General and Hellenic History Subjects

The concept of being clean in history.

2012-03-04T17:24:00.000+02:00

peeing a pedestrian was not rare some centuries ago

Nowadays hygiene is something fundamental.Many people expect to find their cities clean and they do the most to keep themselves clean too. Being neat is a must in the western society, but was it always like this? Did we always use the same method to keep ourselves clean?

Let's go in the 16th and 17th century. At that time people believed that water could enter the body and that made it automatically unhealthy.Precisely they believed that hot water was allowing the entrance of unhealthy "air" which could damage the human organs.

Therefore with water out of the options people at this era relied on dry cleaning methods. The nobles were rubbing their face with handkerchiefs containing perfume.In the 16th century savoir vivre replaced the hygienologists. Bath continued to be an uknown word and instead the guides were giving alternative proposals like rubbing a roller with perfume on our armpit if it smelled like a goat.Hair cleaning included removal of grease with powder without using water.

About the body they were not doing anything. The whiteness of someone's clothes indicated his social status. Thus everyone was struggling to keep their clothes clean instead of their body.There were examples like the one of a French baron called Sobeur who was changing his shirt and collar every day while he was changing his underwear every four weeks. Of course the poor people couldn't even clean their clothes cause they didn't have other clothes than the ones they wore.

The immoral baths

In Byzantium the public baths were part of daily life. They were organised in guilds and offered comforts like steam bath , wine , food and resting places.In the 15th century a private bath was part of the parties of the rich people.The dukes were combining official dinners into private baths.But as we aforementioned since the 16th century all this changed. For instance the baths of Versailles constructed by Louis XIV ended up as residence of the count of Toulouse. At this time baths were associated with immoral acts and were and example of social corruption. In England baths were were forbidden since the 15th century from a decree by Henry the 5th.

Exactly the opposite was happening in the east. The Byzantine tradition of the baths survived in the Ottoman empire with the hamams or more popularly known today as Turkish baths.Meanwhile in the west even doctors like the French royal physician De Laurence who denounced bathing rendering water as the cause of all body malfunctions. Even Roger Bacon was suggesting that people should wash themselves using substances similar to the human flesh and body.All these suggestions influenced the society and nobles of the 17th century were having a bath once every five months. Bath was only allowed for medicinal occasions. The notorious Sun king Louis XIV took a bath twice after suggestions of his physicians and stated that he didn't want live that painful experience.Only in the second half of the 20th century the idea of bathing as a habbit of the rich spread. However the association of bathing with hygiene was still something unknown.

Dirty cities

There were no private toilets 300 tears ago. Thus people were doing it everywhere

Sewers in the cities were introduced in the 19th century. Before that the cities were a mess. The garbage and crap were smelling everywhere and the nobles were moving in the cities with coaches. When they had to walk they were wearing high boots in order to avoid the dirty waters.In the German city of Ulm they were even using stilts. The authorities tried to improve the situation by putting fines on those who threw their garbage on the streets but it was ineffective.It's interesting to mention that one of the first cleaning methods was to unleash pigs which would eat all the garbage.

Toilet? What's a toilet?

Workers had to collect all the crap from the streets. It was a really dirty job.

Since the ancient times there were sewers in the cities. However we know that even organised cities like Byzantine Constantinople had serious problems with crap.In the medieval era people didn't have private toilets.Thus people were polluting the streets and public toilets were a source of all diseases.People were building small rooms with holes in order to have something similar to a private toilet. Boccaccio in The Decameron he mentions an incident where somebody fell on the wooden walls of a ready to collapse toilet and was mocked by everyone around.

The region of Macedonia in 1908

2012-02-25T14:50:00.000+02:00

I found a really interesting article in one of the national geographic magazines i have in my bookcase.It is written in 1908 so there are some historical inaccuracies in it but it is still interesting to read.

Some notes about Macedonia

A Greek at the port of Thessalonika
All the images of the post are from National Geogaphic

The wider region of Macedonia was for centuries a crossroad of nations and civilizations. Its fertile lands and natural harbours attracted many national groups which came into conflict for this land.

For many years the christians of Macedonia were considered as the most unfortunate and miserable populations of Europe.Although they numbered 4 to 1 in relation with the Muslims, they were never able to unite against the sultan because more than anything that was Ottoman they hated each other mostly.The christians of Macedonia were Bulgarians Greeks Serbians and Vlachs.Until the last summer the Greeks had plans to annex Macedonia, the Bulgarians wanted to dominate the area by Bulgarisation , the Serbians were seeing Macedonia as an opportunity to have access to the Aegean and the Romanians thought that they should maintain some influence on the area.

moments of daily life in Macedonia.

The rivalry between the ethnic groups of Macedonia spread devastation and desruction. Bands of Bulgarians and Greeks commited atrocities to anyone who politically opposed them.And anytime there was a conflict between an ethnic group and the ottoman authority the other ethnic group sided with the Ottomans.

Now all this has changed. Hatred and rivalries have been put aside for the common interest which is freedom.All the ethnic groups decided to participate in an experiment and unite with the Young Turk movement which plans to overthrow the Ottoman sultan. The basic term of this alliance would be the all the nations of the empire would be considered equal by the constitution.

Christian girls of Macedonia. Their outfit betrays their religion.

The Macedonian nations were the ones that had a major role in this revolution and to them owe the rest of the nations of the Ottoman empire their relative autonomy.The joy of the people for having now a parliament and a constitution was such that they were forcing the christian and Muslim priests to hug each other in the middle of the villages.

The propaganda by various ethnic groups of Macedonia had positive effects on education.The Greek Bulgarian Serbian and Romanian schools that operated under the tolerance of the Ottoman goverment because they boosted the division between the nations offered to the agricultural population a high level education which couldn't be achieved if education was controlled by the Ottomans. At the big towns the students had the chance to receive higher education and in some cases music and artistic education by professors from Vienna and Budapest.

A Turkish old man looking suspiciously at the camera

Macedonia is outstands because of the beauty of its landscapes.Many of its mountains surpass 3.000 meters in height and are covered by beautiful forests.In the ancient times it was a notorious land and kingdom but after so man centuries of bad administration its ancient monuments are lost. Nowadays it's mandatory for the archaeologists to make studies about Macedonia as they may discover the ruins of its glorious past. Thessalonica for instance, has more christian monuments than any other city in Greece.There are many great monuments built by Romans and Greeks. The presence of a minaret on the side of each one tells us of their current usage.

A view of Thessalonikas landmark. The white tower.

In Thessalonica there is the Saint Sophia church built by Justinian just like its notorious sister in Constantinople.Nowadays it operates as a mosque.However a big fire four years ago and a recent earthquake have rendered the building obsolete.The Rotunda which is today a mosque was built by emperor Trajan following the architectural pattern of the pantheon in Rome but in a smaller scale and was dedicated to the Cabeirian gods.Indoors it is decorated with mosaics that belong to the pagan temple as there are no traces of christian modification.

A villager making turkish coffee in a village in Macedonia

Between the Rotunda and the sea is the area of the hippodrome where Theodosius the last emperor of the unified Roman empire gave the order for one of the bloodiest slaughters in history.Although he was a fanatic christian and according to ancient writers a charismatic leader , in this case he didn't act with logic.In order to punish the citizens who uprose against the decision of the emperor for the arrest of a chariot racer, he invited them to the hippodrome to watch a spectacle. The spectacle was themselves, 7000 citizens of any age and gender were slaughtered with a barbaric way.

source: National Geographic Greece, September 2003

The Greek Popes of Rome

2012-02-18T14:46:00.005+02:00

We know from history that the Greeks had never good relations or any connections with the papacy in Rome. The reasons for that are many.

The popes promoted the latin rite using the latin language
The Greeks were under the political authority of the Eastern Roman empire(Byzantine) which promoted the patriarchate of Constantinople.
The Popes had bad relations with the emperors of the east contesting over the Roman legacy and the right to use it.
The pretext for the official break up of the east and the west were the dogmatic differences and the high point of this conflict was the sack of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204.

Although Greeks had bad relations with the Papacy there were two periods in history where the Popes had Greek background. The first period was in the early stages of christianity when those who were appointed as bishops of Rome were either coming from the Greek community of Rome or were immigrants from the hellenistic east. The second was the period after Jutinian's conquests when Byzantium controlled for at least a century Rome and other regions of the Italian peninsula. At this period the emperors of the east promoted the appointment of Greek popes.

To begin with the very word 'pope' is Greek, meaning 'father' .

Early Christian period.

Saint Anacletus the second pope of Rome

St. Anacletus (Cletus) (+ c. 91), by origin a Greek from Athens and possibly a martyr. His name, correctly Anencletus, means 'blameless' (see Titus 1,7) and he may originally have been a slave. Feast: 26 April.

He was the second pope in history succeeding pope Linus who although he had a Greek name according to the archives of the Vatican he was from Tuscany.

Saint Evaristus the fifth pope

St. Evaristus (+ c. 109), perhaps a martyr and almost certainly of Hellenic/Jewish origin. Feast: 26 October.

He was the fifth pope and held the office for eight years.He was the son of hellenized Jews from Bethleem.

Saint Telesphorus. The seventh pope

St Telesphorus (+ c. 136), a martyr. Feast: 5 January (in the East 22 February).

He was the seventh pope. He was born in Greece

St. Hyginus (+ c. 142). Feast: 11 January.

He was born in Athens and initially he was a philosopher.

Saint Soter
He was born in Fondi of Campania. His name betrays his Greek descent.

St. Soter (+ 174), of Greek descent, he may have been martyred. Feast: 22 April.

Pope Eleutherius . His name means free in Greek.

St. Eleutherius (+ 189), Greek, possibly martyred. Feast: 26 May.He was born in Nicopolis in Epirus.

Pope Antherus(Anterus). The epitaph of his grave was written in Greek letters.

St. Antherus (+ 236), Greek and perhaps martyred. Feast: 3 January (5 August in East).

St. Sixtus II (+ 258), an Athenian. He was 'a good and peace-loving man' who was much helped by Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria. He was martyred by beheading, together with his seven deacons, one of whom was St Lawrence. He was and is greatly venerated in the Orthodox Church, West and also East. Feast: 7 August (10 August in the East).

Saint Eusebius. The thirtieth pope

St. Eusebius (+ 310), the thirtieth pope and a Greek by origin. He was deported to Sicily by the Emperor and died there as a confessor. Feast: 17 August.

Pope Zosimus. the fortieth pope.

St Zosimus (+ 418), the fortieth Pope, by origin a Greek. Although initially he made many errors of tact and judgement, he was anti-pelagian. Feast: 26 December.

The period of Byzantine Rome

St. Agatho (+ 681), Sicilian of Greek origin. Preceded by two popes who are not saints, he was a kindly and generous man, who also helped call the Sixth Oecumenical Council and helped end monotheletism. Feast: 10 January (20 February in the East).

St. Leo II (+ 683), Sicilian, possibly of Greek descent. He confirmed the condemnation of a predecessor, the heretical Pope Honorius I (+ 638), who had fallen into the monothelite heresy. He loved the poor and was also much concerned with church music. Feast: 3 July.

Pope Zachary

St Zacharias (+ 752), a Greek and the last Orthodox saint in this see, he opposed iconoclasm, adorned churches with frescos, and did much for missionary work and peace all over western Europe. Feast: 15 March. He was the las "Greek" pope. His successor facing the Lombard threat turned towards the Franks as the Byzanines were busy fighting in two fronts the Bulgars and the Arabs of the Abassid caliphate.

The iconoclasm in Byzantium and the coronation of Charlemagne as emperor of Rome worsened even more the relations beween he pope and the emperors of the East. This lead to the final schism two centuries later in 1081.

images source: wikipedia
source:orthodoxengland.com

Gawhar al-Siqilli Al Rumi a greek boy who became a great muslim general and founder of Cairo.

2012-02-08T13:04:00.004+02:00

Gawhar was of Greek(Roman at the time) descent. His family originated from Sicily which at the time was an Arabic emirate.His name Al Siqilli means the Sicilian.Gawhar was born between 928-930. He was sent as a slave to the caliph of Tunis as a result of his intelligence. He gained his freedom and worked as a secretary for the caliph's son.

The territories controlled by the Fatimids.Their initial base was Tunis but later Gawhar al Siqilli built their new capital in Egypt.

Soon he rose to become a vizier and assume the highest ranking position in the army. Initially he set out to conquer all of Morocco. After he secured the western borders he turned towards Egypt which he conquered after a succesful siege of Giza .He ruled Egypt as a viceroy until 972. As a ruler of Egypt he founded the city of Cairo to be the new capital of the Fatimids. Eventually we know that Cairo rose to become the biggest city of Egypt since then. Gawhar also gave orders for the building of the Al Azhar mosque

Al Azhar mosque

Gawhar died in 992, stripped of power since 979 the last year he was still a regent .

Cairo

It took four years for Gawhar to build the city of Cairo. Initially it was named al-Mansuriyyah . At the same time Gawhar ordered the building of the Al Azhar mosque which developed to be the third oldest university in the world.

Atlantis: End of a World Birth of a legend

2012-01-27T18:00:00.004+02:00

The island of Thera(Santorini) supposed to be Plato's Atlantis.

BBC made an attempt to explain the myth of Atlantis through a historical event. This historical event is no other than the disaster that the eruption of the volcano of Thera caused. This eruption is according to the historians the main reason for the decline of the Minoan civilization. Today historians believe that this eruption affected directly and indirectly many regions and populations around the Mediterranean. According to some analysts this event passed through generations in a form of a catastrophe of epic proportions with the addition of mythological elements.This event may also be connected with the disaster stories in the old testament.

This dramatized documentary show us through the point of view of the Minoan society of the island what happened the last days before the great eruption and during thr disaster(or at least what the researchers and archaeologists believe that happened) . It also shows us aspects of the Minoan civilization, stretching from the religious customs to the hierarchy of the Minoan society. The special effects are pretty impressive for a documentary however there are some historical inaccuracies mainly for morality reasons.One of these is the women's dressing.

I think i don't need to say more as the narrator of the docudrama gives you enough info.

This is the video of the whole episode. I recommend you to watch it in high quality and fullscreen. I think this is the first time that the Minoans the first civilization of Europe feature in tv or cinema.

100 years of history in a nice video

2012-01-06T18:26:00.001+02:00

Firstly i wish a belated happy new year to everyone!

I am posting a very well made video which shows the main events in world history that happened the last 100 years.By watching this you are going to make a time travel from the sinking of the Titanic to the World wars and the main events of the first decade of the new millenium. It's also a nice way to refresh your historic memory.

Saint Basil: The Santa Claus of the Greeks

2011-12-26T15:11:00.001+02:00

Saint Basil the Santa of the Greeks.

In my previous post it was explained who was saint Nicholas who has given his name to the Christmas father. The myth of Santa Claus as a pop figure has spread all-over the world even in non-christian countries. In Greece someone would expect him to be called saint Nicholas because of the Greek derivation of his name and because he is a saint also for the orthodox faith.

Paradoxically Santa claus in Greek is Aghios Basilis(Saint Basil). Saint Nicholas is considered more of a protector of the sailors and less as a protector of kids. He has become something like a christian equivalent of Poseidon(Neptune).

Let's see who Saint Basil was and why is he attested to possess the attributes of Santa Claus.

Saint Basil was born in Cappadocia a region of eastern Minor Asia(present day Turkey) in 330 AD.

His family were already pious Christians. He received Christian education at home but also attended lessons in the famous academy of Athens along with Gregory of Nazianzus an another great Christian father and Julian who would later become emperor and enemy of Christianity.

From left to right Saint Basil , Saint John Chrysostom and Saint Gregory of Nazianzus.
These three together are name as the Cappadokian fathers or as the three hierachs.

In 357 he travelled to Palestine Syria and Egypt to study monasticism by living with other monks. He wrote books about what he learned there and these books are cosidered the basis for eastern monasticism.

He spent his years in Caesareia the capital of Cappadokia , trying to put down a spreading heresy called arianism.In 370 he became a bishop and also an exarch of Pontus.From 370 and later there are many accounts about his charities and help of those who were in need. Previously he had already distributed all his wealth to the poor and as a bishop he founded an institution called Basileiada. This institution functioned as a hospital, orphanage and hotel for the homeless. The staff was composed of people who were volunteering.

Saint Basil finally died in 379 AD.

Saint Basil's deed to distribute his wealthy fortune to the poor children and later the foundation of the orphanage and constant help of underprivileged children made him the first Christmas father.

Saint Basil in Catholic vestments .
From a church of Prague.

Who really was Santa Claus?

2011-12-23T12:23:00.001+02:00

Saint Nicholas(Nikolaos). His name meant in Greek: People's victory.
Nike=victory laos=people

Santa Claus is the result of the merge of nordic traditions with christian traditions and in the recent years with Coca cola. The merging ingredients were to take the name of a christian saint associated with children and the mythological figure.But who really was (Ni)C(o)laus and why did he become a Saint?

The guy who wears the coca cola made outfit possesses the attributes perhaps of Odin or an another mythical figure and bears the name of a christian saint.

Saint Nicolas was born in the 3rd century AD in a city called Patara in the region of Lycia. His parents were christians and for many years childless. They considered Nicolaos' birth a miracle. From a little child he was already interested on anything that had to do with the christian religion.

Lycia was a region in the south west of Minor Asia. Myra was the city where Saint Nicholas became a bishop.

In a relatively young age he became a priest. He dedicated his life to praying ,virtue and advent. After the death of his parents he gave all his possessions to the poor.His compassion and help on anyone who needed it was one of the main activities of the saint.One of his deeds which is recorded is that he helped three girls to marry and have a proper life before being compelled by their father to work as prostitutes.

The Byzantine church of Saint Nicholas in Demre in Turkey. Nowadays it is a popular destination for religious tourists.

During emperor Diocletian's reign the Anti-christian sentiment was strong. Saint Nicolas was imprisoned because he preached for christianity.During Emperor Constantine's reign Saint Nicolas became again a bishop. But he was later imprisoned again for assaulting a heretic priest during a religious synod.Later he was set free again by order of the emperor Constantine himself.

Diocletian was the last Roman emperor who persecuted Christians unsuccessfully.

Saint Nicolas was attested to have commited many miracles. He saved his city from starvation and that's maybe the reason that the Russians consider him the patron saint of agriculture , many times he saved ships from being sunk. This has also made him today as the patron saint of all sailors for the Greeks. For the Catholics as it is aforementioned he is considered the protector of children. His remains were located in Myra of Minor Asia during the Byzantine times until they were transferred to the Italian city of Bari by the crusaders(They still remain there today).

Pythagoras: the philosopher who conveyed the wisdom of the East to the West.

2011-12-17T14:42:00.001+02:00

Pythagoras

When Pythagoras arrived in Croton, a city of Magna Grecia around 532 BC he found a society deeply hurt and dissappointed. The defeat of Kroton by an another city state the Epizephyrian Locris, represented the dismay in political and social level. The influence of Pythagoras and his impressive rhetoric which was addressing to the youth, were two factors that contributed in the increase of his prestige, making him one of the most important personalities of the city and of the ancient world.

In Kroton Pythagoras founded a philosophical school in order to ideally shape the society of Kroton as he wanted. Pythagoras was interacting mainly with aristocrats of the city and he became a spiritual and philosophical leader. Soon his disciples would assume the leadership of the city. The influence of Pythagoras and his disciples on the matter of city administration would continue affecting later generations of leaders of Kroton and would render the city once again powerful.

The southern Italy was called Magna grecia(greater Greece) in the antiquity because of the numerous colonies of the Greeks in the area.

The heresy as his school was characterized, because of what it was taught there it was converted into a new moral, religious ,political and scientific movement. The influence of the Pythagorean teaching and philosophy influenced also the fate and events of neighbouring cities of Kroton.One example was the utter destruction of the city of Sybaris(511BC) one of the wealthiest cities of the ancient world after a suggestion by Pythagoras to the leaders of Kroton. Nevertheless because of this suggestion Pythagoras and his students were highly criticized resulting his departure from the city. Pythagoras settled in an another Italian colony called Metapontion until the end of his life(480 BC)

Life

Pythagoras was lucky to be born in Samos at the height of its power under the leadership of the tyrrant Polycrates. He was also even luckier his island to be near the city of Miletus where at the time lived two of the greatest pre-Socratic philosophers Thales and Anaximader.

Pythagoras was born in Samos a Greek island, between 580-570 BC . His father Mnesarchos was a successful and wealthy merchant was descended from one of the aristocratic families which formed the court of the famous tyrrant of Samos Polycrates. Pythagoras was accompanying his father in his mercantile trips having thus the opportunity to meet and learn about new cultures like the Phoenician and the Egyptian. In Tyrinth he attended astronomy lessons by Babylonian priests. Later he was taught Geometry and Astrology by Thales and Anaximader. However the biggest influence in Pythagoras' education was Pherecydes. Pherecydes was the first Greek to adopt the eastern views of immortality of soul and second life which he conveyed to his student Pythagoras.Although some historians claim that Pythagoras' views on the immortality of soul were influenced by Egyptian priests.

The ahmes papyrus

After the death of Pherecydes Pythagoras was impelled by Thales to turn towards the mystical Egyptian priests.Carrying with him a written recommendation by Polycrates to Pharaoh Amasis, Pythagoras achieved to be accepted as a student of the priests in Thebes. There he was initiated in all the Egyptian rituals and learned the Egyptian views about life and death. The Egyptians believed that many animals were sacred and their diet was as we would call it nowadays a vegeterian's diet.According to some historians Pythagoras had the chance to study the Achmes papyrus which dated back to the second millenium BC. This papyrus revealed through a mystical language some complex and perfectly developed mathematical theories which were unknown for the rest of the world.

After finishing his studies in Egypt he wandered all around the known world.At some point he became a student of Chaldean priests of Babylon who were masters of mysticism and astronomy.

Carrying knowledge from all around the known world Pythagoras returned to Samos and became the teacher of Polycrates' son. However very soon their relations were worsened and Pythagoras left for Italy.

Pythagorean lifestyle

The registration of students in his school in Kroton was like a process of initiation into a secret organisation.The wannabe students were beginning their initiation process in the gym where they had to accomplish some tasks. Later they would participate in a symposium to answer some questions.Pythagoras was judging the candidate's appropriacy to enter the school not by the answers he was giving but by the physical reactions he had when the questions were posed to him.If the student was admitted he would attend five years of lessons to complete the first grade of education(there were three grades). The students before entering the school were giving all their fortune to a group of students where they belonged. During the first grade of studies they were only allowed to listen what Pythagoras taught.

A student's program began with gymnastics in the morning and Pythagorean teaching in the afternoon.heir diet was strict. For lunch they were eating bread and honey and for dinner bread and vegetables. Before going to sleep every student had to consider what were his deeds of the day and what conclusion could he make.Only the third grade students were allowed to teach and tell about what they had learned.

Pythagorean teaching

The central doctrine of Pythagoras philosophy is based on the idea that "the number" is the essence of the beings. This philosophy derived from the interest of the Pythagoreans in music. They believed that the harmony of music was related to mathematical analogies. The "number" was the beginning of everything for the Pythagoreans. Some numbers were considered sacred for the Pythagoreans. One example was the geometrical construction of 10. (1+2+3+4=10). Another famous theory was the Pythagorean theorem

The Pythagorean moral theory was the effort of the human transition to modesty and harmony. This required that the human would maintain some characteristics like prudence,confidentiality,quietness, respect,patriotism, denial of wealth , justice and valour.Friendship had an important position in moral teaching.This was proved by an incident where someone asked Pythagoras "What is a friend" and Pythagoras answered "It's the other me"

The famous Pythagorean theorem

According to Pythagoras the soul is immortal an is located somewhere between the brain and the heart.As it is aforementioned he also believed in life after death.According to Pythagoras' reincarnation theory the soul of the body that had a pure life would go to heaven and unite with god but if the soul was impure, it had to re enter to a body until it would be cleansed from sin.

Pythagoras honoured only Apollo among the Greek gods. He was often referring to him as father. He believed in demons whom he thought to be pure souls that wandered on the skies. The strongest being for Pythagoras was god and he was represented by the number 1.

The teachings of Pythagoras included mathematical philosophical and geometrical theories that made him notorious in the ancient world influencing the Greek science and philosophy. Besides, every time he was asked "What are you?" he responded "I am a philosopher". His philosophy was the way of life would determine the salvation of someone's soul.

Celts and Greeks. The acquaintance of two cultures. (Part 2)

2011-12-08T17:13:00.001+02:00

For the part 1 see here: http://akrokorinthos.blogspot.com/2011/12/celts-and-greeks-acquaintance-of-two.html

The invasion of Macedon

A fifteenth century French depiction of the death of Ptolemy Keraunos while fighting the Celts. Note how the artist has portrayed all the combatants as if they were contemporary French knights, right down to the plate armor.

The collapse of the kingdom of Lysimachos(one of the successor states of Alexander's empire), the military weakness of the kingdom of Macedon after many wars against other successor kingdoms and the campaign of Pyrrhus' army to Italy(Pyrrhus and the Epirotes were the only allies who could provide assistance to Macedon) were favourable factors for a Gaulish invasion in Macedon. Thus during the winter of 280 BC three armies of Gauls followed by their families, invaded the Southern Balkans.The first army moved towards Thrace. The central army under the leadership of Brennos and Acichorius invaded Paionia. The western group under the leadership of Belgios invaded Dardania and later Macedonia.

The Macedonian king Ptolemaios Keraunos treated the ambassadors of the Celts with contempt. He underestimated the strength of the Gauls and attacked them with a small army that he had available as he had previously let the rest of his army to spent the winter with their families. The battle resulted as a tragedy. The Macedonian army was annihilated and the king himself fell dead in the battlefield.

The road was now clear for the Gauls to loot Macedon. Luckily for the people of Macedon the Celts didn't have siege knowledge and they were all protected behind the walled cities.However the countryside was ravaged by the Celts.

Finally an old Macedonian general called Sosthenis achieved to make Belgios withdraw to the north.Although Belgios' army left Macedon Greece was not relieved from the Celts as the central army hearing about the riches of Macedon(probably from the withdrawing army) gave it a try and invaded Macedon too. Sosthenis once again took the responsibility to deal with the new invaders. He adopted skirmishing tactics which proved to be disastrous for the Gauls thus making them leave Macedon.

The invasion of Southern Greece

The area where the Celts invaded in Greece. The Aetolian territories on the left. You can also see Thermopylae . Exactly south of Thermopylae was located the oracle of Delphi which was the primary target of Brennus.

The central army of Gauls under Brennus and Antichorus instead of retreating towards the north as Belgios dod, they moved towards southern Greece.The Thessalians reached an agreement with Brennus that they would let him pass through their land unless he wouldn't damage their farms and fields. The rest of the Greeks formed an alliance to deal with this threat with the exception of the Peloponnesians who were feeling safe under the Corinth channel.

The Greek army was consisted of 30.000 of whom 11.000 were Aetolians ,10.500 were Thebans(Boeotians) ,3.500 were Phokeis ,1.500 were Athenians,700 were Lokrians and 400 Megareans.In addition Antiochus the Seleucid king and Antigonus Gonatas(grandchild of Antigonus the general of Alexander the Great) sent each 1.000 mercenaries in their efforts to assume the role of protector of Greece.

Although the Greek army was strong in numbers they were divided on the matter of leadership.The Aetolians and the Boeotians who had contributed the most(in numbers) in this army were debating over the leadership. Eventually a compromising solution was achieved by giving the leadership of the army to the Athenian general Kallippos.

Kallippos put the Greek army behind the river Spercheios thinking that the Celts wouldn't be able to cross the it because of the strong current.However the Celts found calm water and achieved to get across. The Greeks regrouped in Thermopylae.The Celts who numbered 40.000 men were not able to use the strength of their cavalry as the battlefield was so narrow. Their infantry attacks were all easily repelled.

Brennus cleverly sent a part of his army to invade Aetolia to force the Aetolians withdraw and weaken the Greek army.Brennus' plan was successful as the Aetolians left Thermopylae.Then he sent another contingent of his army through the mountains to hit the Greeks from the rear. This was exactly the same tactic that Xerxes used 200 years earlier against the 300 Spartans of Leonidas who held the narrow pass of Thermopylae.The Greek army was saved by the Athenian ships who transferred them to a safe ground.

In the same time the Aetolians achieved to repel the Gauls from Aetolia with the assistance of the Achaeans(north western Peloponesians). Brennus set as his target the Oracle of Delphi which was rumored to contain many riches. The oracle was a vulnerable target as it was defended only by 4.000 Aetolians ,Phokians and Magnites. Miraculously the defenders were able to stop the 40.000 strong Gaulish army. Both sides suffered heavy casualties. Brennus died either from serious injuries or because he commited suicide. The Gauls pursued by the Greek counter attacks suffering from the bad weather went to the north where they were divided again in two groups.The first one under Acichorius returned back to the Danube region and the second under Comodoris went eastwards towards Thrace.

Celts and Greeks. The acquaintance of two cultures. (Part 1)

2011-12-03T16:02:00.003+02:00

Areas of exapnsion of the Celtic Greek and Phoenician language

The ancient Greeks knew about the existence of Celts since the 6th century BC. It was the time of the second Greek colonization during which the ancient Greeks founded colonies in the Western Mediterranean.

Massilia(Nowadays Marseilles) was the first Greek colony which developed contacts and diplomatic relationships with the Celts of Gaul. These relations were from time to time either peaceful or hostile. The ancient Greeks considered the Celts among the nations with the largest populations. They also created myths about the origins of the Celts. According to one tradition the Cyclops Polyphemus and the Nereid Galateia were the parents of Galatis(meaning Gaul the ancestor of Gauls) while in an alternative version Hercules who wandered in Western Europe was the father of Galatis.

The ancient Greeks were using two names for the Celts: Keltai and Galatae. The names derive from the Celtic language meaning probably strong, valiant or prominent.

The are where the Celts were originated from, was Southern Germany. From there , they expanded and until the 5th century BC they had settled allover the western Europe. During the 5th century they invaded in the Po valleyin Northern Italy and drove back the Etruscans. In the beginning of the 4rth century they invaded further into the Italian peninsula and sacked Rome(390 BC). The Romans never forgot this and when they arose to power and conquered the Gaulish lands they treated the Celts with ferocity. The Celts also expanded towards the East reaching the Northern shores of the Black sea.

The founding of Massalia

Gyptis the daughter of a local Celt chieftain chose Protis as her husband giving him the right to establish a new Greek colony.

Protis a leader of greek colonists, while exploring for a new trading outpost or emporion for Phocaea, discovered the Mediterranean cove of the Lacydon, fed by a freshwater stream and protected by two rocky promontories. Protis was invited inland to a banquet held by the chief of the local Ligurian tribe for suitors seeking the hand of his daughter Gyptis in marriage. At the end of the banquet, Gyptis presented the ceremonial cup of wine to Protis, indicating her unequivocal choice. Following their marriage, they moved to the hill just to the north of the Lacydon; and from this settlement grew Massalia.

Celtic mercenaries in Greece

The physical appearance of the Celtic warriors was intimidating for the Ancient Greeks who whose average height was shorter comparing to the Celts.

In 369 BC during a war between the Thebans(Boeotian alliance) and the Spartans, Celtic mercenaries appeared for a first time in the Greek battlegrounds. They were hired and sent by the ally of Sparta the tyrrant Dionysos ruler of the Sicilian city of Syracuse. The Celts numbers 2.000 warriors including horsemen. They proved to be exceptionally brave and caused many casualties on their enemies. In 368 BC Dionysos sent again a new army of Gaul mercenaries whose help was crucial for achieving many victorious battles for the Spartans.

Alexander the Great and the Celts

In 335 BC Alexander the Great campaigned to the areas around Danube in order to insure his northern border before invading the Persian empire. After he defeated many of the strongest tribes of the region most of the rest tribes sent emissaries to offer alliances and peace treaties. Among them there were also representatives of Celts of the Adriatic. During the meeting with the Celts Alexander asked them what is the thing they are most afraid of . They answered that they fear the possibility of the sky falling on their heads. Alexander misunderstood this phrase but for the Celts it was a symbolic phrase by which they were expressing their commitment to the agreement with Alexander. This tradition is continued until nowadays when it comes to Celtic oaths.

for the second part:http://akrokorinthos.blogspot.com/2011/12/celts-and-greeks-acquaintance-of-two_08.html

Quotes from ancient theatrical plays: Aeschylus "Agamemnon"

2011-11-20T16:32:00.001+02:00

Agamemnon was the leader of the Greeks in the Trojan expedition. In the Homeric epics his feud with Achilles made the latter withdraw from fighting the Trojans.

I omit many other important quotes cause sometimes translation from one language to another makes some parts lose their initial meaning. Theatrical translation doesn't have to do always with meaning but also with other aspects of theatrical discourse like verses and the musicianship of the lines.

Agamemnon

Agamemnon begins with a Watchman on duty on the roof of the palace at Argos, waiting for a signal announcing the fall of Troy to the Greek armies. A beacon flashes, and he joyfully runs to tell the news to Queen Clytemnestra. When he is gone, the Chorus, made up of the old men of Argos, enters and tells the story of how the Trojan Prince Paris stole Helen, the wife of the Greek king Menelaus, leading to ten years of war between Greece and Troy. Then the Chorus recalls how Clytemnestra's husband Agamemnon (Menelaus' brother) sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia to the god Artemis to obtain a favorable wind for the Greek fleet.

The Queen appears, and the Chorus asks her why she has ordered sacrifices of thanksgiving. She tells them that a system of beacons has brought word that Troy fell the previous night. The Chorus give thanks to the gods, but wonder if her news is true; a Herald appears and confirms the tidings, describing the army's sufferings at Troy and giving thanks for a safe homecoming. Clytemnestra sends him back to Agamemnon, to tell her husband to come swiftly, but before he departs, the Chorus asks him for news of Menelaus. The Herald replies that a terrible storm seized the Greek fleet on the way home, leaving Menelaus and many others missing.

The Chorus sings of the terrible destructive power of Helen's beauty. Agamemnon enters, riding in his chariot with Cassandra, a Trojan Princess whom he has taken as his slave and concubine. Clytemnestra welcomes him, professing her love, and orders a carpet of purple robes spread in front of him as he enters the palace. Agamemnon acts coldly toward her, and says that to walk on the carpet would be an act of hubris, or dangerous pride; she badgers him into walking on the robes, however, and he enters the palace.

The Chorus expresses a sense of foreboding, and Clytemnestra comes outside to order Cassandra inside. The Trojan Princess is silent, and the Queen leaves her in frustration. Then Cassandra begins to speak, uttering incoherent prophecies about a curse on the house of Agamemnon. She tells the Chorus that they will see their king dead, says that she will die as well, and then predicts that an avenger will come. After these bold predictions, she seems resigned to her fate, and enters the house. The Chorus' fears grow, and they hear Agamemnon cry out in pain from inside. As they debate what to do, the doors open, and Clytemnestra appears, standing over the corpses of her husband and Cassandra. She declares that she has killed him to avenge Iphigenia, and then is joined by her lover Aegisthus, Agamemnon's cousin, whose brothers were cooked and served to Aegisthus' father by Agamemnon's father. They take over the government, and the Chorus declares that Clytemnestra's son Orestes will return from exile to avenge his father.

lines 160-166

Chorus
God, whoever he may be,—if by this name it pleases him to be invoked, by this name I call to him—as I weigh all things in the balance, I have nothing to compare [165] save “God,” if in truth I must cast aside this vain burden from my heart.

line 249
Chorus

Justice inclines her scales so that wisdom comes at the price of suffering

line 456-7
Chorus

Dangerous is a people's voice charged with wrath—it acts as a curse of publicly ratified doom.

lines 461-473
Chorus

In the end the black Spirits of Vengeance bring to obscurity that one who has prospered in unrighteousness and [465] wear down his fortunes by reverse. Once a man is among the unseen, there is no more help for him. Glory in excess is fraught with peril; [470] the lofty peak is struck by Zeus' thunderbolt. I choose prosperity unassailed by envy. May I not be a sacker of cities, and may I not myself be despoiled and live to see my own life in another's power!

lines 551-554
Herald

Yes, all's well, well ended. Yet, of what occurred in the long years, one might well say that part fell out happily, and part in turn amiss. But who, unless he is a god, is free from suffering all his days? [555] For were I to recount our hardships and our wretched quarters, the scanty space and the sorry berths——what did we not have to complain of . .

lines 788-798
Chorus

Many of mortal men put appearance before truth and thereby transgress the right. [790] Every one is ready to heave a sigh over the unfortunate, but no sting of true sorrow reaches the heart; and in seeming sympathy they join in others' joy, forcing their faces into smiles.

Clytaemnystra with her lover ready to kill her husbant Agamemnon

lines 832-837
Agamemnon

For few there are among men in whom it is inborn to admire without envy a friend's good fortune. For the venom of malevolence settles upon the heart and [835] doubles the burden of him who suffers from that plague: he is himself weighed down by his own calamity, and groans to see another's prosperity.

line 885
Clytaemnestra

it is natural for men to trample all the more upon the fallen

lines 1327-1329
Cassandra

Alas for human fortune! When prosperous, a mere shadow can overturn it; if misfortune strikes, the dash of a wet sponge blots out the drawing.

line 1369
Chorus

We should be sure of the facts before we indulge our wrath. For surmise differs from assurance

More Quotes:
Iketidae by Aeschylus http://akrokorinthos.blogspot.com/2011/11/quotes-from-ancient-theatrical-plays.html

sources:
perseus.tufts.edu for the translated lines
sparknotes.com for the summary of the play

How the Papal Rome became the capital of Italy.

2011-11-18T16:23:00.001+02:00

The Italian peninsula in 1861.

Since the time of the first independence movements in the 19th century, the issue of the ineligibility of the political and spiritual authority of the pope arose. Napoleon III was approving the Italian unification and the restraining of the papal territories but in the same time as a leader of a catholic state he didn't want to see a pope growing weaker and weaker.Additionally the pope was the spiritual father of Napoleon's III son who would be the future king of France.

The Italians were discontent with the existence of the French papal guard in Rome and didn't cease to remind the issue of Rome to Napoleon III. Napoleon III was trying to find a consenting decision than would satisfy the Italians and wouldn't infuriate the catholics in his country and the catholic bishops.

Napoleon III emperor of France

Paradoxically Garibaldi's conquest of the kingdom of Naples would trigger new developments on the matter. In 1861 Garibaldi encouraged secretly by the Italian government sailed to Palermo to recruit soldiers in order to march towards Rome and occupy it. However Napoleon III was so enraged that the Italians themselves attempted to stop Garibaldi . In 1862 in the battle of Aspromonte Garibaldi was captured and his army was scattered.The next days negotiations between Italy and France began and eventually ended in 1864 with the agreement of September. According to the agreement Napoleon III had to withdraw the french guards from Rome and the Italian king had to respect the papal authority. Victor Emmanuel the Italian king moved his capital to Florence phenomenically quitting from claiming Rome.

Napoleon III worried about the reaction of the Italian minorities in France was tried to find a way to pay a compensation to Italy. He found a perfect pretext for this in the eve of the war between the Austrians and the Prussians. Before engaging into war with Vienna, Bismark enquired Napoleon III about his neutrality in this war. Napoleon III told him that he would keep his neutrality and in exchange he wanted Bismark to cede Venice to Italy in case of a Prussian victory.

The Austrians also worried by the prospect of an alliance of the French with the Prussians negotiated to cede Venice to Italy and in exchange if they were victorious they would annex Silesia. Therefore a new situation was created by which Italy would be favoured one way or another.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Although everything was favourable for Italy in the battlefield the Italian army and navy proved to be much weaker than the circumastances demanded. Fortunately for the Italians the Prussians were victorious against Austria and set out peace negotiations as winners. Although Bismark didn't negotiate in favour of the Italians, Napoleon's III intervention achieved the annexation of Venice to Italy. This unexpected annexation made the Italians turn their eyes once again to Rome. However the French emperor who was the one who encouraged and supported the Italian unification was the main obstacle in the Italian claims about the political authority of the Pope over Rome.

Once again Garibaldi led a new expedition in 1867 against Rome but Napoleon III under pressure of the French catholics sent a French regiment to Italy in order to stop Garibaldi. The French were successful at stopping Garibaldi and this triggered a series of tensions between the two nations. The French prime minister's speech in the parliament made the situation even worse. He said : Italy will never conquer Rome.France will never tolerate such a violence against its honor and catholicism. The day that Italy will attempt to take Rome France will stand and defend it.

However these words didn't seem to have much of an importance three years later when France was in the verge of war with Prussia and negotiated with Italy about a potential alliance. Although the French were not negotiating the Rome issue, after the French defeat in the battle of Sedan and the capture of Napoleon III by Prussian forces the French guard of Rome withdrew and after a parody battle the Italians captured Rome and Victor Emmanuel moved his capital there. Later through a referendum the Italian king ratified the annexation of Rome to Italy.

Napoleon discusses with Otto von Bismark after being captured in the battle of Sedan

source: based on History of Europe by Serge Berstein, Pierre Milza

Quotes from ancient theatrical plays: Aeschylus "The suppliants"

2011-11-13T16:06:00.002+02:00

Aeschylus

Occasionally i will be posting interesting quotes from ancient literature.This time i will the post the most interesting quotes from the play by Aeschylus called "The suppliants"(Ικέτιδαι).

The Suppliants is a play about some Egyptian women called Danaids who flee from Egypt to avoid a forced marriage and try to find refuge in a Greek city called Argos.

lines (86-101) Chorus

εὖ δ᾽ εἴη Διόθεν παναληθῶς.
Διὸς ἵμερος οὐκ εὐθήρατος ἐτύχθη.
παντᾷ τοι φλεγέθει
κἀν σκότῳ μελαίνᾳ ξὺν τύχᾳ 90
μερόπεσσι λαοῖς.

πίπτει δ᾽ ἀσφαλὲς οὐδ᾽ ἐπὶ νώτῳ,
κορυφᾷ Διὸς εἰ κρανθῇ , πρᾶγμα τέλειον.
δαυλοὶ γὰρ πραπίδων
δάσκιοί τε τείνουσιν πόροι 95
κατιδεῖν ἄφραστοι.

ἰάπτει δ᾽ ἐλπίδων
ἀφ᾽ ὑψιπύργων πανώλεις
βροτούς, βίαν δ᾽
οὔτιν᾽ ἐξοπλίζει: 100
πᾶν ἄπονον δαιμονίων.

But may Zeus grant that it go well with us. For Zeus' desire is hard to trace: it shines everywhere, even in gloom, together with fortune [90] obscure to mortal men.

Safely it falls, and not upon its back, whatever deed comes to pass at Zeus' nod; for the pathways of his understanding stretch dark and tangled, [95] beyond comprehension.

From their high-towering hopes he hurls mankind to utter destruction; yet he does not marshal any armed violence— [100] all that is wrought by the powers divine is free from toil. Seated on his holy throne, unmoved, in mysterious ways he accomplishes his will.

line (165) Chorus

χαλεποῦ γὰρ ἐκ
πνεύματος εἶσι χειμών.

a stormy sea follows a harsh wind.

line (203) Danaus

θρασυστομεῖν γὰρ οὐ πρέπει τοὺς ἥσσονας.

Bold speech does not suit the weak.

The Danaids

lines (381-186) Chorus

τὸν ὑψόθεν σκοπὸν ἐπισκόπει,
φύλακα πολυπόνων
βροτῶν, οἳ τοῖς πέλας προσήμενοι
δίκας οὐ τυγχάνουσιν ἐννόμου. 385
μένει τοι Ζηνὸς ἱκταίου κότος
δυσπαραθέλκτους παθόντος οἴκτοις.

Look to him who looks down from above, to him, the guardian of mortals sore-distressed, who appeal to their neighbors, yet do not obtain the justice that is their right. [385] The wrath of Zeus, the suppliant's god, remains, and will not be softened by a sufferer's complaints.

lines (434-436) Chorus

ἴσθι γάρ: παισὶ τάδε καὶ δόμοις,
ὁπότερ᾽ ἂν κτίσῃς, 435
μένει ἄρ ἐκτίνειν

For be assured of this—whichever end you bring to pass, to your children and house [435] does it remain to make full payment. Consider these just ordinances of God.

lines (442) King

ἢ τοῖσιν ἢ τοῖς πόλεμον αἴρεσθαι μέγαν 440
πᾶσ᾽ ἔστ᾽ ἀνάγκη, καὶ γεγόμφωται σκάφος
στρέβλαισι ναυτικαῖσιν ὡς προσηγμένον.

There is no result without grievous hurt

lines (697-700) Chorus

φυλάσσοι τ᾽ ἀτρεμαῖα τιμὰς
τὸ δάμιον, τὸ πτόλιν κρατύνει, 700

May the people who control the state guard its privileges free from fear— [700] a prudent government counselling wisely for the public prosperity.

lines (792-798) Chorus

πόθεν δέ μοι γένοιτ᾽ ἂν αἰθέρος θρόνος,
πρὸς ὃν νέφη μυδηλὰ γίγνεται χιών,
ἢ λισσὰς αἰγίλιψ ἀπρόσ-
δεικτος οἰόφρων κρεμὰς
γυπιὰς πέτρα, βαθὺ
πτῶμα μαρτυροῦσά μοι,
πρὶν δαΐκτορος βίᾳ
καρδίας γάμου κυρῆσαι;

Ah that somewhere in the upper air I might find a seat against which the dank clouds turn into snow, or some bare, inaccessible crag, [795] beyond sight, brooding in solitude, beetling, vulture-haunted, to bear witness to my plunge into the depths before I am ever forced into a marriage that would pierce my heart!

theatrical masks. All the actors should wear one.

lines (998-1005) Danaus

ὥραν ἐχούσας τήνδ᾽ ἐπίστρεπτον βροτοῖς.
τέρειν᾽ ὀπώρα δ᾽ εὐφύλακτος οὐδαμῶς:
θῆρες δὲ κηραίνουσι καὶ βροτοί, τί μήν; 1000
καὶ κνώδαλα πτεροῦντα καὶ πεδοστιβῆ.
†καρπώματα στάζοντα κηρύσσει Κύπρις
καλωρα κωλύουσαν θωσμένειν ἐρῶ,†
καὶ παρθένων χλιδαῖσιν εὐμόρφοις ἔπι
πᾶς τις παρελθὼν ὄμματος θελκτήριον 1005

The tender ripeness of summer fruit is in no way easy to protect; beasts despoil it—and men, why not?— [1000] and brutes that fly and those that walk the earth. Love's goddess spreads news abroad of fruit bursting ripe. . . . So all men, as they pass, [1005] mastered by desire, shoot an alluring arrow of the eye at the delicate beauty of virgins.

lines (1037-1042)

τίεται δ᾽ αἰολόμητις
θεὸς ἔργοις ἐπὶ σεμνοῖς.
μετάκοινοι δὲ φίλᾷ ματρὶ πάρεισιν
Πόθος ᾇ τ᾽ οὐδὲν ἄπαρνον 1040
τελέθει θέλκτορι Πειθοῖ.
δέδοται δ᾽ Ἁρμονίᾳ μοῖρ᾽ Ἀφροδίτας
ψεδυρᾷ τρίβῳ τ᾽ Ἐρώτων.

And in the train of their mother are Desire and she to whom nothing is denied, [1040] winning Persuasion; and to Harmonia has been given a share of Aphrodite, and to the whispering touches of the Loves.

line (1048-1049)

ὅ τί τοι μόρσιμόν ἐστιν, τὸ γένοιτ᾽ ἄν.
Διὸς οὐ παρβατός ἐστιν

Whatever is fated, that will come to pass. The mighty, untrammelled will of Zeus cannot be transgressed.

Can continuous loaning reduce or increase the public debt of a country? Let's go back in history and see.

2011-11-03T14:23:00.001+02:00

Between 1822 and 1826 Great Britain which was at the time a world power as an intention of goodwill(?) offered loans to the countries of Latin America which were under Spanish and Portuguese colonial occupation.The loans were worth of 23 million golden sterlings. We can compare this aid like the Marshall plan undertaken by U.S.A for helping the severely damaged from the WW2 European countries.

These loans were about to be used by the countries to develop an infrastructure, create new working positions for the impoverished population, and develop and prospering economy.Once the loan was approved immediately its amount was reduced by taxation,interest and various expenses.Latin America received the remaining money which which were...7 million sterlings. However those who received the loan should repay the whole amount of the loan and not the amount that eventually ended up in their countries.

One of those loans was given to Argentina in 1824 by the British bank Baring brothers with a guarantee from the British bureaucracy. From the one million sterlings again because of some economic factors only 575.000 were given to Argentina in banknotes instead of pure gold as it was agreed.The governments of these countries were consisted of corrupted aristocrats who were in the sphere of influence of various European countries As a result not even a sterling was used for the development of their countries. There was no infrastructure created no industrial developement and generally there were no positive conditions for these countries to cut the colonial economic bonds with the Europeans.On the contrary the money was spent for personal reasons of the members of the governments and inevitably some years later Argentina was not able to pay the instalments of a loan that technically never received.

The British were not upset for the inability of Argentina to repay the loan.By showing generosity(?) they approved new loans for Argentina so that it could be able to pay the instalments of the old loans.This procedure became permanent . Argentina was receiving new loans in banknotes from which as usual the 50% of money remained in Britain for taxation and etc. Argentina was paying with that money the instalments of previous loans in the price they were approved and not in the price of money which eventually were received by Argentina.

The first loan which ended up in the pockets of aristocrats was fully repaid in the end of 19th century. With the interest rate Argentina repaid a loan of 500.000 sterlings giving back 4 million sterlings.When Argentina repaid its first loan the whole amount that it owed to Britain for the subsequent loans was 130 million sterlings. This was nearly 260 times higher than the initial amount of money loaned by Britain to Argentina.

This was just a prologue of what was coming 100 years later in 2001.

Wherever you see Argentina replace the name with Greece. And wherever you see Britain replace it with banks. There you go, now we now that history is recursive.

A communist says: Laziness is a right

2011-10-30T16:10:00.001+02:00

Paul Lafargue :Born in 1842 by Creole parents in Cuba .He later moved in to France to study medicine.

In 1883 Paul Lafargue who was in a French prison as a political prisoner published at the newspaper l'egalite a series of strange texts which had as a general title "The right to be lazy". Some years later he published a book with the same title causing awkwardness to right wing and leftist politicians in France and all over Europe. In this book Lafargue analyses with a strong argumentation something unprecedented.He claims that a human being doesn't need to work that working is slavery and that it exhausts physically and mentally somebody without being necessary at all.

Someone may presume that Lafargue was a lazy and unworthy person who wanted the others to work for him.However Paul Lafargue was an esteemed personality. He was a doctor and his family were owners of coffee plantations in Cuba.He was a member of the communist party with a very high position in its hierarchy and he was a secretary of the comintern department that focused on the Iberian peninsula.

Lafargue's "The right to be lazy" has been translated in many languages

The communist ideology wasn't against working. On the contrary they believed that the working class could change the world. Therefore working was "sacred" for Communism. However Lafargue was encouraging his comrades to quit their jobs at the factories and go enjoy love and laziness.He was justifying his thought by presenting details which showed that a French worker was working more than a prisoner in prison labour or a slave in Antilles but he was earning the same money as they did and had the same quality of life.

Diachronically the leftist parties used to "ostracize" the members who deviated from the ideological correctness of the left.However the communist party had a serious problem on ostracizing Lafargue.
Lafargue had married Laura Marx who was Carl Marx's daughter and moreover best man in their wedding was Friedrich Engels. The question was, who would dare to delete from the communist party the son in law of the founder and the best man of the co founder of the Ideology of communism.? The answer was noone obviously.The communist party tolerated Lafargue's views and was always trying to cover Lafargue's unprecedented opinions by filtering them with the communist ideology. So the time in the communist party was passing like this. Lafargue persuaded the members of the party to stop working the one day, the other day the members were persuaded to return back to work cause the revolution would begin from there.

If a member of the communist party being a champion of laziness was considered awkward then Lafargue's death was even more awkward for the communist party.In 28th November of 1911 Lafargue commited suicide along with his wife .He left a note saying that he didn't want the old age to deprive him from the joys he fought for during his life. This was a really controversial statement that caused even more awkwardness in the communist party. Lafargue was 70 years old when he commited suicide. Despite his own ideology he remained loyal to the communist ideology too. Among his last words in his last note was also : Long live communism.

As we read in http://www.kersplebedeb.com/mystuff/texts/lafargue.html

Twenty thousand people attended their funeral, and revolutionaries from around the world paid their respects. Lenin – who befriended the couple while in exile – could not decide which ascetic lesson to draw from their suicide. At one point he approvingly noted that “if one no longer has the strength to work for the party, it is necessary to look at the truth squarely and to know how to die as did the Lafargues.” At another he complained that “a socialist does not belong to himself but to his party. If he can still be useful to the working class, for example to write an article or make an appeal, he had no right to commit suicide.”[ 4 ]
Of course Lenin missed Lafargue’s point, which more resembles the bohemianism of Harold and Maude than the stoic dedication of a Christian martyr. Lafargue was ideologically committed to pleasure, and seems to have felt that only a life filled with fun was a life worth living, and he could not conceive of old age being fun. That he was in good health when he killed himself, and that his wife seemingly followed suit without leaving any note of her own, seems to indicate the poverty of this position. The idea that life must be fun in order to be worthwhile seems to produce a similarly brutal economy of existence as the capitalist injuction that only a productive life is worth living.
Following his death the international communist movement forgot about most of Lafargue’s intellectual contributions. The communist press, particularly in the 1920s, underscored his ‘errors’, and with the rise of Stalinism works like The Right to Be Lazy fell into relative disrepute. It was mainly amongst independent socialists, anarchists and the small “ultra-left” that he retained his stature.

History beyond crowns and palaces: The potato miracle

2011-10-27T14:04:00.002+03:00

History is not only what we have learned in school about kings palaces and glorious battles.Beyond the kings the generals and the artists there is also the mass. These are the majority of the people who are always in the background and never make it into the pages of history.We know a little about what these people were thinking ,where they were living and what they were eating.That history is unknown to us but this is the history of our ancestors since the chances of someone being a descendant of kings or generals is tiny.

Peruvian potatoes. One of these species was brought by Spaniards and expanded in Europe .

In medieval Europe lunch was the main objective in a peasant's life.A peasant was working and struggling in order to find his daily ration of food to ensure the survival of himself and his family.The menu in a medieval house was only bread. The meat was very expensive and vegetables were very rare to find.The frequent bad harvests of wheat caused starvations which resulted the death of thousands of people.The lack of fruits and vegetables in a peasant's diet was the main cause that many people were suffering from avitaminosis. The worse thing about avitaminosis was that it was the basic cause for various skin diseases which were all named as leprosy.Leprosy was a very common disease during these times, it could hit you like a nowadays common flu.

Leprosy was common among the peasants and it was caused by avitaminosis because of the lack of fruits and vegetables in their diet.

The situation changed a bit in 1530. The Spaniards except from the annihilation of the American tribes did also something good for humanity and more particular for the Europeans. They brought a fruit from Peru which they called potato.The discovery of potato was so valuable for the peasants and farmers that we could compare it with the importance of the discovery of compass for the navigators.

In contrast with the difficult to cultivate wheat the potato could grow even in not fertile grounds and its cultivation demands are a lot cheaper.Only one potato was enough to provide a lunch for a multi member family. Chamberlain a historian of the renaissance estimates that potato from 1580 to 1700 saved from starvation 50 million people.

Greek potato

Ioannis Kapodistrias: the man who brought potato in Greece

Because of the Ottoman occupation Greece was in the eastern sphere of influence and its acquaintance with the potato was postponed some centuries.Particularly during the 19th century Ioannis Kapodistrias the first governor of Greece was the man that brought potatoes in Greece.

At the beginning the Greeks were suspicious with this new "vegetable". There were so many rumours about what it could cause when it was eaten or how bad was its taste that noone accepted to take any potato seeds from the government's storeroom.Kapodistrias then thought of making a trick to encourage the greeks to start producing potatoes.He ordered some soldiers to guard the storeroomwith the potato seeds. The rumour spread among the Greeks that Kapodistrias was putting guards in front of the building with the potato seeds.This made them think that these seeds were valuable since the governor was putting guards specially in the front of that building. One by one many farmers were sneaking in the building to steal the potato seeds with the consent of the guards who had orders to turn a blind eye on what was happening.

The photos from Marathon

2011-10-26T18:29:00.001+03:00

Click this link for the videos and about what happened there.
http://akrokorinthos.blogspot.com/2011/09/mini-battle-of-marathon-live-in-2011.html

Here are the photos from the attempt for a re enactment of the battle of Marathon.

In the photos you'll also see a manmade hill. That hill is the tomb of the Athenians who died at the battle.
The single white column is a representation of the trophy of the battle(the original one is destroyed)

The Colossus of Rhodes

2011-10-24T17:44:00.001+03:00

The perception that most people have about how the Colossus looked like.

Everyone of us has a common image in our mind about the Colossus of Rhodes which was one of the seven wonders of antiquity. When we hear that name we imagine a very tall statue standing with spread legs at the gate of the port and ships passing under it and with one hand raised holding a torch.

This image was consolidated by a lithography of Rotier in 1835. The contemporary historians though consider this image as fictional and they add that during this period there was no technical knowledge to construct such a large statue in such stance.Historically Colossus was a 33 meters tall statue and it is the second tallest statue in history only to be surpassed by the statue of liberty in New York which is 46 meters tall.

The version that the archaeologists and engineers accept today is that the colossus had his legs closed and was located somewhere else in the port of Rhodes and not at its gate.The one who built that statue was called Charis of Lindos and it took him 15 years to accomplish it. The money for the construction of this statue came from the selling of the siege machines that Demetrius Poliorcetes had left behind in 307 BC after he failed to storm Rhodes.

the left is a more realistic depiction comparing to the right one.

This grand statue was constructed between 292 and 280 BC but it stood on its position for only 56 years.Nevertheless the awe that this tall statue caused made it remain in the memories of people for many years.In 222 BC an earthquake struck Rhodes and the knees of the Colossus broke making the whole statue to collapse.The pieces of the statue remained there for many centuries without being moved. There are written references to a fallen hollow statue which was admired by all visitors.Plinius mentioned that only a few people were able to hug its big finger. He also refers to the technique by which Charis of Lindos build the statue. He says that Charis built the statue just like he would built a house. He began from the legs by adding pieces of copper while he was also filling the area with dirt to reach the height of the statue to which he was working.When the statue was finished it was all covered by dirt which was gradually removed.

Demetrius Poliorcetes attempted to conquer Rhodes for his father Antogonus the one eyed who was at the time the strongest candidate to the vacant throne of the empire of Alexander the great. His defeat lead the Rhodians to built a big statue to thank the god Helios.

In 653 AD during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Constas the Arabs occupied Rhodes. The emir of Damascus in order to repay for the expenses of the campaign ordered the selling of the statue.A Jewish merchant from Edessa(modern Urfa) bought it, cut it into many pieces and he transferred it into Minor Asia to be sold a copper.

Even nowadays the construction of such a tall statue is really difficult.Imagine Charis of Lindos doing it in 292 BC.Colossus of Rhodes represented the god Helios(sun) whose cult was very popular in Rhodes.

Steven Runciman's interview about Byzantium

2011-10-18T15:34:00.001+03:00

Steven Runciman

In an tv interview that eventually was cancelled by the channel due to technical problems the famous Byzantinologist reveals many aspects of the Byzantine history. The interview is taken by the journalist Chrysa Arapoglou and Labrini Thoma. The interview took place in Scotland in Runciman's homeland. These extracts are published by the site flash.gr. I couldn't find the original dialogue, thus i had to re translate this.

Sir Steven Runciman(1903-2000) was a historian specialized in Byzantium.He taught Byzantine history in many universities and one of his great successes was to change the point of view that the west had about the Crusades. It's not an exaggeration if we say that he is the person who has undusted the Byzantine history from the library and made the world turn its head towards Byzantium which had as a result the revival of Byzantine studies.

How feels somebody who studies the Byzantine history for so long time? Is he tired?

R:It's difficult to answer. My interest never wained. When i began studying Byzantine history only a few people in Great Britain knew something or studied the Byzantines. I want to believe that i created some interest on Byzantine history.That what satisfies me a lot is that there are plenty good representatives of Byzantinology in Britain. I am happy that i chose to focus on Byzantine history.

Was the history of Byzantium attractive for you all these years?

I believe that if any fact in history is studied in depth then it can become fascinating. I find Byzantium fascinating because it was a unique civilization.In order to study Byzantium you must study its religion its art and the lifestyle which was completely different from nowadays.

Better or worse?

Well, i am not sure if i would like to live with the Byzantines. For instance i wouldn't like to have a beard. However the Byzantine society had a better structured lifestyle. Besides, when you have a very strong religious sentiment your life is "modified" and your reality becomes more satisfying comparing to nowadays where people believe in nothing.

Was it just a Theocratic state?

It was a civilization in which religion was playing an important part.

This was the same for all the 11 centuries of Byzantine history?

I think that the people are talking about Byzantium like it remained the same , a civilization unchanged for many centuries.Except from the religion all the other things changed during the Byzantine history.The Byzantines may had many clashes for theological matters but still they all remained faithful. Even though that the fashion ,the economic conditions and the political situation were changing there was an integral part in the Byzantine empire(religion)

You are talking about religion and morality. Many historians consider Byzantium as an age of wars ,assassinations ,political machinations otherwise called as "byzantinisms" and had no relation with morality

Murders happen all the time, there's no period in history that didn't have murders.One day i was making a lecture and among the attendants was also the daughter of the U.S president Johnson. She came to to the class with two bodyguards. She told me that she liked the Byzantine history because it was full of murders.I hold myself not to tell her that the percentage of American presidents who had been assassinated was bigger in relation to the existence of U.S.A comparing to years of existence of Byzantium.People still murder people nothing has changed.

You have written that there is no death penalty in Byzantium

Indeed they were not killing.The basic difference was made during the conversion of Rome to christianity. During these times all the arena spectacles like battles of gladiators and eating of people by wild animals were stopped. The empire became more human-centric. There are only a few incidents of death penalty ordered by emperors but it was about really extreme situation. Most of the emperors were using as an extreme way of punishment the mutilation of a body part.A really gruesome process but still not worse than death.

For a long time there is an open dialogue in Greece. There are some Greek scholars who say that Byzantium produced nothing. Its scholars just produced comments for ancient texts but nothing original. Therefore it's useless to study Byzantinology cause they left nothing worth to remember.

I believe that these scholars are very unjust with their ancestors. No Byzantium was not a society without scholars.You just need to take a look for instance at the progress of Byzantine medicine. Someone may not like the religious scripts so much but the works of some religious leaders like the Cappadokian fathers and Gregorios Palamas were of unique spirituality. There spiritual and intellectual life was very active in Byzantium. Especially towards the late centuries during the dynasty of Paleologos.It's really an irony that during the times that the empire was crumbling the Byzantine culture began to flourish.

Some other scholars state that Byzantium had no arts.

Well then maybe these scholars no nothing about arts.The Byzantine art is one of the most influencing arts in the world.No ancient Greek would be able to build Aghia Sofia. It needed special architectural knowledge.Some other scholars say that the Byzantine art was static. No it was not static but an artistic movement that as the time passes becomes more and more aknowledged .Those Greeks who say that Byzantium left no heritage are just blind.

Therefore those who consider Byzantine art as simple mimicry

If you can understand something in the best way then you can reproduce it the best.However there was always differences. For instance just looking at a Byzantine icon can give us enough clues to set its date of creation.If all the icons were same then we wouldn't be able to do that.Yes there are particular traditions maintained but Byzantine art shows many differences over the time. Byzantine art fell into a stalemate during the Ottoman conquests because of lack of funding.The art of the Paleologian age was different from the time of Justinian. Of course they had some analogies but it was not mimetic.I believe that many people have stereotyped negatively the Byzantine empire because they haven't studied it in order to learn what it had achieved.

It is alleged that the Byzantine empire was not at all Hellenic. It is by no means a continuation of ancient Greece as it lacked democracy and democratic institutions.

I don't believe that the modern Greeks are more Greeks than the Byzantines.Through the time and the centuries the nations cannot remain genetically clear however some national characteristics survive through time.The Byzantines were speaking a type of modern Greek. The same language that the modern Greeks speak. The Byzantines were interested in philosophy and even though they were subjects of an emperor he had to give them some sort of freedom and social rights or else there would be civil uprisings.The Byzantine empire was a bureaucratic state but this is not a negative point as its bureaucrats was far more educated than the nowadays bureaucrats.
And what do you mean by saying democracy? Was all of the ancient Greece democratic ? I suggest those who are interested to read the history of classical Greece. They will find a lot of things to criticize. Personally i never understood what is the meaning of democracy. Nowadays in most of the countries democracy means to be governed by the media like the press and the television. It's correct to have the freedom to vote but from the moment that the people cannot make their own political opinion and thus convey the people's power to the media. The media instead of trying to educate the people take the easier way of manipulation.Democracy can only exist if we have a very high educated citizen.In a city like ancient Greece the men were educated but noone considers the position of women and slaves.

Was there a social policy in Byzantium?

The church was mainly helping the people.The state had full social awareness. They had hospitals and care facitilites for the elder people.Let's not forget than one of the high ranking officers was the Orphanotrofos(responsible for the empire's orphanages. The church was very active on social care.It was not just a regime of monks who lived away from civilization. There were also the city monasteries which were running the houses of the elderly people and produced teachers who educated young boys. The girls were educated at home.The girls received better quality of education as they had more private attention. I believe that the score of Byzantium in social care would be very high.

According to Basil of Caesaria the education of the Byzantines should be supported on Homer who was the teacher of principles.

The Byzantines were aware of ancient Greek literature.It is worth to note however that they were not fond of the Attic tragedies but they preferred all the other poets.There is a story told by Anna Komnene about a very attractive woman who was a friend of an emperor.While she was passing from a street someone told her a verse from Homer's Iliad about Helen and Troy. She understood the implication therefore it means that she had studied Homer. Every Byzantine boy and girl had studied Homer.Anna Komnene never refers that she has taken the extracts from Homer because all her readers were aware of that.

So there were no uneducated people in Byzantium?

The problems of Byzantine literature were other. Most of the authors tried to imitate ancient writers in style and also in language.This tragedy of Byzantine literature was its dependence on ancient Greek literature. Not because they didn't know enough but because they knew much more that it was needed for their own creative benefit.

Would you like to live in Byzantium?

I don't know if i could fit in that era.If i lived at these times i would be maybe an old monk living the life of an intellectual ,reading books of the monastery's library.Byzantine monasteries had some really marvellous libraries.If i was born an aristocrat i would prefer to live in 18th century England.

Does the situation in the Balkans concern you?

I am interested in the Balkans cause its a place that "accompanies" me all these years and i feel sad about what's going on there.What i am concerned mainly is about the future.I believe that Greece will proceed as Bulagaria too. However i am a bit desperate when i think of the future of Romania and Yugoslavia(the interview was taken in 1994)

Are the Balkans paying for the rich history they had?

In some way , yes. It's a big problem if you have a long history.Because you have much more memories that those you are able carry.Things do not work well in there because of the ancient memory.

Recently there were talks in your country about the possibility of a religious 3rd World war

I am concerned about some religions. I am concerned about the extremist muslims who are a threat to civilization.Religion is needed. People will feel less lost and more happier with religion.The problem is that we cannot have a global religion and that the religions that have existed never had good relations with each other.Philanthropy is only limited to persons who have the same religion.Religion is not a salvation but i don't know anything else that may give salvation to human.With the increase of the population the quality of education will decrease. There will be never enough instructors. I am a bit pessimistic about that.

What's your opinion about Orthodoxy nowadays?

I have a deep respect on christian doctrines and specially in orthodoxy because it's the only doctrine that aknowledges that religion is a mystery.The Roman Catholics and the Protestants want to explain everything.It's purposeless to believe in a religion if you expect that it will reveal you all the secrets.I believe that orthodoxy maintains this precious sense of mystery.

Do we need mystery?

Yes. We need to know that the universe has a lot of things that we cannot comprehend. We need some spiritual moderation which however doesn't exist in the western church.

What's your opinion about the other doctrines?

The catholic church is and was always also a political institution except than being religious.We need to remember that when the Roman empire fell the Roman lords were lost and only the priests remained who preserved the Roman legacy.Thus they were used by the barbarian kings to implement laws.The western church is very interested in law.In Byzantium and later in the Roman empire the church was on;y interested in the laws of the divine scripts. The churches that broke away from the Catholic church have also inherited this law interest.It's interesting to mention the dialogue between the Anglicans and the Orthodox church during the 17th century.The anglicans couldn't understand what the orthodox believed about the conversion of bread and wine to flesh and blood. The orthodox were saying that it was a mystery which cannot be explained. However the Anglicans wanted an explanation. That's the typical difference of the Western and the eastern churches.

What's your opinion about modern Greeks

It is still alive in this nation the skill on comprehending and understanding situations very quickly.They also have a Byzantine attribute the vivid curiosity.Just like the Byzantines, the Greeks are also aware of the importance of the history of civilization. There are many elements that have not changed. First of all is the language which carries all these elements throughout time.The Byzantine literature suffered because of its relation with the ancient greek literature and language. At least the modern Greeks have the modern Greek language that allowed them to develop the modern Greek literature in a way that the Byzantines couldn't with only exception some epic poems which were written in simplified Greek.

Ancient Sparta : A war machine(part 2)

2011-10-14T14:42:00.001+03:00

Continuing from the 1rst part http://akrokorinthos.blogspot.com/2011/10/ancient-sparta-war-machinepart-1.html

Hardlife

It was not easy for anyone to become a good Spartan citizen. The challenges were beginning since the birth of a child.Only the 100%healthy babies were considered able to receive Spartan education. The "unhealthy" babies were considered useless and were thrown off from cliffs.The most renowned was Kaiadas and even nowadays there is a phrase that parents tell to children in order to scare them. Θα σε ρίξω στον Καιάδα(I will throw you in Kaiadas). The children were staying with their parents until the 7th year of their life. Afterwards they were taken by the state to be educated and trained as soldiers.

King Leonidas the most famous Spartan king

Continuous training
The trainers were deliberately causing quarrels to see the ability of each young Spartan. They were letting them out in the cold without food, they were forcing them to run on rocky grounds without sandals and to collect reeds on which would be their bed.The boys were allowed to steal food but if they were get caught they were punished not because they stole but because they get caught stealing.

The young Spartans were also learning reading and writing and from 18 years old they acquired more political and social rights. However they lived under restriction until their 30''s

Patriots
There was a story about a Spartan who after he failed to be elected at the Apella, he stated that he was happy that there were so many men in Sparta who were better than him.The Spartans were not allowed to travel beyond Laconia or to possess gold. If someone was not able to contribute for the food distribution the state was covering his contribution.

A Spartan woman giving the shield to her husbant.

Posthumous fame
Those who reached 60 years of life were becoming respectable and famous in the Spartan society. They lived the rest of their life in comfort and when they died the state organised special events to honor their memory.The burial ceremonies of the rest of the people were modest. After they were covered by a blanket they were buried discreetly . According to the Spartan law the mourning period lasted only 12 days.Religion and religious rituals were approved by the state.According to a tradition Lycourgos who was worshipped as a god had brought the divine laws of Sparta from the Oracle of Delphi.

Spartan women
The position of woman in the Spartan society and her equality with men was something notable for every foreign visitor.

The education of women had great importance as they had to manage the household for a long time when the men were outtside of a city on military campaigns. Spartan women had an unacceptable for the rest of the Greek world level of freedom. They were participating like men in athletic events and they also practiced dancing.

The state was taking the responsibility to educate the Spartan children and the men were out of the city for a long time. This gave the women many privileges on running the Spartan society. Women in Sparta were so independent that once when a foreign woman asked king Leonidas' wife "why only Spartan women could control their men" she answered that "it is because only Spartan women give birth to real men"

The choice of a husbant was a personal affair and not of the woman's parents. The wedding age of a Spartan woman was at 20 years old unlike other Greek cities where the wedding age was at 15.THe wedding custom involved firstly the "abduction" of the woman by the man and a period where each was living separately in their own home. The meetings of the lovers were secret ,brief and in total darkness. Thus they were not loosing time with the obligations of living together and they were keeping the spark of their love to last longer and by that they remained having a sole lover.

Sometimes such relationships were lasting so long that some men had children without ever seeing their wife under sunlight. Women who were not living with their husbants had no problems as this habit was accepted in the Spartan society.

Spartan women were able to inherit their parents fortune unlike in any other Greek city were the wealth of the bride's parents was passed to the husbant.

Spartan women were engaged in Athletics just like men.

Ancient Sparta : A war machine(part 1)

2011-10-05T17:44:00.002+03:00

Ruins of Ancient Sparta

The boundaries of the region of Lakonia in Greece remain the same since the antiquity. The Evrotas valley is protected to the east by the mountain Parnonas and to the west by the legendary mountain range of Taigetos. The valley ends to the south reaching the Lakonian gulf..
Those enormous mountains were like a natural fortress for the fertile valley and protected the Spartans from invaders.In this region 3000 years ago a Greek tribe from the north ;the Dorians invaded the area enslaved its original inhabitants and settled down. The Dorians founded Sparta or as they were calling it Lakedemona.Ancient Sparta with its glorious past will always remain a part of universal historical memory.The Greek mythology contributes to it as according to Homer the abduction of Helen the wife of Menelaus the king of Sparta by Paris was the main reason for the begining of the Trojan war.

THE STATE

The organisation of the city state of Sparta is attested to Lycourgos (9th century BC) a person whose deeds balance between history and legend.One tradition says that he travelled all around the world to study and compare the laws of each nation and tribe in order to create the perfect system of laws.Historically speaking we know that during the 9th and 8th century the legislative breakthrough took place in Sparta(either by Lycourgos or somebody else) created a unique political and economic system that would make Sparta distinguished.

LAND AND POLITICS

Lycourgos divided the arable land in equal pieces and distributed to the citizens. Afterwards he introduced a political system in which all the dicisions would be taken by a council called Apella. In case the Apella couldn't make decisions(if the majority of votes couldn't be achieved) the administration was taken over by the Senate and the two Kings.

The system of administration defined the existence of two Kings who were equal in rule but each one had his own duties.The Senate was consisted by 30 members who were mainly the elders of the Spartan aristocracy.The way the senators were elected had characteristics of primitive traditions. A group of judges was locked inside a building without windows.The citizens outside were either shouting for approval or for disapproval for each candidate. According to the sound the citizens were making the judges had to decide which candidates were more popular in order to elect them.

The assasination of Lycourgos on a mosaic

MONEY

One of the most significant innovations of Lycourgos concerned the monetary system and most particularly the coins.Although each coin was made of iron their value was not equal to their weight. The coins were forged to weigh so much that it would be impossible for them to be used for many fincancial exchanges.They were so big and heavy that someone would need a Donkey in order to carry them. By this way Lycourgos limited the greed of the citizens of Sparta because if someone wanted to become rich he would have to pay a whole fortune to store his coins in big storage rooms and for a thief it would be impossible to steal a worth stealing amount of money. In addition this reform rendered trade with other cities impossible.

FOOD DISTRIBUTION

As it is aforementioned Sparta was not having trade relations with other cities and tried to remain self-sufficient.Food distribution was an institution where every Spartan had to participate. Every month each Spartan citizen was giving to the state a certain amount of food and money. The gathered food would be redistributed equally .There was also a tradition/institution where Spartans were all eating together in order to strengthen the social bonds. Food distribution was also a way for controlling obesity. Obesity was considered unacceptable in Ancient Sparta.

MORALES

The sexual morale of the ancient Spartans would be considered inappropriate even nowadays.According to the ancient historians the Spartans had no inhibitions. For instance young women could be wandering naked around young men without problem . Marriage was compulsory in ancient Sparta. The state was rewarding big families by granting them special priviledges. Celibacy was punished . The relationships between two persons of big age difference was acceptable and adultery wasn't punishable.

Men and women in ancient Sparta were working out naked in the same place.

THE ARMY

The Spartan army was considered invincible in the ancient world.All the Greek cities were sending lavish gifts in order to create an alliance with the Spartans.In exchange the best gift the Spartans could send to their allies was a Spartan general.The military contribution of the Spartans during the Persian wars was crucial. The most important events where Spartans were involved was the battle of Thermopylae with the sacrifice of Leonidas and 300 Spartan hoplites and the final battle of Plateae where the Greek alliance lead by Spartan generals drive away the Persians from Greece.

BEING LACONIC

The Spartans disliked lengthy conversations and prefered to express only the essence of what they wanted to tell in few words. Even nowadays there is a Greek phrase Το λακωνίζειν εστί φιλοσοφείν(Speaking like Spartans do is philosophical). Being laconic is synonym to short speaking and brief and correct speech.

KRYPTEIA

The Spartan lords were choosing the most intelligent and valiant young men between 18-20 y.o .The army was giving them some food and was sending them out in the wild lands. There they were divided and lived as groups with the mission to set traps or prepare ambushes to kill helots(Spartan slaves). This was like a training for the real battlefield conditions . Besides it was also a way of warning tot he slaves(who were more in number than the citizens) not to lead any uprising. The helots were the descendants of the indigenous people of Laconia who were enslaved when the Dorians invaded.The choice of helots to be killed was not random. They were usually the strongest and smartest. By this way the Spartans reduced the chances of the emergence of a slave leader.

SOCIETY

Even though everyone was equal according to the law, the right to citizenshipwas a priviledge of few. Beside the Spartans there were the mothakes who were children of helots parents who have received Spartan training the helots and the neodamodeis who were liberated slaves.The only job of a Spartan citizen was blood and war therefore they relied upon the helots for everything else.

EDUCATION

The structure of the Spartan society was supported by education. Lycourgos' idea was that when each citizen was becoming better then the state as a whole was becoming better. According to Lycourgos the best citizen was a strong and modest citizen. He was asked how Sparta would be forever free from its enemies? He answered that it would achieve that when its citizens would remain poor but still wouldn't lust bigger wealth than their fellow Spartans.

"Mental health and physical health" was the motto of the ancient Spartans and the ancient Greek world

the second part is here:http://akrokorinthos.blogspot.com/2011/10/ancient-sparta-war-machinepart-2.html

Aspasia the first lady of Athens

2011-09-23T15:34:00.001+03:00

Aspasia (470 BC- 400 BC) was born in Miletus and she became famous for her relationship with the prominent politician Pericles.Only a few things are known about her. She spent most of her life in Athens and it is said that by influencing Pericles she was affecting Athenian politics.Authors like Plato Aristophanes and Ksenophon mention her name in their work.

Some of those authors argue that she was an owner of a brothel while she herself was also a prostitute.However contemporary historians are sceptical over these allegations.considering that many of these authors were writting comedies or satirical stories and maybe their intentions were to defame Pericles.Some historians proceed furthermore believing that Aspasia wasn't even an hetaira and that she was married with Pericles.

Aspasia delivered a son by Pericles who she named also Pericles. Her son became a general of the Athenian army and was eventually executed after a defeat in a navel battle.After the death of Pericles the elder Apasia became hetaira of Lysicles, another prominent statesman of Athens.

Marie Bouliard poses as Aspasia in 1794,

Her birthplace was Miletos which nowadays is located in the Aidin district of Turkey. Her father's name was Aksiochos. She was descended from a wealthy family which was apparent by the education she had received.

It's unknown under what circumstances she travelled to Athens. The discovery of a gravestone with the names Aksiochos and Aspasios lead the historian Peter k. Bicknell to reconstruct the family enviroment and its possible relations with Athens. His theory connects Alcibiades of Skambonids who was exiled from Athens in 460 BC and maybe he spent his years in exile in Miletus. Bicknell assumes that Alcibiades married Aksiochos' daughter while he was in Miletos. Eventually Alcibiades returned back to Athens with his new wife and her little sister who is believed to be Aspasia.Bicknell argues that the offspring of this wedding was named Aksiochos(the uncle of the notorious Alcibiades of the Peloponnesian war). He also assumes that Pericles got in touch in Aspasia because of his friendly relations with the house of Alcibiades.

According to controversial references of ancient authors and some contemporary researchers Aspasia became an owner of a brothel and he herself was also an hetaira(a kind of athenian prostitution). Hetairai were professional women who were entertaining men of high class. Some of them were also prostitutes. Except from their beauty that made them distinct from other Athenian women they were also educated(often at high level like Aspasia) independent and they were paying taxes. The hetairai institution was the only sample of woman independence in the ancient times and Aspasia was the obvious example of it.According to Plutarchus Aspasia was compared to Thargilia who was also a fmous hetaira from Ionia.

Aspasia Painting by Henry holiday

Being a foreign citizen(non Athenian) and maybe a hetaira relieved Aspasia from any legal constraints which traditionally kept every Athenian woman inside her oikos(house). She became a lover of Pericles at the begining of the 440's BC. After Pericles divorced his first wife he started living together with Aspasia but it is uncertain if he married her or not.In 440 BC Aspasia delivered a boy which she called Pericles. She must have been at a very young age at this time cause she gave birth to a lysicles' child in 428 BC.

At the Athenian society Aspasia was mostly known for her eloquence and her consulatations rather than her physical appearance.According to Plutarchus her house became a center of culture in Athens and attracted daily many authors and Philosophers and among them Socrates .Plutarch mentions that even though she had an immoral life the Athenians were bringing their wives with them to Aspasia's house in order to listen her speeches.

Pericles and Aspasia were attacked and defamed a lot of times.We should not forget that Athens was a democracy and not a monarchy therefore anyone could say anything about everyone regardless of their social status. Aspasia's relation with Pericles and her involvement in Athenian politics annoyed many people.

Donald Kagan a historian of the Yale university states that Aspasia was not at all popular during the Samian war.In 440 BC Samos was in war with Miletos and Priini. When they lost the war the Milesians sent an envoy to Athens to plead for an Athenian intervention. When the Athenians ordered a ceasefire and asked for controlling the negotiations the Samians refused and as a result Pericles implemented an act of campaigning against Samos. According to Plutarch, there was a rumour that Aspasia who was born in Miletos influenced Pericles on taking this decision even though he didn't want a war with Samos.

Socrates seeks Alcibiades in Aspasia's house. Painting Gean Leon Gerome(1861)

Before the begining of the Peloponnesian war(431-404) Pericles and Aspasia were legally and personally attacked. Aspasia was charged that she was seducing little girls in order to satisfy the perverted needs of Pericles.According to Plutarch she was condemned for being disrespectful by the comic poet Ermippus who was the public prosecutor of this trial. Eventually Aspasia was found innocent because the accusations had no evidence.

In the theatrical comedy Acharnes the famous comedian Aristophanes accuses Aspasia for inciting the Peloponnesian war.He argues that the law about Megara that was implemented by Pericles with which Megara would be forbidden to trade with Athens and its allies was an act of revenge of Aspasia because some Megareans had abducted some prostitutes from her brothel.The accusations for the Peloponnesian war were mainly mirrored by the accusations about the Samian war. Even Ksanthippos who was Pericles' son from his first marriage was accusing Pericles and Aspasia.

Final years and death

In 429 BC Athens was tormented by a plague and Pericles saw many of his relatives and among them his two sons from his first marriage Ksanthippos and Paralos die from it.With his morale decrease he fell into depression and not even Aspasia's companionship was able to consolate him.A little before Pericle's death the Athenians implemented a law about the Athenian citizenship which could permit his son Pericles who was half Athenian to have full political rights and become his heir.It's weird though that Pericles had implemented a law by which only persons with two indigenous parents could have full political rights.Pericles died in 429 BC hit by the plague.

Herm of Pericles in the Vatican Museum bearing the inscription "Pericles, son of Xanthippus, Athenian." Roman copy of the original by Kresilas, Athenian sculptor from the era of Pericles and the Peloponnesian Wars.

After Pericles' death Aspasia lived with Lysicles with whom she had a son.However Lysicles died in 428 BC and there's where the contemporary accounts about Aspasia stop. It is considered that she died near 400 BC cause the historians argue that she died before Socrates who died in 399 BC. Some historians think that her death must have been painful that's why no contemporary author mentions it.

Aspasia was rumoured to be behind of many activities of Pericles. This shows how influential and important personality she was for the Athenian society. Some authors say that she taught Pericles rhetoric and that she prepared some of his famous speeches.Socrates was an admirer of Aspasia and that was proved by some of his advice to people were he is quoting Aspasia and his consultations to people to go and seek advice from her.As an ancient figure it is not unjust that she became equal in fame with the female poet Sappho.

Oil painting by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1868).

source: ellinikoarxeio.com translation of the text made by me.

Latinikon: The western Byzantine mercenaries

2011-09-20T13:53:00.001+03:00

Latinkon unit as it is designed for the game Medieval 2 total war

The recruitment of soldiers from the West was an institution from the early period of the Eastern Roman state, as the Byzantines had inherited the foiderati system from the Romans. Justinian formed units of cavalry from Vandal and Goth captives and Heraclius had the regiments of Optimates and Boukellarioi cataphracts who were probably Ostrogoths from Italy. It is rather likely that when Byzantine relations with Charlemagne became strained, many Lombard exiles found their way in the Byzantine army and perhaps even in the Royal Company (Hetairia Vassilike) that constituted the imperial bodyguard at the time. Up to this period the Westerners did not constitute an elite formation and perhaps were dispersed among the “thematic” troops to avoid unpleasant situations.

The mass recruitment of Westerners begins in the end of 9th century. On Christmas of 876 A D the Byzantine governor of Bari occupied the city after invitation of the residents who were afraid that the Lombard dukes could not protect them from the Arabs. The next year Byzantine diplomats formed an alliance of duchies and communities against the Islamic danger. The bulk of the cavalry was provided mainly by the Lombard dukes who fought as heavily armored horsemen. In 885-6 A.D. the Byzantines occupied Calabria and in 891 A.D. they created a new administrative province based on Apulia and named it “Loggobardia”. The Lombard dukes were divided and could not react, but duke Meles and others after they hired Norman mercenaries revolted in 1009 A.D. Emperor Vasileios II dispatched the capable general Boioannis, who with a combination of briberies and military pressure restored the imperial authority. Then he used the Norman mercenaries against the Arabs of Sicily.

As long as there was a capable commander in the office of Katepano of Italy everything was under control. But from the death of Vasileios II in 1025 and afterwards the situation escaped from the Byzantine control. The Norman mercenaries seized the Lombard fortresses and then looted the Byzantine provinces. The situation was reversed however by the capable general George Maniakes. After he ensured the support of the Norman groups of Hauteville and Drengot he restored the Byzantine sovereignty. Then he campaigned in Sicily against the Arabs and reconquered the whole of the island. The most reliable elements of his army were the Varangians and the Italiotic horsemen: Normans and Lombards. Maniakes however humiliated the leader of the Lombard knights: Arduin and made him dessert. Afterwards Maniakes was recalled and Hauteville occupied Sicily for their own benefit. Maniakes supported by the Western knights proclaimed himself emperor but he was killed in the battle of Ostrovo outside Thessalonica

angevin.org
Typical helmet of a foreign mercenary (Latinikon)

Exploiting the Byzantines’ need for willing and trained soldiers the Normans entered the Byzantine territory in great numbers. One of the first was Hervé in 1050. The Normans were placed as guards in the Eastern borders and their bases were Malatya and Edessa. Seeing the weakness of the Eastern Roman state they wanted to profit at its expence. The notorius Roussel de Bailleul attempted to create an independent principality in Anatolia but he was arrested by the Alexius Komnenos. From 1073 until 1074,.8000 from the 20000 men of general Philaretos Vrahamios who fought against the Seljuks were “Afrangioi” (Franks) under general Raimbaud

In Constantinople we learn from the “Alexiad” that German knights were part of the city garrison in 1081. The diplomatic manoeuvres of the Komnenoi ensured many times the services of heavy German cavalry for the Empire. During the reign of the Westernophile Manouel Komnenos the foreign knights litteraly flooded Byzantium. As Manouel fought against opponents who applied the tactic of massed sweeping charges of heavily armored knights, he intented to face then in the same way. Also after Mantzikert it did not exist indigenous cavalry that could apply this tactic, so the solution was the recruitment of Western knights. All the next period the Eastern Roman State relied exclusively on Western mercenaries in order to form units of heavy cavalry. The general decay, the economic decline and the civil wars in which the Westerners were also involved for their own profit, destroyed the state little by little. The end of foreign mercenaries and the Empire came in 1453 with the capture of Constantinople by the Ottomans.

Norman knights served as mercenaries in the Byzantine army

The Western Legion.

As mentioned previously the first recruits were Lombards and were initially icorporated in the cavalry of the Italian provinces of Byzantium. From that time the western units were viewed with suspicion, perhaps because of the frequent revolts of the local Lombard dukes.

The sceptres however were soon taken by the Normans. The Normans were descendants of Scandinavian invaders of France. The Frankish kings granted them the northern provinces of their kingdom in return, of submission and offer of military service.The former invaders accepted the French language and the Western feudal habits and from heavily armed infantry evolved as knights. According to the habit of the era the firstborn son inherited his father’s estate and younger ones, if they did not ensure marriage with a rich heiress, were left to find their fortune via their arms. At that period, the christian kingdoms were hardpressed by Islam and the determined mounted warriors were precious. The temptation therefore to go down to the fabulous South in order to make their fortune was great.

The chronicler Geoffrey Malaterra wrote about the Normans that: “..were distinguished particularly in mischief, scorn their heritage with the hope of acquiring a bigger fortune, they are eager for profit and honor, and prone in all kinds of hypocrisy, balancing between generosity and greed and combining strangely two ostensibly opposite attributes. Their leaders are particularly generous thanks to their desire for fame. It is also a race skilful in flattery, absorbed in the study of eloquence, so that even the boys are skilful speakers, a race untamed except and if it is held by the yoke of justice. They endure the fatigue, hunger and cold, whenever fate throws it upon them. Are absorbed with the hunting and falconry, and they particularly like horses and all the trappings of war…”

As it could be expected these men respected only the dynamic leaders, but from the middle of the 11th century, Byzantium did not have enough of them. The result was that the knights revolted in the first opportunity and attempted to found independent states. Despite the continuous problems, their courage and their fighting spirit caused the Byzantines to hire them as mercenaries until 1200. The unit however was reliable and effective only if it was commanded by leaders of the caliber of Maniakes or Komnenos.

Αllamanoi(Αλλαμάνοι): German mercenaries in the Byzantine army.

The first Germans were probably recruited by Ioannis Tzimiskis. In 1081 they are reported by Anna Komnena. The unit however expanded after the marriage of Manouel Komnenos with Bertha Von Sultzbach. With his second marriage with Mary of Antioch Manouel hired himself many Franks of the Levant. The “Latins” became unpopular with the population as the army was used as a tax collecting mechanism. Tax collection from the foreigners reached the limits of pillage and the religious feeling of the population was insulted with the confiscation of ecclesiastical resources from “heretic foreigners”. The Byzantines considered the knights as barbarians. For their part the Westerners saw the decay and weakness of the empire and the efforts to restrain them became even more difficult as they considered the Byzantines weak and cowardly. Also the dogmatic differences in an era where the religion played an important role worsened the situation.

Hungarian knights

Anti-Latin riots and the slaughters of 1182 led to the dissolution of the unit. In 1204 however, Theodoros Laskaris re-establishes the formation with 800 Italian soldiers that distinguished themselves in the battles near in the river Meander. Around 1250 Hungarian knights were added. They will contribute later in the victory of Pelagonia. Many of their Frankish captives of the battle were incorporated in the unit. From 1263 up to 1270 the Lombard adventurer Likario whom the Byzantine chroniclers call Ikario re-occupied most of the Latin possessions in the Aegean on behalf of the Byzantine emperor.

(More info about Likario)

After the devastating experience with the Catalan Company the number of Westerners in the army decreased but the need for heavy cavalry remained. Most Westerners were henceforth crossbowmen or operators of the primitive Medieval firearms. The financial position of the state was bad and the army shrunk following the general decomposition and decay. The king of France Charles VI sent to Manouel Palaiologos 1200 men commanded by Marshall Boucicaut. Boucicaut reached Constaninopolis and carried out raids against Soultan Vayazit but with meagre results. In 1445 300 knights were sent to the Despot of Mystras by the Duke of Burgundy and in1453 the end of the unit was written on the Theodosian Walls by the men of Giustiniani that fought bravely up to the incapasitation of their leader

Generally the “ Latinikon” regiment constituted a multinational legion in which served warriors from Western Europe. The unit performed best under dynamic leaders and also seriously damaged the Byzantine state under incompetent or weak administration.

Byzantine horse shoes and stirrup. Byzantine Museum Athens. S. Skarmintzos archive.

In Byzantine Service…

Contrary to the Varangian Guards the “Latin” knights they did not have uniformity in their appearance. Initially they wore chain mail with short sleves and conical helmets of “Spangenhelm” type consisting of four iron plates that were held together with the help of one metal ring. The “slavonic” helmets or the helmets of the steppe warriors with a sharp conical top would be unusual except if they came from loot. The helmets did not have internal lining and were adapted on specially shaped wollen or leather arming caps, while they had holes for leather straps that were tied under the chin. First the Normans began to use hoods made from iron rings as additional protection. A white turban was perhaps wrapped round helmet as protection from the heat as used by their Muslim opponents.

The chain mail amor would be worn above a specifically shaped woolen or leather gambeson (Byzantine “kambadion”) that would help in the absorption of the vibrations from the violent blows during the clashes. Modern research has revealed that this armor provided excellent protection from arrows despite what was written up to now. In “Alexiad” it is reported that the only effective defence against the knights is the shooting of their usually unarmored horses.

The knights carried a conical shield with a metal boss in the centre. Many times the shield had a length from the neck to the knee and was straped on the shoulder with the aid of a baldric. Those who could afford it, would have strengthened the perimeter of their shields with metal laminas. Each knight brought on his shield his own personal or family emblem. Information of unit emblems, if any, have not survived.

The knights used lances during the charge but probablaly they carried javelins at the raids. The axe was not a common weapon. A club with metal spikes, the “mantzoukio” of the Byzantines, was popular because of its low cost and its attribute to break the bones of the opponent under the armour. The long swords were the main weapon of the horsemen for close combat and constituted the symbol of the knight’s honor. A great variety of knives and daggers would be useful as secondary weapons and tools.

Their clothing would mainly be woolen tunics and naturally they would be impressed by the linen, cotton and silken tunics of the Byzantines. The long boots and red cloacks are reported by the chroniclers but the red investors would be found rather between the leaders. The rest of the men would wear simple gray cloacks or furs of animals that would be used also as mattresses on campaign.

During the 12th century however the defensive equipment was improved. More solid conical helmets with nasal guards, made from a single piece of metal, appeared. The protection of the men would be upgraded with the application of metal plates on the chain mail. Greaves and vambraces, constituted from solid pieces of metal, straped with leather cords were used in order to protect the hands and thelegs. The faces were covered with iron masks adapted on the helmet and little by little, cylindric helmets with impressive decoration appeared. The knights of 13th and 14th centuries possibly had a slightly different appearance following the habits of their time. In their equipment were now included helmets with lifting visors and war hammers. The horses were heavily protected and armors would be consisting of onepiece metal plates. This development emanated from their contact with muslim armies horsearchers who took aim na shot at the unprotected horses.

The knights' retinues were usually less armored and carried lighter equipment. They wore helmet and their armour composed of linen or cotton layers – the”kambadio” of the Byzantines. Many of them were crossbowmen. The retinues carried out light cavalry missions or harrashed the opponent with arrow shots preparing thus the assault of the heavily armored horsemen.

The knights' tactic was the rapid and mass impetuous charge against the enemy that had been first “softened up” from the infantry missile weapons. They should however be supported by good infantry or light horsemen because they were in danger from their impetuosity to be drawn into ambushes. In the passage of time this became difficult because the Byzantine army declined and this resulted a lot of devastating defeats.

14th cent depiction of St George as a knight. Byzantine Museum Athens. S. Skarmintzos archive

The LATINIKON in battle…

1009 A D Duke Meles revolted attempting to make the city of Barri independent. The army sent against him included: Dani, Rossi and Gualani.(Danes, Russians, and Welsh;). Barri was taken but Meles revolted again in 1011 aided by the Normans. In 1018 Vasilios Boionanes crushed the Normans at the battle of Ofante.

1018 A D General Vasileios Boioannes with an army that included Norman knights went to Sicily and took Messsina from the Arabs

1038-1041 A D A campaign in Sicily and Southern Italy under general George Maniakes included Western mercenaries. The Norman commander Gulliome de Hauteville killed the emir of Syracuse earning the nickname «Iron hand».

1041 A D The Norman general Hervé revolted against Michael IV and led his 300 Normans soldiers in Eastern Asia Minor in order t make it an independent state. –After fighting the Seltzuks and captured by the emir Abu Nashr was sent to the emperor in chains but he was pardoned

1060 A D The Norman general Robert Crispin led the Normans of Edessa against the Seltzuks.

1067 A D Roussel de Bailleul enters Byzantine service. Chroniclers call him Ruselios or Urselios.

1071 A D The Normans under de Bailleul desert emperor Romanos Diogenes at Mantzikert.

1073 A D Roussel de Bailleul attempts to create a principality in Asia Minor with Ancara as its capital

1074 A D The Norman commander Raimbaud who served under general Brachamius is killed in battle against Armenian rebel Tornicius. Ο Roussel de Bailleul is surrendered by the Amaseans to Alexius Komnenos

1081 A D Alexius Komnenos bribes the German «Latinikoi” to enter Constantinopolis without a fight.

1081 A D The “Latinikon” under the command of Constantine Umvertopoylos takes part in the dissastrous battle of Durazzo (Dyrrachium)

1089 A D The “Latinikon” under the command of Constantine Umvertopoylos beats the Petseneges outside Philipopolis

1091 A D 500 knights sent by the duke of Burgundy take part in the battle of Levunium against the Petseneges

1122 A D Battle of Verroe, against the Petseneges. The Normans and Flemings crush Petseneg heavy cavalry.

1143-1180 A D Great numbers of Germans and French knights enter the Byzantine service because of Manuel Komnenos pro western policy.

1173 A D Western mercenaries defend Ancona from the Normans

1176 A D The “Latinikon” regiment is wiped out at Myriocephalon.

1180 A D The German and Italian “Latinikon” regiments fight against the Hungarians at the battle of Shemlin.

1182 A D The “Latinikon”regiment αποδεκατίζεται κατά την διάρκεια των αντι-δυτικών ταραχών που ξεσπούν στην πόλη.

1211 A D Theodore Laskaris' Italian soldiers distinguish themselves in a battle outside of Pissidian Antioch

1259 A D Hungarian knights in Byzantine Service fight against the Franks in Pelagonia

1398-9 A D. The knights of Marshall Boucicaut defend Constantinople from the Turks

1453 A. D. The soldiers of “protostator” Giustiniani defend Constantinople from the Turks until the fatal wounding of their commander.

Sources:

The University of Cambridge “History of the Byzantine Empire”(in Greek )

Melissa publications 1966

Europa Militaria The Vikings recreated in color photographs

Iohannes Kinnamos Epitome Rerum ab Ioanne et Alexio Comnenis, Augustus Meinke ed., (Bonn 1836)

Osprey Military publishing Co: Byzantine Armies 886-1118

Gravett, Christopher, and Nicolle, David. The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles. Osprey Publishing: Oxford, 2006

Norwich, John Julius. The Normans in the South 1016-1130. Longmans: London, 1967.

Gwatkin, H.M., Whitney, J.P. (ed) et al. The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume III. Cambridge University Press, 1926.

A History of the Byzantine Empire by Al. Vasilief Translated from the Russian by S. Ragozin, Madison 1928

http://stefanosskarmintzos.wordpress.com

Remains of an ancient Greek colony were found in an island near Sozopol in Bulgaria

2011-09-17T12:33:00.001+03:00

Archaeologists brought to light the ruins of an ancient Greek settleement after excavations they conducted at the little island of St. Kirik in the Black sea.Sozopolis is the modern name for the ancient settlement of Apollonia.Apollonia which is one of the oldest ancient Greek colonies was founded by Milesians at the 7th century BC.

Apollonia located south west

The head archaeologist of the excavations Cristina Panayotovna stated that the findings of the excavation could reveal the structure of a typical Greek Black sea colony.The ruins of the buildings proved the existence of an organised urban society.The building that were found were a metallurgical workshop and two streets(one of them led to Apollonia) ,Among the findings there were also tools for fishing, tools for cloth production,religious pottery and religious idols made of clay.

Panayotovna's team will return for excavations in October. During the summer a Bulgarian-French team of archaeologists made excavations at the outskirts of Apollonia focusing on the remains of a mansion were they found a treasure of ancient coins.

source: to vima newspaper, translation made by me.