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The robot Curiosity made a great discovery on Mars

2014-12-10T01:08:00.001+02:00

Gale from Mars, which is being investigated by the robot Curiosity, sheltered lake billion years ago, which is a clear indication that the Red Planet once had a wet environment conducive to microbial life, announced on Monday researchers said on Monday.

Researchers have discovered rock layers containing sediments transported by water, inclined towards the center of the crater, which is currently Sharp mountain, about 5,000 meters high. This could mean that there would be no mountaintop ago about 3.5 billion years ago, when the crater was filled with water, according to experts working with the rover Curiosity.

"The discovery was inclined layers ... a surprise," said chief scientist John Grotzinger of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena.

"... Is a sedimentary geology peak method to try to understand the Earth. When the oil companies collect seismic data from several regions, they actually seek inclined layers ... and thus obtain a geometry which tells you where the rocks you seek, "added Grotzinger.

Shortly after reaching Mars rover has discovered that the planet once had chemical ingredients and environmental conditions necessary to support microbial life, thus fulfilling the primary purpose of his mission.

The robot began to move to Mount Sharp to search for other niches that could host life and to find out if there habitable environment long enough to allow it to evolve, otherwise a very complicated question, since scientists do not know how to take life to emerge and dominate Earth.

Size lake Gale, duration and sediments carried by water support the idea that it was enough time for life to emerge and thrive, said scientist Michael Meyer, working at NASA's Mars exploration program.

New studies that have not yet been published, shows a series of wet and dry times of Gale, contradicting a previous hypothesis that period when Mars had a warm and humid climate was relatively short, the researchers said. "All that travel on the surface of Mars took us to Mount Sharp. We provided the necessary context to better appreciate Mount Sharp," said Grotzinger about rover who traveled about eight kilometers on Mars, after reaching the surface planet in August 2012.

Arriving in the equatorial region of Mars Gale Crater on August 6 2012, Curiosity, the most sophisticated robot explorer ever sent people on another planet, has already shown that Mars was habitable removed microbial her past.

Curiosity robot, developed at a total cost of $ 2.5 billion, is operated by engineers at NASA's Laboratory in Pasadena California.

Lowering spectacular six-wheel robot American Gale, 10 kilometers from Mount Sharp, on the night of 5 to 6 August 2012 taking into account the weight of almost a ton, required a new technique, complex soil placement . This operation showed that NASA can carry large loads safely on Mars.

Satanic symbols found in the heart of the most powerful city in the world

2012-06-05T14:28:00.000+03:00

There is no doubt that the intersection of Massachusetts Ave., Rhode Island Ave., Connecticut Ave., Vermont Ave. and K Street NW in Washington to form a five-pointed star. Furthermore, it is true that almost all the architects who built the city of Washington DC nineteenth century and early twentieth century were freemasons. Starting from these two premises, many Americans have researched and concluded that the city was planned to be the promoter of this "sect" occult. In 1791, Pierre Charles L'Enfant (the architect who did the construction plans of Washington and who was a Freemason) has built America's Government Center in the heart of Washington, but besides that, concealed in his paper many occult symbols , of Black Magic, and when these symbols are united, they become a symbol of Lucifer. Thus, even where they are built the White House and buildings of historical importance to Americans, it sees the image of a goat, pagan animal, considered the embodiment of Satan. It seems that all Freemasons wanted to highlight is that the U.S. presidency will forever be led by Freemasons. In his book New World Order, author Ralph Epperson wrote: "In 1867, General Granger noted in his sketches that he witnessed a meeting. He met with President Andrew Johnson, who was a Mason, and Albert Pike - the best known Mason at that time. General Granger and expressed surprise that President Johnson is considered subordinate to Albert Pike, even though he was in charge of the country. This subordination comes from the fact that when franmasonii oath, they promise will be subordinate to those who are higher in rank than themselves. Such as Presidents who are Masons have to take orders from those who rank higher than theirs ".

Milky Way will collide with Andromeda. See when it will happen

2012-06-05T14:19:00.002+03:00

A catastrophic collision between our galaxy, the Milky Way and Andromeda is inevitable, but over four billion years, according to projections announced Thursday by the U.S. space agency, NASA, according to AFP."Our model corresponds statistically to a frontal collision between Andromeda and the Milky Way galaxy," said Roeland van der Marel, an astrophysicist at the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) in Baltimore, during a press conference. The conclusion results from measuring speed and direction trajectory Andromeda galaxy, complicated surgery, performed with the Hubble Space Telescope.Andromeda, also known as M31, is currently at 2.5 million light years (one light-year is equivalent to 9.460 billion kilometers), but is moving inevitably towards the Milky Way. The attraction is due to gravitational forces exerted by the two galaxies and invisible dark matter that surround them."After a century of speculation in the scientific world about the fate of Andromeda and the Milky Way, we finally have a clear idea about the development of these cosmic events next billion years," said Tony Sohn Sangmo from STScI.Although our galaxy Andromeda is approaching 2,000 times faster, will be four billion years before the collision with the Milky Way. In addition, computer simulations developed with data from the Hubble shows that it will take another two billion years, after meeting the two galaxies, to complete their merger. The result will be a single galaxy, the elliptical, more common in the surrounding universe, astronomers explained. Milky Way, a galaxy payment will be completely transformed, they predict.Sun will find a new region of the galaxy, but the Earth and our solar system are in danger of being destroyed, scientists highlights. Even if the two galaxies merge, the stars they contain are very distant from each other and may not collide during the meeting, according to astronomers.The stars will go to find different orbit, in relation to the new center of the galaxy. Simulations show that our solar system will probably be pushed himself far beyond the galaxy core, relative to the current situation.To further complicate this event Triangle small galaxy (M33), neighboring Andromeda, will join the post merger, collide with its larger sisters. But there is a lower chance for M33 to hit first the Milky Way, say U.S. researchers.

Yarkovsky effect

2012-06-05T14:15:00.002+03:00

An asteroid has diverted nearly 160 km from the path of the past 12 years because of a strange phenomenon called the "Yarkovsky effect"."Yarkovsky effect is pushing the asteroid to Earth, be it out of the way into our planet," said Josh Emery of the University of Tennessee in Knoxville. "Understanding this force and how that affects an asteroid is needed to determine whether the asteroid will hit us or not," says researcher writes rtv.net.A small asteroid 1999 RQ36 could hit Earth in 2135. The analysis found that the Yarkovsky effect led to the 160 km asteroid deflection.Emery's study in 2007, using NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope, was essential to determine the effect. He measured the thermal characteristics of the asteroid, using infrared emissions and found that the space rock is covered by a thin insulating material."As an area retains more heat, the stronger is the Yarkovsky effect. Therefore, if the asteroid is made of solid rock, the force would be stronger, because it retains heat longer. But fine material such as sand or dust is heats and cools quickly, so the effect is weaker, "said Emery.With this discovery, researchers have identified several likely collision between 2170-2190, while others were removed.Yarkovky effect is named for a Russian engineer of the nineteenth century, who proposed the theory that a rocky space object could change its trajectory, over long periods of time, they absorb sunlight and then re- issues as heat. The effect is hard to measure because it is extremely small.The effect was discovered asteroid 1999 RQ36 in an effort to determine the mass of asteroid millions of miles away. Researchers needed rock size, thermal properties, the driving force (Yarkovsky effect) and orbit to calculate the density. Researchers have found that this asteroid is the density of water and is very porous, being composed mainly of dust and rocks.OSIRIS-Rex space vehicle will be launched in 206, will reach the asteroid in 2019 and will bring samples on it, back on Earth, in 2023.

The beginnings of chemistry. Alchemy

2012-05-22T13:54:00.000+03:00

A technique that deserves the epithet of "chemical" - in the broadest sense of the term - appeared in ancient times: processing metal, glass, or - later - speculation Ionians on substances and their transformations. Descriptions and technical prescriptions for this purpose, first transmitted orally and then gathered in a collection written from Babylonian and Egyptian dates. With particular application in pharmacology, such prescriptions were collected by Dioscorides (c. 1 AD) while the number of Pliny find information on various chemicals employed in various techniques.

The term "chemistry" (etymology is disputed) was adopted with the addition of Article al-Arab, designating all such research, that, "alchemy" was - until dry. XVIII - synonymous with "chemistry" just in modern times the term "alchemy" has gained a pejorative attributed to a research area considered - without distinction - that pseudo-science. During the Roman Empire appeared numerous works of alchemy, which is claimed to be due to revelations of divine persons - as Hermes Trismegistus (Greek name of the Egyptian god Thoth). Zosimos be writing a strongly impregnated of mysticism, then, alchemists will be divided into two schools: technicians and mystics.

In the first centuries of our era chemistry was established - as alchemy - as a research discipline with a well defined and well-defined purpose, a fusion of techniques with a certain kind of philosophical speculation. Egyptian craftsmen dealt primarily gilding, silver or color of objects, not the transformation of ordinary metal in precious metal. It seems that convert copper into gold appeared in Syria, where, in sec. I.e.n. III, was sent to Chinese alchemists. Primary material for ancient alchemists was the lead melted, replaced later with mercury. The last component - the current entered and different ideas (Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, magic) - expressing and using a language deliberately obscure, esoteric, intended to keep to initiate secret "recipes", methods and techniques - in fact, chemical - used by these workers and, later, of all those who dedicate themselves to this kind of research. Recourse to magic formulas, the notation of signs, letters, figures, words ambiguous or totally obscure, was a mark of initiation, aiming to provide a variety of prestige these concerns. The starting point of a very abundant literature alchemical documented in such a language it marks the founder of alchemy itself, Greek (originally from Egypt) Bolos of Mendes - sec. IV i.e.n. - Author of a Treatise on the art of painting and other compilations of alchemy - which have been assigned (no theme) of Democritus.

Early alchemists most important - and that alchemy get like a real esoteric religions - were Zosimus of Panopolis (III century AD), the first time using chemeia, and Sinesios, bishop of Ptolemais (370-414), which gives the first description of a hygroscopic. Both were Gnostics, as such, in their work, along with descriptions of laboratory equipment and operations, there are concepts and ideas expressed its gnosticism: the belief in the occult influences and celestial phenomena acting on the world land and quality of visible elements, in putting numbers in a universe can be considered as perfectly represented by numbers and symbols. These ideas, often played in an obscure language when describing even simple laboratory operations, will remain present in works of chemistry until dry. XVII. 23362vxv86zbm3n

Alchemy Workshop

Fundamental ideas and to watch the alchemists was transforming base metals into gold and silver. "This issue is related to the generation >> << metals, from the first four: copper, lead, tin and iron, known as collective tetrasoma. Was also noted that mercury and sulfur also beginning to end when preponderant role, waiting to be raised later to the rank of principles. " (P. Brown). Alchemists were convinced that transform base metals into gold and silver was possible because the Aristotelian conception according to which a substance can be changed into another substance if i changed primary qualities was unanimously accepted. Such a design allowed it to believe that lundu them the specific elements and attributes replacing them - through laboratory operations - with the attributes of gold, could achieve this noble metal. The main problem of the alchemists was to find the elixir, the substance that serves as a catalyst in this operation.

Taken by Arabs in the seventh century, alchemy has made progress both in theory and in practice. Treaties attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyam (according to some authors, a legendary character) claimed that the formation of metal produced primarily exalatiile dry sulfur, mercury and wet conditions, and the metals are formed by successive combination of these two substances. Combining the natural harmony produced gold, other metals, lower impurity resulting from varying degrees of sulfur and mercury, or because of varying proportions of the combination. A practical, Jabir treaties describe various laboratory processes (distillate, crystallization, sublimae, calcination, etc..), Or some practical applications to prepare vinegar, some dyes, etc..

The most important Arab alchemists (after Jabir) that had an influence on the development of Western alchemy was al-Razi and Avicenna. The first gave a systematic classification of chemicals and chemical reactions, and a description of laboratory equipment. Avicenna, who was skeptical about transmutation and did not believe in the possibility of obtaining gold, left a very clear statement of current theories.

In the 1300s appears, in Latin translation, the famous treaty attributed to Jabir, Summa perfectionis, but there are many that adaosuriale of Western alchemists. Opera is the most convincing picture of progress achieved to that date theoretical and practical chemistry. Apparatus and methods described herein are used to get gold, are discussed and rejected arguments to deny the possibility of transmutation, is exposed theory claiming that metals are composed of mercury, sulfur and arsenic, are given guidance on the operation of purification salts, the Alkali metal bodies to obtain the solution for themselves metaleleor mineral extraction. Remarkable is described by distillation to obtain sulfuric acid nitric acid alum and saltpeter and alum, and finally exposed and analysis methods to determine if transformation failed. Interesting is the evidence revealed by the use of balance (showing, for example, that increases its weight by calcination lead).

So, work alchemists, - Arabs or Christians - take two issues separate net. There is practice on the one hand, there were experiences that, by themselves, constitute a positive report of alchemy: the processes of tanning, grinding processes, discover properties of "hardware", the description of chemical operations (processing bodies, grinding, decomposition, mixing , dissolving, melting, distillation and filtration, sublimation, Accredited Certification, roasting, prepare a mixture, etc..) and inventing a whole series of devices, and on the other hand, there is faith in transmutation, a faith based on philosophy, BA even a mystical cosmology.

In the Christian West, alchemy increasing interest is recorded in seconds. XIII, of encyclopedias that carried many informed, in both Arabic and Western sources.

The first theorist of alchemy, a disciple of Grossete is Bartholomaeus Anglicus, whose Free of proprietatibus Rerum (written by 1240) was a work of great success, always consulted in the following centuries, is a summa previous works of alchemy. Another English, Richardus Anglicus, in his Correctorium alchymiae, minerals divided into two classes: metals whose origin is mercury (gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead) and those deriving from sulfur - as alaunii, sulfates (the copper, zinc, iron) and arsenic sulfide, which also had the same origin.

The first known description of the preparation of alcohol appears in a manuscript of the early century. XIII, formulated in brief terms: "Fri clean and very strong mixing three parts of salt and heat it in appropriate containers, to obtain water that burns without consuming flammable material is spilled over."

In sec. XIII, the aqua ardens prepared by distillation containing 60 ° alcohol, by double distillation reached up to about 90 °: aqua vitae, as it was called. In 1320, alcohol is produced in large quantity in Modena, where the process has spread rapidly in France and Germany. Cooling method consists in passing the tube (in sec. XIV, spiral tube) leading from the distillery in container with a bowl of cold water.

The best stills were metal. At the beginning of sec. XV distillers glass vessels appear more suitable for the distillation of other substances, such as mineral acids, which are prepared in large amounts to treat metals. Nitric acid and sulfuric acid is prepared as early as the thirteenth century. Also by distillation (and by solution in alcohol) preparing and "essences" of organic substances for medical purposes.

Improving methods of distillation has great importance for the development of chemistry. R.J. Forbes notes that the Italian alchemists managed since 1150, to distill nitric acid a mixture of saltpeter and alum, as in sec. XIII was obtained by distillation of sulfuric acid secco of alum, as in sec. XV hydrochloric acid is distilled from a mixture of alum and common salt, and that these strong acids have spread rapidly in both West and East, find use as solvents for salts in metallurgy, or mordanati and bleaches in textile industry. Capacitor and spiral twisted and have replaced the flask, the main laboratory instruments, and made possible organic chemistry.

Chemical development was considerably provided new laboratory items, much improved quality of glass and enamel, which gave the opportunity to work with corrosive resistant materials, as strong acids.

Mata Hari

2012-05-22T13:10:00.000+03:00

Mata Hari, real name, Geertruida Zell, was born on August 7, 1876, in Holland, Leenwarden. Margaretha's parents divorced and moved to his uncle to attend a school teacher. The next job did not fit at all ... in any case could not complete courses because he was expelled after his too close relationship with the school.

At 18 she married an officer after an announcement published in the personals section of a local newspaper. The announcement proved to be really a joke, but unfortunately neither marriage was not beyond.

Getting pregnant and giving birth to a boy on January 30, 1897, which puts the name John Norman. The three MacLeod off to the Dutch East Indies, where the world comes Jeanne Louise. Disagreements in the couple gets worse after children are poisoned. The girl is miraculously saved, but his brother's death can not be avoided. Author crime will never be found.

Officer wife complains all happened, although she has no guilt. Unfairly put on the wall and down the nerves, after the calamity had been through, is ill of typhoid fever. Officer resigned and withdrew together in a small village. Marital quarrels do not cease even after it healthy again. MacLeod wife and returning to the Netherlands apart.

Trying to earn a living Margaretha went to Paris and try to become an artist. Enough to pose for some amount of mediocre painters, dancers and later engage in a room. Considered a success for the inventor's striptease. Get famous they begin to practice oriental dances. Although it was a really beautiful woman, seduces the whole Paris (and then worldwide) due to his movements and attitudes. At this point they choose the name of Mata-Hari (Malay - "Eye of the Day").

Live in style, kept the lovers. After a failure in a show where you had to portray Cleopatra, withdrawing almost two years and is isolated from the world. Hiding in a castle in Touraine, together with banker Xavier Rousseau, a married man. After consummation of love between them, Margaretha returned to Paris. In season 1911-1912, triumph at La Scala in Milan. But Deaghilev he rejects the offer to dance with the Russian Ballets. He returned to Paris humiliated. Pressed the need for money to appear on stage to accept the Folies-Bergere evolve.

During World War Netherlands remains neutral. Margaretha is able to travel, always away from the battle, and during this time to build an international career. Dancing on stage in Madrid, Berlin, Milan, Amsterdam, Monte Carlo, and lovers with its rising in popularity ... and finally hunter becomes the prey ... Mata Hari falls ... The Russian officer by Vadim Maslov. So enter the world of espionage and counterintelligence. Functions and positions with lovers with very intalte Mata Hari could easily obtain information and to transmit them as easily.

Amsterdam finds a banker loosely to pay her bills. Despite numerous attempts, fails to even review never daughter after her husband is forced accept a divorce. Through a lawyer, warns that if that is against, his naked photos could cause scandal in court.

Is installed then Hague, under the protection of Dutch baron, which said last show of life - on December 14, 1914, the Theatre Royal. The following year made a getaway to Paris, trying to recover things lost to war. Returned to his native country in early 1916. Becomes cruel - even cynical - in love affairs.

A Paris lures again. Hardly get permission to re-enter France, where he found, finally, the great love: the Vadim Maslov Russian officer. To accompany resort Vittel, must contact the Captain Ladoux, head of French counterintelligence, which I propose to work for the intelligence service. Accept proposal for money.

Once in the game proposed by Ladoux, committing numerous errors. Counterintelligence chief will not recognize even recruited as ever, the true meaning of the word. You said that only interested because it was suspicious. Clara Benedix confused with German spy, Mata Hari is closed in London, then expelled in Spain. Although Ladoux turns her back, spy willfully make any price. You assail the German ambassador in Madrid, which is offered to obtain information. Returns to Paris to receive his reward for a married man loved. Head counter-claims not received messages. A treat cold and uninterested. Advised by his embassy council, announced that a Maslov marries another woman. Margaretha is hit from all sides

In January 1917 the Germans sent a radio message showing their spy activity report. French intercepts the message and realize that spy Mata Hari's double. It seems that the Germans would have made this move intentionally being aware that the message will be intercepted, but the rumor is not confirmed. Equally the French have officially recognized as Mata Hari spy for them.

On the morning of February 13, 1917, cops rise from the hotel Eliysee - Palace. Charges of espionage, aiding and understanding the enemy is thrown into prison.

Some say that it was only an occasional spy - spy stray - no vocational training. According to other authors, the dancer would have followed the best German spy school and obtained valuable information for the Germans.

For two months is subject to interrogation. The defendant, under the name of the enemy agent H21, using as evidence telegrams signed by the ambassador in Madrid. Imprudence, Mata Hari says that, indeed, German consul in Amsterdam has proposed a collaboration. Says he accepted a formal order to recover property retained by the Germans, the war. They swore never failed to provide information than the old, in exchange for new ones. To process that takes place behind closed doors and without to prepare report, admits that uniforms have always fascinated her and she lived at the expense of lovers, but rejects the accusation that Germany had ever served.

Is sentenced to death and executed in the early hours of October 15, 1917. Dressed in her days as good, behave with dignity and refused to be blindfolded. The pending trial in Saint Lazare prison, be baptized and find faith.

Some say his body had not been asked corpse of one - the fear - to be a Christian and had been buried for dissection, in a Parisian hospital. Others claim to have been buried in new cemetery of Vincennes. Her daughter had to die at the age of 18 years, following a brain hemorrhage. Mata Hari remains one of the most exploited press, cinema and literature myths.

2012 Best Illusion of the Year Contest

2012-05-16T22:56:00.008+03:00

An illusion made by a professor of psychology in the UK was ranked first in the 2012 edition of the contest "Best Illusion of the Year". Trick designed by Roger Newport and colleagues at Nottingham University leads people to believe that they left without a hand.

The illusion is based on a discovery made 10 years ago, when researchers gave volunteers realize they can persuade to believe that a rubber hand is their own, combining the senses of sight and touch. Newport's team wondered whether the illusion can also work the other way, making the participants to believe that his hand was gone.

Result of the effort of researchers is a device called MIRAGE, a box in which volunteers put their hands. Hand screen is located above the projecting arms with two blue lines. During the experiment, the lines move, and move their arms should volunteer not to touch the blue lines.

Volunteers do not they realize that the screen design accurately what is happening with their hands below the screen, so that in time they will move their hands more than aware, and the display they will remain motionless. After a while, one hand disappears, successfully simulating the feeling of "losing hand" you have patients who suffer a stroke.

Here is the video that captures the illusion of action: http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=Qcm0_QPhLe4

The No. 2 ranked illusion "When Pretty Girls Turn Ugly" performed by Jason Tangen, Sean Murphy and Matthew Thompson of the University of Queensland in Australia: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wM6lGNhPujE&feature=player_embedded

Last place of the podium was occupied by illusion "Color Wagon Wheel", performed by Arthur Shapiro, William Kistler and Alex Rose-Henig at the American University in the U.S

illusioncontest

Liquid crystals

2012-05-11T11:14:00.002+03:00

Liquid crystals have been uncovered by an Austrian botanist in 1888. Liquid crystal state is a state intermediate between crystalline solid and liquid normal phase . Number of substances of this condition increased until 1930 after which interest in this class

substances has decreased.

Research has been resumed in 1960 when liquid crystals have started practical applications in engineering and medicine. Most common applications are in electronic field, the display devices.

Liquid crystals are substances that act as a liquid and the solid. Molecules in liquid crystals can move each relatively easy, as all molecules in a lichid.Totusi a liquid crystal molecules tend to orient themselves in the same manner, like the molecular arrangement of crystals malt.

Liquid crystals retain fluid and natural solodifica only after certain temperatures and pressures.

At a sufficiently high temperature or low pressure, the molecules change order resulting in a crystal liquid crystal trnsformarea. At a sufficiently low temperature and high pressure liquid crystal molecules cease to move and liquid crystals turn into solid crystals.

Many classes include liquid crystal liquid crystal and liquid crystal termotrope biotrope.

Optical properties of a liquid crystal can often be handled by submission to an electric or magnetic field to change the orientation of its molecules. For example applying a small electric field some liquid crystal changes from clear to cloudy or property gain to rotate polarized light.

These types of liquid crystals are used to build devices used in digital watches, computers, TVs, laptops, etc..

Liquid crystal devices are powerful and often uses less power than conventional devices .. Some liquid crystals reflect different amounts of light depending on the orientation of molecules lor.Orientarea these molecules depends on temperature. These types of liquid crystal thermometers are used to display colors appropriate temperature critalul liquid substance that is in contact.

Liquid crystal devices (LCD) television screens as using a particular substance that changes its properties when current is applied to LCD electric.Tehnologia is already used to computers and digital watches. a TV screen (l. CD) uses very little power so is ideal for making portable TV's.

LCD displays have the following characteristics:

brightness, color contrast, high visibility, low power consumption, response speed opto-electronic memory for life mare.Aceste liquid crystal displays have the advantage that can be powered by solar batteries, allowing a cost reduced.

Liquid crystal displays (LCD) standard manufactured by Seiko Instruments Inc. are made in technology TN (twisted nematic), which provides a strong contrast and a large viewing angle. Models are products of different sizes and number of digits are diverse.Afisajele used by this company are very advantageous because they can meet customer's need in terms of size and variable number of digits or special characters.

Alphanumeric liquid crystal displays are the latest news, allowing the computer to get big companies products increasingly complex to satisfy the most demanding customers from all over the world.

Although discovered in the IXX century, until the mid twentieth century a large liquid crystals find their application in modern technology.

Ebola -Haemorrhagic fever-

2012-05-09T12:27:00.001+03:00

Ebola is one of the most powerful viral diseases known to humankind, causing death of 50-90% of those infected. The disease has its origins in the jungles of Africa and Asia. Several different forms of the virus have been identified and are discussed below.

The mode of transmission

• Ebola is spread by direct contact with blood, secretions or organs of infected persons.

• The virus can spread by contact with dead or sick chimpanzees.

• health workers were often infected patients. In the 1976 outbreak in Zaire, Ebola-infected everyone with syringes and needles died.

Incubation: 2 to 21 days.

Symptoms: Ebola is characterized by sudden onset of a severe fever, fatigue, muscle aches, headaches and neck. These are followed by vomiting, diarrhea, urticaria, renal and liver, internal and external bleeding.

Diagnosis: is made in specialized laboratories by detection of specific genes of the virus. These tests have a very high degree of danger and are made only in maximum safety conditions.

Treatment

• No specific treatment or vaccine for Ebola.

• Severe cases require intensive care because patients are dehydrated very quickly and need to receive fluids intravenously.

• Experimental studies on animals have not had the desired effect against the virus for long periods.

Quarantine

• suspected cases were isolated from other patients and should be kept in strict conditions of safety.

• All hospital staff should be notified of the nature of disease and mode of transmission. Procedures with high risk of infection as a connecting intravenous lines and handling blood, secretions and instruments should be used carefully.

• Patients who die from the virus should be buried or cremated as soon as possible.

Important events in the history of astronomy

2012-05-08T14:31:00.000+03:00

They usually say that astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. It also mentioned that astronomers early date asiro-Babylonian era culture that flourished in Mesopotamia, about 3 to 4 000 BC Relatively recent research considers the beginning of astronomy in the mists of prehistory, the period when Cro Magnon, a true "homo sapiens", could not replace Neanderthal. It is about the year 35 000 BC, of which some seem to date the bones on which were engraved the lunar phases. In fact we believe that the beginnings of astronomy are older, they being able to situate the emergence of standing are the man, which enabled him to see and observe the Heavens.

More reliable data, based on documents, we have the Age of Indo-European civilizations, particularly ancient Greek civilization. If we seek to illustrate the achievements of some illustrious names Hellenistic astronomy, we can not quote some of his great philosophers.

-Thus, Tales of Miletus (c. VII - VI BC) was considered and skilful astronomer. Another famous name is that of Pythagoras (c. 560 - c.500 BC), which calls COSMOS sky and declares that the earth is spherical. Parmenides of Elea (c.540 - 450), after Teophrast, and he would support the theory of Earth's sphericity, would have said, as Plutarch mentions that "Moon moving around the Earth illuminates the nights with a borrowed light" .

Realistic visions and concepts and Democritus of Abdera held (460-360 BC), who not only predicted the existence of atoms, but also correctly interpreted whitish appearance of the Milky Way, the presence of numerous weak stars which the eye human can not distinguish which could be confirmed after about 2000 years ago by Galileo's first telescopic observations.

For 2000 years knowledge about the universe and the stars that populate it accumulated thanks to tireless work of scholars like Brahe, Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Gauss, Herschel and others so far.

-Aristah of Samos (310-230 î.e.n.). A former student of Straton of Lampsakos and kept him to one work, the dimensions and distances of Sun and Moon which seeks to determine distances to the Moon and Sun. In terms of cosmological conception Aristah, he is assigned to Earth acceptance of combined movements.

-Hipparchus of Nicaea (c.190 - c.125 î.e.n.). It is considered the greatest Greek astronomer of antiquity. He comes from a very accurate assessment of the length of, considering it as having 365 days and a quarter without 1/300 in one day. He appreciates very accurate and synodical month period to 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes and 2.5 seconds (ending today accepted value 2.8 seconds). Another contribution of Hipparchus is compiling a catalog of stars, containing over 850 items. In this catalog he divided the stars visible to the naked eye in six classes of brightness, classification, with some refinements, has been preserved until today. Hipparchus introduced hexadecimal system, a system previously used only by the Babylonians, then the circle is divided into 360 °, each degree is composed of 60 'per minute with 60'' itself.

Claudius Ptolemy (c.90 - c.168). Outside development geocentric system that bears his name and catalog of 1025 stars that made the era, Ptolemy had other outstanding contributions: find ECVET Moon and lunar parallax calculated with enough precision.

-Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543). By 1512-1513, the title appears in the manuscript work of Nicholas Copernicus hypothesibus motuum coelestium to constitutis Commentariolus, best known under the abbreviated title Commentariolus (little comment), the Copernicus their setting out in a simple, non-mathematical, the main theses of heliocentrism. Copernicus's immortal opera is titled De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, Libri VI, work that was removed only in 1835, the bustle made by Galileo with his telescopic discoveries, when almost all confirmations were obtained for heliocentric theory.

-Tycho Brache (1546-1601). Determined to 51'' precession of the equinoxes a year, with final settlement "judder". He also be determined accurately at 23 ° ecliptic inclination 31 'and annual movement of sun perigee to 45'' (instead of 61''). Its catalog of 777 stars with accurate positions had an error of less than 1 '.

-Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). After 1609, when Galileo built his own several telescopes, start noticing the sky and make some discoveries of importance. First, observing the moon, lunar mountains and formations revealed characteristic, like volcanic craters or circuses. Drawing a map of the moon, quite rudimentary, Galileo calls closed areas "increase". Observing stellar fields, he discovered many new stars: the Pleiades (hen with chicken) sees 36 stars and the Milky Way, a lot of stars. Observing Jupiter, Galileo discovered the four satellites within a few days more. Galileo also seen sunspots and interpret them correctly, causing the Sun's rotation period. Home of Galileo's astronomical work is Dialogo ..., in which he compares the two world systems, Ptolemaic and Copernican at which the wrath of the clergy, who, through his inquisition initiates a process which is still famous after forced to abjure . After this abjuration legend that Galileo would be pronounced the famous phrase "E pur si move" (And yet it moves!).

-Johann Kepler (1571-1630). In 1609 the work of Kepler's Astronomia nova appears ... that set out the first two laws, of the three, known as "Kepler's laws". Act I say that "the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun in one focus" of the second law says that the "radius vector sweeps equal areas in equal times". In 1619 public Harmonices Mundi, the law appears to III "squares sidereal periods of revolution are proportional to the cubes large semiaxelor.". For the three laws of planetary motion, Kepler was named "legislator of heaven."

Christian Huygens (1629-1695). Discover rings of Saturn, and the brightest moon of Saturn - Titan.

-Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Newton built the first telescope mirror. In Book III of the work Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), Newton analyzed the motion of the moon, planets and comets. Based on this fundamental work will be a new branch of astronomy, celestial mechanics.

-William Herschel (1738-1822). The greatest achievement was the discovery of Uranus Herschel (1781). Like achievements in the solar system we can cite the discovery of two moons of Uranus, Titania and Oberon, and rotation was abnormal, the discovery of two satellites of Saturn, Mimas and Enceladus, measuring the rotation period of Saturn and its rings, discovery Seasonal Mars and Jupiter's bands interpretation of atmosphere phenomena. He also discovered infrared radiation, determine the shape of our galaxy and found many double stars, which move around the common center of mass, obeying the law of universal gravitation.

-Urbain Le Verrier J. J. (1811-1877). Calculated location of Neptune which was discovered in 1846 by Johann Gottfried Galle. Determine exactly perihelion shift of planets.

-Clyde William Tombaugh. Discover Pluto (1930).

Olber's Paradox

2012-05-08T14:05:00.000+03:00

Phenomena studied in depth throughout the universe reveals the presence of scattering materials difficult to detect, apparently unnoticed, usually bearing the name "diffuse field". Different aspects, starting with interstellar absorption of light, fully demonstrates the various forms in which this matter is presented. The fact that matter exists in reality serve as interplanetary space, interstellar and intergalactic those are not empty, repeatedly passed unnoticed.

William Herschel, in his research assumed that attenuates starlight is exactly inversely proportional to square of the distance. In other words, he believed that interstellar space is perfectly transparent, as there are phenomena of light absorption, in any form. In the same period in 1774, a researcher with much less known about theoretical got to suspect the existence of the phenomenon of light absorption. He believes that space is filled with a "fluid" able to mitigate the weak light. In the absence of a sink in interstellar space, a simple reasoning leads him in his research on theoretical Chaizot contradiction. This reasoning was later developed by Mathias W. Olbers (1758 - 1840) in his famous paradox. By 1823, Olbers considered inevitable existence of light absorption, which is based on reasoning or paradox. He said that if the infinite universe there is an infinity of stars, spread it evenly, then the sky would be dazzling shine, just like the Sun. Assuming - for simplicity - that all stars have equal dimensions, Olbers concluded that the surface of all the stars seen from Earth is infinitely greater than the surface of the celestial sphere. Star discs cover each other and thus occupying the entire celestial sphere, they would be - without a sink - something dazzling.

The photometric paradox of Olbers, together with another paradox, the gravity, of H. Seeliger, forces us to choose the model so universal that these two contradictions do not occur. This was necessary to admit a considerable light absorption in interstellar space.

Tunguska fireball

2012-05-08T13:59:00.002+03:00

In the early hours of June 30, 1908, sailors on watch on the few ships floating in the huge Indian Ocean observing an object trajectory describing a wide sky, heading to Asia.

Caravans traveling across the Gobi Desert and the northwestern regions of China stopped a moment in their way, people have looked up, surprised and frightened, crossing the globe of fire (after calculations established later) probably developed the surface to about 3000 ° C heat. In villages and small fairs in central Siberia, people were appalled by the deafening hiss of strange celestial object. At 7.17, the central Siberian plateau, near the Tunguska river stones to shudder under the impact of an explosion so powerful that seismographic center of Irkutsk located about 900 km south of the oscillations recorded an earthquake of high proportions (4.5 Richter).

The impact of cosmic object with strange land, gushing a huge shower of fire and then a shock wave propagates into the ambient air, up to distances of 700-800 km. Meanwhile, a stream of hot mature forested hills taiga, the coniferous peaks and burning fires producing the series lasted Zilzie. Thousands of trees are felled, huts of nomads are simply swept from the earth, is recorded fatalities surrounding people and animals. Gusts of wind shook the doors and windows of houses were felt in towns located up to a distance of 600 km.Mase thick dark cloud rose up to 20 kilometers above the Tunguska region, then giving birth to a strange rain dark. weather for hours, caused the explosion waves were propagated in all directions occurring at great distances, for example in England, at Greenwich. At high altitudes was also observed an unusual phenomenon, silver clouds, massive, radiating a strange luminescence. From Scandinavians and to Siberia, the light was so intense in the next period that it was possible to take photographs in midnight. For a few weeks, the skies of Europe have been observed dust clouds and an unusual night light that occurs up to latitudes such as those of Spain.

Of course today, after so many years, power explosion in Tunguska region is difficult to calculate, but scientists agree that the sole criterion of comparison is, is ours atomic explosions. Despite these dramatic elements which by their very nature designed to raise awareness seemed strange to scientists for over 12 years nothing has been done to investigate the site of the great explosion and looking for a scientific explanation of this phenomenon probably unique in history the Earth. That is why by the end of the third decade of the century

Of course today, after so many years, power explosion in Tunguska region is difficult to calculate, but scientists agree that the sole criterion of comparison is, is ours atomic explosions. Our only ones who dared to venture up to the scene of the explosion were reindeer breeders and hunters Tungus. The first is really interested by this phenomenon and try to organize an expedition documentary is cercetatorl Russian Leonid Kulik, then the age of 38 years. Kulik was particularly intrigued by that form the tube through which villagers described as not really subject corresponded outer appearance that you can have a meteor trajectory. Also no clouds of smoke and flame nor a forked tongue were not looking in description of a meteorite in unless the impact caused a large fire in the taiga, which again was difficult to believe, considering that at that time of year soil water flies and practically turned much of the region in a swamp.

Doing research in the collections of old newspapers, Kulik able to sketch a portrait as the object, although most or even contradictory eyewitness statements înflorisera. One thing was certain: if he had a meteorite, then it must have had the giant was without doubt the largest meteorite ever fell in Russia and may the whole earth, because otherwise you can not explain the strong earthquakes recorded at the time.

In later years, Tunguska file to bold with many new tabs. It was determined that strong explosion took place northeast of Kansk somewhere Pietroasa Tunguska river basin, although these attempts were met with resistance to superstitious locals. In the eyes of the Tungus meteorite was a sacred object and therefore they carefully concealed for a long time where he fell.

Research has led to the conclusion that the explosion effects have been seen or heard on an area of almost one million square kilometers. A.Voznesenki believed the explosion was not caused by a single meteorite, but rather a group as the forward severed bundle.

In February 1927, Kulik starts the second expedition and travels up to April 13 you see the first signs of an explosion in 1908, along the valley Makirta as eye could see, the banks were covered with inverted trunks of birch and pine felled by explosion. As the group to the north-west, the number of rooted trees grew, all the tips facing south or south-east. Roots ripped from the soil monstrous high, the branches were bare of leaves. Overall marks looked like fire had started suddenly with great intensity and a very wide area. The closer to the center of the blast, Kulik saw with astonishment that gradually begin to appear, including trunks smashed, trees were left standing. And where, by his calculations, had to be the epicenter of impact, get a regular forest for the region, with trees with roots deep in the soil, only the branches had been stripped from the stem bark skinned as if it was a forest telegraph poles. So here is how big crater predicted by Kulik and other researchers simply do not exist. Also trying to find some meteoric fragments all ended in failure.

First opinion different from Kulik's came in 1930 from two prestigious specialists who hypothesized that the object was a meteorite fell in the taiga but a comet composed of gaseous bodies, which would explain why he would leave metal traces after her hair. In respect to said explosive force developed for 10-30 megatons TNT. However, the comet hypothesis does not explain satisfactorily all the phenomena that accompanied the big bang.

Over nearly a decade, a friend of Kulik issue another hypothesis, namely that meteorite did not explode on the soil surface, but the air above the ocean.

Kulik's predecessor, Aleksandr Kazantev, visited Hiroshima soon after leaving Japan in the war. Here he discovered many astonishing similarities with Tunguska phenomenon: forest of telegraph poles (bomb exploded 550 meters above the ground), black cloud, black rain, huge strength. So the explosion of a nuclear bomb in 1908?

More recently, scientists from many countries have sought an explanation in theoretical physics. Were developed in this regard two directions: the great explosion in the taiga was caused either by a small body of antimatter, or a so-called black hole.

According to theoretical physics, antimatter is the only stable, but in contact with matter it annihilates, releasing huge amounts of energy and disappearing without leaving any trace, which would explain the absence meteor crater and material. What hypothesis does not explain the brightness or tubular appearance and not antimatter exploded at the entrance to the atmosphere.

Regarding the black hole, is presumed to have walked the planet as a projectile, coming out the other side and is lost in the cosmos. Black holes exist throughout the universe, may have difficulties billion tons and atomic masses which would also explain the absence of the crater. Still a black hole would be left behind a high radioactivity, but undiscovered by anyone and she does not explain the shape of the object.

In recent years some authors have started earlier assumptions, assuming that it was even a spaceship with a serious engine fault that would have crashed there.

Each of these hypotheses has its pros and cons, so here we are at the end of the decade of the 9th arrived there where you are going. Despite the fact that it enjoyed the attention of some of the most prestigious scientists, the great explosion in Tunguska region remains an enigma.

Black Hole

2012-05-04T13:37:00.000+03:00

The term black hole is of very recent origin. It was invented in 1969 by the American scientist John Wheeler as a graphic description of an idea that has existed for at least two hundred years, at a time when there were two theories of light: one, supported by Newton, was the light consists of particles, the other was that light consists of waves. now know that both theories are correct. By duality wave / particle in quantum mechanics that light can be seen both as wave and particle. In the theory held that light is made where it was not clear how it should respond to gravity. But if light consists of particles, one would expect them to be affected by gravity in the same way that cannonballs are affected cannon, rockets and planets. At first people thought that light particles travel at infinite speed, but Roemer's discovery that light moves at finite speed showed that gravity can have a significant effect. John Michell, a board member of Cambridge College, wrote, based on this assumption, in 1783, a paper in the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, which showed that a star is sufficiently massive and compact would have a gravitational field so strong that light can not escape: any light emitted by the star's surface would be attracted back by the gravitational pull of the star before it can go very far. Michell suggested that there may be many stars as this.

Although we could see that their light would not reach us, yet we could feel their gravitational attraction. These objects are now called black holes because that are black holes in space. A similar suggestion was made several years later by the French scientist the Marquis de Laplace, apparently independently of Michell: It is quite interesting that Laplace included it only in first and second edition of his book The World and took it out subsequent editions, perhaps decided that the idea was nonsense. (Also, corpuscular theory of light was not sustained in the nineteenth century, everything seems to be explained by wave theory and, as its light was not clear whether time affected by gravity.) Q8b10by

In fact, it is logical that light to be treated like cannonballs in Newton's theory of gravity because the speed of light is fixed. (A cannonball launched from the ground up will be slowed by gravity and will eventually stop and fall, however, a photon continues to move up to speed. Then how Newtonian gravity affect light? ) A consistent theory of how gravity affects the light has not appeared until Einstein proposed general relativity in 1915. And even then it took a long time until they were understood the implications of theory for massive stars.

To understand how they can form a black hole, we need first to understand the life cycle of a star. A star forms when a large amount of gas (mostly hydrogen) begins to suffer a collapse in itself, due to its gravitational attraction. When it contracts, gas atoms collide with each becoming more often and getting speeds higher gas heat. Finally, the gas will be so hot when hydrogen atoms collide they turn away from each other, but merge to form helium. The heat released in this reaction, which is like a controlled explosion of a hydrogen bomb, that makes the star shine. This extra heat further increases until the gas pressure is sufficient to balance the gravitational and the gas ceases to contract. Is there something like a balloon. balance the air pressure inside, trying to produce rubber balloon inflation and blood, trying to decrease ball. Stars will remain stable for a long time the heat generated by nuclear reactions balances the gravitational attraction. Eventually the star will not have hydrogen and other nuclear fuels. Paradoxically, the more stars have more fuel to start, the sooner it ends. This is because the more massive a star is, the more must be hotter to balance its gravitational attraction. and how is hotter, the faster the fuel consumed or. Our Sun probably has enough fuel for another five billion years, but more massive stars are running out of fuel just a hundred million years, far less than the age of the universe. When a star has no fuel, it begins to cool and such contracts. What can happen to him then was understood for the first time until the late '20s.

In 1928 an Indian student, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, took ship for England to study at Cambridge with the British astronomer Sir Arthur Eddington, an expert in general relativity. (According to some reports, a journalist told Eddington in the early '20s he had heard that only three people in the world who understood general relativity. Eddington silent a while, then replied, "I'm trying to think who the third person ".) During his trip in India, Chandrasekhar calculated how big a star may exist and could maintain against its gravity after he consumed all the fuel. The idea was this: when a star goes down, matter particles get very close to each other and thus, according to the Pauli exclusion principle, they must have very different speeds. This makes them to move away from each other and tends to expand the star. Therefore, a star can be maintained at a constant radius by a balance between gravitational attraction and rejection that occurs because of the exclusion principle as gravity before it was balanced by heat.

Chandrasekhar, however, realized that there is a limit for rejection due to the exclusion principle. Relativity limits the maximum difference between velocities of the particles of matter from star to light speed. This means that when a star reaches quite dense, rejection caused by the exclusion principle would be less than the gravitational pull. (This table is now called Chandrasekhar limit.) A similar discovery was made almost simultaneously by Russian scientist Lev Davidovich Landau.

This has serious implications for the final fate of massive stars. If the mass of a star is less than the Chandrasekhar limit, it can-and eventually stop the contraction and stabilize to a final state enables a "white dwarf" with a radius of several thousand kilometers and a density of one hundred tons per cubic centimeter. A white dwarf is supported by repulsion, due to the exclusion principle, electrons from its material. We see a lot of these white dwarf stars.

One of the first discovered a star moving in orbit around Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky.

Landau has shown that there is another possible final state for a star, all weight limit about once or twice mass of the sun, but much smaller even than a white dwarf. These stars would be supported by rejection, due to the principle of exclusion, of neutrons and protons, electrons do not enter. They have been called, so neutron stars. They would have a radius of only about sixteen miles and a density of hundreds of millions of tons per cubic centimeter. When they were first predicted, there is a way of observing neutron stars. They were not detected, in fact, until much later.

On the other hand, above the Chandrasekhar mass stars have a big problem when they ran out of fuel. In some cases they may explode or fail to remove enough material to reduce its mass below and so avoid catastrophic gravitational collapse, but it was hard to believe that this always happens, no matter how big the star. How would she know that you have to lose weight? And even if every star managed to lose enough weight to avoid collapse, what would have happened if you had added weight to a white dwarf or a neutron star to exceed the limit? Would be collapsed to infinite density? Eddington was shocked by this implication and refused to believe the result of Chandrasekhar. Eddington believed that simply was not possible that a star has collapsed to a point. This was the view of many scientists, Einstein himself wrote a paper claiming that the stars will not restrict the size zero: Hostility other scientists, particularly Eddington, his former professor and an authority of first importance regarding the structure of stars, persuaded Chandrasekhar to abandon these for work and go to other astronomical problems, such as moving clusters of stars. However, when he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1983, it was, in part at least, for his early limit on the mass of cold stars.

Chandrasekhar showed that the exclusion principle can not stop the collapse of more massive stars so Chandrasekhar limit, but to understanding what happens to a star such as general relativity theory, was solved for the first time by a young American Robert Oppenheimer, in 1939. But his results suggest that there would be no observable consequences which can then be detected by telescopes. Then occurred the second world war and Oppenheimer himself was involved in atomic bomb project. After the war, the problem of gravitational collapse was forgotten as most scientists were concerned about what happens at the atomic scale and nucleus. However, in the '60s, interest in large-scale problems in astronomy and cosmology was Reawakened a marked increase in the number and range of astronomical observations, determined by application of modern technology. When Oppenheimer's work was rediscovered and extended by many people.

The picture we now have in Oppenheimer's work is the following: the gravitational field of the star change trajectories of light rays from space trajectories for that would have been if the star there. Cones of light that indicate the paths followed in space and time the sparkle of light emitted from their tips curved inward near the surface of a star. This can be seen from distant starlight bending observed during an eclipse of the sun. When the star contracts, the surface gravitational field becomes stronger and cones of light curves and more inward. This makes it more difficult to stand out from the light and, to a distant observer, the light is weaker and redder. Finally, when the star has shrunk to a certain critical radius, the surface gravitational field becomes so strong that light cones are bent inward so much that light can not escape (Fig. 6.1). The theory of relativity, nothing can travel faster than light. Thus, if light can not escape, can not get anything else, everything is attracted by the gravitational field. There is therefore a set of events in a region of space-time which can not reach out to a remote observer. This region is called a black hole. Limit to be called event horizon and it coincides with the trajectories of light rays failed to leave the black hole.

To understand what you see when you look at the collapse of a star forming a black hole, we must remember that in relativity theory no absolute time. Each observer has its own measure of time. Time for one of the star will differ from one time to the remote, because the star's gravitational field. Suppose an astronaut out boldly on the surface of a collapsed star, which collapses and with it, sends a signal every second, according to the clock or the space ship, orbiting around the star. At a time indicated by the clock or, say 11:00, the star would shrink under critical radius at which the gravitational field becomes so strong that nothing can come out and its signals do not reach the ship. As 11:00 approaches his comrades, concerning the ship, would find that the intervals between successive signals issued by the astronaut would be getting longer, but this effect would be very small before 10:59:59 . They should expect very little more than a second signal from the astronaut at 10:59:58 and at 10:59:59 sent when the clock or look, but you should always wait for signal from 11:00 . Surface light waves emitted by the star between 10:59:59 and 11:00, after time astronaut, would be scattered over an indefinite period of time, as seen from the spacecraft. The time between arrivals of successive waves spacecraft would be getting longer, so that light from the star would appear increasingly red and getting worse. Finally, the star would be so dark that could not be seen from the spacecraft, all that remains is a black hole in space. But the star would continue to exert the same force of gravity on the spacecraft, which would continue to move in orbit around the black hole.

However, the scenario is not entirely realistic because of the following problems. Gravity gets weaker as you move away from the star, so the gravitational force on our feet cutezatorului astronaut would always be greater than the force exerted on the head. This difference between the forces would stretch our astronaut out like spaghetti or it would break before the star to contract the critical radius event horizon formed the car! However, we believe that there are much larger objects in the universe, as the central regions of galaxies, which may also suffer a gravitational collapse to form black holes, an astronaut out on one of them would be broken before the hole shape dark. In fact, he would not feel anything special when they reach the critical radius and could pass the point of no return without noticing it. However, only a few hours, as the region continues to suffer collapse, the difference between gravitational forces exerted on the head and his feet would become so large that, again, it would break into pieces.

The work that Roger Penrose and I did it between 1965 and 1970 showed, according to relativity theory, that a black hole must be a singularity of infinite density and infinite curvature of space-time. This is the Big Bang at the beginning of time, only that he would be an end time for the body and astronaut suffering collapse. At this singularity the laws of science and our ability to predict the future would not work. However, an observer outside the black hole still would not be affected by this failure of predictability, because neither light nor any other sign of singularity could not reach. This made the remarkable Roger Penrose cosmic censorship hypothesis to propose that can be paraphrased thus: "God hates a naked singularity." In other words, singularities produced by gravitational collapse occur only in places like black holes, where they are decently hidden A look outside the event horizon. Strictly, the weak cosmic censorship hypothesis is called: it protects observers who remain outside the black hole ability to predict the consequences of failure that occurs at the singularity, but does nothing for the poor unfortunate astronaut who falls into the hole.

There are some solutions of the equations of general relativity it is possible that our astronaut to see a naked singularity: he can avoid touching the singularity and instead fall through a "wormhole" and out in another region of the universe. It would provide great opportunities to travel in space and time, but unfortunately it seems that these solutions are all very unstable, the small perturbation, such as the presence of an astronaut, so you can change the astronaut could not see the singularity until not reach it and his time comes to an end. In other words, the singularity would always find its future and never in the past. Version of cosmic censorship hypothesis hard to say that a realistic solution, singularities would always find time entirely in the future (the singularities of gravitational collapse) or entirely in the past (the Big Bang). It is great to hope that a version of the hypothesis is valid censorship as close to naked singularities may be possible trip in the past. Although this would be great for writers of science fiction, it would mean nobody would have a safe life: anyone can come in the past and he can kill his father or mother before you be designed!

Event horizon limit where space-time region can not get out, acts as a membrane in one direction around the black hole: objects that can fall through imprudent astronauts into a black hole event horizon, black hole but not out nothing the event horizon. (Recall that the event horizon is the trajectory in space-time light trying to escape the black hole, and that nothing can travel faster than light.) Might say about the event horizon what the poet Dante said of entering the Hell: "I you enter here leave all hope." Whatever or whoever falls through the event horizon will soon reach the region of infinite density and end time.

General relativity predicts that moving heavy objects cause the emission of gravitational waves, where the curvature of space is moving at light speed. They are similar to light waves, which are where the electromagnetic field, but are more difficult to detect. As light from the objects they carry energy they emit. It would therefore be expected that a system of massive objects eventually reach a stationary state because the energy of any movement will be carried by gravitational wave emission. (It's like a cork in water falls: at first he moves pretty much up and down, but as the waves carry energy with them, he will eventually reach a stationary state.) For example, movement of earth in its orbit around the sun produces gravitational waves. As a result of loss of energy, the Earth's orbit will change so gradually he comes increasingly closer to the sun, bumping into him and reaching a steady state. Energy loss rate is very small, almost enough to put into operation an electric radiator. This means that it will take a thousand million million million million years before the earth will fall on the sun, so no need to worry now! Earth orbit change is too slow to be observed, but producing this effect was observed in the last few years in the system called PSR 1913 16 (PSR stands for "pulsar", a special type of neutron star which emits regular pulses of radio waves ). This system consists of two neutron stars moving in orbit around each other, and that lose energy by emission of gravitational waves makes them move on spiral toward each other.

During the gravitational collapse of a star when it forms a black hole, it moves much faster, so that energy is transported with a much higher rate. So, not long before it will reach a stationary state. Final state would look like this? It can be assumed that it would depend on all of the star complex which was formed not only on its mass and rotation speed, but also different densities of various parts of the star and complicated movements of gas from star. And if black holes would be as varied as the objects of which were formed after the collapse, can be very difficult to make predictions about black holes in general.

However, in 1967 the study of black holes has been revolutionized by Werner Israel, a Canadian scientist (who was born in Berlin, grew up in South Africa and completed his doctorate in Ireland). Israel showed that, in accordance with general relativity, black holes should not rotate very simple, they were perfectly spherical, their size depended only on their mass and any two such black holes with the same mass were identical. In fact, they could be described by a particular solution of Einstein's equations which was known since 1917, Karl Schwarzschild discovered shortly after the discovery of general relativity. At first, many people, including even Israel, have argued that because the black holes must be perfectly spherical, a black hole can be formed only by collapse of a perfectly spherical object. Any real star who would never be so perfectly spherical could suffer a collapse forming only a naked singularity.

There was however a different interpretation of the result obtained by Israel, which was supported mainly by Roger Penrose and John Wheeler. They claimed that rapid movements occurring during the collapse of a star would mean that it emits gravitational waves would make it even spherical and when they reach a stationary state, it would be precisely spherical. According to this view, any star that does not turn, no matter how complicated is the shape and internal structure, would end up after gravitational collapse of a perfectly spherical hole denies, whose size depends only on its mass. Further calculations confirmed this view and it was soon generally adopted.

The result of Israel treat only if black holes formed from bodies which do not rotate. In 1963, Roy Kerr in New Zealand found a set of solutions of general relativity equations describing rotating black holes. These black holes "Kerr" rotate at constant speed, size and their shape depends only on their mass and rotation speed. If rotation is zero, the black hole is perfectly round and the solution is identical to the Schwarzschild solution. If rotation is nonzero, the black hole at the equator bombeaza out or (as the earth or sun bombeaza due to their rotation) and how quickly it spins, the more it bombeaza more. Thus, to extend Israel's result to include rotating bodies, it was assumed that any rotating body that collapsed to form a black hole would eventually reach a stationary state described by Kerr solution.

In 1970 a research student and colleague of mine from Cambridge, Brandon Carter, the first step in demonstrating this hypothesis. He showed that if a rotating black hole has an axis of symmetry, as a top, size and shape would depend only on mass and its rotation speed. Then, in 1971, I showed that any stationary rotating black hole would indeed such a symmetry axis. Finally, in 1973, David Robinson of King's College London has used the results of Carter and mine to show that the hypothesis was correct: such a black hole must indeed be a Kerr solution. Thus, after the gravitational collapse of a black hole must reach a state where it can be rotated, but not pulsed. Moreover, the size and shape would depend only on mass and its rotation speed and not the nature of the body that has suffered a collapse forming. This became known by the maxim "A black hole has no hair". Theorem "bald" is of great practical importance because it restricts very much possible types of black holes. Therefore, it can develop detailed models of objects that may contain black holes, and predictive models can be compared with observations. This also means that when it forms a black hole loses a large amount of information on the body that suffered collapse, because only then can we measure the mass and rotation speed of the body. What this means is you see in the next chapter.

Black holes are one of very few cases in history of science in which theory was developed in great detail a mathematical model before there is any experimental evidence of its correctness. Indeed, it was the main argument of those against the black holes: how could anyone believe in the existence of objects for which the only evidence is the calculations based on the dubious theory of general relativity? However, in 1963, Maarten Schmidt, an astronomer at the Palomar Observatory in California, measured the redshift of an object as a star in the direction of low power radio waves called 3C273 (that is, source number 273 in the third Cambridge catalog of sources radio). He found that it was too large to be caused by a gravitational field: if it were a gravitational redshift, the subject should be so massive and so close to us that he would have disrupted the orbits of planets solar system. This suggested that the redshift was caused by expansion of the universe, which, in turn, means that the object was very far away. and to be visible from a distance so great, should be very bright object, namely to issue a huge amount of energy. The only mechanism that might thought to produce large amounts of energy just seems to be not only the gravitational collapse of a single star, but the entire central regions of galaxies. They found several "objects cvasistelare" similar, or quasars, all with large shifts to red. But they are all too far and too hard to notice so to provide reliable evidence for black holes.

Additional support for the existence of black holes in 1907 came the discovery by a student at Cambridge, Jocelyn Bell, objects in space that emit regular pulses of radio waves. First Bell or scientific leader, Anthony Hewish, thought they may have made contact with alien civilizations in the galaxy! indeed, the seminar in which they announced the discovery, I remember the first four sources have called him-4 found LGM, LGM meaning Small little green men "(Little Green Men). Eventually they and everyone else but concluded, less romantic, after which these objects were named pulsars were rotating neutron stars that actually emit pulses of radio waves due to a complicated interaction between their magnetic fields and surrounding material. This was bad news for writers of space westerns, but very promising for the few of us who believed in black holes at the time: was the first positive evidence that neutron stars exist. A neutron star has a radius of about sixteen miles, only a few times the critical radius at which a star becomes a black hole. If a star can undergo a collapse to a size so small, you can expect that other stars could suffer a collapse to a size and smaller and become black holes.

How can we hope to detect a black hole by definition if it does not emit any light? I would be like looking for a black cat in a dark cellar. Fortunately, there is a way. As shown by John Michell in his pioneering work in 1783, a black hole exerts gravitational pull on nearby objects. Astronomers have observed many systems where two stars orbit moving around each other, attracted towards each other by gravity. They have seen systems where there is only one star visible moving in orbit around an unseen companion. Of course, one can not conclude immediately that the companion is a black hole: is simply a star that is too weak to be seen. However, some of these systems, like the one called Cygnus Xl are also strong X-ray sources The best explanation for this phenomenon is that the visible star surface matter was thrown out. When she falls in the unseen companion has a spiral motion (as water drains from a bath) and becomes very hot, emitting X-rays For this mechanism to work, unseen object must be very small, like a dwarf white neutron star or black hole. Observed the star visible from orbit can determine the lowest possible mass of the object invisible. In the case of Cygnus Xl, it was six times the mass of the sun, which, according to Chandrasekhar's result is too great to be a subject of unseen white dwarf. He is also a table too large for a neutron star. Therefore, it seems to be a black hole.

There are other models that explain Cygnus Xl, which include a black hole, but they are a little forced. A black hole seems the only natural explanation of the observations. Despite this I did bet with Kip Thorne of the California Institute of Technology, in fact, Cygnus Xl does not contain a black hole! This is like an insurance policy for me. I worked hard on black holes and everything would have been a loss if it turns out that black holes do not exist. But in that case, I had the consolation that I won the bet, I would bring a four-year subscription to Private Eye magazine. If black holes exist, Kip will get a one-year subscription to Penthouse.

Out-of-Body Experience

2012-05-04T13:07:00.002+03:00

Out-of-Body Experience were long a source of fascination for people, as there are stories about the "adventures" outside the body for the past several thousand years. The feeling of floating and ability to observe your body from the outside are typical features of these experiences that have puzzled over the time doctors, philosophers and theologians. If for millennia people have attributed the phenomenon of paranormal forces today, thanks to research conducted in recent years by experts in neuroscience, these strange experiences were explained.

Doctors have identified a number of diseases that can lead to body experience, among them the epilepsy and stroke.

Out-of-Body Experience may become manifest after traumatic events like traffic accidents or drug overdoses and during extreme sports or meditation. Statistics show that one in 10 people is part of such a lifelong experience.

Recently, many scientists were able to induce body experience healthy volunteers, under laboratory conditions, making some important steps to demystify this phenomenon.

The first body experience success in the laboratory

Henrik Ehrsson, cognitive neuroscience professor at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, is one of the researchers have made numerous efforts to study the Out-of-Body Experience
.

The first experiment yielded a body experience under laboratory conditions took place in 2007, was made by Professor Ehrsson. He started from the following premise: "What would happen if we" make "eyes of a volunteer and I move to another part of the room? Does it continue to see the location of the body, or the new position of the eyes? ".

To find the answer, Ehrsson asked for volunteers to sit on a chair and wear special glasses, connected to two video cameras at two meters behind them. Volunteers receive the left lens of the camera videos taken from the left and the right ones captured by the camera lens on the right, so that they saw their virtual back from the perspective of a person located 2 meters behind their body.

Then the teacher Ehrsson used two plastic sticks with one of them slightly volunteers împungând chest, without them noticing, and the other repeating action under the cameras, nonexistent chest touching the "virtual person". When the two were synchronized gestures, volunteers reported that they were part of body experience, feeling that is where there were "eyes" of their own body where he looked.

So even if the volunteers could see his body, meaning that it is in the same place as the beginning of the experiment, the brain has recalculated the "self" in the room, which has led to the experience.

To confirm that the volunteers really perceive to be the area where the cameras, Professor Ehrsson used a hammer in the next phase of the experiment, pretending hitting force as cameras, where he found virtual body. Sensors on the skin of volunteers are identified immediately accelerated pulse and sweat levels, symptoms of fear, typical reaction of the human body in case of threats.

Medical studies show that people will perceive their bodies as part of the self due sense called "proprioception". Thus, the brain builds a sense of "self" combining the received signals from skin, muscles and joints with the eye data. Normally, these different sensory streams combine perfectly, resulting in a feeling of "self".

The experiment showed that when sensory information from these flows do not match, the sense of "self" disappears. In these cases, the brain forces a decision, which can lead to feeling that "self" is in another body. This was the result that the observed Dr. Ehrsson.

Professor Ehrsson experiment was the first case in which successful induction of body experience where healthy volunteers. The study also was the first case in which they managed to induce perception of self in a place other than the body are volunteers. 'Details of this illusion is a major success because it reveals the mechanism by which the feeling that we are inside ourselves. Its identification is an important step, because accepting her body as the center through which we perceive the world is a fundamental aspect of self-awareness, "said Ehrsson.

Amazing new experiments

To test the limits of human brain in the perception of their body, Professor Ehrsson continued studies. One of them started from the fact that stroke victims, in very rare cases, get to charge a "phantom member" - a third hand, for example.

Performing an experiment, Dr. Ehrsson found that volunteers can fool brain in minutes, convincing him to perceive the presence of a third hand.

This discovery was made after the five separate experiments performed on 154 volunteers. The participants were seated at the table, and their right hand was placed near an artificial hand made of rubber. Once you sit, the researchers covered the shoulder and right arm with a white towel, creating the illusion that the volunteer had three hands. Then, researchers reached two hands simultaneously (right arm of the volunteer and artificial). After about 30 seconds of simultaneous attacks, the volunteers began to feel the touch on both arms achieved by charging and the third hand as part of their body.

Sensors placed on the left hand confirmed that volunteers perceived artificial arm as part of the body, physiological reactions to the "threat" it with a knife are identical to those observed when the right arm was subjected to this treatment.

Arvid Guterstam, one of the team of researchers led by Ehrsson, explained the reasons for this experience: "As a result of optical illusion, the brain is a conflict over which of the two right hands belongs to the volunteer body. Naturally we would find that only one of the two hands to be perceived as belonging to the body, but brain solves this conflict by accepting both right hands as members, so that subjects feel they have three hands. "

Researchers believe the discovery may be used to improve the lives of people forced to use the prosthesis, and in the future to allow paralyzed patients to operate robotic States.

In another experiment, researchers at Karolinska Institute have used similar methods to persuade the 200 participants in the study that is a little Barbie doll body (measuring 30 cm in length) or that of a huge model ( measuring 4 meters in length). Volunteers to induce the sensation of being in the artificial body, researchers have turned again to stimulate simultaneous real body of volunteers and the artificial in that they believed that it is.

When volunteers arrived to collect the body as artificial, it was shown a cube, the researchers asked them to show, using the hands, how big is it. When participants believed that the body is Barbie doll, cube seemed huge, however, when believers in the body of a giant cube seem small. Thus, the experiment showed that the perception of their body is a basic standard used by the brain to perceive the world around.

This illusion is called the "illusion of Alice", inspired by the adventures of the eponymous character "Alice in Wonderland". In his book, Lewis Carroll, Alice fell after drinking a magic potion, becoming huge after taking a cake. Bjorn van der Hoort, one of the authors of the study, says that this illusion could be used to make specialists to identify with some microrobots (for example, to operate at the microscopic level in the body of a patient) or gigantic robots (to perform repairs in a hole oil or nuclear power).

In another study, coordinated by Professor Mel Slater of the Universitat de Barcelona, researchers were able to convince male volunteers that are in the body of a girl. They have managed to create this illusion by using headphones connected to a virtual reality system that volunteers wore when they were touched on the arm. "Our experiment is the first research which shows that the feeling of body ownership can be transferred entirely on a virtual body". Catalan university study indicates that the feelings of self and body ownership can be handled easily. Researchers suggest this could be used to treat diseases that are based on distorted perception of their body, and anorexia.

The existence of the soul in jeopardy?

All these experiments that reveal how the brain builds a person's self image has led some researchers to argue that the results have impact on philosophy, beyond the potential of using these discoveries to develop new technologies.

Thomas Metzinger, Director of the Theoretical Philosophy Group Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany, explains why the specialists in neuroscience experiments, and Henrik Ehrsson, are extremely important. "There are certain things, such as self-concept, which people thought could not be understood by science. Now, it is shown that the false self is easily manipulated by scientists. I believe that research conducted by Henrik points out that there is no "soul" or a self that is independent of the brain, "said Metzinger.

Asked if he believes that science can explain everything, Dr. Ehrsson gave a firm answer: "Absolutely! Maybe it will take several hundred years, but are convinced that science will provide a full explanation and more complex as the human mind. Perhaps philosophers not to like this and will continue to support that there are still unanswered questions regarding the human mind, but we understand all the elements ".

In recent years, scientists have been able to decipher many mysteries of the human brain, providing a response to "tunnel of light" between life and death, addressing the theme of free will and describing the two systems of the human mind. Today, neuroscience is a growing, promising in the coming years we provide an explanation of how the brain constructs effect known as "self".

Bosnian Pyramids

2012-04-28T13:14:00.000+03:00

So-called pyramid discovered six years ago near the Bosnian capital Sarajevo radiates energy, according to an announcement from the American of Bosnian Ljubljana Semir Osmanagic, a passion for archeology, he discovered the first time in 2006, says the international press .

Some of the Bosnian pyramid formations have a strong energy field, according to him.

"With the help of physics and electrical engineering specialists have shown that the top of the Pyramid of the Sun radiates energy that comes from the depths of them," Osmanagic said, indicating that such anomalies can be seen and can see some pyramids and several pyramids with.

Under the Pyramid of the Sun, a group of archaeologists, led by Osmanagic, has discovered underground tunnels with a length of several kilometers. So far, they have managed to clean a stretch of 600 meters of tunnel, already open to the public.

Pyramids in Bosnia were discovered in 2006 near the village of Visoko, about 30 km northwest of the capital Sarajevo. All are covered with a thick layer of soil and till then had been regarded merely as hills.

The tallest of which measures 70 meters and was known as Visocica hill until it was called Pyramid of the Sun by Osmanagic, a controversial figure, whose discovery was strongly disputed by archaeologists community in the Balkans, who claims the hills near Visoko are natural geological formations, not pyramids.

Archaeologist believes pyramid structures discovered it are man-made and were built about the twelfth century BC the ancient Illyrians. If this hypothesis is correct, then they would be older than three 'sisters' of Giza (Egypt).

- Critics, who are we without any arguments to attack during the 2005/6., Completely withdrew to the public and you can not hear anyone anymore who says it's a natural phenomenon that no pyramids in Bosnia.

After the teams of experts from Egypt to Cairo and Alexandria University, Italy, Russia ... confirm that we have a pyramid, but that should determine who and when it was built, what's the point ... stop the attacks on this project. However, it is still part of the cultural establishment, especially those who initially spoke out against, and still retains an ignorant attitude towards what we do - Osmanagic said.

Persistent archaeologist has recently received yet another confirmation of what hard work and a realistic and based on no matter how much someone liked it or not. During the archaeological works on five of the Bosnian pyramids near Visoko are feverishly looking for some organic material on which to radiocarbon methods. could determine the approximate age of the building.

- Organic material we found on one of the terraces of the pyramid of the moon. We found that the surface layer of the adhesive on these blocks. When we unstuck the surface we found an organic material, we conducted a radio-carbon dating in Poland (Gliwicame)) at the Silesian Institute of Technology and a few weeks ago we got a result. Age is 10 350 years, which means that the terrace was built before 10 thousand years ago and it completely changes our understanding of Europe and the age of advanced civilization - said Semir Osmanagic

Top 10 cities of crime and violence

2012-04-26T14:30:00.000+03:00

Everyone wants, at a time, to pass the gates and make a trip in a remote location. Before starting off, you should check if it is safe to go in the corner of the world you want to see. You stay surprised, but two U.S. cities are on the list of 10 dangerous destinations in 2010.

Here are the most dangerous 10 cities in the world in 2010.

1.Caracas, Venezuela

2.. Ciudad Juarez, Mexico

3. Baghdad, Iraq

4. Mogasishu, Somalia

5. Capetown, South Africa

6. New Orleans, United States

7. Grozny, Chechen

8. Karachi, Pakistan

9. Detroit, United States

10. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

1. Baghdad, Iraq

Rivers of blood flowing through the streets of Baghdad. For years this city was named among the least safe city in the world. With a long history of violence, war and terrorist attacks in Baghdad seems that nothing has changed positively, despite the execution of Saddam Hussein leader. Since 2003, when U.S. troops arrived in Iraq, more than 650,000 civilians were killed.

2. Detroit, United States

The city known as the "Motor City" was at the top of the ranking of most dangerous cities in the world made Forbes magazine. This ranking is the result of analysis of statistical data showing that the crime rate in this city is a few years in an alarming increase. We give just one figure: in 2010 there were 1,220 violent crimes per 100,000 inhabitants.

3. Karachi, Pakistan

It is ranked as one of the lowest scoringuri destinations in terms of personal safety. In recent years, terrorist attacks or suicide bomb attacks have become a part of everyday life. This year, in February, more than 30 people have died in a bomb.

4. Grozny - Chechen Republic, Russia

They say the city is run by the Russian Mafia and police is totally overwhelmed. In the Republic of Chechnya killed one Russian Civil is every 18 minutes, registering about 84 murders per day. The city theater extremists, racists, networks of prostitution, drug traffickers, not to mention the confrontation turned violent on Chechen rebels.

5. Mogadishu, Somalia

Capital of Somalia is ravaged by civil war. Statistics show that in 2008 half of the city population (0.5 million people) have left the conflict zone. Dozens of people are injured every day in conflicts, and frequent bombing dozens die. Since 1991, when President Siad Barre was ousted, more than 1 million Somalis have been killed.

6. Ciudad Juarez, Mexico

A city with a population of 1.5 million inhabitants, bordered by the United States. In recent years it has become the theater of war between drug cartels. Compromised the safety permanent confrontation total population. Since 2007, there were over 8330 war crimes related to drugs.

7. Caracas, Venezuela

Foreign Policy magazine called it "the world capital of crime 'at the end of 2008. In December of that year, in Caracas, there were 150 murders. And here is recorded several confrontations between drug traffickers.

8. New Orleans, USA

The capital crime in the United States, with a rate of 95 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants. It is a worrying figure, given that the city has only 300,000 inhabitants, even alarming to think that Times in Baghdad announced that the rate is 48 per 100,000 inhabitants. Violence is increasing due to the fact that the city is in one of the poorest areas of the country.

9. Cape Town, South Africa

Top Africa was shaken by crime for years, and capital Cape Town is the most dangerous city in the country. Murders and robberies, rapes and kidnappings are acute problems, and tourists are the main targets. The city has a crime rate of 62 per 100,000 inhabitants. To leave the streets alone at night, even downtown, is an adventure that puts your life in danger. The number of rapes, thefts and robberies increased alarmingly in the last two years. 71,500 rapes were reported during this period.

10. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

It occurs where the largest carnival in the world, but also one of the most dangerous cities. As soon as you deplane is handed a leaflet that informs you about the risks that you expose yourself, you can do and can not do, where to go and where not. You should not wear jewelry or clothes that demand attention. For two years the crime rate has increased alarmingly. It's a place of confrontation between drug traffickers. Last year, the city there were 8,000 crimes, which means almost 20 per day.

The most feared cities in the world are actually some places where crime, violence and drugs have reached alarming levels. Do not venture in cities such as Caracas, Baghdad, Cape Town and Karachi.

List of most dangerous cities in the world was launched and, with few exceptions, they are not recommended destinations where to go, according to AOL Travel.

As always it is wise to be alert when you're in a foreign place (even in a safe city, like New Orleans), always be alert when you are in Rio de Janeiro (which has a crime rate "similar to the a war-zone ") or Cape Town.

An interesting fact: more than 50 murders a day take place in South Africa, more than half in Cape Town.

It's best not to visit Baghdad, Karachi or Caracas, all these cities are part of the top 10 towns, full of terrorism, drugs and armed gangs.

Facts about cigarettes

2012-04-26T13:27:00.001+03:00

1. Although more people give up smoking, this vice produce the large amounts of money. From the last century, the number of smokers is declining, but only in 2009 the industry produced 614 billion dollars, according businessinsider.com. Here are some things less known about the tobacco industry and cigarette consumption in the world.

2. Global tobacco industry sells about 6,000 billion cigarettes a year and is one of the most concentrated industries in the world, where few companies control the entire international market. According to a study BAT, Phillip Morris International (PMI), controls 16% of the world market, followed by British American Tobacco (BAT) with 13% of the market. Japan Tobacco International (JTI) has 11% of the cigarette market, Imperial Tobacco and 6% of the market. PMI is headquartered in Switzerland, BAT and Imperial Tobacco UK center and JTI in Japan and Switzerland.

The fact that in developed countries such as U.S. cigarette consumption is declining, led the major tobacco manufacturers to expand into other markets, especially emerging countries such as Indonesia and Phillipine.

And China is a good option in this case, with a market cigarettes four times higher than in 1970.

A. People worldwide smoke 15 billion cigarettes each day and drink a billion cans of coke.

3. Countries where most smokers are: China, U.S., Indonesia, Russia, India, Turkey, Brazil, Japan, Ukraine, Italy and Korea.

4. All weight about 360 billion cigarettes smoked in one year alone Americans is equivalent to 350,000 cars VW Beetle brand.

5. Cigarette filters and cigarette represents 38% of garbage collected annually by the international service of cleaning the banks of the ocean (International Coastal Cleanup).

6. Every day, 3,450 Americans aged 12 and 17 smoke their first cigarette.

7. Imperial Tobacco Company, the fourth largest producer of cigarettes, owns more than half the Indian market. The company sells in this country about 98 billion cigarettes per year.

8. Every minute, around the world are sold about 10 million cigarettes.

9. Cultivation and marketing of tobacco contributes to 10% of Indonesia's income and provide millions of jobs.

10. In Britain, 12 times more people died from diseases caused by smoking than in The World War II.

11. A recent test showed that a lighted cigarette produces oil seven times faster than a car's exhaust.

12. Revenues of U.S. cigarettes, Reynolds American and Lorillard Altria Group, had revenues of about $ 1.4 billion last quarter of 2010.

13. Consumption of cigarettes is now seven times the 1990 level. A similar trend can be observed in other developing countries in Asia.

14. In China, the number of smokers has reached approximately 350 million, four times more than were in 1970. Chinese smokers consumed in 2009, 2,000 billion cigarettes, representing over 40% of total annual worldwide. Chinese tobacco market is controlled by the state through the National Tobacco Company in China.

15. Phillip Morris, the world's largest cigarette manufacturer, has over 75,000 employees worldwide.

16. Approximately 250 million women worldwide are smokers. Number of men cigarette consumption is around one billion.

Cicero- the spy

2012-04-26T00:24:00.002+03:00

On the evening of October 26, 1943, a stranger appeared at the German Embassy in the capital of Turkey - country not involved in the war that butcher Europe.
The stranger asked to be presented personally to the ambassador, known von Papen, who offered to sell documents critical to the fate of the entire war, in favor of Germany.
Betrayal Price: 20,000 pounds
Skilful diplomat von Papen was too skilled to be exposed in a conversation with a stranger, but at the same time, experienced enough to know that in matters of espionage, nothing is so unimportant, that it is negligible.
Invited the Secretary to the unknown in an elegant salon and receiving telephoned German Attaché Embassy Moizysch to come immediately, without explanation.
The stranger held up long, seeing that it gets no ambassador, but had the offer: has children - Microfilm - by the most secret documents safe passing through the British Ambassador. In their exchange, requires 20,000 pounds English, in case any other currency.
If documents will give satisfaction, and he does not doubt this, other documents to date will be paid with 15,000 English pounds for each new microfilm.
The amount was fantastic, unbelievable offer, and he thought his Moizysch guy is crazy. He guessed the thoughts and raised bluntly: "If you find more, I will retire and I do not see you again. Goods I have other clients" - and looked out the window significantly in the direction of Soviet embassy.
Surprisingly he accept Berlin gameOcombrie would call at 30, presenting the figure "Pierre". If Moizysch will have money on him, he will answer amounted "I received the letter" and will meet the embassy garage, where the transaction will be cash.
The stranger did not reveal his identity, but admitted to being Jack the British embassy and that would be a mistake for Germany to investigate the enemy court.
Ambassador von Papen telegraph informed Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop, insisting on irrevocable deadline Oct. 30. The amount was enormous, offer questionable, so the ambassador did not expect an agreement in Berlin.
However, on the evening of October 29, found herself with a lightning telegram: "Accept offer British valet. Amount will come with a special courier on 30 October morning."
Amount arrived and, at night, attache Moizysch received a phone: "I am Pierre. You received my letter?".
Unbelievable, but true
At night, the embassy garage, "Pierre" took the money, he counted carefully and Moizysch received two microfilm that had enlarged and copied on paper.
Jack has disappeared, after recalling that will call when you have new documents. It also recommends "Pierre", will meet in the same place and will receive only £ 15,000.
All noaptera, Moizysch not done anything, only adds and received copy microfilms. What he saw was amazing: the secret political and military enemy, incredible documents, were in his hands.
Attaché was a novice and was easy to convince instead received copies of authentic documents.
There appeared black on white secrets of the allied military strategy, combat plans, details of the secret conference in Moscow summit in Tehran, peak correspondence between Washington, London and Moscow. All circulating in Ankara.
Ambassador von Papen exclaimed: "Fantastic! Incredible" and asked to know the identity Moizysch valet. Once convinced that something is impossible, decided to give it a code name, which will cover whenever you talk in Berlin about this business.
Secrets enemy put on tray
The name chosen was "Cicero". Von Papen in the results superiors in Berlin, strecurand subtly that merits belong exclusively Attaché, because he, as ambassador, would not put a dubious business intelligence.
It was inspired. Berlin did not bother the ambassador and directly contacted with Moizysch. He was to receive these documents installments, to pay and send them to Berlin.
Since then, the secret documents of the enemy, all levels of military and diplomatic intentions were, at discretion, on the table in Berlin.
Those in Berlin did not come to believe that they also grabbed the treasure, have continued to send many Moizysch Attaché 15,000 English pounds for each microfilm, but abstained from caution.
The logic was simple. If he serves honest spy, the war would be like winning. But if intoxication, if the documents are a lure allies, to send war Germany on false tracks, would be a mistake to bite the bait.
If you leave the game, it's like they would send a signal that "got caught", but if continue to play, farce authors will receive a blow when they see that they targeted empty.
The only attitude remained waiting intelligence. Meanwhile, the butler, who recommended "Pierre" and the Germans gave the code name "Cicero", continues to deliver documents periodically.
Man who had access to highly confidential documents
As a personal valet of the British ambassador was not hard to reach safe with documents:'s had a cast after the original keys ambassador while he was in the bathroom. The rest was routine work.
It looked suspicious. Jack enjoys the trust, have access to all offices and ambassador, when he left the intalniiri or receptions, not to be only a few minutes to shoot everything.
German attaché Moizysch appear punctually at meetings, over new microfilm to pay each time with 15,000 pounds, process them and send them to Berlin. Here, experts confirmed authenticity of documents, excluded version of the fakebut nobody could explain how an anonymous take possession of such documentary treasures, without giving the suspect.
The truth is that likely would have given the suspect if the Germans would use the information received, but this did not happen. Thus, the spy and he felt safe.
When the ship is sinking, the rats flee
In the spring of 1944, German General Staff receives most amazing document of all: Allied landing in Normandy plan, with precise details and the code name of Operation: Overlord.
Was three months before the actual landing, the disaster German to Hitler himself surprised and confused the whole staff, although the detailed operation of the drawers lay subordinates since the spring.
Moizysch attache was aware of the value document. He was awaiting a phone call, called, winning. Nothing. Then he took courage, grabbed the phone, but Foreign Ministry replied laconically on information: "It is possible but very unlikely. Continued".
Soon Moizysch felt that activity begins to falter. His secretary, reliable person whose hands passed through so many documents disappeared. Fled.
Business is over
First time Moizysch not understand where the secretary is gone, but suddenly appeared "Pierre", well informed and gave him the news that the U.S. secretary fled.
Jack is concerned about for himself and did not hesitate to ask the question: "what she knows about me?".
He knew the code name, knew the documents that go to Berlin, but the name never could have had it know: His real name "Cicero" knew not even Moizysch.
"Pierre" to understand that business is over. After all, was not bad: for microfilms delivered 300,000 pounds sterine Germans received a fantastic amount for that time, Europe can not have any such amount.
Price of betrayal
He gave perfectly aware that the Germans have used any of the information provided by it, but that did not bother. Perhaps it would be disturbed around.
However, approaching the war ended, he preferred to disappear. He knew who holds such money should not be displayed, must retire discreetly, especially the Germans lost the war that he served and that he translated it allies had won. The logic was perfect valet.
One thing I do not know "Cicero" and that does not fit into its logic: the English pounds that he had paid the Germans were false.The jack, spy and the spy, star
He failed to go all the way to justice, but has been discovered by writers and filmmakers.He realized that his memories are another volunteer spy treasure that can collect moneyand went to Munich. Here he published his memoirs. The book was not even a bestseller, but still did not unsuccessfully.
Success was completed by writer Alain Decaux, in his published, but in TV, filmed inParis, on the adventure footman in Ankara.
There, on set, before casting, Bazna asked to pay fees is anticipated, cash. The papersreceived one hundred francs, he counted it checked one by one, having examined themin light and touching them with care. Only after this operation was completed, acceptedto appear before the cameras.
They wrote several books and have made several movies about daring spy business.Was written after Bazna died in 1970 in Munich, at age 65.

Chernobyl

2012-04-25T14:21:00.002+03:00

On April 26, 1986, at 1.23 am, the atomic core of nuclear reactor number 4 at Chernobyl (Ukraine) has started - ironically, during a security test - the greatest catastrophe in the history of civilian use of nuclear energy . After an error handling have been two explosions, which shook the building and caused the erection of a column of radioactive smoke.

"A strange light dominating the area and above the plant, a cloud darkened the sky," says a witness, adding that "officers were lost, paralyzed". Com-nuclear contor ore burned for 10 days, spreading air radioelement million, equivalent to the intensity of at least 200 bombs of the type of Hiroshima. The heavy chemical elements, especially strontium and cerium, relapse in the nearby area, and mild, as iodine and cesium, have formed a cloud, carried by the wind, has contaminated three-quarters of Europe.

When the wind blows north-west and seriously polluted cloud Ukraine, Belarus and Russia is over the Scandinavian countries. Headed south and then west, contaminating through their rain-Central Europe and the Balkans, Italy, France, Great Britain and Ireland.

Moscow hidden truth

The first firefighters arrived on scene to stop the growth of fire in reactor No. 3 were exposed to irradiation enormous. Two members of intervention teams have died instantly, others 28 in the weeks that followed, all because of strong radiation.

Since its inception, Mos-cova tried to hide the catastrophe and then minimize it to save face Soviet technology. Sweden was the one who alerted the international community on April 28, announcing a sharp increase in the level of radiation on its territory.

Evacuation Pripiat city with 45,000 inhabitants, 3 km from the center, barely held on 27 April. Kiev and children marched with red flags in their hands for the traditional parade on May 1, while the winds carry the radioactive cloud over the Ukrainian capital. An order restricting the displacement or distributing iodine tablets should be avoided absorption of radioactive iodine, reducing the number of cancers.

Ukraine has agreed to close on December 15, 2000, the last functional reactor in Chernobyl, No. 3, in exchange for international aid by $ 2.3 billion.

Balance UN, challenged

Plant at Chernobyl, the flagship of Soviet industry, is in Ukraine, the border with Belarus, and if the authorities in Moscow would be silent for several days after explosion, nuclear accident fatalities and the effects would be been so great. At that time, expected number of victims was estimated at tens of thousands. But UN last balance sheet published in September 2005, indicate a smaller number of victims, estimating direct deaths in 4000 in Ukraine, Belarus and Russia.

"Complicity with nuclear lobby" ...

Balance is challenged and Greenpeace about a disinformation campaign "insulting the victims" and "complicity with the nuclear lobby". Greenpeace report, denied by WHO, was released 20 years before the anniversary of the Chernobyl explosion and shows that research done by various scientists found that about two billion people were affected by radiation after the explosion in 1986. It said that 100,000 people will die of cancer from the effects of the accident, especially in Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, surpassing estimates IAEA forecasts for last year.

British votes

A study by British scientists called "Another report on Chernobyl" (TORCH), published in Kiev, provide total figures differ from those of the controversial UN report, evaluating between 30,000 and 60,000 total cancer deaths arise from nuclear catastrophe Chernobyl, which is over ten times. Cancer death toll will never be truly known, the report said British, but TORCH "counterbalance the statements made by the UN, who minimized the deadly consequences of nuclear accident and failed to make a substantial analysis of its effects in Europe and worldwide ".

MEPs are independent inquiry

The European Greens European Commission demanded an independent inquiry on the consequences of the Chernobyl accident, accusing the UN and IAEA that minimizes everything. In case the IAEA and the nuclear industry never ceases to systematically minimize the consequences of melting reactor in Ukraine, it is important for Brussels to present a comprehensive and realistic balance of consequences of the disaster of 1986, reveals European environmentalists.

They want to know the number of accident deaths directly affected both the three countries - Ukraine, Belarus and Russia - and in the EU, but also answers the "maximal radioactivity that European citizens affected by eating venison , fruit, mushrooms "and" restrictions applied to agriculture in the EU today. "

KFC&McDonald's

2012-04-25T14:07:00.002+03:00

An urban legend says that food additives and preservatives present in fast food make them last forever. To check, a Spaniard was curious to see how they behave while French fries from McDonald's and KFC.

In 2008, Spaniard bought a portion of chips from the two fast food restaurants and put them in one sealed jar whom.

Any food kept in a jar for more than ten weeks would be to decompose. However, McDonald's potatoes kept their golden brown color and showed no evidence of biological activity, at least not at first sight. In contrast, those from KFC were altered catching mold.

Resistance of potatoes while confirming the high number of preservatives and additives that they contain them. In addition, note that the Spaniard may, therefore potatoes recipe from McDonald's is as well guarded as Coca-Cola ingredients.

World’s largest solar power plant

2012-04-25T13:52:00.004+03:00

The Indian state of Gujarat has built the world’s largest solar photovoltaic power plant, a field of solar panels the size of Lower Manhattan. After only 14 months of preparation, they’ve just switched it on, adding 600 megawatts of power to the grid. That’s enough to power a medium-sized city’s worth of homes. Thing is HUGE.

The 5,000-acre solar park should help India meet its ambitious plans for moving to sustainable energy. The country aims to be at 15 percent renewables by 2020 — right now it’s only at 6 percent. Projects like the Gujarat plant will help by taking advantage of India’s intense sunshine.

However, India’s already in danger of being pushed out of the record-holding spot for world’s biggest power plant. Tunisia is working on a 2,000-MW plant, to open by 2016. The Gujarat solar field is already the size of some towns, so it’s not clear how much bigger plants can get — at least in non-desert countries — before they start having to build them over homes, fields, and household pets. Maybe it’s FINALLY time to start panelling the Moon, like I’ve been saying all along.

Grist

Sugar

2012-04-25T13:46:00.001+03:00

There is no secret that we get fat and sugar destroys our teeth. Recently, however, many health professionals have sounded the alarm, saying that this sweet pleasure is more than "empty calories" is actually a true toxin and the leading cause of serious diseases in the industrialized world. "Sugar kills" is the message experts.

Sugar is consumed in quantities that today in industrialized countries, is the toxin that underlies many diseases, from heart problems to cancer, which kill large numbers of people. This is the conclusion reached from numerous studies in recent years Dr. Robert Lustig, a specialist in endocrinology and child obesity. Lustig is professor in the School of Medicine, University of California, one of the most prestigious U.S. medical schools.

Obesity, hypertension, type II diabetes and heart problems are some of diseases caused by consumption of sugar, says Professor Lustig. Therefore, he started an information campaign supported on sugar is danger to the health of us. His message reached the world's major media outlets, including New York Times, CBS News and NewScientist, and lecture on the subject, entitled "Sugar: The Bitter Truth", recorded over two million views on YouTube.

What is sugar and why is it a toxin?

Lustig says that sugar is a "chronic toxin". "There are three types of toxins. The first is given by substances such as cyanide, which are lethal to humans in a concentration of one part per million. Arsenic and lead are the second type and kill when you are 30-50 parts per million. The third type, namely chronic toxins, is represented by those substances that are lethal at concentrations of several thousand parts per million. These include vitamin A, vitamin D, iron and fructose, "he explains.

Another important thing Lustig wants to clarify is that the "sugar" refers to both sucrose (ie white and brown sugar made from cane and beet sugar) and fructose syrup made from corn. "Fructose corn syrup, sugar, is not no difference. Both are just as harmful as poison, "says Lustig.

Refined sugar (sucrose) is made up of one molecule of glucose and fructose molecule, thus mixing 50% -50%. If fructose corn syrup, fructose is 55% of the mixture, and 45% glucose. Fructose is almost twice as sweet as sugar, sugar is what differentiates from other foods rich in carbohydrates, like bread or potatoes. The substance contains more fructose is much sweeter.

Lustig explains that the two substances in our body are metabolized differently, with different effects. The first thing I want to clarify regarding sugar is that it does not matter that sugar is "empty calories". "It has nothing to do with calories. Sugar is a poison in itself, "he says.

In addition to promoting obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease, while sugar consumption increases the risk of developing cancer. This is the conclusion reached by Lewis Cantley, a professor at Harvard University and also director of Beth Israel Deaconess Cancer Center.

"A third of the most common cancers, including breast and colon cancer, have insulin receptors on their surface. Insulin attaches to these receptors send a signal to the tumor for it to consume glucose, "explains Cantley. When you eat or drink sugar, it causes a sharp increase in insulin levels in the body, which can serve as a catalyst for cancer.

"If you happen to have a tumor in the body to insulin receptors, it will be encouraged to consume glucose in the blood, so that the tumor will grow," explains Cantley.

Professor Cantley leading a scientific effort to design a drug to cancer cells restrict blood glucose. Until then, Cantley has a piece of advice: "Do not eat sugar. If you must, try to keep to a minimum. " Professor Cantley added: "I, for one, so live my life: I stay away from sugar."

What is the solution?

According to the United Nations for the first time in human history, chronic diseases caused by diet (such as heart disease, diabetes and cancer) kill more people than infectious diseases. The latest data show that 35 million people die annually from these diseases. Also, the number of obese people worldwide is far greater than the number of undernourished people. These alarming statistics can be explained by the fact that in the last 50 years global sugar consumption has tripled.

Dr. Lustig says that the harmful effects of sugar is a public health crisis. "When it comes to public health crises is a need for large. Tobacco and alcohol provides an excellent example. I made a conscious choice that we can not give them up, but I decided to limit their consumption. I think sugar should be treated exactly the same, "says Lustig.

"From my point of view, we come to have these problems because people believe that all calories are equal. If all the calories have the same effect, then the solution is to eat less and do more sports. Only that it does not work. And why does not work is that fructose is more toxic than its heat. If you eat 100 calories of fructose, the effect will be more harmful than if you use the same 100 calories from glucose, "says Lustig.

Therefore, the effect of 100 calories of glucose is not the same as that produced by 100 calories of sugar. Glucose is metabolized by every cell in our body, whereas fructose is metabolized in the liver. Another important aspect is the rate at which the calories consumed. For example, if the sugar is consumed in liquid form in the liver reaches a higher amount of fructose in a short period of time, which will influence how it is metabolized.

Experiments in animals have shown that when they consume a large amount of fructose in a very short time (easy to do with liquids), the liver will convert fructose into fat. This facilitates resistance to insulin, known today as the main cause of obesity, type 2 diabetes and heart disease.

Throughout human history, fructose was a healthy and safe food. "So far, eat fructose in small quantities of fruit, which contain fiber which slows absorption and consumed more slowly because of texture. Now, we can produce cheaper sugar and fructose syrup, so we can eat huge amounts, "said Lustig. And it kills us.

One of the first people who noticed the harmful effects of sugar was Frederick Banting, the Nobel Prize awarded in 1923 for discovering insulin. Banting suspect that sugar causes diabetes because the disease was extremely rare in the population who did not very common in those sugar and the sugar was part of daily diet.

Ancient virus DNA thrives in us

2012-04-25T13:32:00.002+03:00

Traces of ancient viruses which infected our ancestors millions of years ago are more widespread in us than previously thought.

A study shows how extensively viruses from as far back as the dinosaur era still thrive in our genetic material.

It sheds light on the origins of a big proportion of our genetic material, much of which is still not understood.

The scientists investigated the genomes of 38 mammals including humans, mice, rats, elephants and dolphins.

The research was carried out at Oxford University, the Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Centre in New York and the Rega Institute in Belgium.

It is reported in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

One of the viruses was found to have invaded the genome of a common ancestor around 100 million years ago with its remnants discovered in almost every mammal in the study.

Another infected an early primate with the result that it was found in apes, humans and other primates as well.

The work established that many of these viruses lost the ability to transfer from one cell to another.

Instead they evolved to stay within their host cell where they have profilerated very effectively - spending their entire life cycle within the cell.

Forced choice

The researchers found evidence of the viruses multiplying so extensively within mammals' genomes that they have been compared to an outbreak of disease.

The senior author of the study, Dr Robert Belshaw from Oxford University's Zoology Department, said: "This is the story of an epidemic within every animal's genome, a story which has been going on for 100 million years and which continues today.

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Much of the dark matter in our genome plays by its own rules”

Gkikas MagiorkinisOxford University

"We suspect that these viruses are forced to make a choice: either to keep their 'viral' essence and spread between animals and species. Or to commit to one genome and then spread massively within it."

The study shows that the viruses involved have lost a gene called Env, which is responsible for transmission between cells.

Known as endogenous retroviruses, these micro-organisms have gone on to become 30 times more abundant in their host cells.

The study is one of many attempting to understand the full complexity of the human genome.

Astonishingly, only 1.5% of the genetic material in our cells codes for human life. Half of the rest is sometimes described as "junk DNA" with no known function, and the other half consist of genes introduced by viruses and other parasites.

Positive services

According to the lead author, Dr Gkikas Magiorkinis, "much of the dark matter in our genome plays by its own rules, in the same way as an epidemic of an infectious disease but operating over millions of years.

"Learning the rules of this ancient game will help us understand their role in health and disease."

This raises the extraordinary scenario of our DNA serving as an environment in which viruses can evolve - a micro-ecology within the double-helix of our genetic material.

There is evidence that they can provide positive services. For example the protein syncytin - derived from a virus - helps develop the placenta.

Dr Belshaw says that endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are not known to have any obvious or direct health effects.

"But there could be effects we're not picking up on or things we could even take advantage of if we detect ERVs moving around or expressing proteins as a result of cancer or infection."

The study was supported by the Wellcome Trust and the Royal Society.

BBC

UFO

2012-04-07T13:18:00.000+03:00

UFO flying saucer called, any flying object or optical phenomenon that can not be explained yet. UFOs have become a very interesting film packs astronautics and aeronautics fast after the second world war.In 1948 the U.S. Air Force began indosariarea raportueilor UFO in a folder called Project Blue Book (Project Blue Book). A number of radar detections coincided with reports of UFOs near National Airport in Washington DC, in July 1952, made the U.S. government to establish a group of engineers, meteorologists, physicists and an astronaut HPRoberson led by a University of Technology physicist in California. People you trust the government because the group was won was supported by the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), and was classified as secret. Last report made public show that 90% of UFO reports can be classified as weather, astronomical everimente or a plane, bird, balloon, or sometimes some strange weather.Advertising first UFO reports in the press helped to simulate the following reports of UFOs not only U.S. but also in Western Europe, the Soviet Union and Australia. A second group dealing with UFO reports s, was organized in February 1966, reached approximately the same conclusion as its predecessor. However some reports remain unexplained, in the mid 60 a group of scientists and engineers, of whom remarked to James E. McDonald, of the University of Arizona, and J. Allen Hynek meteorologist at the University Northwestern, astronaut, concluded that a low procenaj of credible UFO reports have indicated the presence of alien visitors.This sensational supposition that come in all newspapers and magazines in all, faced by other scientists theories. This controversy has led, in 1968, a study sponsored by the U.S. Air Force study that was based at the University of Colorado, and was led by EUCondon, a physicist known. Condon reported a study of UFOs was elborat by a special committee of the National Academy of Scientists. 37 scientists have written one chapter or one section of a chapter in this report were described in detail 59 reports of UFOs.Condor's conclusion to reject the supposition of the existence of aliens and stopped any investigation of these cases.This statement left a variety of opinions about UFOs. A large fraction of the American public, some physicians and some scientists continued investigating acetals assumptions. A group of scientists have believed in the possibility that aliens have visited us, with all these small chance, there was a group of scientists investigating these cases as the pretext that UFOs are useful in studies sociopsihologice. In 1973 a group of American scientists organized by the Center for UFO Studies in Northfield.

Official reports of UFOs:

By 1969 Project Blue Book had collected 12,618 reports that were classified identified astronomical phenomenon, atmospheric, or artificial identified which included cases where information was insufficient. Although the project ended in December 1969 on the report of Condor. Other reports as real as were made in Canada where they were transferred in 1968 from the Department of National Defense to the National Council of Canada Stiinta.Totalitatea relations were in number 750, in the late 60.Some files on UFOs were maintained in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Denmark, Austria and Greece.

SOLAR ENERGY

2012-04-07T13:07:00.000+03:00

Solar energy is often called "alternative energy" to fossil fuel energy sources such as oil and coal.

Solar energy is radiant energy produced in the Sun as a result of nuclear fusion reactions. It is transmitted to Earth through space in quanta of energy called photons, which interact with the atmosphere and surface. The intensity of solar radiation at the outer edge of the atmosphere, the earth is the average distance from the sun is called solar constant, whose value is 1, 37 * 106 or about 2 cal/min/cm2 ergs/sec/cm2. However, the intensity is not constant, it varies by approximately 0, 2 percent in 30 years. Solar intensity at Earth's surface is less than the solar constant, solar energy due to uptake and diffraction, the photons interact with the atmosphere.
Solar intensity at any point on Earth depends in a complicated but predictable, the day of the year, an hour, for up point.Furthermore, the amount of solar energy can be absorbed depends on the orientation of the draws.
Natural absorption of solar energy occurs in the atmosphere, oceans and plants. Interaction of solar energy, oceans and atmosphere, for example, produces winds that for centuries was used windmills. Modern uses of wind power machines require powerful, lightweight, aerodynamic design, resistant to all weather conditions, which attached to generators produce electricity for local, specialist or as part of a local or regional distribution networks.
About 30% of solar energy reaching the edge of the atmosphere is consumed in the hydrologic cycle, producing rain and the potential energy of water in mountain streams and rivers. The power produced by these rivers as they pass through modern turbines is called hydroelectric power. The process of photosynthesis, solar energy contributes to increasing biomass, which can be used as fuel including wood and fossil fuels that were formed from plants much disappeared. Fuels such as alcohol or methane can also be extracted from biomass.
The oceans represent a natural form of energy absorption. As a result of solar energy uptake in the oceans and ocean currents, temperature varies a few degrees. In some places, these variations vertical approaches 20 (C for a few hundred meters away. When large masses of water have different temperatures, thermodynamic principles predict that a power generation circuit can be created by taking energy from the mass with higher temperature and transferring a small amount of energy with lower temperature. The difference between these two caloric energy manifests as mechanical energy, which can be connected to a generator to produce electricity.
Direct capture of solar energy involves artificial means, called solar collectors, which are designed to capture energy, sometimes by focusing direct sunlight. Energy, once captured, is used in thermal processes, photoelectric or photovoltaic. In thermal processes, solar energy is used to heat a gas or liquid which is then stored or distributed. The photovoltaic process, solar energy is converted directly into electricity without using intermediate mechanical devices. Photoelectric processes are used mirrors and lenses that captures sunlight to a receiver, where solar heat is transferred to a fluid put in operation a conventional electric power conversion.
Next we present some of these solar power devices:Solar panels
Collector fluid channels passing through the solar panel temperature is increased due to heat transfer. Energy transferred is called fluid bearer instant collector efficiency.Solar panels generally have one or more transparent layers to minimize heat losses and to obtain an efficiency as possible. In general, are able to warm up the fluid collector 82 (C with a yield between 40 and 80%.
These solar panels have been used effectively for heating water and homes. They replace the roofs locuinþelor. In the northern hemisphere, they are facing south, while the southern hemisphere are facing north. Optimal angle depends panels fitted up to found The device in question. Generally, the devices used year-round, the panels are tilted at an angle equal to latitude gather or minus 15 (and are oriented north to south respectively).
In addition, solar panels used to heat water or houses present pumps, temperature sensors, automatic controllers that activate pumps and energy storage device.