<br /> * United States (from 1940)[1]<br /> <br /> Alma mater <br /> <br /> * ETH Zurich<br /> * University of Zurich<br /> <br /> Known for <br /> <br /> * General relativity and special relativity<br /> * Photoelectric effect<br /> * Mass-energy equivalence<br /> * Quantification of the Brownian motion<br /> * Einstein field equations<br /> * Bose–Einstein statistics<br /> * Unified Field Theory<br /> <br /> Spouse <br /> <br /> * Mileva Marić (1903–1919)<br /> * Elsa Löwenthal, née Einstein, (1919–1936)<br /> <br /> Awards <br /> <br /> * Nobel Prize in Physics (1921)<br /> * Copley Medal (1925)<br /> * Max Planck Medal (1929)<br /> * Time Person of the Century<br /> <br /> Signature<br /> <br /> Albert Einstein (play /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who discovered the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics.[2] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".[3]<br /> <br /> Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.[4]<br /> <br /> He was visiting the United States when Hitler came to power in 1933, and did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He settled in the U.S., becoming a citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he helped alert President Franklin D. Roosevelt that Germany might be developing an atomic weapon, and recommended that the U.S. begin similar research. Later, together with Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein taught physics at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.<br /> <br /> Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works.[4][5] His great intelligence and originality have made the word "Einstein" synonymous with genius.[6]<br /> Contents<br /> <br /> * 1 Biography<br /> o 1.1 Early life and education<br /> o 1.2 Marriages and children<br /> o 1.3 Patent office<br /> o 1.4 Academic career<br /> o 1.5 Travels abroad<br /> o 1.6 Emigration from Germany<br /> + 1.6.1 World War II and the Manhattan Project<br /> + 1.6.2 U.S. citizenship<br /> o 1.7 Death<br /> * 2 Scientific career<br /> o 2.1 Annus Mirabilis papers<br /> o 2.2 Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics<br /> o 2.3 General principles postulated by Einstein<br /> o 2.4 Theory of relativity and E = mc2<br /> o 2.5 Photons<br /> o 2.6 Quantized atomic vibrations<br /> o 2.7 Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables<br /> o 2.8 Wave-particle duality<br /> o 2.9 Theory of critical opalescence<br /> o 2.10 Zero-point energy<br /> o 2.11 General relativity and the Equivalence Principle<br /> o 2.12 Hole argument and Entwurf theory<br /> o 2.13 Cosmology<br /> o 2.14 Modern quantum theory<br /> o 2.15 Bose–Einstein statistics<br /> o 2.16 Energy momentum pseudotensor<br /> o 2.17 Unified field theory<br /> o 2.18 Wormholes<br /> o 2.19 Einstein–Cartan theory<br /> o 2.20 Equations of motion<br /> o 2.21 Einstein's controversial beliefs in physics<br /> o 2.22 Collaboration with other scientists<br /> + 2.22.1 Einstein-de Haas experiment<br /> + 2.22.2 Schrödinger gas model<br /> + 2.22.3 Einstein refrigerator<br /> o 2.23 Bohr versus Einstein<br /> o 2.24 Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox<br /> * 3 Political and religious views<br /> * 4 Non-scientific legacy<br /> * 5 In popular culture<br /> * 6 Awards and honors<br /> o 6.1 Awards named after Einstein<br /> * 7 See also<br /> * 8 Publications<br /> * 9 Notes<br /> * 10 References<br /> * 11 Further reading<br /> * 12 External links<br /> <br /> Biography<br /> Early life and education<br /> A young boy with short hair and a round face, wearing a white collar and large bow, with vest, coat, skirt and high boots. He is leaning against an ornate chair.<br /> Einstein at the age of 4<br /> Studio photo of a boy seated in a relaxed posture and wearing a suit, posed in front of a backdrop of scenery.<br /> Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14)<br /> <br /> Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire on 14 March 1879.[7] His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.[7]<br /> <br /> The Einsteins were non-observant Jews. Albert attended a Catholic elementary school from the age of five for three years. Later, at the age of eight, Einstein was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium where he received advanced primary and secondary school education till he left Germany seven years later.[8] Although it has been thought that Einstein had early speech difficulties, this is disputed by the Albert Einstein Archives, and he excelled at the first school that he attended.[9]<br /> <br /> His father once showed him a pocket compass; Einstein realized that there must be something causing the needle to move, despite the apparent "empty space".[10] As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices for fun and began to show a talent for mathematics.[7] In 1889, Max Talmud (later changed to Max Talmey) introduced the ten-year old Einstein to key texts in science, mathematics and philosophy, including Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (which Einstein called the "holy little geometry book").[11] Talmud was a poor Jewish medical student from Poland. The Jewish community arranged for Talmud to take meals with the Einsteins each week on Thursdays for six years. During this time Talmud wholeheartedly guided Einstein through many secular educational interests.[fn 1][fn 2]<br /> <br /> In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost the War of Currents to alternating current (AC). In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, a few months later, to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning. In the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.[7] During this time, Einstein wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields".[14]<br /> <br /> Einstein applied directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule (ETH) in Zurich, Switzerland. Lacking the requisite Matura certificate, he took an entrance examination, which he failed, although he got exceptional marks in mathematics and physics.[15] The Einsteins sent Albert to Aarau, in northern Switzerland to finish secondary school.[7] While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister Maja later married the Wintelers' son, Paul.)[16] In Aarau, Einstein studied Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. At age 17, he graduated, and, with his father's approval, renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service, and in 1896 he enrolled in the four year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Polytechnic in Zurich. Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.<br /> <br /> Einstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that same year, the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900 Einstein was awarded the Zurich Polytechnic teaching diploma, but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component, theory of functions.[17] There have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers,[18][19] but historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions.[20][21][22][23]<br /> Marriages and children<br /> Mergefrom.svg<br /> It has been suggested that Lieserl Einstein be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)<br /> <br /> In early 1902, Einstein and Mileva Marić had a daughter they named Lieserl in their correspondence, who was born in Novi Sad where Marić's parents lived.[24] Her full name is not known, and her fate is uncertain after 1903.[25]<br /> <br /> Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, the couple's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zurich in July 1910. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin, while his wife remained in Zurich with their sons. Marić and Einstein divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years.<br /> <br /> Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal (née Einstein) on 2 June 1919, after having had a relationship with her since 1912. She was his first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated permanently to the United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems and died in December 1936.[26]<br /> Patent office<br /> Three young men in suits with high white collars and bow ties, sitting.<br /> Left to right: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine and Einstein, who founded the Olympia Academy<br /> Attached stone dwelling with drapery visible in the windows. It is over a first story restaurant.<br /> Einstein's home in Bern<br /> <br /> After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post, but a former classmate's father helped him secure a job in Bern, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office, as an assistant examiner.[27] He evaluated patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".[28]<br /> <br /> Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.[29]<br /> <br /> With a few friends he met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group, self-mockingly named "The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.<br /> Academic career<br /> Einstein's official 1921 portrait after receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics.<br /> <br /> In 1901, Einstein had a paper on the capillary forces of a straw published in the prestigious Annalen der Physik.[30] On 30 April 1905, he completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions".[31] That same year, which has been called Einstein's annus mirabilis or "miracle year", he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of matter and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world.<br /> <br /> By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, and he was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. The following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to take the position of physics docent[32] at the University of Zurich. He became a full professor at Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, he returned to Germany after being appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (1914–1932)[33] and a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, although with a special clause in his contract that freed him from most teaching obligations. He became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In 1916, Einstein was appointed president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918).[34][35]<br /> <br /> In 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from another star would be bent by the Sun's gravity. That prediction was claimed confirmed by observations made by a British expedition led by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919. International media reports of this made Einstein world famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown".[36] (Much later, questions were raised whether the measurements were accurate enough to support Einstein's theory.)<br /> <br /> In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Because relativity was still considered somewhat controversial, it was officially bestowed for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.<br /> Travels abroad<br /> <br /> Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by the Mayor, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University, and in Washington he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Science on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual and political figures, and delivered a lecture at Kings College.[37]<br /> <br /> In 1922, he traveled throughout Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour. His travels included Singapore, Ceylon, and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. His first lecture in Tokyo lasted four hours, after which he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace where thousands came to watch. Einstein later gave his impressions of the Japanese in a letter to his sons:[38]:307 "Of all the people I have met, I like the Japanese most, as they are modest, intelligent, considerate, and have a feel for art."[38]:308<br /> <br /> On his return voyage, he also visited Palestine for 12 days in what would become his only visit to that region. "He was greeted with great British pomp, as if he were a head of state rather than a theoretical physicist", writes Isaacson. This included a cannon salute upon his arrival at the residence of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception given to him, the building was "stormed by throngs who wanted to hear him". In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed his happiness over the event:<br /> <br /> I consider this the greatest day of my life. Before, I have always found something to regret in the Jewish soul, and that is the forgetfulness of its own people. Today, I have been made happy by the sight of the Jewish people learning to recognize themselves and to make themselves recognized as a force in the world.[39]:308<br /> <br /> Emigration from Germany<br /> Cartoon of Einstein, who has shed his "Pacifism" wings, standing next to a pillar labeled "World Peace." He is rolling up his sleeves and holding a sword labeled "Preparedness." (circa 1933)<br /> <br /> In 1933, Einstein decided to emigrate to the United States due to the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.[40] While visiting American universities in April, 1933, he learned that the new German government had passed a law barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. A month later, the Nazi book burnings occurred, with Einstein's works being among those burnt, and Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaimed, "Jewish intellectualism is dead."[39] Einstein also learned that his name was on a list of assassination targets, with a "$5,000 bounty on his head". One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged".[39]<br /> <br /> Einstein was undertaking his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology when Hitler came to power in Germany. On his return to Europe in March 1933 he resided in Belgium for some months, before temporarily moving to England.[41]<br /> <br /> He took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey,[42] an affiliation that lasted until his death in 1955. There, he tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully. He and Kurt Gödel, another Institute member, became close friends. They would take long walks together discussing their work. His last assistant was Bruria Kaufman, who later became a renowned physicist.<br /> <br /> Other scientists also fled to America. Among them were Nobel laureates and professors of theoretical physics. With so many other Jewish scientists now forced by circumstances to live in America, often working side by side, Einstein wrote to a friend, "For me the most beautiful thing is to be in contact with a few fine Jews—a few millennia of a civilized past do mean something after all." In another letter he writes, "In my whole life I have never felt so Jewish as now."[39]<br /> World War II and the Manhattan Project<br /> <br /> In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included Hungarian emigre physicist Leo Szilard attempted to alert Washington of ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted.[43]<br /> <br /> In the summer of 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Einstein was persuaded to lend his prestige by writing a letter, with Leo Szilard, to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, in order to alert him of the possibility that Nazi Germany might be developing an atomic bomb. At the same time, the letter recommended that the U.S. government should pay attention to and become directly involved with uranium research, and associated chain reaction research. Einstein and Szilard, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon."[38]:630 [44]<br /> <br /> The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II".[45] President Roosevelt could not take the risk of allowing Hitler to possess atomic bombs first. As a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the U.S. entered the "race" to develop the bomb, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources" to initiate the Manhattan Project. It became the only country to develop an atomic bomb during World War II.<br /> <br /> For Einstein, "war was a disease . . . [and] he called for resistance to war." But in 1933, after Hitler assumed full power in Germany, "he renounced pacifism altogether . . . In fact, he urged the Western powers to prepare themselves against another German onslaught."[46]:110 In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life — when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification — the danger that the Germans would make them..."[47]<br /> U.S. citizenship<br /> Accepting U.S. citizenship, 1940<br /> Einstein with David Ben Gurion, 1951<br /> <br /> Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at Princeton, he expressed his appreciation of the "meritocracy" in American culture when compared to Europe. According to Isaacson, he recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as result, the individual was "encouraged" to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education. Einstein writes:<br /> <br /> What makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the democratic trait among the people. No one humbles himself before another person or class. . . American youth has the good fortune not to have its outlook troubled by outworn traditions.[39]:432<br /> <br /> As a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People NAACP at Princeton who campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans, Einstein corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois, and in 1946 Einstein called racism America's "worst disease".[48] He later stated, "Race prejudice has unfortunately become an American tradition which is uncritically handed down from one generation to the next. The only remedies are enlightenment and education".[49]<br /> <br /> After the death of Israel's first president, Chaim Weizmann, in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post.[50] The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons".[38]:522 However, Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply moved", and "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could not accept it:<br /> <br /> All my life I have dealt with objective matters, hence I lack both the natural aptitude and the experience to deal properly with people and to exercise official function. I am the more distressed over these circumstances because my relationship with the Jewish people became my strongest human tie once I achieved complete clarity about our precarious position among the nations of the world.[38]:522 [50][51]<br /> <br /> Death<br /> The New York World-Telegram announces Einstein's death on April 18, 1955.<br /> <br /> On April 17, 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Dr. Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[52] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.[53] Einstein refused surgery, saying: "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[54] He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.<br /> <br /> Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.[55][56] During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey, removed Einstein's brain for preservation, without the permission of his family, in hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[57] In his lecture at Einstein's memorial, nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of him as a person:[46]<br /> <br /> "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness . . . There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn."<br /> <br /> Scientific career<br /> Head and shoulders shot of a young, moustached man with dark, curly hair wearing a plaid suit and vest, striped shirt, and a dark tie.<br /> Albert Einstein in 1904<br /> The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right.<br /> <br /> Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.[5][7] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.[58]<br /> Annus Mirabilis papers<br /> Main articles: Annus Mirabilis papers, Photoelectric effect, Special theory of relativity, and Mass–energy equivalence<br /> <br /> The Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc2 that Albert Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter.<br /> Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics<br /> Main article: statistical physics<br /> <br /> Albert Einstein's first paper[59] submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 titled Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen, which was translated as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902-1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret phenomena from a statistical atomic point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion. These published calculations (1905) showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist.<br /> <br /> His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.[59] Einstein's theory of Brownian motion was the first paper in the field of statistical physics.[citation needed] It is the most frequently cited, of the Annus Mirabilis papers.[citation needed]<br /> General principles postulated by Einstein<br /> <br /> He articulated the principle of relativity. This was understood by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalization of rotational invariance from space to space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the principle of equivalence and the principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number. Another of Einstein's general principles, Mach's principle, is fiercely debated, and whether it holds in our world or not is still not definitively established.[citation needed]<br /> Theory of relativity and E = mc2<br /> Main article: History of special relativity<br /> <br /> Einstein's "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on June 30, 1905 and published September 26 of that same year. It reconciles Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics, by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. This later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity.<br /> <br /> Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body slowing down and contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether – one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time – was superfluous.[60]<br /> <br /> In his paper on mass–energy equivalence, which had previously been considered to be distinct concepts, Einstein deduced from his equations of special relativity what has been called the 20th century's best-known equation: E = mc2.[61][62] This equation suggests that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge amounts of energy and presaged the development of nuclear power.[63] Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.[64][65]<br /> Photons<br /> Main article: Photon<br /> <br /> In a 1905 paper,[66] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering.<br /> <br /> Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.[67]<br /> Quantized atomic vibrations<br /> Main article: Einstein solid<br /> <br /> In 1907 Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently - a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be different, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model.[68]<br /> <br /> This work was the foundation of condensed matter physics.[citation needed]<br /> Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables<br /> Main article: Old quantum theory<br /> <br /> Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.<br /> <br /> Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. The law that the action variable is quantized was a basic principle of the quantum theory as it was known between 1900 and 1925.[citation needed]<br /> Wave-particle duality<br /> Main article: Wave-particle duality<br /> <br /> Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a privatdozent at the University of Bern.[69] In "über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics.<br /> Theory of critical opalescence<br /> Main article: Critical opalescence<br /> <br /> Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Raleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.[70] Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.<br /> Upper body shot of man in suit, high white collar and bow tie.<br /> Einstein at the Solvay Conference in 1911<br /> Zero-point energy<br /> Main article: Zero-point energy<br /> <br /> Einstein's physical intuition led him to note that Planck's oscillator energies had an incorrect zero point. He modified Planck's hypothesis by stating that the lowest energy state of an oscillator is equal to 1⁄2hf, to half the energy spacing between levels. This argument, which was made in 1913 in collaboration with Otto Stern, was based on the thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule which can split apart into two free atoms.<br /> General relativity and the Equivalence Principle<br /> Main article: History of general relativity<br /> See also: Principle of equivalence and Theory of relativity<br /> <br /> General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.<br /> <br /> As Albert Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.[71] So in 1908 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article, he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a freefalling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the Equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomenon of gravitational time dilation. In 1911, Einstein published another article expanding on the 1907 article, in which additional effects such as the deflection of light by massive bodies were predicted.<br /> Hole argument and Entwurf theory<br /> Main article: Hole argument<br /> <br /> While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.<br /> <br /> In June, 1913 the Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. Simultaneously less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, after more than two years of intensive work Einstein abandoned the theory in November, 1915 after realizing that the hole argument was mistaken.[72]<br /> Cosmology<br /> Main article: Cosmology<br /> <br /> In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole. He wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but this type of universe is not consistent with relativity. To fix this, Einstein modified the general theory by introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant. With a positive cosmological constant, the universe could be an eternal static sphere[73]<br /> <br /> Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would obey Mach's principle. He had shown that general relativity incorporates Mach's principle to a certain extent in frame dragging by gravitomagnetic fields, but he knew that Mach's idea would not work if space goes on forever. In a closed universe, he believed that Mach's principle would hold.<br /> <br /> Mach's principle has generated much controversy over the years.<br /> Einstein, sitting at a table, looks up from the papers he is reading and into the camera.<br /> Einstein in his office at the University of Berlin.<br /> Modern quantum theory<br /> Main article: Schrödinger equation<br /> <br /> In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.[74] This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.<br /> Bose–Einstein statistics<br /> Main article: Bose–Einstein condensation<br /> <br /> In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.[75] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[76] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[58]<br /> Energy momentum pseudotensor<br /> Main article: Stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor<br /> <br /> General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.<br /> <br /> Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.<br /> <br /> The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others.<br /> Unified field theory<br /> Main article: Classical unified field theories<br /> <br /> Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".[77] Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.<br /> Wormholes<br /> Main article: Wormhole<br /> <br /> Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.<br /> <br /> If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.<br /> Einstein–Cartan theory<br /> Main article: Einstein–Cartan theory<br /> <br /> In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.<br /> Equations of motion<br /> Main article: Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations<br /> <br /> The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law – the Einstein equations which describe how space curves, the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations.<br /> <br /> Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself.<br /> <br /> This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.<br /> Einstein's controversial beliefs in physics<br /> <br /> In addition to his well-accepted results, some of Einstein's views are regarded as controversial:<br /> <br /> * In the special relativity paper (in 1905), Einstein noted that, given a specific definition of the word "force" (a definition which he later agreed was not advantageous), and if we choose to maintain (by convention) the equation mass x acceleration = force, then one arrives at \scriptstyle m/(1 - v^2/c^2) as the expression for the transverse mass of a fast moving particle. This differs from the accepted expression today, because, as noted in the footnotes to Einstein's paper added in the 1913 reprint, "it is more to the point to define force in such a way that the laws of energy and momentum assume the simplest form", as was done, for example, by Max Planck in 1906, who gave the now familiar expression \scriptstyle m/\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2} for the transverse mass. As Miller points out, this is equivalent to the transverse mass predictions of both Einstein and Lorentz. Einstein had commented already in the 1905 paper that "With a different definition of force and acceleration, we should naturally obtain other expressions for the masses. This shows that in comparing different theories... we must proceed very cautiously."[78]<br /> * Einstein published (in 1922) a qualitative theory of superconductivity based on the vague idea of electrons shared in orbits. This paper predated modern quantum mechanics, and today is regarded as being incorrect. The current theory of low temperature superconductivity was only worked out in 1957, thirty years after the establishing of modern quantum mechanics. However, even today, superconductivity is not well understood, and alternative theories continue to be put forward, especially to account for high-temperature superconductors.[citation needed]<br /> * After introducing the concept of gravitational waves in 1917, Einstein subsequently entertained doubts about whether they could be physically realized. In 1937 he published a paper saying that the focusing properties of geodesics in general relativity would lead to an instability which causes plane gravitational waves to collapse in on themselves. While this is true to a certain extent in some limits, because gravitational instabilities can lead to a concentration of energy density into black holes, for plane waves of the type Einstein and Rosen considered in their paper, the instabilities are under control. Einstein retracted this position a short time later.[citation needed]<br /> * Einstein denied several times that black holes could form. In 1939 he published a paper that argues that a star collapsing would spin faster and faster, spinning at the speed of light with infinite energy well before the point where it is about to collapse into a black hole. This paper received no citations, and the conclusions are well understood to be wrong. Einstein's argument itself is inconclusive, since he only shows that stable spinning objects have to spin faster and faster to stay stable before the point where they collapse. But it is well understood today (and was understood well by some even then) that collapse cannot happen through stationary states the way Einstein imagined. Nevertheless, the extent to which the models of black holes in classical general relativity correspond to physical reality remains unclear, and in particular the implications of the central singularity implicit in these models are still not understood. Efforts to conclusively prove the existence of event horizons have still not been successful.[citation needed]<br /> * Closely related to his rejection of black holes, Einstein believed that the exclusion of singularities might restrict the class of solutions of the field equations so as to force solutions compatible with quantum mechanics, but no such theory has ever been found.[citation needed]<br /> * In the early days of quantum mechanics, Einstein tried to show that the uncertainty principle was not valid, but by 1927 he had become convinced that it was valid.[citation needed]<br /> * In the EPR paper, Einstein argued that quantum mechanics cannot be a complete realistic and local representation of phenomena, given specific definitions of "realism", "locality", and "completeness". The modern consensus is that Einstein's concept of realism is too restrictive.[citation needed]<br /> * Einstein himself considered the introduction of the cosmological term in his 1917 paper founding cosmology as a "blunder".[79] The theory of general relativity predicted an expanding or contracting universe, but Einstein wanted a universe which is an unchanging three dimensional sphere, like the surface of a three dimensional ball in four dimensions. He wanted this for philosophical reasons, so as to incorporate Mach's principle in a reasonable way. He stabilized his solution by introducing a cosmological constant, and when the universe was shown to be expanding, he retracted the constant as a blunder. This is not really much of a blunder – the cosmological constant is necessary within general relativity as it is currently understood, and it is widely believed to have a nonzero value today.<br /> * Einstein did not immediately appreciate the value of Minkowski's four-dimensional formulation of special relativity, although within a few years he had adopted it as the basis for his theory of gravitation.[citation needed]<br /> * Finding it too formal, Einstein believed that Heisenberg's matrix mechanics was incorrect. He changed his mind when Schrödinger and others demonstrated that the formulation in terms of the Schrödinger equation, based on Einstein's wave-particle duality was equivalent to Heisenberg's matrices.[citation needed]<br /> <br /> Collaboration with other scientists<br /> <br /> In addition to long time collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.<br /> Einstein-de Haas experiment<br /> Main article: Einstein-de Haas effect<br /> <br /> Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.<br /> Schrödinger gas model<br /> <br /> Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it.<br /> <br /> This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical[disambiguation needed] ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.[80]<br /> Einstein refrigerator<br /> Main article: Einstein refrigerator<br /> <br /> In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.[81] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of their patents were quickly bought up by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its refrigeration technology from competition.[82]<br /> Bohr versus Einstein<br /> Main article: Bohr–Einstein debates<br /> Two men sitting, looking relaxed. A dark-haired Bohr is talking while Einstein looks sceptical.<br /> Einstein and Niels Bohr, 1925<br /> <br /> In the 1920s, quantum mechanics developed into a more complete theory. Einstein was unhappy with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory developed by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg, both in its outcomes and its instrumentalist methodology, Einstein being a scientific realist. In this interpretation, quantum phenomena are inherently probabilistic, with definite states resulting only upon interaction with classical systems. A public debate between Einstein and Bohr followed, lasting on and off for many years (including during the Solvay Conferences). Einstein formulated thought experiments against the Copenhagen interpretation, which were all rebutted by Bohr. In a 1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: "I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] does not throw dice."[83]<br /> <br /> Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory's intrinsically incomplete description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the issue in collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, noting that the theory seems to require non-local interactions; this is known as the EPR paradox.[84] The EPR experiment has since been performed, with results confirming quantum theory's predictions.[85] Repercussions of the Einstein–Bohr debate have found their way into philosophical discourse.<br /> Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox<br /> Main article: EPR paradox<br /> <br /> In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.<br /> <br /> He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values of position or momentum.<br /> <br /> This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it has since been shown to be incompatible with experiments.<br /> Political and religious views<br /> Main articles: Albert Einstein's political views and Albert Einstein's religious views<br /> Casual group shot of four men and two women standing on a brick pavement.<br /> Albert Einstein, seen here with his wife Elsa Einstein and Zionist leaders, including future President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Dr. Vera Weizmann, Menahem Ussishkin, and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921.<br /> <br /> Albert Einstein's political views emerged publicly in the middle of the 20th century due to his fame and reputation for genius. Einstein offered to and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics. (see main article)<br /> <br /> Einstein's views on religious belief have been collected from interviews and original writings. These views covered theological determinism, agnosticism, humanism along with ethical culture, opting for Spinoza's god over belief in a personal god, religious belief, enlightenment and liberation, Jews, Christianity, Jesus, Pope Pius XII, and the Catholic Church. (see main article)<br /> Non-scientific legacy<br /> <br /> While travelling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[86]). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[87]<br /> <br /> Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.[88][89]<br /> In popular culture<br /> Main article: Albert Einstein in popular culture<br /> <br /> In the period before World War II, Einstein was so well-known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[90]<br /> <br /> Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.[91] He is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true".[92]<br /> Awards and honors<br /> Israeli postage stamp (1956).<br /> U.S. postage stamp (1966).<br /> Soviet postage stamp (1979).<br /> See also: List of things named after Albert Einstein<br /> <br /> In 1922, Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics,[93] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time". (Einstein 1923)<br /> <br /> It was long reported that, in accord with the divorce settlement,[94] the Nobel Prize money had been deposited in a Swiss bank account for Maric to draw on the interest for herself and their two sons, while she could only use the capital by agreement with Einstein. However, personal correspondence made public in 2006[95] shows that he invested much of it in the United States, and saw much of it wiped out in the Great Depression. However, ultimately he paid Maric more money than he received with the prize.[96]<br /> <br /> In 1929, Max Planck presented Einstein with the Max Planck medal of the German Physical Society in Berlin, for extraordinary achievements in theoretical physics.[97]<br /> <br /> In 1936, Einstein was awarded the Franklin Institute's Franklin Medal for his extensive work on relativity and the photo-electric effect.[97]<br /> <br /> The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics named 2005 the "World Year of Physics" in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the publication of the annus mirabilis papers.[98]<br /> <br /> The Albert Einstein Science Park is located on the hill Telegrafenberg in Potsdam, Germany. The best known building in the park is the Einstein Tower which has a bronze bust of Einstein at the entrance. The Tower is an astrophysical observatory that was built to perform checks of Einstein's theory of General Relativity.[99]<br /> <br /> The Albert Einstein Memorial in central Washington, D.C. is a monumental bronze statue depicting Einstein seated with manuscript papers in hand. The statue, commissioned in 1979, is located in a grove of trees at the southwest corner of the grounds of the National Academy of Sciences on Constitution Avenue.<br /> <br /> The chemical element 99, einsteinium, was named for him in August 1955, four months after Einstein's death.[100][101] 2001 Einstein is an inner main belt asteroid discovered on 5 March 1973.[102]<br /> <br /> In 1999 Time magazine named him the Person of the Century,[92][103] ahead of Mahatma Gandhi and Franklin Roosevelt, among others. In the words of a biographer, "to the scientifically literate and the public at large, Einstein is synonymous with genius".[104] Also in 1999, an opinion poll of 100 leading physicists ranked Einstein the "greatest physicist ever".[105] A Gallup poll recorded him as the fourth most admired person of the 20th century in the U.S.[106]<br /> <br /> In 1990, his name was added to the Walhalla temple for "laudable and distinguished Germans",[107] which is located east of Regensburg, in Bavaria, Germany.[108]<br /> <br /> The United States Postal Service honored Einstein with a Prominent Americans series (1965–1978) 8¢ postage stamp.<br /> Awards named after Einstein<br /> <br /> The Albert Einstein Award (sometimes called the Albert Einstein Medal because it is accompanied with a gold medal) is an award in theoretical physics, established to recognize high achievement in the natural sciences. It was endowed by the Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund in honor of Albert Einstein's 70th birthday. It was first awarded in 1951 and included a prize money of $15,000,[109][110] which was later reduced to $5,000.[111][112] The winner is selected by a committee (the first of which consisted of Einstein, Oppenheimer, von Neumann and Weyl[113]) of the Institute for Advanced Study, which administers the award.[110]<br /> <br /> The Albert Einstein Medal is an award presented by the Albert Einstein Society in Bern, Switzerland. First given in 1979, the award is presented to people who have "rendered outstanding services" in connection with Einstein.[114]<br /> <br /> The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is given yearly by the Chicago, Illinois-based Albert Einstein Peace Prize Foundation. Winners of the prize receive $50,000.[115]erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-69298129861186220782011-04-25T17:48:00.001-07:002011-04-25T17:48:21.018-07:00Jamboree (Scouting)<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> Closing ceremony of the 20th World Scout Jamboree, held in Thailand in 2002/2003<br /> <br /> In Scouting, a jamboree is a large gathering of Scouts who rally at a national or international level.<br /> <br /> The 1st World Scout Jamboree was held in 1920, and was hosted by the United Kingdom. Since then, there have been twenty one World Scout Jamborees, hosted in various countries, generally every four years.<br /> <br /> There are also national and continental jamborees held around the world with varying frequency. Many of these events will invite and attract Scouts from overseas.<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 Etymology<br /> * 2 International jamborees<br /> * 3 National jamborees<br /> * 4 See also<br /> * 5 External links<br /> <br /> [edit] Etymology<br /> Wikisource has original text related to this article:<br /> Athabaska Dick<br /> <br /> According to the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, the etymology is "19th century, origin unknown". Poet Robert W. Service used the term well before the first Scouting jamboree. It appears in the poem "Athabaska Dick" in his Rhymes of a Rolling Stone, which was published in 1912. At the time, the word meant a rowdy, boisterous gathering.<br /> <br /> Baden-Powell was once asked why he choose "jamboree". He replied, "What else would you call it?", a response that makes sense if the word already means a boisterous gathering.<br /> <br /> Nonetheless, it is popularly believed within the Scout Movement that the word was coined by Baden-Powell. It is said that the word has several possible origins, ranging from Hindi to Swahili to Native American dialects. It is also said that the word is related to corroboree, an Australian Aboriginal term for any noisy, late-night gathering or disturbance.<br /> <br /> Baden-Powell chose the name as rally, meeting and gathering did not fully capture the spirit of this then-new concept. It is said that the name is derived from the Swahili for hello, jambo, as a result of the considerable amount of time he spent in the region. At the first world jamboree at Olympia in 1920, Lord Baden-Powell said "People give different meanings for this word, but from this year on, jamboree will take a specific meaning. It will be associated to the largest gathering of youth that ever took place."<br /> <br /> Olave, Lady Baden-Powell, coined the term jamborese to refer to the lingua franca used between Scouts of different languages and cultural habits, that develops when diverse Scouts meet, that fosters friendship and understanding between Scouts of the world. Sometimes the word jamborette is used to denote smaller, either local or international, gatherings.<br /> <br /> Girl Guides rarely use the term jamboree for their gatherings. Girl Scouts, however, do use the word.<br /> [edit] International jamborees<br /> <br /> * World Scout Jamboree, a gathering of Scouts from all over the world<br /> * World Camp<br /> * World Deaf Scout Jamboree, a gathering of deaf Scouts from all over the world<br /> * World Scout Jamboree on the Air (JOTA)<br /> * World Scout Jamboree on the Internet (JOTI)<br /> * Jamboree on the Trail (JOTT) is an international day of hiking<br /> * Asia-Pacific Scout Jamboree<br /> * Caribbean Scout Jamboree, a gathering of Scouts from the Caribbean<br /> * Central European Jamboree, a gathering of Scouts from Central Europe<br /> * European Scout Jamboree, a gathering of Scouts from all over Europe<br /> * Arab Scout Jamboree<br /> * All-Africa Scout Jamboree<br /> * Pan-American Scout Jamboree, a gathering of Scouts from the Western Hemisphere<br /> * Essex International Jamboree, a gathering of 7,000-9,000 Scouts and Guides from all over the world<br /> * World Federation of Independent Scouts World Jamboree, a gathering of Scouts of the World Federation of Independent Scouts<br /> * Jamboree 2008 (Northumberland), a celebration of the 1908 Humshaugh camp<br /> * Homenetmen General Jamboree, a gathering of Scouts of the Homenetmenerdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-34886504857073328292011-04-25T17:46:00.001-07:002011-04-25T17:46:24.450-07:00National Scout jamboree (Boy Scouts of America)<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> Opening of the first jamboree, on the National Mall in Washington, June 30, 1937<br /> <br /> The national Scout jamboree is a gathering, or jamboree of thousands of members of the Boy Scouts of America, usually held every four years and organized by the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America. Referred to as "the Jamboree", "Jambo", or NSJ, Scouts from all over the nation and world have the opportunity to attend. They are considered to be one of several unique experiences that the Boy Scouts of America offers. The first jamboree was scheduled to be held in 1935 in Washington, D.C. to celebrate the 25th anniversary of Scouting, but was delayed two years. The 1937 jamboree in the Nation's Capital attracted 25,000 Scouts, who camped around the Washington Monument and Tidal Basin.[1] The event was covered extensively by national media and attended by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.<br /> <br /> Following the disruption of World War II, the next jamboree was not held until 1950 in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania.[2] Subsequent jamborees have been held around the country as a means to promoting Scouting nationally. Since 1981, the jamboree has been located Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia. Future jamborees will be held at The Summit: Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve in West Virginia.<br /> <br /> A jamboree is held for several consecutive days and offers many activities for youth participants and the 300,000 members of the general public who visit it. It is considered to be Scouting at its best.<br /> Recent national Scout jamborees have concluded with a spectacular arena show<br /> U.S. President Roosevelt in a national radio address for the 1937 national Scout jamboree<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 Organization<br /> o 1.1 Troops and contingents<br /> o 1.2 Staff<br /> * 2 First national jamboree<br /> * 3 List of jamborees<br /> * 4 The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve<br /> * 5 Jamboree traditions<br /> o 5.1 Gateways<br /> o 5.2 Patch trading<br /> * 6 Military support lawsuit<br /> * 7 See also<br /> * 8 References<br /> * 9 External links<br /> <br /> [edit] Organization<br /> <br /> Like the Boy Scouts of America's national organization, the jamboree is divided into regions — Central, Western, Northeast, and Southern. Each region is made up of five to six subcamps, with twenty in all. Each subcamp has its own latrines, shower facilities, food commissaries, with one "action center" per region. Each subcamp contains a number of troops, identified by a three or four digit number depending on the location of the subcamp within the encampment. The 2005 National Scout Jamboree had 20 subcamps, identified by number and named after famous explorers (e.g. Robert Ballard, Steve Fossett, Joe Kittinger, and Will Steger.)<br /> [edit] Troops and contingents<br /> Scouts from all over the country and the world showed up for the jamboree.<br /> Seven presidents have appeared at the jamboree.<br /> <br /> Attending the jamboree is an intensive and expensive process. Considering the logistics of having thousands of youth and their leaders concentrated in one area at one time, the Jamboree Division of the National Council coordinates the entire jamboree process. A normal Boy Scout troop cannot petition to attend the jamboree as participants, instead, the local council establishes a jamboree committee which is charged with promoting and facilitating the experience to their members. Local council committees typically have volunteer members responsible for finance, fundraising, training, recruitment, transportation, touring while en route to the jamboree site, and other functions where appropriate.<br /> <br /> Youth members sign up for the jamboree through an application process to the local council, who then places each boy into the jamboree troop. Large councils are granted multiple jamboree troops. Each troop comprises four adults (a Scoutmaster, and three assistant Scoutmasters) and 36 youth in four traditional patrols of eight boys each, plus a leadership corps of four older boys (senior patrol leader, assistant senior patrol leader, quartermaster, and scribe). After being assigned a jamboree troop, members are given their troop numbers, a participant's patch for wear on the Scout's field uniform, and a jamboree council shoulder patch. Training and preparation for the jamboree often begins more than a year before the actual jamboree begins. Most troops require the adult leaders to obtain Basic Scoutmaster training and Wood Badge, an intensive management training course offered by the BSA.<br /> <br /> Before the jamboree begins, many troops visit Washington, D.C. and other areas of interest near Fort A.P. Hill.<br /> [edit] Staff<br /> Dutchess County Council (NY) troop at the 1977 National Scout Jamboree, held at Moraine State Park, Pennsylvania<br /> <br /> Youth and adult volunteer and professional Scouters, plus members of the military and government provide a number of services to the jamboree by being on staff. Jamboree staff are given a special hat and neckerchief as tokens of their service, plus many of the different staff groups have special patches or pins that are sought after by youth and adult participants. In addition to the regional staff that provide services in subcamps and at the regional activity centers, many other staff members work in areas that serve the entire jamboree. Staff members arrive a number of days before the jamboree begins and usually depart on the same day or several days after participants leave, depending on their assignments. Regional staff members often stay within the subcamps, while National staff members stay in barracks locations within the post itself.<br /> [edit] First national jamboree<br /> BSA leadership at the 1937 jamboree:<br /> E. Urner Goodman, Program Director (3rd from left)<br /> Walter Head, BSA President (center)<br /> James E. West, Chief Scout Executive (3rd from right)<br /> <br /> The first national jamboree was held in Washington, D.C. for ten days in July 1937, attended by 25,000 Scouts, most of whom arrived by train. Region campsites were set up around the Washington Monument and Tidal Basin.[1] The event was covered extensively by radio and newspapers. A press tent accommodated 626 news media reporters, photographers, and broadcasters. Sixty-four news releases were issued and the BSA assisted in the making of 11 newsreels and 53 magazine articles.[3] The three major U.S. radio networks of the time, NBC, CBS and Mutual, had broadcasting studios near the jamboree headquarters to produce almost 19 hours of live, on–site jamboree coverage broadcast coast–to–coast. Celebrities also visited the jamboree, including well–known broadcaster Lowell Thomas and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt. While at the jamboree, Scouts also attended a three-game baseball series between the Washington Senators and the Boston Red Sox at Griffith Stadium, as well as touring nearby Mount Vernon.[3]<br /> [edit] List of jamborees<br /> Comanche Trail Council Indian Camp at the National Scout jamboree in Washington, D. C., July, 1937. The swastika emblems used for decoration still held their ancient meanings of luck and well-being, and were not widely associated with Nazism.<br /> <br /> The National Scout Jamborees have been held at a number of different locations.[4][5]<br /> Year↓ Location↓ Theme/Notes↓ Dates↓ Attendance[6]↓<br /> 1935 Washington, D.C. BSA Silver Jubilee (25th) 01935-08-21 August 21, 1935–01935-08-30 August 30, 1935 cancelled due to a polio epidemic.[7]<br /> 1937 Washington D.C.[8] 01937-06-30 June 30, 1937–01937-07-09 July 9, 1937 &000000000002723800000027,238<br /> 1950 Valley Forge, Pennsylvania "Strengthen Liberty" 01950-06-27 June 27, 1950–01950-07-06 July 6, 1950 &000000000004716300000047,163<br /> 1953 Irvine Ranch, California<br /> (Area now called Jamboree Road) "Forward on Liberty's Team" 01953-07-17 July 17, 1953–01953-07-23 July 23, 1953 &000000000004540100000045,401<br /> 1957 Valley Forge, Pennsylvania "Onward For God And My Country" 01957-07-12 July 12, 1957–01957-07-18 July 18, 1957 &000000000005258000000052,580<br /> 1960 Colorado Springs, Colorado "For God and Country"<br /> BSA Golden Jubilee (50th) 01960-07-22 July 22, 1960–01960-07-28 July 28, 1960 &000000000005637700000056,377<br /> 1964 Valley Forge, Pennsylvania "Strengthen America's Heritage" 01964-07-17 July 17, 1964–01964-07-23 July 23, 1964 &000000000005096000000050,960<br /> 1969 Farragut State Park, Idaho "Building to Serve" 01969-07-16 July 16, 1969–01969-07-22 July 22, 1969 &000000000003425100000034,251<br /> 1973 Farragut State Park, Idaho and Moraine State Park, Pennsylvania "Growing Together" 01973-08-01 August 1, 1973–01973-08-07 August 7, 1973 (ID)<br /> 01973-08-03 August 3, 1973–01973-08-09 August 9, 1973 (PA) &000000000007361000000073,610 (Combined)<br /> 1977 Moraine State Park, Pennsylvania "Forward Together" 01977-08-03 August 3, 1977–01977-08-09 August 9, 1977 &000000000002860100000028,601<br /> 1981 Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia "Scouting's Reunion with History" 01981-07-29 July 29, 1981–01981-08-04 August 4, 1981 &000000000002976500000029,765<br /> 1985 Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia "The Spirit Lives On"<br /> BSA Diamond Jubilee (75th) 01985-07-24 July 24, 1985–01985-07-30 July 30, 1985[9] &000000000003261500000032,615<br /> 1989 Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia "The Adventure Begins...With America's Youth" 01989-08-03 August 3, 1989–01989-08-09 August 9, 1989 &000000000003271700000032,717<br /> 1993 Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia "Scouting...A bridge to the Future" 01993-08-04 August 4, 1993–01993-08-10 August 10, 1993 &000000000003444900000034,449<br /> 1997 Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia "Character Counts...Be Prepared for the 21st Century" 01997-07-28 July 28, 1997–01997-08-06 August 6, 1997 &000000000003601500000036,015<br /> 2001 Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia "Strong Values, Strong Leaders...Character Counts" 02001-07-23 July 23, 2001–02001-08-01 August 1, 2001 &000000000004200200000042,002<br /> 2005 Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia "Character Not Only Counts, It Multiplies" 02005-07-25 July 25, 2005–02005-08-03 August 3, 2005 &000000000004330700000043,307<br /> 2010 Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia "Celebrating the Adventure, Continuing the Journey"[10] (100th) 02010-07-26 July 26, 2010–02010-08-04 August 4, 2010 &000000000004343400000043,434<br /> 2013 The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve West Virginia 02013-07-15 July 15, 2013–02013-07-24 July 24, 2013[11] <br /> <br /> National jamborees are now traditionally held two years after a World Jamboree. 2010 is a slight aberration in the schedule (which resumes in 2013) due to the 100th anniversary of BSA.<br /> [edit] The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve<br /> Main article: The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve<br /> <br /> The BSA announced in June 2008 that locales interested in permanently hosting the National Jamboree should submit applications to BSA. Permanent Jamboree site considerations included 5,000 acres (20 km2) to be donated or leased for 100 years, water, natural beauty, transportation, ability to also host World Jamborees, and use as a BSA high adventure/training center in non-jamboree years.<br /> <br /> Goshen Scout Reservation in Virginia was selected for the new site in February 2009,[12] [13] but was withdrawn due to significant restrictions on land utilization[14] and local community opposition.<br /> <br /> The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve in the New River Gorge region was chosen as the new home of the national Scout jamboree in November 2009.[15] The purchase of the property was made possible by a $50 million gift from the S. D. Bechtel, Jr. Foundation.[16][17] Other donations, including a $25 million donation from The Suzanne and Walter Scott Foundation and a gift of an undisclosed amount from Mike and Gillian Goodrich, as well as other donations, have brought the total amount of contributions for The Summit to over $100 million in under one year.[18] A portion of the 10,000-acre (40 km2) property is a reclaimed mine site once known as Garden Grounds. It is located along the New River Gorge National River near Mount Hope, West Virginia and north of Beckley, West Virginia.[19]<br /> <br /> Early announcements from The Summit team at the 2010 National Scout Jamboree, and subsequently on Facebook announced that Venturing would be a part of the Jamboree, not just as staff, but as participants.[20] This would mark the first appearance of Venturing at a jamboree, and the first attempt to expand the program to include the senior scouting program of the BSA since the attempted inclusion of Exploring in 1989.<br /> [edit] Jamboree traditions<br /> A patch collection from the 2005 National Scout Jamboree<br /> [edit] Gateways<br /> <br /> Each unit that attends the jamboree is assigned to a campsite. In front of the camp site, the troop constructs a gateway to display trademarks of their council or state. Gateways can range from the very simple to the extremely elaborate.<br /> [edit] Patch trading<br /> This section does not cite any references or sources.<br /> Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2010)<br /> <br /> Most troops that attend the jamboree have a special patch, or series of patches, made especially for the jamboree. Once at the jamboree, Scouts trade their council's patches for patches from across US and even the world. At each jamboree there are always several hot patches, that everyone seems to want, usually a patch relating to something in pop culture. At the 2005 National Scout Jamboree, popular patches displayed such things as Ron Jon Surf Shop, Master Chief from Halo, Star Wars characters, Super Mario, SoBe energy drink, and the unofficial, yet still sought after, Hooters patches. At the 2010 Jamboree, sought-after patches included Marvel superheroes from Northern New Jersey Council, Halo, Blues Brothers, the Orange County set(filled with vibrant images of surfers), the Central Florida Guitars (which made music when squeezed), the Great Salt Lake racers, and all sorts of military helicopters and planes, as well as a reappearance of the Hooters patches. Other unofficial patches included fake Halo patches, and a set of Order of the Arrow pocket flaps which included designs from popular internet games, such as Farmville.erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-41058572436530691212011-04-25T17:43:00.001-07:002011-04-25T17:43:46.656-07:00Borobudur<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> Featured article<br /> Borobudur<br /> <br /> Borobudur, A UNESCO World Heritage Site, view from the northwest<br /> Borobudur is located in Java Topography<br /> Location within Java<br /> General information<br /> Architectural style stupa and candi<br /> Town or city near Magelang, Central Java<br /> Country Indonesia<br /> Coordinates 7°36′29″S 110°12′14″E / 7.608°S 110.204°E / -7.608; 110.204<br /> Completed c. AD 800<br /> Companies involved<br /> Client Sailendra<br /> Architect Gunadharma<br /> <br /> Borobudur, or Barabudur, is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist monument near Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. The monument comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues.[1] A main dome, located at the center of the top platform, is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues seated inside perforated stupa.<br /> <br /> The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path circumambulating the monument while ascending to the top through the three levels of Buddhist cosmology, namely Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness). During the journey the monument guides the pilgrims through a system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the wall and the balustrades.<br /> <br /> Evidence suggests Borobudur was abandoned following the 14th-century decline of Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in Java, and the Javanese conversion to Islam.[2] Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, following which the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[3] Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage; once a year Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate Vesak at the monument, and Borobudur is Indonesia's single most visited tourist attraction.[4][5][6]<br /> Etymology<br /> Borobudur stupas overlooking a mountain. For centuries, it was deserted.<br /> <br /> In Indonesian, ancient temples are known as candi; thus "Borobudur Temple" is locally known as Candi Borobudur. The term candi is also used more loosely to describe any ancient structure, for example gates and bathing structures. The origins of the name Borobudur however are unclear,[7] although the original names of most ancient Indonesian temples are no longer known.[7] The name Borobudur was first written in Sir Thomas Raffles' book on Javan history.[8] Raffles wrote about a monument called borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting the same name.[7] The only old Javanese manuscript that hints at the monument as a holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca in 1365.[9]<br /> <br /> The name Bore-Budur, and thus BoroBudur, is thought to have been written by Raffles in English grammar to mean the nearby village of Bore; most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese language, the monument should have been named 'BudurBoro'. Raffles also suggested that 'Budur' might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda ("ancient") – i.e., "ancient Boro".[7] However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name (Budur) comes from Javanese term bhudhara (mountain).[10]<br /> <br /> The references about the construction and inauguration of a sacred buddhist building — possibly refer to Borobudur — was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in Kedu, Temanggung Regency. The Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned vaguely about a sacred building named Jinalaya (the realm of those who have conquer worldly desire and reach enlightenment) inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani daughter of Samaratungga. The Tri Tepusan inscription dated 842 mentioned about the sima (tax-free) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra.[11] Kamūlān itself from the word mula which means 'the place of origin', a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably the ancestors of the Sailendras. Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra which in Sanskrit means "The mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood", was the original name of Borobudur.[12]<br /> [edit] Location<br /> See also: Borobudur Temple Compounds<br /> Location of Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut in one straight line<br /> <br /> Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural fertility.[13] Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area, including the Prambanan temples compound. During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are lined in one straight line position.[14] It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown.[9]<br /> <br /> Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake.[15] The lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the 20th century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake. In 1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake.[10] Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to represent a lotus leaf.[15] Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists because the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry land.<br /> <br /> Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found near the site.[16] A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur,[15] which tends to confirm Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that Borobudur was near the lake shore c. 13th and 14th centuries. River flows and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has been very active since the Pleistocene.[17]<br /> [edit] History<br /> [edit] Construction<br /> Buddhist pilgrims meditate on the top platform<br /> <br /> There is no written record of who built Borobudur or of its intended purpose.[18] The construction time has been estimated by comparison between carved reliefs on the temple's hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the 8th and 9th centuries. Borobudur was likely founded around 800 AD.[18] This corresponds to the period between 760 and 830 AD, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty in central Java,[19] when it was under the influence of the Srivijayan Empire. The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years and been completed during the reign of Samaratungga in 825.[20][21]<br /> <br /> There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The Sailendras were known as ardent followers of Lord Buddha, though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto suggest they may have been Hindus.[20] It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountain around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same time as the Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In 732 AD, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned a Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Ukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 miles) east of Borobudur.[22]<br /> <br /> Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because Sanjaya's immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist followers to build such temples.[23] In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 AD.[23] This has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion in Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise.[24] However, it is likely that there were two rival royal dynasties in Java at the time—the Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite Sanjaya—in which the latter triumphed over their rival in the 856 battle on the Ratubaka plateau.[25] This confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at the Prambanan complex, which was believed that it was erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the Sanjaya dynasty's reply to Borobudur,[25] but others suggest that there was a climate of peaceful coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.[26]<br /> [edit] Abandonment<br /> <br /> Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Somewhere between 928 and 1006, the center of power moved by King Mpu Sindok of Medang Kingdom to East Java region after series of volcanic eruptions took place; it is not certain whether the latter influenced the former but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment.[2][15] Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the 15th century.[2]<br /> <br /> The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its past glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old Javanese chronicles (babad) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with the monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument was a fatal factor for a rebel who revolted against the king of Mataram in 1709.[2] The hill was besieged and the insurgents were defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or the History of the Mataram Kingdom), the monument was associated with the misfortune of the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757.[27] In spite of a taboo against visiting the monument, "he took what is written as the knight who was captured in a cage (a statue in one of the perforated stupas)". Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill and died one day later.<br /> [edit] Rediscovery<br /> Borobudur's main stupa, which is empty and raised a mystery when discovered<br /> <br /> Following the Anglo-Dutch Java War, Java was under British administration from 1811 to 1816. The appointed governor was Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles, who took great interest in the history of Java. He collected Javanese antiques and made notes through contacts with local inhabitants during his tour throughout the island. On an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a big monument deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro.[27] He was not able to make the discovery himself and sent H.C. Cornelius, a Dutch engineer, to investigate.<br /> The first photograph of Borobudur by Isidore van Kinsbergen (1873) after the monument was cleaned up<br /> <br /> In two months, Cornelius and his 200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He reported his findings to Raffles including various drawings. Although the discovery is only mentioned by a few sentences, Raffles has been credited with the monument's recovery, as one who had brought it to the world's attention.[8]<br /> <br /> Hartmann, a Dutch administrator of the Kedu region, continued Cornelius' work and in 1835 the whole complex was finally unearthed. His interest in Borobudur was more personal than official. Hartmann did not write any reports of his activities; in particular, the alleged story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa.[28] In 1842, Hartmann investigated the main dome although what he discovered remains unknown as the main stupa remains empty.<br /> An 1895 hand-tinted lantern slide of a guardian statue at Borobudur (Photograph by William Henry Jackson)<br /> <br /> The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned F.C. Wilsen, a Dutch engineering official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. J.F.G. Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which was completed in 1859. The government intended to publish an article based on Brumund study supplemented by Wilsen's drawings, but Brumund refused to cooperate. The government then commissioned another scholar, C. Leemans, who compiled a monograph based on Brumund's and Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of the detailed study of Borobudur was published, followed by its French translation a year later.[28] The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1873 by a Dutch-Flemish engraver, Isidore van Kinsbergen.[29]<br /> <br /> Appreciation of the site developed slowly, and it served for some time largely as a source of souvenirs and income for "souvenir hunters" and thieves. In 1882, the chief inspector of cultural artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the relocation of reliefs into museums due to the unstable condition of the monument.[29] As a result, the government appointed Groenveldt, an archeologist, to undertake a thorough investigation of the site and to assess the actual condition of the complex; his report found that these fears were unjustified and recommended it be left intact.<br /> [edit] Contemporary events<br /> Tourists in Borobudur<br /> <br /> Following the major 1973 renovation funded by UNESCO,[30] Borobudur is once again used as a place of worship and pilgrimage. Once a year, during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe Vesak (Indonesian: Waisak) day commemorating the birth, death, and the time when Siddhārtha Gautama attained the highest wisdom to become the Buddha Shakyamuni. Vesak is an official national holiday in Indonesia[31] and the ceremony is centered at the three Buddhist temples by walking from Mendut to Pawon and ending at Borobudur.[32]<br /> <br /> The monument is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia. In 1974, 260,000 tourists of whom 36,000 were foreigners visited the monument.[5] The figure hiked into 2.5 million visitors annually (80% were domestic tourists) in the mid 1990s, before the country's economy crisis.[6] Tourism development, however, has been criticized for not including the local community on which occasional local conflict has arisen.[5] In 2003, residents and small businesses around Borobudur organized several meetings and poetry protests, objecting to a provincial government plan to build a three-story mall complex, dubbed the 'Java World'.[33]<br /> "Mahakarya Borobudur" ballet performance at Borobudur<br /> <br /> On 21 January 1985, nine stupas were badly damaged by nine bombs.[34] In 1991, a blind Muslim preacher, Husein Ali Al Habsyie, was sentenced to life imprisonment for masterminding a series of bombings in the mid 1980s including the temple attack.[35] Two other members of a right-wing extremist group that carried out the bombings were each sentenced to 20 years in 1986 and another man received a 13-year prison term. On 27 May 2006, an earthquake of 6.2 magnitude on the Richter scale struck the south coast of Central Java. The event had caused severe damage around the region and casualties to the nearby city of Yogyakarta, but Borobudur remained intact.[36]<br /> <br /> On 28 August 2006 the Trail of Civilizations symposium was held in Borobudur under the auspices of the governor of Central Java and the Indonesian Ministry of Culture and Tourism, also present the representatives from UNESCO and predominantly Buddhist nations of Southeast Asia, such as Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia. Climax of the event was the "Mahakarya Borobudur" ballet performance in front of the temple of Borobudur. It was choreographed to feature traditional Javanese dancing, music and costumes, and tell the history about the construction of the Borobudur. After the symposium, the Mahakarya Borobudur ballet is performed several times, especially during annual national Waisak commemoration at Borobudur attended by Indonesian President.<br /> <br /> UNESCO identified three specific areas of concern under the present state of conservation: (i) vandalism by visitors; (ii) soil erosion in the south-eastern part of the site; (iii) analysis and restoration of missing elements.[37] The soft soil, the numerous earthquakes and heavy rains lead to the destabilization of the structure. Earthquakes are by far the most contributing factors, since not only stones fall down and arches crumble, but the earth itself can move in waves, further destroying the structure.[37] The increasing popularity of the stupa brings in many visitors, most of whom are from Indonesia. Despite warning signs on all levels not to touch anything, the regular transmission of warnings over loudspeakers and the presence of guards, vandalism on reliefs and statues is a common occurrence and problem, leading to further deterioration. As of 2009, there is no system in place to limit the number of visitors allowed per day, or to introduce mandatory guided tours only.[37]<br /> <br /> Borobudur was heavily affected by the eruption of Mount Merapi in October and November 2010. Volcanic ash from Merapi fell on the temple complex, which is approximately 28 kilometres (17 mi) west-southwest of the crater. A layer of ash up to 2.5 centimetres (1 in)[38] fell on the temple statues during the eruption of 3–5 November, also killing nearby vegetation, with experts fearing that the acidic ash might damage the historic site. The temple complex was closed from 5 to 9 November to clean up the ashfall.[39][40]<br /> [edit] Architecture<br /> Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala<br /> Borobudur architectural model<br /> <br /> Borobudur is built as a single large stupa, and when viewed from above takes the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind.[41] The foundation is a square, approximately 118 meters (387 ft) on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The upper platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures.<br /> <br /> Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of stones were taken from neighbouring rivers to build the monument.[42] The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. Reliefs were created in-situ after the building had been completed.<br /> <br /> The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater for the area's high stormwater run-off. To prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner, each with a unique carved gargoyle in the shape of a giant or makara.<br /> Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively<br /> <br /> Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures built for this purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. However, construction technique is similar to other temples in Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other temples, and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple.[42] A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship. The meticulous complexity of the monument's design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a temple.<br /> <br /> Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in the form of pilgrimage. Pilgrims were guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed to symbolize Buddhist cosmology.[43]<br /> <br /> Little is known about Gunadharma, the architect of the complex.[44] His name is recounted from Javanese folk tales rather than from written inscriptions.<br /> <br /> The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance.[45] The unit is thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design.[45][46] This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon and Mendhut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.[44]<br /> Lion gate guardian<br /> Stairs of Borobudur through arches of Kala<br /> A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall<br /> <br /> The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body, and top.[44] The base is 123×123 m (403.5 × 403.5 ft) in size with 4 meters (13 ft) walls.[42] The body is composed of five square platforms, each of diminishing height. The first terrace is set back 7 meters (23 ft) from the edge of the base. Each subsequent terrace is set back 2 meters (7 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center; the top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35 meters (115 ft) above ground level. Stairways at the center of each of four sides give access to the top, with a number of arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala's head carved on top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the monument to the low-lying plain.<br /> A carved gargoyle for water drainage<br /> <br /> The monument's three divisions symbolize the three "realms" of Buddhist cosmology, namely Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless world). Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire. Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the world of desire and live in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to them. Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form, and experience reality as pure "dharmadhatu", the formless ocean of nirvana.[47] Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The architectural features between three stages have metaphorical differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms – where men are still attached with forms and names – changes into the world of the formless.[48]<br /> <br /> In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered.[49] The "hidden foot" contains reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for the sculptors, illustrating the scenes to be carved.[50] The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument through the hill.[50] There is another theory that the encasement base was added because the original hidden foot was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning.[49] Regardless of its intention, the encasement base was built with detailed and meticulous design and with aesthetics and religious considerations.<br /> [edit] Reliefs<br /> Narrative Panels Distribution[51]<br /> section location story #panels<br /> hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160<br /> first gallery main wall Lalitavistara 120<br /> Jataka/Avadana 120<br /> balustrade Jataka/Avadana 372<br /> Jataka/Avadana 128<br /> second gallery balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100<br /> main wall Gandavyuha 128<br /> third gallery main wall Gandavyuha 88<br /> balustrade Gandavyuha 88<br /> fourth gallery main wall Gandavyuha 84<br /> balustrade Gandavyuha 72<br /> Total 1,460<br /> <br /> Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500 square meters (26,909.8 sq ft) and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu).[51]<br /> <br /> The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara,[52] are grouped into 11 series encircled the monument with the total length of 3,000 meters (9,843 ft). The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while on the balustrade read from left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.[53]<br /> <br /> The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also balustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives.[51] The remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.<br /> <br /> The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)<br /> <br /> The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete illustration of cause and effect.[51] There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death).<br /> <br /> The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)<br /> <br /> Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama<br /> Main article: The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)<br /> <br /> The story starts with the descent of the Lord Buddha from the Tushita heaven, and ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares.[53] The relief shows the birth of the Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in present-day Nepal).<br /> <br /> The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in heavens and on earth, to welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.[53] Before descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his son would become either a sovereign or a Buddha.<br /> <br /> While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right hand and she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the prince becomes the Buddha.<br /> Prince Siddhartha Gautama became an ascetic hermit.<br /> <br /> Prince Siddhartha story (Jataka) and other legendary persons (Avadana)<br /> <br /> Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha.[54] Avadanas are similar to jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.<br /> <br /> The first 20 lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana or the saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades are devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala.[55] The remaining 237 panels depict stories from other sources, as do for the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some jatakas stories are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's forefather).<br /> <br /> Sudhana's search for the Ultimate Truth (Gandavyuha)<br /> <br /> Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the second gallery; comprising in total of 460 panels.[56] The principal figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.<br /> <br /> During his search, Sudhana visited no less than 30 teachers but none of them had satisfied him completely. He was then instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, where he was given the first doctrine. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets (in the following order) Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa, the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each meeting has given Sudhana a specific doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third gallery.<br /> <br /> After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra; depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.[57]<br /> [edit] Buddha statues<br /> A Buddha statue inside a stupa<br /> A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra mudra (turning the Wheel of the Law)<br /> <br /> Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform (the Arupadhatu level).<br /> <br /> The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level.[1] At the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, that add up to 72 stupas.[1] Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless) and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as collector's items, mostly by Western museums).[58]<br /> <br /> At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them in the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism.[59]<br /> <br /> Following the order of Pradakshina (clockwise circumumbulation) starting from the east, the mudras of the Borobudur buddha statues are:<br /> Statue↓ Mudra↓ Symbolic meaning↓ Dhyani Buddha↓ Cardinal Point↓ Location of the Statue↓<br /> COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Boeddhabeeld van de Borobudur TMnr 10016277.jpg Bhumisparsa mudra Calling the Earth to witness Aksobhya East Rupadhatu niches on the first four eastern balustrades<br /> COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Boeddhabeeld van de Borobudur TMnr 60013976.jpg Vara mudra Benevolence, alms giving Ratnasambhava South Rupadhatu niches on the first four southern balustrades<br /> COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Boeddhabeeld van de Borobudur voorstellende Dhyani Boeddha Amitabha TMnr 10016276.jpg Dhyana mudra Concentration and meditation Amitabha West Rupadhatu niches on the first four western balustrades<br /> COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Boeddhabeeld van de Borobudur voorstellende Dhyani Boeddha Amogasiddha TMnr 10016274.jpg Abhaya mudra Courage, fearlessness Amoghasiddhi North Rupadhatu niches on the first four northern balustrades<br /> COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Boeddhabeeld van de Borobudur voorstellende Dhyani Boeddha Vairocana TMnr 10015947.jpg Vitarka mudra Reasoning and virtue Vairochana Zenith Rupadhatu niches in all directions on the fifth (uppermost) balustrade<br /> COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Boeddhabeeld van de Borobudur TMnr 60019836.jpg Dharmachakra mudra Turning the Wheel of dharma (law) Vairochana Zenith Arupadhatu in 72 perforated stupas on three rounded platforms<br /> [edit] Restoration<br /> 1971 poster calling for the restoration of Borobudur<br /> <br /> Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when Yzerman, the Chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, made a discovery about the hidden foot.[49] Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were made in 1890–1891.[60] The discovery led the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to safeguard the monument. In 1900, the government set up a commission consisting of three officials to assess the monument: Brandes, an art historian, Theodoor van Erp, a Dutch army engineer officer, and Van de Kamer, a construction engineer from the Department of Public Works.<br /> <br /> In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the government. First, the immediate dangers should be avoided by resetting the corners, removing stones that endangered the adjacent parts, strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches, archways, stupas and the main dome. Second, fencing off the courtyards, providing proper maintenance and improving drainage by restoring floors and spouts. Third, all loose stones should be removed, the monument cleared up to the first balustrades, disfigured stones removed and the main dome restored. The total cost was estimated at that time around 48,800 Dutch guilders.<br /> Embedding concrete and pvc pipe to improve Borobudur's drainage system during the 1973 restoration<br /> <br /> The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911, using the principles of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp.[61] The first seven months of his restoration was occupied with excavating the grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha heads and panel stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper three circular platforms and stupas. Along the way, Van Erp discovered more things he could do to improve the monument; he submitted another proposal that was approved with the additional cost of 34,600 guilders. At first glance Borobudur had been restored to its old glory.<br /> <br /> Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the sculptures, and Van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls were sagging and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration.[61] Van Erp used concrete from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported into the rest of the construction. This caused some problems, so that a further thorough renovation was urgently needed.<br /> <br /> Small restorations have been performed since then, but not sufficient for complete protection. In the late 1960s, the Indonesian government had requested from the international community a major renovation to protect the monument. In 1973, a master plan to restore Borobudur was created.[30] The Indonesian government and UNESCO then undertook the complete overhaul of the monument in a big restoration project between 1975 and 1982.[61] The foundation was stabilized and all 1,460 panels were cleaned. The restoration involved the dismantling of the five square platforms and improved the drainage by embedding water channels into the monument. Both impermeable and filter layers were added. This colossal project involved around 600 people to restore the monument and cost a total of US$ 6,901,243.[62] After the renovation was finished, UNESCO listed Borobudur as a World Heritage Site in 1991.[3] It is listed under Cultural criteria (i) "to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius", (ii) "to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design", and (vi) "to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance".[3]<br /> [edit] Rehab<br /> ilitationerdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-751403733539588057.post-6044922082029073502011-04-25T17:39:00.007-07:002011-04-25T17:39:47.844-07:00Angklung<br /> From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia<br /> Jump to: navigation, search<br /> Angklung with eight pitches<br /> <br /> Angklung is a musical instrument made out of two bamboo tubes attached to a bamboo frame. The tubes are carved so that they have a resonant pitch when struck. The two tubes are tuned to octaves. The base of the frame is held with one hand while the other hand shakes the instrument rapidly from side to side. This causes a rapidly repeating note to sound. Thus each of three or more angklung performers in an ensemble will play just one note and together complete melodies are produced. Angklung is popular throughout Southeast Asia, but originated from Indonesia and it has been used and played by the Sundanese since the ancient times.<br /> Contents<br /> [hide]<br /> <br /> * 1 Etymology<br /> * 2 History<br /> * 3 Balinese Gamelan Angklung<br /> * 4 Outside Indonesia<br /> * 5 Further reading<br /> * 6 See also<br /> * 7 References<br /> * 8 External links<br /> <br /> [edit] Etymology<br /> <br /> The word Angklung originated from two words angka and lung. Angka means "tone", and lung means "broken" or "lost". Angklung then means "incomplete tone".[1]<br /> [edit] History<br /> <br /> In the Hindu period and the era of the Kingdom of Sunda, the angklung played an important role in ritual ceremonies such as ngaseuk pare, nginebkeun pare, ngampihkeun pare, seren taun, heleran, etc. These ceremonies were inherent to Sundanese communities; in courtly and everyday living. In its function as the ritual medium, the angklung was played to honor Dewi Sri, the goddess of fertility, in a hope that their life and land will be blessed. Angklung is also used to signal time for prayer[citation needed]. Later, in Kingdom of Sunda these instruments were used as martial music in the Bubat War (Perang Bubat) as told in the Kidung Sunda.[2]<br /> A couple of Indonesian boys playing Angklung in early 1918.<br /> <br /> The angklung functioned to build community spirit. Because of this, the playing of the angklung was forbade during the Dutch occupation of Indonesia. Because of this, the popularity of the instrument decreased and it came to be played only by children.[citation needed][2]<br /> <br /> The oldest angklung still exist is called Angklung Gubrag. The angklung was made in the 17th century in Jasinga, Bogor. Nowadays, some of those older angklung remain in Sri Bduga Museum, Bandung.[2]<br /> <br /> As time flown by, the angklung received a more international attention. In 1938, Daeng Soetigna, from Bandung, created angklung that is based on the diatonic scale instead of the traditional pélog or sléndro scales. Since then, angklung has been used for educational and entertainment purposes and are able to accompany western music instruments in an orchestra. One of the first well-known performances of angklung in an orchestra was during the Bandung Conference in 1955. Udjo Ngalagena, a student of Daeng Soetigna, opened his "Saung Angklung" (House of Angklung) in 1966 as a centre for its development.[2]<br /> <br /> <br /> UNESCO designated angklung as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on November 18, 2010. As part of the acknowledgment, UNESCO insisted that Indonesia preserve their heritage.[3]<br /> [edit] Balinese Gamelan Angklung<br /> <br /> In Bali, an ensemble of angklung is called gamelan angklung (anklung). While the ensemble gets its name from the bamboo shakers, these days most compositions for Gamelan Angklung do not use them. An ensemble of mostly bronze metallophones is used instead, generally with about 20 musicians.<br /> <br /> While the instrumentation of gamelan angklung is similar to gamelan gong kebyar, it has several critical differences. First, the instruments are tuned to a 5-tone slendro scale, though actually most ensembles use a four-tone mode of the five-tone scale played on instruments with four keys. An exception is the five-tone angklung from the north of Bali. But even in four-tone angklung groups, the flute players will occasionally touch on the fifth implied tone. Secondly, whereas many of the instruments in gong kebyar span multiple octaves of its pentatonic scale, mosts gamelan angklung instruments only contain one octave, although some five-tone ensembles have roughly an octave and a half. The instruments are considerably smaller than those of the gong kebyar.<br /> <br /> Gamelan angklung is often heard in Balinese temples, where it supplies musical accompaniment to temple anniversaries (odalan). It is also characteristic of rituals related to death, and therefore connected in Balinese culture to the invisible spiritual realm and transitions from life to death and beyond. Because of its portability, gamelan angklung may be carried in processions while a funeral bier is carried from temporary burial in a cemetery to the cremation site. The musicians also often play music to accompany the cremation ceremony. Thus many Balinese listeners associate angklung music with strong emotions evoking a combination of sacred sweetness and sadness.<br /> <br /> The structure of the music is similar to gong kebyar, although employing a four tone scale. Jublag and jegog carry the basic melody, which is elaborated by gangsa, reyong, ceng-ceng, drum, and flute. A medium sized gong, called kempur, is generally used to punctuate a piece's major sections.<br /> <br /> Most older compositions do not employ gong kebyar's more ostentatious virtuosity and showmanship. Recently many Balinese composers have created kebyar-style works for gamelan angklung or have rearranged kebyar melodies to fit the angklung's more restricted four tone scale. These new pieces often feature dance, so the gamelan angklung is augmented with more gongs and heavier gongs. Additionally, some modern composers have created experimental instrumental pieces for the gamelan angklung.<br /> [edit] Outside Indonesia<br /> <br /> In the early 20th century, the angklung was adopted in Thailand, where it is called angkalung (อังกะลุง). The Thai angklung are typically tuned in the Thai tuning system of seven equidistant steps per octave, and each angklung has three bamboo tubes tuned in three separate octaves rather than two, as is typical in Indonesia.<br /> <br /> Angklung has also been adopted by its Austronesian-speaking neighbors, in particular by Malaysia and the Philippines, where they are played as part of bamboo xylophone orchestras. Formally introduced into Malaysia sometime after the end of the Confrontation, angklung found immediate popularity.[4] They are generally played using a pentatonic scale similar to the Indonesian slendro, although in the Philippines, sets also come in the diatonic and minor scales used to perform various Spanish-influenced folk music in addition to native songs in pentatonic.<br /> <br /> At least one Sundanese angklung buncis ensemble exists in the United States. Angklung Buncis Sukahejo is an ensemble at The Evergreen State College, and includes eighteen double rattles (nine tuned pairs) and four dog-dog drums.erdi prasetyohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11089889629067319193noreply@blogger.com0