General Studies and General Knowledge

Ban on Endosulfan, but is it too late?

2011-05-07T05:33:00.000-07:00

Finally India has decided to put an end to the use of Endosulfan, which is one of the world's deadliest pesticide . It was decided at the worlds meeting in Geneva . This stand was taken due to the nation wide protests against its use . But the question that arises here is “Is it too late”?

The reason for the use of pesticide by the farmers is due the fact that it is 15 times cheaper than other pesticides. It is true that the pesticide is cheaper but it has an adverse effect on human beings .

It is mostly used in the cashew crops. Even the technique used to spray this pesticide on the crops is considered reckless .

In most parts of kerala , aerial spraying of this pesticide is used with the help of choppers or aircrafts. Due to which this pesticide gets easily in contact with the water in the rivers and ultimately humans.

The harmful effects of this pesticide is indeed a worry . Neurological disorder, unusual abortion rate among women and animals, birth of handicapped children among human beings and animals, suicidal tendency, etc are prevailing due to the use of this pesticide . The kerala chief minister indeed had an a good reason for him to go on an one day hunger strike to demand an ban on endosulfan.

But the question here arises is that “is it too late for the govt.” to put an ban on endosulfan keeping in mind the health of the many people who suffered or still suffering from adverse effect of this pesticide . according to me the govt. should not only ban this pesticide but should also give compensation to the victims who suffered because of the harmful effect of endosulfan

Article by:
Siva Rama Krishna

Types of Forests in India

2011-05-01T20:12:00.000-07:00

The forest is a complex ecosystem consisting mainly of trees that shield the earth and support innumerable life forms. A forest is an area, which has a very high density of trees. Trees are an important component of the environment. They clean the air, cool it on hot days, conserve heat at night, and act as excellent sound absorbers. Forests create a special environment, which, in turn, affects the kinds of animals and plants that can exist. Forests can develop wherever there is an average temperature greater than about 10Ã‚Â° C in the warmest month and an annual rainfall in excess of about 200 mm annually, except where natural fire frequency is too high, or where the environment has been impaired by natural processes or by human activities. In any area having conditions above this range there exists an infinite variety of tree species grouped into a number of stable forest types that are determined by the specific conditions of the environment there.

Forests can be broadly classified into many types, some of the several types of forest are the Taiga type (consisting of pines, spruce, etc.) the mixed temperate forests with both coniferous and deciduous trees, the temperate forests, the sub tropical forests, the tropical forests, and the equatorial rainforests. The six major groups of forest in India are moist tropical, dry tropical, montane sub tropical, montane temperate, sub alpine, and alpine. These are subdivided into 16 major types of forests.

The scientific study of the different forest species and their relation with the environment is called forest ecology, while the managing of forests is known as forestry. Globally only two types of forests can be identified. One of them is the Natural forests, which contain only the original patterns of biodiversity. The native species occurring in established seral patterns. These formations and processes have not been impacted by humans with a frequency or intensity to change established seral patterns, and anthropogenic forests, which have been impacted by humans with a frequency or intensity to change established seral patterns. Often, they contain elements of exotic species.

Climate, soil type, topography, and elevation are the main factors that determine the type of forest. India has a diverse range of forests: from the rainforest of Kerala in the south to the alpine pastures of Ladakh in the north, from the deserts of Rajasthan in the west to the evergreen forests in the northeast. Forests are classified according to their nature and composition, the type of climate in which they thrive, and its relationship with the surrounding environment.

Forests can be classified in other different ways and to different degrees of specificity. One such way is in terms of the "biome" in which they exist combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are evergreen or deciduous). Another distinction is whether the forests composed predominantly of coniferous (needle-leaved) trees, broadleaf trees, or mixed. There is no universally accepted or set principle to classify forests. The types of forest found in India are:

Rainforests in India

Rainforests are those forests which are characterised by high rainfall between 1750mm and 2000mm and belong to the tropical wet climate group. The temperature here rarely gets higher than 34 degrees Celsius or drops below 20 degrees Celsius; average humidity is between 77 and 88%; rainfall is often more than 100 inches a year. There is usually a brief season of less rain. Almost all rain forests lie near the equator.

Rainforests are home to two-thirds of all the living animal and plant species on the planet. It has been estimated that many hundreds of millions of new species of plants, insects and microorganisms are still undiscovered. Despite the growth of vegetation in a rainforest, the actual quality of the soil is often quite poor. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus. The undergrowth in a rainforest is restricted in many areas by the lack of sunlight at ground level. This makes it possible for people and other animals to walk through the forest. Rainforests may also play a role in cooling air that passes through them. As such, rainforests are of vital importance within the global climate system. It supports a very broad array of fauna including mammals, birds, reptiles like snakes, turtles, chameleons and others of the family. More than half of the world's species of plants and animals are found in the rainforest. Insects, including brightly colored butterflies, mosquitoes, camouflaged stick insects, and huge colonies of ants make up the largest group of the rainforests.

Tropical Rain Forests in India

Tropical rain forests blanket the Earth like a wide green belt around the equator. They are common in Asia, Africa, South America, Central America, and on many of the Pacific Ocean islands. Tropical Rainforests maybe called the lowland equatorial evergreen rain forests. These forests incur heavy showers of 100-600cm a year, and hence the name, Rainforests. For this reason, the soil can be poor because high rainfall tends to leach out soluble nutrients. Wherever temperature is high enough and rainfall heavy and regular enough, there is rain forest. These forests experience an average temperature of about 26 degrees Celsius, with no pronounced cold or dry spells. Not only the quantity of life found in these forests, but also its diversity makes them so vital. Some of the strangest and most beautiful plants and animals are found in rain forests. They are home to two-thirds of all the living animal and plant species on the planet. It has been estimated that many hundreds of millions of new species of plants, insects, and microorganisms are still undiscovered and as yet unnamed by science. Tropical rain forests are called the "jewel of the earth", and the "world's largest pharmacy" because of the large amount of natural medicines discovered there. Rainforests are dominated by the broad-leaved evergreen trees, which form a leafy canopy over the forest floor. Taller trees, called emergents, may rise above the canopy. The upper portion of the canopy often supports a rich flora of epiphytes, including orchids, bromeliads, mosses, and lichens, who live attached to the branches of trees. The undergrowth or understory in a rainforest is often restricted by the lack of sunlight at ground level, and generally consists of shade-tolerant shrubs, herbs, ferns, small trees, and large woody vines which climb into the trees to capture sunlight. The relatively sparse understory vegetation makes it possible for people and other animals to walk through the forest. Coffee, chocolate, bananas, mangoes, papayas, avocados and sugar cane all originally came from tropical rainforests, and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest.

Just a few thousand years ago rainforests covered 14 percent of the earth's land surface, or 5 billion acres. Humans already have destroyed half of this forest area, with most damage occurring in the last 200 years. With just 2.5 million square miles (647 million hectares) of tropical rain forest remaining, we continue to lose an estimated 93,000 square miles (150,000 square km) a year. Rain forests are being eliminated for timber, minerals, agriculture, and human settlement.

Temperate Deciduous Forests in India:
Deciduous forests are those, which consist of predominantly broad-leafed trees. Deciduous forests are of two types: temperate and tropical. Temperate deciduous forests occur in areas of moderate temperature and rainfall with cold winters. Species belonging to these forests drop leaves in autumn. The deciduous forests in tropical areas shed leaves only by December (in the Northern Hemisphere) when water becomes scarce. The tropical monsoon deciduous forests are found in areas receiving annual rainfall of 100 to 200 cms in India, with a distinct dry and rainy seasons and a small range of temperature.

The deciduous can further be divided into moist and dry. The moist deciduous forests are found throughout India except in the western and the northwestern regions. They occur on the wetter western side of the Deccan Plateau, the northeastern part of the Deccan Plateau and the lower slopes of the Himalayas, on the Siwalik Hills from Jammu in the west to West Bengal in the east. The trees have broad trunks, are tall and have branching trunks and roots to hold them firmly to the ground. Some of the taller trees shed their leaves in the dry season. There is a layer of shorter trees and evergreen shrubs in the undergrowth. These forests are dominated by sal and teak, along with mango, bamboo, and rosewood. The Dry deciduous forests are found throughout the northern part of the country except in the Northeast. It is also found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. The canopy of the trees does not normally exceed 25 metres. The principal trees of these forests are teak, sal, sandalwood, mahua, khair, mango, jackfruit, wattle and bamboo, semal, sisasm, myrobalan, arjun and the banyan tree. Forests are exclusive, extremely rare and irreplaceable. They serve as home to many of the unknown species of mammals, reptiles, wildlife, insects, birds and so many others, which are yet to be named by scientists. More forest leads to more greenery around, leading to more rainfall and better crops. Deforestation is one of the major reasons for an increase in global warming. In order to cater to this acute problem the Government of India has undertaken special measures for plantation of trees to compensate the loss due to deforestation.

Mankind has come a long way from the old, primitive way of living in the forest and discovering fire. So much so, as to now the same mankind who thought forests to be his home, is up to destroying them, unwilling to know its importance. Human beings and forests have always had a complex relationship. We have depended on forests as long as we have inhabited the planet - getting clean air to breathe, food and water from it, fuel, shade and shelter, and now we need it for economic gain as well. Man has been taking continuously from the forest to feed the ever-growing need for wood, and wood and non - wood products, to provide land for the ever increasing population for housing and cultivation. Forests are the Earth's largest and most productive ecosystem, and tree their most visible and important constituent.

Air India

2011-04-30T07:25:00.000-07:00

Air India is a state-owned flag carrier, the oldest and the largest airline of India. It is a part of the Indian government-owned Air India Limited (AIL) which is renamed as Air India Ltd.

The airline operates a fleet of Airbus and Boeing aircraft serving Asia, Australia, Europe and North America. Its corporate office is located in South Mumbai. It is the 16th largest airline in Asia. Air India has two major domestic hubs at Indira Gandhi International Airport and Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport. A international hub at Dubai International Airport is currently being planned.

Star Alliance announced on 13 December 2007 that it had invited Air India to join as a member and it is expected to become a member sometime in 2011.

Air India was founded by J. R. D. Tata in July 1932 as Tata Airlines, a division of Tata Sons Ltd (now Tata Group). On 15 October 1932, J. R. D. Tata flew a single-engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi's Drigh Road Aerodrome to Bombay's Juhu Airstrip via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by former Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent.

Following the end of World War II, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on 29 July 1946 under the name Air India. In 1948, after the independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India, with an option to purchase an additional 2%. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International. On 8 June 1948, a Lockheed Constellation L-749A named Malabar Princess took off from Bombay bound for London via Cairo and Geneva. This marked the airline's first long-haul international flight, soon followed by service in 1950 to Nairobi via Aden.

On 25 August 1953, the Government of India exercised its option to purchase a majority stake in the carrier and Air India International Limited was born as one of the fruits of the Air Corporations Act that nationalised the air transportation industry. At the same time all domestic services were transferred to Indian Airlines (now renamed as Indian). In 1954, the airline took delivery of its first L-1049 Super Constellations and inaugurated services to Bangkok, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Singapore.

Air India International entered the jet age in 1960 when its first Boeing 707-420, named Gauri Shankar was delivered. Jet services to New York City via London were inaugurated that same year on 14 May 1960. On 8 June 1962, the airline's name was officially truncated to Air India. On 11 June 1962, Air India became the world's first all-jet airline.

In 1971, the airline took delivery of its first Boeing 747-200B named Emperor Ashoka. This coincided with the introduction of the 'Palace In The Sky' livery and branding. A feature of this livery is the paintwork around each aircraft window, in the cusped arch style of windows in Indian palaces. In 1986 Air India took delivery of the Airbus A310-300; the airline is the largest operator of this type in passenger service. In 1988, Air India took delivery of two Boeing 747-300Ms in mixed passenger-cargo configuration.

In 1993, Air India took delivery of the flagship of its fleet when the first Boeing 747-400 named Konark made history by operating the first non-stop flight between New York City and Delhi. In 1994 the airline was registered as Air India Ltd. In 1996, the airline inaugurated service to its second US gateway at O'Hare International Airport in Chicago. In 1999, the airline opened its dedicated Terminal 2-C at the renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport in Mumbai.

In 2000, Air India introduced services to Shanghai and to its third US gateway at Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark. In May 2004, Air India launched a wholly owned low cost airline called Air-India Express. Air India Express connecting cities in India with the Middle East, Southeast Asia and the Subcontinent. In 2004 Air India launched flights to its fourth US gateway at Los Angeles International Airport in Los Angeles (which has since been terminated) and expanded its international routes to include flights from Ahmedabad, Amritsar, Bangalore and Hyderabad.

In 2007, the Government of India announced that Air India would be merged with Indian. As part of the merger process, a new company called the National Aviation Company of India Limited (NACIL) was established, into which both Air India (along with Air India Express) and Indian (along with Alliance Air) will be merged.

On 27 February 2011, Air India and Indian Airlines merged along with their subsidiaries to form Air India Limited.

Subsidiaries:

Air India Cargo

In 1954, Air India Cargo started its freighter operations with a Douglas DC-3 Dakota aircraft, giving Air India the distinction of being the first Asian airline to operate freighters.

A member of IATA, Air India carries all types of cargo including dangerous goods (hazardous materials) and live animals, provided such shipments are tendered according to IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations and IATA Live Animals Regulations.

Air India Express

Air India Express is the airline's low-cost subsidiary which was established in 2005 during the aviation boom in India. It operates scheduled passenger services primarily to the Persian Gulf and South East Asia. Air India Express is currently the only airline in Air India Limited which posts profits. It operates a fleet of Next Generation Boeing 737-800 aircraft.Cochin International Airport is the main hub of the airline from which it has connections to almost all the Gulf countries.

Air India Regional

Formerly known as Alliance Air serves mainly on regional routes. Its main hub is Delhi's Indira Gandhi International Airport.

Air India has codesharing agreements with the following airlines:

Aeroflot

Air India Regional

Air Mauritius

Austrian Airlines

BMI

GMG Airlines

Gulf Air

Ethiopian Airlines

Kuwait Airways

Lufthansa

Singapore Airlines

South African Airways

Turkish Airlines

Uzbekistan Airways

Indus Water Treaty

2011-04-29T10:10:00.000-07:00

At the time of independence, the boundary line between the two newly created independent countries i.e. Pakistan and India was drawn right across the Indus Basin, leaving Pakistan as the lower riparian.

Moreover, two important irrigation head works, one at Madhopur on Ravi River and the other at Ferozepur on Sutlej River, on which the irrigation canal supplies in Punjab (Pakistan) had been completely dependent, were left in the Indian territory.

A dispute thus arose between two countries regarding the utilization of irrigation water from existing facilities. Negotiations held under the good offices of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), culminated in the signing of Indus Waters Treaty in 1960.

The Treaty was signed at Karachi by Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan, the then President of Pakistan, Shri Jawaharlal Nehru, the then Indian Prime Minister and Mr. W.A.B. Illif of the World Bank on 19th September, 1960. The Treaty however is effective from 1st April, 1960 (Effective Date).

BRIEF PROVISIONS OF INDUS WATERS TREATY 1960

i. The Indus system of rivers comprises three Eastern Rivers (Ravi, Beas and Sutlej and their tributaries) and three Western Rivers (Indus, Jhelum and Chenab and their tributaries).

ii. The Indus Waters Treaty 1960 was signed on 19.09.1960 between India and Pakistan. It is however effective from 01.04.1960.

iii. Under the Treaty, the waters of Eastern Rivers are allocated to India. India is under obligation to let flow the waters of the Western Rivers except for the following uses:

(a) Domestic Use,

(b) Non-consumptive use,

(c) Agricultural use as specified,

(d) Generation of hydro-electric power as specified

iv. India has been permitted to construct storage of water on Western Rivers upto 3.6 MAF for various purposes. No storage has been developed so far.

v. India has been permitted Agricultural Use of 7,01,000 acres over and above the Irrigated Cropped Area (ICA) as on 1.4.60. Out of this additional ICA of 7,01,000 acres, only 2,70,000 can be developed (i.e. a total ICA of 9,12,477 acres including that on 1.4.1960) till storages are constructed and 0.5 MAF of water is released there from every year. ICA during 2008-09 was 7,92,496 Acres.

vi. Under the Treaty, India and Pakistan have each created a permanent post of Commissioner for Indus Waters. They together constitute the Permanent Indus Commission (PIC), which is entrusted with the implementation of the Treaty. The PIC is required to hold meetings and tours and submit report on its work to the two Governments every year. It has held 111 tours and 106 meetings so far.

vii. Both sides are required to exchange information related to river flows observed by them, not later than three months of their observation and to exchange specified information on Agricultural Use every year.

viii. India is under obligation to supply information of its storage and hydroelectric projects as specified.

viii. India communicates as a gesture of goodwill, flood data to Pakistan from 1st July to 10th October every year, to enable them to undertake advance flood relief measures. The arrangement is reviewed every year.

ix. The Commissioners may discuss the questions arising under the Treaty under Article IX of the Treaty related to Settlement of Differences and Disputes and in the case of non-resolution, take further action under this Article for resolution through a Neutral Expert, negotiators or Court of Arbitration. [A Neutral Expert appointed by World Bank on Pakistan’s request delivered
Expert Determination on Baglihar Hydroelectric Project in Feb. 2007. To resolve the issues of Kishenganga H.E. Project, Pakistan has initiated proceedings for setting up a Court of Arbitration]

Noble Laureates of India

2011-04-28T11:05:00.000-07:00

Amartya Sen (b-1933): Prof. Amartya Sen is the recipient of the Nobel Prize for Economics for the year 1998, becoming the first Asian to have been honoured with the award. The Santiniketanborn economist who is a pioneer in Welfare Economics has to his credit several books and papers on aspects of welfare and development. An economist with a difference, Prof. Sen is a humanist. He has distinguished himself with his outstanding writings on famine, poverty, democracy, gender and social issues. The 'impossibility theorem' suggested earlier by Kenneth Arrow states that it was not possible to aggregate individual choices into a satisfactory choice for society as a whole. Prof. Sen showed mathematically that societies could find ways to alleviate such a poor outcome.

Subramanian Chandrashekhar (1910-1995): The Nobel Prize for Physics in 1983 was awarded to Dr S. Chandrashekhar, an Indian-born astrophysicist. Educated in Presidency College, Chennai, Dr Chandrashekhar happened to be the nephew of his Nobel forbear, Sir C.V. Raman. He later migrated to the United States where he authored several books on Astrophysics and Stellar Dynamics. He developed a theory on white dwarf stars which posts a limit of mass of dwarf stars known also as Chandrashekhar Limit. His theory explains the final stages of stellar evolution.

Mother Teresa (1910-1997): The Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Mother Teresa in 1979. Albanian parentage, Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu was born at Skopje, now in Yogoslavia. She joined the Irish order of the Sisters of Loretto at Dublin in 1928 and came to Kolkata in 1929 as a missionary, only to find the misery of the abandoned and the destitute. Concern for the poor and the sick prompted her to found a new congregation, Missionaries of Charity. Having become an Indian citizen, Mother Teresa served the cause of dying destitutes, lepers and drug addicts, through Nirmal Hriday (meaning Pure Heart), the main centre of her activity. Her selfless service and unique devotion, not only to helpless fellow-Indians but also to the cause of world peace, earned her and India the first Nobel Peace Prize.

Hargobind Khorana (b. 1922): Hargobind Khorana was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1968. Of Indian origin, Dr Khorana was born in Raipur, Punjab (now in Pakistan). He took his doctoral degree in Chemistry from Liverpool University and joined the University of Wisconsin as a Faculty Member in 1960. His major breakthrough in the field of Medicine -interpreting the genetic code and analysing its function in protein synthesis- fetched him the Nobel Prize.

Chandrashekhar Venkataraman (1888-1970): India's first Nobel Prize for Physics was claimed in 1930 by the renowned physicist Sir C.V. Raman. Born at Thiruvanaikkaval near Tiruchirapalli in Tamilnadu, Raman studied at Presidency College, Chennai. Later, he served as Professor of Physics at Calcutta University. Recipient of many honours and awards, including the title of 'Sir', Sir C.V. Raman received the Nobel Prize for an important optics research, in which he discovered that diffused light contained rays of other wavelengths-what is now popularly known as Raman Effect. His theory discovered in 1928 explains the change in the frequency of light passing through a transparent medium.

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941): Rabindranath Tagore was the first Indian ever to receive a Nobel Prize. Popularly known as Gurudev, India's Poet Laureate Tagore was born on 7th May 1861, in Kolkata. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in recognition of his work Geetanjali, a collection of poems, in 1913. Tagore wrote many love lyrics. Geetanjali and Sadhana are among his important works. The poet, dramatist and novelist is also the author of India's National Anthem. In 1901 he founded the famous Santiniketan which later came to be known as Vishwabharati University.

Bharat Ratna Award

2011-04-28T10:46:00.001-07:00

India has produced a legacy of brave hearts since times immemorial. Probably there is not enough space to measure their sacrifices. However, we cannot close our eyes to those people who have made our country proud by excelling in their own fields and bringing us international recognition.Bharat Ratna is the highest civilian honour, given for exceptional service towards advancement of Art, Literature and Science, and in recognition of Public Service of the highest order.

The original specifications for the award called for a circular gold medal, 35 mm in diameter, with the sun and the Hindi legend "Bharat Ratna" above and a floral wreath below. The reverse was to carry the state emblem and motto. It was to be worn around the neck from a white ribbon. This design was altered after a year.

The provision of Bharat Ratna was introduced in 1954. The first ever Indian to receive this award was the famous scientist, Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman. Since then, many dignitaries, each a whiz in varied aspects of their career has received this coveted award.

In fact, our former President, Shri A. P. J Abdul Kalam is also a recipient of this esteemed honour (1997). There is no written provision that Bharat Ratna should be awarded to Indian citizens only. The award has been awarded to a naturalized Indian citizen, Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu, better known as Mother Teresa (1980) and to two non-Indians – Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Nelson Mandela (1990). It is also not mandatory that Bharat Ratna be awarded every year. The last time this award was given was in 2008, to Pandit Bhimsen Gururaj Joshi.

List of Awardees:

Pandit Bhimsen Gururaj Joshi
Arts : 2008 : Karnataka

Kumari Lata Dinanath Mangeshkar
Arts : 2001 : Maharashtra

Late. Ustad Bismillah Khan
Arts : 2001 : Uttar Pradesh

Prof. Amartya Sen
Literature & Education : 1999 : United Kingdom

Lokpriya Gopinath (posth.) Bordoloi
Public Affairs : 1999 : Assam

Loknayak Jayprakash (Posth.) Narayan
Public Affairs : 1999 : Bihar

Pandit Ravi Shankar
Arts : 1999 : United States

Shri Chidambaram Subramaniam
Public Affairs : 1998 : Tamil Nadu

Smt. M.S. Subbulakshmi
Arts : 1998 : Tamil Nadu

Shri (Dr.) A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
Science & Engineering. : 1997 : Delhi

Smt. Aruna Asaf (Posth.) Ali
Public Affairs : 1997 : Delhi

Shri Gulzari Lal (Shri) Nanda
Public Affairs : 1997 : Gujarat

Shri Jehangir Ratanji Dadabhai Tata
Trade & Industry : 1992 : Maharashtra

Shri Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
Public Affairs : 1992 : West Bengal

Shri Satyajit Ray
Arts : 1992 : West Bengal

Shri Morarji Ranchhodji Desai
Public Affairs : 1991 : Gujarat

Shri Rajiv Gandhi
Public Affairs : 1991 : Delhi

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Public Affairs : 1991 : Gujarat

Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedakr
Public Affairs : 1990 : Maharashtra

Dr. Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela
Public Affairs : 1990 : South Africa

Shri Marudur Gopalan Ramachandran
Public Affairs : 1988 : Tamil Nadu

Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
Social Work : 1987 : Pakistan

Shri Acharya Vinoba Bhave
Social Work : 1983 : Maharashtra

Mother Mary Teresa Bojaxhiu Teresa
Social Work : 1980 : West Bengal

Shri Kumaraswamy Kamraj
Public Affairs : 1976 : Tamil Nadu

Shri V.V. Giri
Public Affairs : 1975 : Orissa

Smt. Indira Gandhi
Public Affairs : 1971 : Uttar Pradesh

Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri
Public Affairs : 1966 : Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Pandurang Vaman Kane
Social Work : 1963 : Maharashtra

Dr. Zakir Hussain
Public Affairs : 1963 : Andhra Pradesh

Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Public Affairs : 1962 : Bihar

Dr. Bidhan Chandra Roy
Public Affairs : 1961 : West Bengal

Shri Purushottam Das Tandon
Public Affairs : 1961 : Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Dhondo Keshav Karve
Social Work : 1958 : Maharashtra

Pt. Govind Ballabh Pant
Public Affairs : 1957 : Uttar Pradesh

Dr. Bhagwan Das
Literature & Education : 1955 : Uttar Pradesh

Shri Jawaharlal Nehru
Public Affairs : 1955 : Uttar Pradesh

Dr. M. Vishweshwariah
Civil Service : 1955 : Karnataka

Shri Chakravarti Rajagopalachari
Public Affairs : 1954 : Tamil Nadu

Dr. Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman
Science & Engineering. : 1954 : Tamil Nadu

Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan
Public Affairs : 1954 : Tamil Nadu

India's Foreign Relations

2011-04-27T22:47:00.000-07:00

Afghanistan

Notwithstanding a significant deterioration in the security situation, impinging directly on us with the attack on the Indian Embassy in Kabul in July 2008, we remained at the forefront of international efforts to assist Afghanistan in building a stable democratic and pluralistic society. The Zaranz-Delaram road giving Afghanistan access to the sea was formally inaugurated by EAM Shri Pranab Mukherjee and President Karzai on 22nd January, 2009. The implementation of the scheme of ICCR Scholarships and ITEC training programmes for Afghan nationals and the execution of community based, small development projects in the fields of agriculture, rural development, sanitation, vocational training, etc. is progressing satisfactorily. India continued to contribute for the Afghan Reconstruction Trust Fund and pledged a sum of US $ 1 million to the UNDP election fund. India has also pledged an additional US $ 450 million (over the US$ 750 million earlier committed) to effectively meet the requirements of our ongoing and future projects. President Karzai visited India in August 2008 and again in January, 2009.

Bangladesh

India continued to constructively engage with Bangladesh on a broad spectrum of bilateral issues during the year. EAM Shri Pranab Mukherjee visited Bangladesh in February 2009, after the Awami League led Grand Alliance won an overwhelming majority in the general elections of December 2008 and formed the government under the premiership of Sheikh Hasina. The other high level visits included visits of Bangladesh Army Chief, Gen. Moeen from 24 February - 1 March 2008, MoS for Commerce and Power Jairam Ramesh to Dhaka in October 2008 including that of Chief of Army Staff, Gen. Deepak Kapoor.

India took several initiatives, many unilaterally, to bring the two countries closer. They included restarting of the passenger train service 'Maitree' Express between Kolkata and Dhaka after 43 years. India gave substantial assistance to Bangladesh to overcome damages caused by natural disasters like cyclone. India started providing duty free access to exports from LDCs in the SAARCincluding Bangladesh from 1 January 2008 (except some items on India's sensitive list). India has undertaken a project to construct Kalabhaban for the Department of Theatre and Music, University of Dhaka. As a move to check the activities of Indian Insurgent Groups (IIGs) on Bangladeshi soil, the two sides revived the Joint Working Group.

Bhutan

India and Bhutan continued to share uniquely warm and cordial relations, which were further strengthened during the year through regular high level interactions. The year also witnessed the coronation of the 5th King of Bhutan. PM Dr. Manmohan Singh visited Bhutan from 16-17 May, 2008 during which he addressed the first session of the democratically elected Parliament. During the visit, PM announced that India will double the target of hydropower development in Bhutan to 10,000 MW for export to India by 2020; Government of India's assistance for construction of the first rail link between India and Bhutan, and establishment of the prestigious Nehru-Wangchuck scholarships for Bhutanese students.

Prime Minister of Bhutan, Lyonchhen Jigmi Y. Thinley, paid a state visit to India from 14-17 July, 2008 and again visited India from 12-14 November, 2008 to participate in the 2nd BIMSTEC Summit in New Delhi. President of India Smt. Pratibha Devisingh Patil accompanied by the then EAM Shri Pranab Mukherjee paid a state visit to Bhutan from 5-8 November, 2008 as Chief Guest at the formal coronation of His Majesty Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, the King of Bhutan.

Bhutan celebrated 2008 as the Golden Jubilee Year of the visit of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru to Bhutan in 1958. A Parliamentary delegation from Bhutan visited India during February 2009 and had interaction with their counterparts in India.

India-Bhutan bilateral relations are characterized by close consultations, maturity, complete trust and mutual understanding and are an example of good neighbourly relations. This special relationship is further sustained by the tradition of regular visits and exchange of views at the highest levels. The Government of India has committed to extend full support and cooperation to the Royal Government of Bhutan for consolidation of democracy following the installation of the first democratically elected Parliament and Government in Bhutan in May 2008. India has been the largest trade and development partner of Bhutan, Ever since Bhutan initiated planned development efforts in the early 1960s India has been extending financial assistance to Bhutan's Five Year Plans (FYP). Recently, Government of India has committed to develop 10,000 MW of hydropower in Bhutan for export to India by 2020.

China

This has been an important year for India-China relations. Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh paid an official visit to the People's Republic of China from 13-15 January 2008. The leaders of India and China resolved to develop the Strategic & Cooperative Partnership for Peace and Prosperity between the two countries. They also reiterated their firm commitment to resolving all outstanding differences through peaceful negotiations, while ensuring that such differences are not allowed to affect the positive development of bilateral relations. The two Prime Ministers signed "A Shared vision for the 21st Century" which reflects the aspirations of the two countries to cooperate with each other on areas of mutual interest on regional and multilateral affairs.

The Foreign Ministers of India and China also exchanged visits in June 2008 and September 2008 respectively. The new Consulates General in Guangzhou and in Kolkata were formally inaugurated during these visits. Bilateral trade in the calendar year 2008 reached US$ 51.8 billion, which is close to the target of US$ 60 billion by 2010 that has been set by the two Prime Ministers. Cooperation and exchanges in the area of defence relations also continued with the holding of the 2nd Joint Military Exercises and the 2nd Annual Defence Dialogue in India in December 2008. The Special Representatives of the two countries met in September 2008 for the 12th round of discussions on the India-China Boundary issue. India provided humanitarian relief assistance worth US$ 5 million to China in the aftermath of the devastating earthquake that struck Sichuan province in May 2008. The two countries have also consulted with each other on important global issues including the international financial crisis and climate change.

Iran

The momentum in India-Iran bilateral relations was maintained in 2008-09 through regular exchanges of delegations in different fields as also by high level visits. The impetus provided by high level discussions have contributed to enhanced bilateral cooperation in energy, trade & commerce, investment, culture and transit related issues as well as cooperation in regional and international issues of mutual interest. The President of Iran Dr. Mahomud Ahmadinejad paid a visit to New Delhi on 29 April 2008. EAM Shri Pranab Mukherjee visited Tehran from 28-30 July 2008 to attend the 15th NAM Ministerial Conference and thereafter for the India-Iran XVth Joint Commission meeting from 31st October - 2 November. 2008. The VIth Annual Foreign Office Consulations at the level of Foreign Secretary were held in New Delhi from 17-18 December 2008.

Maldives

Bilateral relations between India and Maldives continued to be close and friendly. Both the countries remained engaged in further strengthening their friendly relations through high level exchanges and implementing various developmental projects. The newly elected President Mr. Mohamed Nasheed paid a State visit to India from 23-25 December 2008, during which an agreement on Standby Credit facility of US$ 100 million to Maldives and an Air Services Agreement were signed between the two countries. MoS for Commerce, Shri Jairam Ramesh visited Maldives from 29-31 January 2008. In January and February 2009, Defence Minister and Minister of Health and Family of Maldives visited India to enhance cooperation in security related issues and health respectively.

Myanmar

Relations with Myanmar continued to develop further during the period and became truly multifaceted. India was one of the first countries to rush emergency relief assistance to Myanmar in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis in May 2008. PM of Myanmar Thein Sein visited India for the BIMSTEC Summit in November 2008 and Vice President of India Dr. M. Hamid Ansari visited Myanmar from 5-8 February 2009.

During Vice President's visit agreements for setting up an industrial Training Centre by HMIT (1) & a Centre for English Language Training were signed. Engagement in the economic and commercial sphere strengthened considerably. The Bilateral Investment Promotion & Protection Agreement (BIPPA) was signed. The opening of a new trade point at Nagaland border with Myanmar was agreed to. Institutional mechanisms to check the activities of Indian Insurgent Groups in Myanmar were developed. India also remained committed to provide assistance in developing infrastructure within Myanmar, including the Kaladan Multimodel Transit Transport Project, and strengthen cooperation in oil and natural gas exploration, power sector, manufacturing, etc.

Nepal

India extended all possible support to the Government and people of Nepal in consolidating the peaceful democratic transition. The year witnessed several high level bilateral visits. Prime Minister Hon. Pushpa Kamal Dahal Prachanda's first official visit abroad to India from September 14-18, 2008 provided broad political direction to forge a 21st century relationship with India. During the visit, the Prime Minister held talks with PM Prachanda and conveyed India's commitment to support Nepal's democratic and economic transformation. Drafting a new constitution and conclusion of the peace process are priorities for the Government of Nepal. India expressed its commitment to assist the Government of Nepal in these tasks. As agreed by both sides, several high level bilateral consultation mechanisms were also reactivated.

Promotion of investor-friendly business environment in Nepal would help in realization of the potential for major expansion of Indian investment in key areas like hydropower, agriculture, tourism and infrastructure in Nepal for mutual benefit.

EAM Shri Pranab Mukherjee visited Nepal in November 2008 to discuss issues of mutual interest. Foreign Secretary visited Nepal from February 17-18, 2009 to follow up on the agreements reached during PM Prachanda's visit to India and EAM's visit to Nepal.

Nepal and India share friendly and close political, economic, and social ties. The two nations' strong cultural affinities and unfettered people-to-people contacts across the open border make it a relationship that has few parallels. Currently, main challenges for Nepal are drafting of a new constitution and successful conclusion of the peace process for bringing peace, stability and economic development. Following the resignation of former Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal Prachanda of Unified Communist Party of Nepal - Maoist (UCPN-M) on May 4, 2009, a new coalition government under the leadership of Mr. Madhav Kumar Nepal of Communist Party of Nepal Unified Marxist-Leninist (CPN-UML) was sworn in on May 25, 2009. Foreign Secretary visited Nepal on June 20-21, 2009, to exchange views with the Nepalese leadership on future development and strengthening of relations between the two countries. Hon Minister for Water Resources Shri Pawan Kumar Bansal visited Nepal on July 11-12, 2009 for joint inspection along with Hon. Minister of Irrigation of Nepal of the repairs carried out by GOI of the breach in embankment of the Kosi river. Nepal's Defence Minister Mrs Bidhya Bhandari also paid an official visit to India on July 21, 2009.

Pakistan

The Composite Dialogue Process with Pakistan entered its 5th round in 2008-09. The Dialogue had been premised since its resumption in 2004, on the commitment made on 6 January 2004, that Pakistan would not permit territory under its control to be used to support terrorism in any form. Notwithstanding some achievements during the year in segments of the Composite Dialogue Process, terrorism and non-implementation of the 6 January 2004 commitments by Pakistan has eroded the fundamental premise of the Dialogue process. Terrorist attacks in India and on the Indian Embassy in Kabul in July 2008, increase in ceasefire violations and continued infiltration across the LOC placed a strain on the dialogue process in particular and India-Pakistan relations in general. The terrorist attack on Mumbai on 26 November 2008 and concrete evidence of the involvement of elements in Pakistan in the attack led to a pause in the dialogue process.

After the Mumbai attack, the Ministry undertook several steps both bilaterally with Pakistan and at international fora to obtain Pakistan's cooperation in bringing the Pakistan-based perpetrators to justice and to ensure that such acts do not recur. As a result, the United Nations Al-Qaeda and Taliban Sanctions Committee listed individual entities based in Pakistan including leaders of the Lashkar-e-Taiba under Security Council Resolution 1267. The Jamat-ud-Daawa was also listed as an alias of the Lashkar-e-Taiba. On 12 February 2009, Indian High Commissioner in Islamabad was formally informed of Pakistan's response to the dossier that India had made available on 5 January linking the terrorist attacks on Mumbai to perpetrators in Pakistan. In their response, Pakistani authorities admitted that elements in Pakistan were involved in the terrorist attacks on Mumbai. Pakistan also sought further information and material relating to the investigation. The then EAM Shri Pranab Mukherjee termed this a positive development in a suo moto statement on 13 February in Parliament. On 13 March 2009, the Government of India provided detailed responses and material to the Pakistan High Commissioner in New Delhi to all 30 questions raised by Pakistan which in turn was acknowledged by Pakistan Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Despite the above developments and despite high-level statements from Pakistan promising cooperation regarding the Mumbai attack, in terms of actual action taken the response has been disappointing. As a result, there has been a sharp deterioration in bilateral relations.

Responding to the announcement of the new US strategy for Afghanistan and Pakistan, MEA spokesperson on 30 March 2009 welcomed the very "clear expression of will to carry through the struggle against extremism in Afghanistan and its roots in Pakistan" and expressed India's "readiness to play a constructive role as a responsible power in defeating extremism of all kinds."

Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, the military conflict in the North escalated in 2008 leading to a major humanitarian crisis and the eventual military defeat of the LTTE. The situation in the North and the plight of Tamil civilians displaced and affected by the conflict were important issues in the bilateral discourse between India and Sri Lanka. The then EAM visited Colombo on January 27, 2009 and held discussions with President Mahinda Rajapaksa. This was preceded by Foreign Secretary Shivshankar Menon's visit to Sri Lanka on 16-17 January, 2009

In response to the emerging humanitarian crises in Sri Lanka, India sent large-scale emergency relief assistance including family packs for IDPs, medicines and setting up of a 62 member Emergency Field Hospital in Northern Sri Lanka. India also remained engaged with Sri Lanka in support of a peacefully negotiated political settlement within a united Sri Lanka.

Bilateral exchanges continued to strengthen during this period. Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh and EAM Shri Pranab Mukherjee visited Sri Lanka for the 15th SAARC Summit held from 2-3rd August, 2008. Trade and investment linkages were further consolidated India remained Sri Lanka's largest trading partner in 2008 with bilateral trade worth US$ 3.27 billion. India also emerged as the second largest investor in Sri Lanka in 2008.

SAARC

The South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation, (SAARC) was created in 1985, as an expression of the region's collective decision to evolve a regional cooperation framework. Presently, there are eight member countries in SAARC namely Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

India was the Chair of SAARC in 2007-2008 (since the 14th SAARC Summit held in New Delhi from 3-4 2007 upto the 15th Summit held in Colombo from 2-3 August 2008). The period was the most productive than SAARC has ever known with SAARC transforming from declaratory, to implementation. Each of PMs announcements at the 14th Summit in Delhi has been implemented, with India discharging its responsibilities in a non-reciprocal (asymmetric) manner. The landmark achievements in SAARC are as follows:

SAARC Food Bank is now operational with a total stock of 2,43,000 MT contributed by all member states. They have also identified the locations from where the requesting country could draw its requirements from the sending country based on mutually acceptable terms.

The establishment of the South Asian University is on schedule with the establishment of the Project Office, finalisation of its international legal contours by the South Asian University Act 2008, grant of privileges and immunities as per UN Immunities and Privileges Act 1947 and funding as per "Principles of Regional Centres". Process of transfer of 100 acres of land from DDA for leasing out to SAU also is at an advanced stage.

At the 13th SAARC Summit held in Dhaka, in November 2005, Prime Minister proposed the establishment of a SAARC Museum of Textiles and Handicrafts. The Museum would be an Intergovernmental Body on the lines of the other SAARC Regional Centres and will be based in Delhi Haat. Pitampura. For the establishment of the SAARC Museum of Textiles and Handicarfts, the necessary financial processing is under way.

SAARC Development Fund (SDF) is also operational out of the temporary cell of the SAARC Secretariat pending completion of its permanent premises in Bhutan. Two projects are currently under implementation out of the SDF. India has transferred its full commitment of US $ 189.9 million to the SDF, and has proposed a third project on providing bio-mass cooking stoves and solar lanterns to SAARC Member States.

Apart from above, India is also implementing the projects, in the areas of Telemedicine (Bhutan and Afghanistan), Shuttle Breeding of Pulses (Bhutan), setting up of Seed Testing Laboratories (Bhutan), Rainwater Harvesting (Bhutan and Sri Lanka) and Rural Solar Energy Electrification Project (Sri Lanka) under a hub-and spoke mechanism with India as the hub.

There is progress in full implementation of South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) in letter and spirit. Member states have appreciated India's gesture to give zero duty access to LDCs from January 1, 2008, one year ahead of target date and unilateral reduction of its Negative List with respect to LDCs from 744 to 480. India continues to revise its Sensitive Lists and, as of now, have 744 items outside its ambit for the LDCs and 868 for the Non-LDCs. A draft Agreement on Trade in Services is in final stages of negotiation expected to be ready by the end of this year.

The signing of the SAARC Convention of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters in Colombo and the 15th SAARC Summit, has generated momentum for signing similar agreements on security related matters in other mechanisms in SAARC. For example, the Standard Operating Protocol on Trafficking of Women & Children has also been similarly finalised at the third meeting of the Regional Task Force to implement the SAARC Conventions relating to trafficking in women & children and promotion of child welfare in South Asia held in Shimla on May 28-29, 2009.

People-to-people activities and exchange on visits have phenomenally increased through offer of training programmes, workshops within SAARC member states and arrangement of cultural activities such as handlooms and handicrafts Exhibitions from SAARC members states in Pragati Maidan, ITPO, Surajkund Mela, the South Asian Bands Festivals, SAARC Festivals of Literature, SAARC Folklore Festival, SAARC Food Festival, SAARC Fashion Show and the forthcoming 9th SAARC Trade Fair in Bhutan etc.

The dynamism infused by India into the SAARC processes is also evident by the numerous training programmes which have been hosted in India for Member states in the diverse fields of women empowerment, micro finance, security, energy, science and technology, information technology, agriculture education and commerce etc.

The above initiatives have enabled SAARC move from declaratory phase to implementation. Due to India's dynamic commitment to SAARC, to engage neighbouring countries on core developmental aspects of health, education and infrastructure, the number of SAARC activities/meetings held per annum has made a quantum jump to 133 scheduled for the period 2009 until 2010, reflecting the new dynamic SAARC that is being increasingly seen as the premier vehicle of regional economic cooperation to bring the fruits of development to the people of South Asia.

South East Asia and the Pacific

India continued to pursue closer relations with South East Asia and the Pacific region as envisioned in its 'Look East Policy' during the year. With some countries in the region, we stepped up relations to the strategic level, while diversifying and strengthening relations with others. Regular exchange of high level visits at bilateral level and interactions at regional and multilateral fora contributed to a higher degree of engagement among leaders in the region to help develop renewed dynamism in India's relations with these countries. In the last five years, Prime Ministers, Presidents and Ministers of several countries in the region visited India. Our leaders also visited various countries in the region. These visits and signing of several framework agreements have significantly contributed to India's growing relations with countries in this region.

The bilateral trade and investment between India and countries in ASEAN have considerably increased, touching about US$ 40 billion in 2007-08. India – ASEAN Free Trade Agreement (FTA) in goods has been successfully negotiated and is ready for signature. With the implementation of India-ASEAN FTA, the trade with ASEAN countries will cross the target of US$ 50 billion by 2010. Meanwhile, bilateral FTA is being negotiated with several countries in the region, the conclusion of which would significantly enhance the two-way trade. The trade with Australia also crossed US$ 10 billion.

For the socio-economic development of countries in the region, India continued to provide assistance to Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Philippines in the form of grants, soft loans and credit lines and training courses, under ITEC scheme. As a Dialogue Partner of the Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) countries, India has been engaging with Pacific Island countries by providing regional assistance in capacity building and social and economic programmes and sustainable development. In response, India succeeded in eliciting support from majority of the countries in the region on issues of India's interest such as India's candidature for UN Security Council membership, Commonwealth, civil nuclear cooperation etc.

India's growing profile has attracted countries in the South East Asia and Pacific region to foster closer engagement at the regional and multilateral fora such as ASEAN, EAS, BIMSTEC, MGC and ARF.

East Asia

Japan

India-Japan relations, which have expanded and broadened in recent years, continue to undergo a significant and qualitative shift. Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh paid an official visit to Japan on 22-23 October 2008 for the Annual India- Japan Summit meeting. The two Prime Ministers signed a Joint Statement on the Advancement of the Strategic & Global Partnership between India and Japan and a Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation. The 2nd Strategic Dialogue between the Foreign Ministers was held in August 2008 when the Foreign Minister of Japan visited India. Ministerial level dialogues were also held on economic and trade matters and on energy.

India was the largest recipient of Japanese Official Development Assistance (Yen 236.047 billion or Rs. 11,802.4 crores approximately) in the financial year 2008-09. Steady progress was made on the flagship projects jointly initiated by the two countries. On the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor Project, the Japanese side has agreed to provide financial assistance of approximately 450 billion Yen as a loan for the Phase-I, and have expressed their commitment to work with India for early finalization of the assistance for the entire Western Freight Corridor. On the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor initiative, the two sides have held meetings of the Joint Task Force to finalize the contours of the project. We have an annual calendar for defence exchanges. The two sides have also continued to discuss a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, with the objective of concluding a mutually beneficial and high quality agreement. Both sides are also engaged in discussions and Japanese assistance for a new IIT at Hyderabad. Defence and functional exchanges have also emerged as an important area for bilateral cooperation.

Republic of Korea

Our relations with the Republic of Korea have steadily grown. Former President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam attended the inauguration ceremony of the new President of the Republic of Korea, Lee Myung-bak. Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh met the new President at the G-8 Summit meeting in Japan in July 2008. The two countries are negotiating a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement that they hope to conclude in FY 2009-10. During the year 2008-09 important cooperation also took place in other areas.

Mongolia

The Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh met the President of Mongolia in the margins of the 7th ASEM Summit Meeting in Beijing in October 2008. The Defence Minister of Mongolia visited India in February 2009. Bilateral cooperation on economic and trade matters, defence, education, culture and also in the training of Mongolians under the ITEC programme have continued to develop during the year. India also provided Mongolia with 5000 MT, each of rice and sugar as humanitarian assistance in view of our very friendly relations with that country.

DPRK

Relations between India and Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) continue to be cordial with a focus on humanitarian assistance and exchanges in the areas of culture, sports and education.

Eurasia

India maintained friendly and cordial relations with Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Central Asian and Caucasian countries during the year through visits, conclusion of bilateral agreements, periodic bilateral and multilateral engagements, cooperation programmes, cultural events and other initiatives. Some of the important bilateral engagements during the year included the State visits of the President of the Russian Federation Mr. Dmitry A. Medvedev to India in December 2008, the President of Kazakhstan Mr. Nursultan Nazarbayev as Chief Guest at the Republic Day celebrations 2009 and visit of the Vice President of India to Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan in April 2008.

India and Russia continue to further consolidate their strategic partnership. Co-operation in defence, space and nuclear energy has intensified. During President Medvedev's visit to India from 4-5 December 2008 for the annual bilateral Summit, nine important agreements were signed apart from a Joint Declaration. The agreements include an Inter-Governmental Agreement on Cooperation for the construction of additional nuclear power plant units at Kudankulam site as well as for the construction of Russian designed nuclear power plants at new sites, and a MoU between ISRO and Russian Federal Space Agency on joint activities in the field of human space flight programme. From the Russian side, Defence Minister Mr. Anatoly Serdyukov visited India from 28-30 September 2008, Foreign Minister Mr. Sergey Lavrov visited on 20 October, and Deputy Prime Minister of Russia, Mr. Alexander Zhukov, visited on 20 October, and Deputy Prime Minister of Russia, Mr. Alexander Zhukov, visited India to co-chair the 14th Session of the India-Russia IGC on Trade, Economic, Scientific, Technological and Cultural Cooperation. The year 2008 was celebrated as "Year of Russia" in India with almost 140 events being organised in different cities of India, and similarly, the year 2009 is being celebrated as the "Year of India" in Russia.

Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister of Turkmenistan, Mr. Rashid Meredov led a high level delegation to India from 20 - 22 January 2008. Mr. Meredov co-chaired the 2nd Session of the India-Turkmenistan Intergovernmental Commission for Trade, Economic, Scientific and Technological Co-operation along with the MoS for External Affairs, Shri E. Ahmed. During the visit Mr. Meredov called on the Vice President and the PM and also met the EAM Shri Pranab Mukherjee. Vice-President Shri M. Hamid Ansari paid an official visit to Turkmenistan from 4-6 April 2008. Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas Shri Murli Deora visited Turkmenistan in November 2008. Defence Minister of Belarus Colonel General Leonid Maltsev visited India from 16 - 18 February for DEFEXPO India 2008 in New Delhi. He met the Defence Minister on 16 February to discuss bilateral defence co-operation. Indian army chief General Deepak Kapoor visited Belarus from 12-15 March 2008 and met the Belarusian Defence Minister, Chairman of the State Military & Industrial Committee and Chief of the Army Staff. General Kapoor visited the Military Academy of Belarus and several defence production enterprises. The Belarusian Minister of Industry Mr. Anatoly Rusetsky attended the 4th Session of the India-Belarus IGC on Economic, Trade, Industrial, Scientific, Technological and Cultural Cooperation in New Delhi from 17 - 18 November 2008. The first session of the Indo-Belarusian Joint Commission on Military Technical Cooperation was held in Minsk from 27 - 30 May 2008. Foreign Minister of the Kyrgyz Republic. Mr. Ednan Karabaev visited India from 4-6 February 2008 to review bilateral relations and discuss regional issues of mutual interest. He met the Ministers of External Affairs, Commerce & Industry, Human Resource Development and Culture & Tourism.

During 2008, Vice President (VP) Shri M. Hamid Ansari's visit to Kazakhstan from 6-10 April 2008 gave a major boost to India-Kazakhstan relations. During his visit, VP met with the President and Prime Minister of Kazakhstan and addressed the Senate. Kazakhstan President Mr. Nursultan Nazarbayev paid a state visit to India from 23-26 January 2009 and was the Chief Guest at the Republic Day celebrations - the first time that a leader from a Central Asian country was accorded this honour. With another important Central Asian Country, Uzbekistan, our relations progressed with holding of Foreign Office consultations in New Delhi on 1st August 2008, and meeting of the 8th Session of the India-Uzbekistan Inter-Government Commission on trade, economic, scientific, and cultural cooperation in September 2008. The Uzbek Minister of Economy Mr. B. Khodjaev had visited New Delhi from 16-17 September 2008 for the 8th Session of the IGC.

The Gulf, West Asia and North Africa

India maintained its historical and traditionally cordial relations and cooperation with the countries in the Gulf region. Gulf countries together provide 70% of our total crude oil requirement and about 4.5 million Indians live and work in the region, remitting more than US$ 10 billion annually. The year witnessed several high level visits which underlined the importance of the region in our relationship. The most important was PM Dr. Manmohan Singh's visit to Qatar and Oman in November 2008 which opened new areas for bilateral cooperation. In Qatar, PM signed two documents relating to defence cooperation and security as well as law enforcement matters. In Oman, an MoU on manpower and another for establishing India-Oman Joint Investment Fund were signed. EAM Shri Pranab Mukherjee accompanied by MoS Shri E. Ahamed and Secretary (East) paid an official visit to Muscat from 13-14 January 2008. During the visit, EAM called on Deputy PM for Council of Ministers and Mr. Yousef bin Alawai bin Abdullah, Minister responsible for Foreign Affairs of Oman.

Dr. Majeed Mohsin Al Alawi Labour, Minister of Bahrain, visited India on 25 April 2008 and discussed with Minister of Overseas Indian Affairs, the MoU on Labour and Manpower Development. Dr. Fatima Bin Al Balooshi, Minister of Social Development, Bahrain, visited India from 17-21 August 2008 and held talks with the Minister of Textiles and Minister of State for Women & Child Development among others.

MoS Shri E. Ahamed visited Kuwait from 29-31 January 2008. During the visit, MoS called on the Kuwaiti Prime Minister. A wide range of bilateral and regional issues, including the revised format for Labour Contract to be signed between the Kuwaiti employer and Indian worker were discussed in his meetings with the Deputy PM/Minister and Minister of Social Affairs in Labour.

The year, marked by several high-level visits, witnessed strengthened bilateral relations with Saudi Arabia. Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Saud Ali Faisal visited India twice in 2008, in February when he called on PM Dr. Manmohan Singh and EAM Shri Pranab Mukherjee and on 26 December when he met Vice President, EAM and NSA. EAM paid a two- day visit to Saudi Arabia from 19-20 April 2008 and called on Saudi King Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud and Governor of Riyadh Prince Salman bin Abdul Aziz Ali Saud. Mos Shri E. Ahamed visited Saudi Arabia on 17 April 2008 and signed the Haj agreement with Saudi Haj Minister Dr. Fouad Al-Farsy. Finance Minister along with Petroleum and Natural Gas Minister attended the Oil Summit, held in Jeddah on 22 June 2008 at the behest of Saudi King Abdullah.

The year 2008 also was the consolidation in the friendly bilateral ties between India and UAE. HE Shaikha Lubna Ali Qasimi, Minister of Foreign Trade, visited India on 25 April and was awarded "Woman Achiever of the Year" by FICCI. The 1st ever India-UAE Joint Air Forces exercise took place in September 2008 in Abu Dhabi. EAM visited UAE in May 2008 and met both the Foreign Minister and Crown Prince.

West Asia and North Africa

India's engagement with West Asia and North Africa was cemented through a series of high level interactions that included State visits to India by President Bashar Ali-Assad of Syria. President Mohammed Hosny Mubarak of Egypt and President, Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestinian National Authority. India's dialogue with Egypt was also taken forward during and official visit by EAM to that country in July 2008. India's steadfast support for the Palestinian cause was underlined during the State visit of President Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) during which, in the presence of the Prime Minister. Dr. Manmohan Singh, President Abbas laid the foundation stone of the Palestinian Embassy building in New Delhi, a gift of the Government and people of India, and construction of which is nearing completion. Implementation of PM's offer of $ 10 million as budgetary support to the PNA was completed during the year.

India strongly condemned the Israeli incursion into the Gaza strip that began in December 2008. India's varied relations with the Arab world were institutionalised through a Memorandum of Cooperation with the League of Arab States signed in December 2008 during the visit of the Secretary General H.E. Mr. Amre Moussa to New Delhi.

India contributed towards development of Iraq's human resources by providing 100 slots to Iraq under Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme to train its officials in various training and professional institutions all over India. IOC provided training in India to 228 Iraqi oil officials. On February 26, 2009, President Jalal Talabani of Iraq transited through India and tried to encourage our participation in the reconstruction and development of Iraq, especially in the power sector. During the meeting with secretary (East), he expressed a keen desire for encouraging Indian companies and personally assured fullest support to them in Iraq.

Africa

The first India-Africa forum Summit was held in New Delhi from 8-9 April 2008 built upon the foundations of the historical relationship that has existed between the two, and created a roadmap for a structured interaction, engagement and cooperation in coming years. The Summit renewed India's commitment to Africa. The two historic documents, the Delhi Declaration and the India Africa Framework of Cooperation were adopted at the end of the Summit. The Delhi Declaration is a political document that covers issues of bilateral, regional and international interests to India and Africa, including our common positions on UN reforms, climate change, WTO and international terrorism, etc. the India Africa Framework for Cooperation spells out the agreed areas of cooperation. Prime Minister announced a substantial increase in the existing lines of credit to Africa to US $ 5.4 billion over the next five years, and a separate grant of US $ 500 million for projects in the areas of capacity building and human resource development. The Heads of State-Government from Africa who attended the India Africa Forum Summit included Mr. Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete, President of Tanzania, Prof. Alpha Oumar Konare, Chairperson of the African Union Commission, Mr. Joseph Kabila Kabange, President of Congo, Mr. John Agyekum Kufuor, President of Ghana, Mr. Abdoulaye Wade, President of Senegal, Mr. Thabo Mbeki, President of South Africa, Mr. Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, President of Uganda, Mr. Tertius Zongo, Prime Minister of Burkina Faso and Mr. Meles Zenawi, Prime Minister of Ethiopia.

There were several other high-level visits from Africa including Ethiopian Prime Minister, Meles Zenawi, Mr. Paul Kagame, President of Rwanda and Dr Boni Yayi, President of the Republic of Benin. Regular exchanges continued at the ministerial and official levels.

India extended several lines of credit to African countries for specific infrastructure development projects. Both the TEAM-9 and ECOWAS have fully utilized the lines of credit extended to them for projects in different sectors, ranging from agriculture, health, rural electrification, transport and power, which are in the various stages of implementation. Our ongoing political and economic engagement with the Africa Union Commission continued to strengthen, as also our institutional cooperation with regional organisations such as COMESA, SADC, ECCAS and EAC. The Aid to Africa budget of the Ministry was used for other cooperation programmes.

Two successful India-Africa Project Partnership Conclaves were organised by the CII with the support of the Ministry, the first in Dar-es-Salaam on 28 August 2008 and the second in New Delhi from 22-24 March 2009. FICCI also organised the India-Africa Business Partnership Summit in New Delhi on 19-20 January. All these events witnessed a high-level of participation from Indian and African businesses.

All these initiatives have significantly enhanced India's engagement with countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and have come at a time of increasing private sector engagement in Africa. Two-way trade has increased from US $ 5.5. billion in 2001-02 to around US $ 36 billion in 2008-09 representing an almost seven-fold increase in as many years. Bilateral investment is approximately US $ 17 billion.

India opened resident Missions in Mali and Nigar. The Gamba, Gabon and Madagascar opened their Missions in New Delhi and Mali announced its intentions to open one soon.

The Government of India's prestigious Pan-African e-Network Project was formally inaugurated on 26 February 2009 by the External Affairs Minister Shri Pranab Mukherjee in New Delhi for eleven countries, out of the 35 countries that have signed the agreements to join the Project. 4 more African countries signed the agreement for joining the Government of India sponsored Pan-African e-Network project, taking the total to 39.

5th CII-EXIM Bank India-Africa Conclave on India-Africa Project Partnership 2009 was held from 22-24 March 2009 at New Delhi. Nearly 500 delegates from Africa and more than 300 from India attended the Conclave. India-Africa two-way trade which was around US$36 billion in 2007-08 has already reached US$33 billion in the first nine months of 2008-09.

Number of training slots for African countries under the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation programme was around 1500 and the scholarships for higher studies was around 500.

Dr. Boni Yayi, President of the Republic of Benin, made the first ever State visit to India from March 3 to 7, 2009. Five agreements were signed, including for establishment of an IT Training Centre, a Technology Demonstration Centre, and cooperation in small scale industry sector. Prime Minister announced a US$15 million Line of Credit and US $ 2 million grant to Benin.

Vice President Shri Mohammad Hamid Ansari visited South Africa during May 8-10, 2009 to attend the inauguration ceremony of Mr. Jacob Zuma, the 4th democratically elected President of South Africa.

EUROPE

PM Gordon Brown of UK visited India to attend the 4th India-UK Summit which took place in New Delhi from 20 - 21 January 2008. Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh met Mr. Gordon Brown again in London on the sidelines of the G-20 Summit on 1 April 2009. Mr Nicholas Sarkozy, President of France, accompanied by a high level Ministerial and business delegation, visited India from 25 - 26 January 2008 and was the Chief Guest at the Republic Day parade. Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh visited Paris for the India-France Bilateral Summit on 30 September 2008. Both PM and President Nicolas Sarkozy reaffirmed the Strategic Partnership between India and France and their commitment to further strengthen cooperation in core areas such as civil nuclear cooperation, space and defence. Germany continued to be India's largest trading partner within the EU. Dr. Frank Walter Steinmeier, German Federal Chancellor and Minister of Foreign Affairs, visited India, from 19-21 November 2008. Recently, scientific and technological cooperation has emerged as one of the key elements in the Indo-German interaction. Bilateral visits between India and Spain at the ministerial level continued during the period, the most notable being the visits by Indian Ministers of Finance, Health and Family Welfare and Petroleum and Natural Gas, to Spain. India continued to strengthen bilateral relations with Italy at different levels. Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh met PM Mr. Silvio Berlusconi on 24 October 2008 on the sidelines of the ASEM Summit in Beijing.

India has traditionally enjoyed warm, friendly and close relations with countries of the Nordic as well as Central and Eastern Europe. Efforts to diversify and deepen India's friendly relations with these countries were pursued assiduously. The potential for high technology manufacturing in India, cooperation in petroleum, non-conventional energy. bio-technology, nano-technology and engineering, together with areas like deep-sea fishing and food processing raised new possibilities for collaboration. Ministerial and official interactions with these continued. Mr. Kostas Karmanlis, Prime Minister of the Hellenic Republic visited India from 10 - 13 January 2008. Mr. Ferene Gyurcsany, Prime Minister of Hungary visited India from 16-19 January 2008. During his visit, he called on the President and met the, Prime Minister UPA Chairperson, Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha, Ministers of External Affairs, Petroleum & Gas and Commerce & Industry. From Sweden, Trade Minister, Public Health Minister, Minister for Migration and Asylum Policy and Crown Prince visited India during the period. The Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs from the Swedish Parliament paid an official visit to India in January 2009. Bilateral visits between India and the Czech Republic included the visit by MoS (AS) Shri Anand Sharma and Commerce & Industry Minister Shri Kamal Nath and from the Czech side, the visit by their Industry and Trade Minister and the Chief of the General Staff of Czech Armed Forces. Former President of India Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam visited Finland in April 2008 to attend a seminar there and President of Finland Mrs. Tarja Halonen visited India from 5 - 7 February 2009 to attend the Delhi Sustainable Development Summit. With Poland, there were regular visits at various levels. General Deepak Kapoor, Chief of Army Staff, paid a goodwill visit to Poland in March 2008. Following the visit of Anders Fogh Rasmussen, Prime Minister of Denmark, to India from 4 – 8 February 2008, bilateral relations between the two countries were further strengthened. There was increased interaction between India and Turkey during 2008-09. The Prime Minister of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdogan paid an official visit to India from 21-24 November 2008.

West Europe

Hon'ble President Smt. Pratibha Patil paid a State visit to Spain from 20-23 April, 2009 where she was received with great warmth and full state honours. During the visit MoUs on Agriculture, Renewable Energy and Tourism were signed.

The G8 summit took place at L'Aquila from July 8-10, 2009. Prime Minister attended the Summits Earlier EAM attended the Foreign Ministers' meeting on stabilization of Af-Pak on June 26 in Trieste and had a bilateral meeting with Italian FM on the sidelines.

Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh visited France as the Chief Gust of Honour at the French National Day celebrations held in Paris on 14 July, 2009. A 400 strong Indian military contingent led the Bastille Day parade on the occasion. This symbolized the friendly and strategic partnership between India and France.

The 20th Ministerial India EU Troika meeting was held in Prague on 29 June, 2009. The Indian delegation was led by External Affairs Minister, Shri S.M. Krishna and the EU side was led by Mr. Jan Kohut, the Czech Minister of Foreign Affairs, the incoming Swedish Presidency and Ms. Benita Ferreo Waldner, the EC Commissioner for External Relations and European Neighbourhood Policy. The Troika Ministerial meeting was the first high level political interaction that took place between the two sides after the formation of the new Government in India. During the meeting, both sides took stock of the progress post Marseille Summit of September, 2008 and discussed about the preparations required in the context of the forthcoming 10th India-EU Summit to be held in New Delhi on 6 November, 2009. Both sides also held wide ranging discussions on regional and global issues.

European Union

India and the EU (European Union) are indispensable poles in the emerging multi-polar structures. Exchange of high level visits between India and Europe were maintained and summit-level interactions took place. India's engagement with EU intensified and diversified in fields such as defence & security, nuclear and space, trade and investment, energy, food security, climate change, science and technology, culture and education. Special envoys were sent to all the EU countries seeking support for waiver in the NSG for Civil Nuclear Cooperation with USA. Following the Mumbai terrorist attacks, leaders of EU and member States sent messages and made telephone calls condemning the attacks, conveying condolences for the victims and reaffirming solidarity in the fight against terrorism, Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh visited Marseille, France, for the 9th India-EU Summit on 29 September 2008. PM had discussions with EU/French President Nicolas Sarkozy and European Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso. The Summit, inter alia, reviewed India-EU joint Action Plan of 2005 and issued a revised plan extending Strategic Partnership to new areas. It also issued a Joint Work Programme (JWP) for Indo-EU Cooperation in Energy, Clean Development and Climate Change. PM. also attended the India-EU Business Summit titled, 'New Synergies for Partnership' which was held on 30 September in Paris. The 19th India-EU Troika Foreign Ministerial Meeting was held on 30 May 2009 in New Delhi and the India-EU Strategic Dialogue was held on 05 December'08 in New Delhi. In addition, 4th Round of the India-EU Energy Panel Meeting and the 11th Meeting of the India-EU Joint Working Group on Consular issues were held in New Delhi on 08 September and 23 May 2008, respectively.

The EU is India's largest trading partner. Bilateral trade crossed Euro 55 billion in 2007 and is targeted this to reach Euro 100 billion in 5 years. India and Europe have been witnessing a very dynamic investment relationship.

USA

The year 2008 was marked by an intensification of the bilateral engagement between India and the USA. The signing of the Indo-US civil nuclear Agreement in Washington on 10 October 2008 was a culmination of the civil nuclear energy initiative announced during the visit of Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh to the USA in July 2005. India successfully concluded an India-specific Safeguards Agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) on 1 August 2008 which paved the way for the USA to approach the 45 nation Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) for an adjustment of the NSG guidelines to enable its Members to enter into civil nuclear cooperation and trade with India. The formal signing of the Agreement by External Affairs Minister, and his US Counterpart Secretary of State, Dr. Condoleeza Rice took place on 10 October 2008 in Washington. The agreement is a symbol of the transformed nature of the bilateral dialogue and has added strategic content to the relationship. It has also opened up vast opportunities for bilateral, economic and high technology engagement.

While economic and commercial ties, defence cooperation and people to people contact were other priority areas of focus in the bilateral agenda, Indo-US consultations on global issues of common concern and the dialogues, work plans and implementation groups for bilateral initiatives in energy, education, science and technology, health, space, agriculture among others, continued to add depth and strengthen the Indo-US linkages.

Several high-level visits took place during the period. PM Dr. Manmohan Singh visited Washington in September 2008. In his meeting with President Bush the two leaders reviewed the entire gamut of bilateral relations and expressed satisfaction on the achievements and progress made on the bilateral agenda and was set out in the Joint Statements of July 2005, issued during PM's visit to Washington and of March 2006, issued during the visit of President Bush to India.

US Secretary of State Dr. Condoleeza Rice visited New Delhi in October 2008 and held discussions with EAM Shri Pranab Mukherjee. The latter visited Washington DC from 24-25 March 2008. He met his counterpart and also called on President George Bush. He interacted with a select group of scholars at the Camegie Foundation, a Washington based think tank. PM also visited Washington in November 2008 to attend the G-20 Summit.

Mr. William Burns, Under Secretary for Political Affairs, US State Department visited India during 10-13 June 2009. He held talks with Foreign Secretary during which the two sides reviewed the existing architecture for bilateral dialogue and discussed new elements of cooperation which could form part of the new bilateral agenda and regional and global issues of common interest and shared concern. Under Secretary Burns called on the Prime Minister and handed over a letter addressed to him by President Obama. He also called on EAM, Home Minister, HRD Minister, Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission and the Leader of Opposition.

Commerce and Industry Minister Shri Anand Sharma visited Washington during 16-19 June 2009 to attend the 34th anniversary of the US India Business Council. He met with his US Counterpart Ambassador Ron Kirk, US Trade Representative and discussed Indo-US trade relations. CIM also met with US Commerce Secretary Gary Locke and US Secretary of State, Ms. Hillary Clinton at the Synergies Summit hosted by the US India Business Council.

UN National Security Advisor, Gen. James Jones visited India during 25-26 June 2009. He held talks with his Indian counterpart and discussed security cooperation and global issues of common concern. NSA Jones called on Prime Minister and Raksha Mantri.

US Secretary of State, Ms. Hillary Clinton visited India during 17-21 July 2009. She called on PM and held delegation level talk with External Affairs Minister. The five-day visit gave a boost to Indo-US relations and laid the roadmap for bilateral interaction in the coming years. Secretary of State and EAM jointly announced a new agenda for Indo-US relations in its "third Phase" (defined as 3.0 by Secretary of State) categorized as the five pillars of the relationship. They are
science, technology, health and innovation;
strategic cooperation;
energy and climate change;
education and development; and
economics trade and agriculture. The revised dialogue architecture establishes new formalized interaction in the fields of health, education, women's empowerment, climate change and strategic issues. Speaking at the Joint Press Conference after the delegation level talks, Secretary Clinton reiterated that deepening of Indo-US relationship was a personal priority for her. External Affairs Minister reciprocated the commitment of the US to strengthen bilateral relationship and conveyed the importance India attaches to Indo-US strategic partnership.

Two agreements - Technical Safeguards Agreement (Space) and an Indo-US Science and Technology Endowment Fund and Board Agreement were signed during the visit. The S&T Agreement seeks to establish an India-US Board and an Endowment for developing Joint Research and Development, Innovation, Entrepreneurial and Commercialization Activities in Science and Technology. The Technology Safeguards Agreement would allow India to launch third country civil or non-commercial satellites of US origin and which have US components. The two sides also agreed to a formulation on End Use Monitoring (EUM) to be included in letters of offer and acceptances for defence equipment to be acquired from USA for Government of India. A joint statement was issued during the visit highlighting the significance of Indo-US relationship and the global and bilateral agenda that would be pursued by the two sides. Secretary Clinton's visit was high on content and symbolism. The two sides discussed bilateral, regional and global issues and affirmed their commitment to strengthen Indo-US strategic partnership. She conveyed an invitation from President Obama to Prime Minister to pay a State visit to Washington on 24 November 2009. This is the first invitation extended by the new US Government for a State visit by any Head of State of Government.

Defence and Security

The fifth meeting of the India-US Senior Technology and Security Group was held on 11-12 May 2009 in Washington USA. Issues related to Technology Transfer and Technology Collaboration were discussed.

Admiral Timothy J. Keating, Commander, US Pacific Command visited India from 13-15 May 2009 to discuss with Government of India issues related to the regional security situation, terrorism, and maritime security.

Shri Vivek Katju, Special secretary (Pol & IO) in MEA led the Indian delegation for the 11th meeting of the India-US Joint Working Group on counter-terrorism in Washington, 17 June 2009. The meeting enabled the Working group to address a wide range of issues relating to Counter Terrorism and India's membership of the Financial Action Task Force.

Energy and Science and Technology Partnership

The second meeting of the India-US Civil Nuclear Working Group, was held from 28- 30 April 2009 in Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho, USA. Both countries identified areas of collaboration in the field of nuclear energy and reactors.

A delegation comprising concerned GoI Ministries and Industry representatives participated in BIO 2009 Exhibition from 18-21 May 2009, in Atlanta, USA. India's leading pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies and GoI Ministries demonstrated their technological capabilities and explored opportunities for enhancing biotech exports and R & D collaboration.

India-US Biotechnology and Life Sciences Working Group under the bilateral High Technology Cooperation Group met on the sidelines of BIO 2009 on 20 May 2009 in Atlanta. Discussion focused on differentiation between legitimate generics and counterfeits; Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) issues like data protection, tractional knowledge disclosure norms; capacity building in harmonising regulatory frame work and collaboration in R & D.

The Obama Administration sent its first delegation to India from February 15-24, 2009, to mark the 50th anniversary of American Civil Rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King Jr's visit to India to study Mahatma Gandhi's teachings. The delegation included Dr. King's eldest son, Dr. Martin Luther King III. Ambassador Richard Holbrooke, US Special Representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan, visited India from 15-16 February. He called on EAM Shri Pranab Mukherjee, on 16 February, and discussed the situation in Afghanistan and Pakistan with them.

Canada

India's relations with Canada were substantively reinvigorated during the period with the Canadian Government under Prime Minister Stephen Harper continuing to consider relations with India a foreign policy priority. Canada's Foreign Minister, Mr. Maxime Bernier visited India from 10-12 January 2008. Canada's Deputy Minister for Citizenship and Immigration, Mr. Richard B. Fadden visited India from 12-18 January 2008. India and Canada opened a new chapter in their relations when Canada supported India's Safeguard Agreement with the IAEA and it also joined the NSG's consensus decision to allow nuclear trade with India.

Canada India Foundation organized a Canada India Energy forum in Toronto on April 16-17, 2009 to identify opportunities for bilateral cooperation in areas of renewable, fissile and nuclear energy. Invitees included energy companies, government departments and regulatory agencies, policy makers, legislators, investors, bankers and financiers from both countries. The Government of India delegation was led by Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission.

A Government of India team led by Dr. R.B. Grover, Director (Strategic Planning Group) in Department of Atomic Energy and Mr. Don Sinclair, Director General, International Security Bureau, Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Canada held discussions on 21-22 May 2009 on the draft agreement for civil nuclear cooperation.

India-Canada Dialogue on Strategic Issues was held on 18 June 2009 in Ottawa. Both sides exchanged perceptions for enhancing mutual understanding on the situation in the South Asian region, issues related to disarmament, refugee situation, disaster management and other global issues of common concern.

The India-Canada Joint working Group on Counter-terrorism met in Ottawa on 19 June, 2009. The meeting enabled a discussion on global threat perceptions, ongoing terrorist investigations, technical cooperation in the area of counter-terrorism, drug-trafficking etc.

The 3rd India-Canada Joint Committee on Science and Technology Cooperation was held in Ottawa on June 8, 2009.

On June 4, 2009, Punjab's Minister of Agriculture, Mr. Sucha Singh Langah and Manitoba's Deputy Premier and Agricultural Minister Rosann Wowchuk signed.

MoU between Manitoba and Punjab on Food Development Park to provide the Manitoba's expertise to support establishment of a food development centre in Punjab to expand agri food industry.

The first meeting of the India-Canada Environment Forum which has been set up under the India-Canada Agreement for cooperation in the area of environment was held on 18-19 June 2009 in Ottawa.

Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC)

In the light of existing commonalities with regard to bilateral and multilateral issues and mutual economic interests, India's engagement with LAC countries intensified during the period under reference. Cross-sectoral linkages were facilitated through regular dialogue at the political and official level and also through exchange of business delegations, experts and professionals from both sides. Contacts at the institutionalised level were maintained through Joint Commission Ministerial meetings and Foreign Office Consultations. As many as 21 agreements and MoUs were signed during this time. Indian companies stepped up their presence in sectors such as oil and hydrocarbons, ICT, mining, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, auto industries, new & renewable energy and in the services sector. As part of our Development Partnership and South-South cooperation initiatives, Line of Credit assistance to the tune of US $ 160 million was announced for LAC countries and disaster relief to the tune of US $ 2.125 million was disbursed. IT Centres were also set up in three LAC countries and a total of 382 ITEC scholarships were announced and utilized by LAC candidates. The signing of a JV agreement between the national oil company (PDVSA) of Venezuela and ONGC Videsh for oil production and development activities in the San Cristobal oil field in eastern Venezuela, acquisition of the rights of Encana Corporation of Canada in 10 offshore blocks in Brazil by the BPRL-Videocon JV, Waiver of commercial debt and interest to the tune of Rs. 128 crore owned by Cuba to India and sale of 7 advanced Light (Dhruv) helicopters by HAL to Ecuador was among the important milestones in our economic/commercial relations with LAC countries.

Reasons for the rise of price in Silver

2011-04-26T06:10:00.000-07:00

The price of silver has been on a run for a while now. On Tuesday, silver closed at a price of Rs 62,500 per kg.

In the last fifty days silver has given a return of around 28 per cent (to give you a sense of comparison your savings account gives you a return of 3.5per cent in one year).

In the last one year, silver has given a return of greater than 100 per cent. So what is it that is driving the price of silver to such astonishing levels?

Silver: The industrial element

While gold may be a favourite with Indians, it is silver that has a lot of industrial uses. This is primarily because silver is the best conductor of electricity, the best heat transfer agent, the best reflector of light, a good lubricant and a versatile catalyst and alloy.

At the same it is also the most malleable and ductile.

As a recent report brought out by Hinde Capital puts it "It is used in photography, electrical applications, particularly in conductors, switches, contacts and fuses. Silver alloys are used in batteries as cathodes."

And as times goes by more and more uses of silver are being found.

"As a bactericide, silver is used in water purification and air handling systems. Silver is also a natural biocide and is very effective against bacterial infections such...New products using silver's biocidal qualities are being developed each year; clothing, bandages, toothbrushes, door-knobs (flu-protection), keyboards, the list goes on growing."

All these industrial uses ensure that there is a good demand for silver. But that still does not tell us why the silver price is going up so fast.

Is the world running out of silver?

If some of the premier silver analyst of the world are to be believed the world is running out of silver. Some like Adrian Douglas, the proprietor of Market Force Analysis and also a director of GATA (the Gold Anti-Trust Action Committee), even suggest that the world will run out of silver in 2020, and silver will thus become the first element on the periodic element likely to become extinct.

In fact if one believes numbers put out by Theodore Butler, the world's foremost silver analyst, the situation gets very scary.

Butler has mentioned in several interviews in the past, that silver inventories have declined to 1 billion ounces ( 1 troy ounce = 31.1 grams) from 10 billion ounces in 1940.

In comparison, he says that the world has around 5 billion ounces of gold. So if Butler is to be believed the world has five times more gold than silver.

Of course if this figure is true, the price of silver in the days to come is going to go through the roof.

While Butler's estimate might be rather extreme, numbers clearly show that the supply of silver is less than demand.

The Silver Institute, which tracks silver supply, reports that from 2000 to 2009 (the latest data available), the supply of silver went up to 709.6 million ounces, up from 591 million ounces.

This shows an increase of around 2per cent per year. The silver demand in 2009 stood at 889 million ounces. So demand was 25per cent more than supply.

The difference between supply and demand was met out of sales of silver scrap.

Why not recycle silver like gold?

Gold is typically recycled and handed down across generations. The same is not possible for silver, given that is largely used as an industrial metal in very small amounts.

Thus it is very difficult to recycle silver. Also at its current price it does not make monetary sense.

So why not produce more silver?

The earth's crust has 17.5 times more silver than gold, but the production of silver cannot be increased overnight.

A majority of silver (around two-thirds) is mined as a by product of mining of other metals like copper, lead and zinc. So production of silver in a way is linked to the production of other metals.
The skewed gold silver ratio

Silver bulls have been of the view that the price of gold and silver over the period of history has been in the ratio of 15:1.

As Jeff Nielson, in a recent column "For most of the last 5,000 years it has averaged approximately 15:1 until this century, when a combination of developments skewed this ratio to its most extreme imbalance in 5,000 years."

The current ratio of gold and silver is around 35. So silver bulls have been arguing that due to this the price of silver has to go up.

China is buying silver

It seems the Chinese have also taken fancy to silver. The country imported 122.6 million ounces of silver in 2010, when five years back it had exported 100 million ounces of silver.

This increase in imports has largely been on account of people taking fancy to silver jewellery, as gold jewellery has become extremely expensive.

Commonwealth Games & the Scam

2011-04-25T06:16:00.000-07:00

**What are Commonwealth Games? Who are the participating nations?

The Commonwealth Games is an international, multi-sport event involving athletes from the Commonwealth of Nations.

The Games are overseen by the Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF), which also controls the sporting programme and selects the host cities.

The host city is selected from across the Commonwealth, with eighteen cities in seven countries having hosted it.

There are currently 54 members of the Commonwealth of Nations, and 71 teams participate in the Games.

**When did India bid for it?

The two principal bids for the 2010 Commonwealth Games were from Delhi, India and Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

A ballot of members was held in November 2003 at the Commonwealth Games Federation General Assembly in Montego Bay, Jamaica. Delhi bid won by a margin of 46 votes to 22, confirming India's first successful bid for the Games.

The bid was Canada's attempt to hold the games for the fifth time. India's bid motto was New Frontiers and Friendships.

India shifted the balance in its favour in the second round of voting with a promise that it would provide US$100,000 to each participating country, along with air tickets, boarding, lodging and transport.

The successful 2003 Afro-Asian Games held in Hyderabad was also seen as having showed India has the resources, infrastructure and technical know-how to stage a big sporting event.

**What are the other civic bodies involved altogether in the preparation of the games and who got what?

Sports Authority Of India(for building sports infrastructure) – Rs. 2904.86cr

Organising Committee(for conducting games) – Rs.1620cr

Delhi Development Authority(for Games Village) – Rs. 827.85cr

GNCT-Delhi Govt(Civic Infrastructure) – Rs. 2800cr

**Which are the civic bodies who are going to probe the corruption scam?

A panel has been set up by the government to look into the corruption charges in the Games. Headed by former Comptroller and Auditor General, VK Shunglu, the panel will submit its report within three months to the Prime Minister. It has the mandate to review every transaction, if needed.

The special panel appointed by the government will probe the financial bungling and administrative lapses.

The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) is looking into financial misappropriation; and the Enforcement Directorate (ED) is probing the routing of funds, which have been traced to tax havens like Mauritius.

The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) will be examining tenders issued for various Games related projects, which are already under scrutiny after exposes on items being bought at absurdly inflated rates.

The Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) is looking into allegations of corruption in all infrastructure projects like the stadia and Games' venues.

**What are the major works and projects under scanner?

Queen’s Baton function held in London in 2009 for inflated taxi rates which includes the former CWG Deputy Director-General Dr. Sanjay Mohindroo and Lalit Bhanot for alleged Foreign Exchange Violations.

A Rs 760 crore bail out package given by Delhi Development Authority(DDA) for Emaar-MGF, a private builder hired for construction of games village.

UK-based broadcast firm for alleged tax evasion amounting to Rs 29 crore.

Alleged discrepancies found in purchase of air conditioners, furniture and kitchen equipment for GWG games village by DDA.

**Why was PMO in the news during alleged CWG corruption scam?

The Bharatiya Janata Party blamed the PMO and the union cabinet for not verifying the costs before approving the ‘inflated budget’ of various games projects.

The BJP president, Nitin Gadkari also mentioned that out of the Rs 70000 crore spent on games, only Rs 350 crore was spent on Indian sportspersons.

Another big question asked by BJP president was how the total budget for staging the games escalated 17.5% of the original budget and why didn’t the PMO or Dr. Manmohan Singh himself ask questions?

SOME FACTS ABOUT THE GAMES:

Lead Partner

Banking Partner

Airline Partner

Power Partner

Motorcycle Partner

Timekeeper Sponser

Vehicle Transport Sponser

Shera - The Mascot:

Shera, mascot of the XIX Commonwealth Games 2010 Delhi, is the most visible face of the XIX Commonwealth Games 2010 Delhi. His name comes from the Hindi word Sher – meaning tiger. Shera truly represents the modern Indian. He is an achiever with a positive attitude, a global citizen but justifiably proud of his nation’s ancient heritage, a fierce competitor but with integrity and honesty. Shera is also a ‘large-hearted gentleman’ who loves making friends and enthusing people to ‘come out and play’.

In Indian mythology, the tiger is associated with Goddess Durga, the embodiment of Shakti (or female power) and the vanquisher of evil. She rides her powerful vehicle – the tiger – into combat, especially in her epic and victorious battle against Mahishasur, a dreaded demon.

Shera embodies values that the nation is proud of: majesty, power, charisma, intelligence and grace. His athletic prowess, courage and speed on the field are legendary. He is also a reminder of the fragile environment he lives in and our responsibility towards the protection of his ecosystem.

Theme Song:

The XIX Commonwealth Games 2010 Delhi’s theme song, Jiyo Utho Bado Jeeto (Live, Rise, Ascend, Win), music maestro A. R. Rahman’s call to the people and athletes of India and the Commonwealth to come out and play was launched on 28 August 2010.

Shera Song:

The song ‘Shera’ was conceived and produced by Vikramjit Sahney. The music composer is Jeetu J. The song has been sung in Hindi and English by Vikramjit Sahney, Shibani Kashyap and Millind. It reflects the spirit of Shera, representing majesty, power, charisma and grace.

Antarctic Expedition and Polar Science

2011-04-24T21:57:00.000-07:00

The Antarctic Research Programme, which was initiated in 1981, has taken the shape of a major national programme that has a distinct multi-institutional and multi-disciplinary approach. So far 25 scientific expeditions have been launched on a regular basis.

In addition, three expeditions to the Southern Oceans for carrying out research in the thrust areas of polar science including a Weddel Sea Expedition and Krill Expedition for assessment of Krill Resources in Antarctic waters, were also undertaken. The Indian station Maitri situated in the Central Droning Maud land of east Antarctica has provided a platform to more than 1,500 personnel drawn from about 75 national laboratories, institutes, universities, survey and service organisations to conduct experiments in all major disciplines of polar sciences.

This is an outstanding example of networking national facilities and expertise. The expeditions to Antarctica are organised every year by National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR) an autonomous institution of the Ministry set up at Goa.

NCAOR is the first institute of its kind in the country completely dedicated to all the aspects of polar research. Scientific experiments being carried out at 787 Scientific and Technological Developments Antarctica are in the field of Measurements of Greenhouse gases, Tele Seismic studies, Permanent GPS Tracking Station at Maitri, Study of Crack propagation on Ice Sheet, Communication at Maitri.

ORV Sagar Kanya also conducted experiments in the Southern Ocean. In the 25th Indian Antarctic Expedition which left from Cape Town in the last week of December 2005, two students and one Scientist representing a private research centre, participated for the first time. Dakshin Gangotri Glacier, which has been monitored by Indian Scientists for the last 23 years in Antarctica has been declared as an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) by the governing body of the Antarctic Treaty in its XXVIII Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) held in Stockholm in June 2006. An Ice Core Laboratory to study the ice cores brought from the Antarctica, has become fully operational at NCAOR, Goa.

Ocean Observations and Information Services (OOIS)

Change is believed to be one of the potential factor for causing variation in the weather pattern resulting in droughts, floods, and extreme heat conditions in various parts of the world. The understanding on climate variability is an imperative need for India as monsoon plays an important role in the economy.

Although, the oceans play an important role in the climate change, the symbiotic connection between ocean and atmosphere particularly in terms of exchange of heat and mass is not well understood. Recognising the importance of information and knowledge of the seas, an integrated programme on Ocean Observations and Information Services has been launched targeting at,

i.Development of a wide range of ocean-atmospheric and coastal models

ii.Generation of algorithms for retrieval of satellite parameters

iii.Augmentation of ocean observations including in-situ and satellite measurements

iv.Operationalisation of ocean advisory services

The OOIS consists of four major components viz., Ocean Observing System, Ocean Information Services, Ocean Modelling and Dynamics (INDOMOD) and Satellite Coastal Oceanographic Research (SATCORE).

Ocean Observing System (OOS):
The Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, co-sponsored by WMO, UNEP and ICSU, is an internationally organised system for gathering, coordinating, quality control and distribution of marine and oceanographic data and derived products of common worldwide importance and utility as defined by the requirements of the broadest possible spectrum of user groups.

It is recognised that one of the most important means of implementation of GOOS is through the development of regional alliances, which are able to focus on issues of common national or regional interest. Under the National Data Buoy Programme (NDBP) being implemented by the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), 30 moored data buoys were deployed in the Indian seas both in shallow and deep waters to cater to the needs of real time data in respect of India Meteorological Department, Coast Guard and supply of data to a variety of applications like port activities, harbour/offshore-structure development, satellite data validation, environmental monitoring, climate studies, etc.

The data buoys are now being developed indigenously to meet the requirement of additional buoys. Besides, India is coordinating the International ARGO Project of the Indian Ocean that would provide periodic profiles of temperature and salinity of the upper ocean up to a depth of 2000 metres to understand the structure and dynamics of the upper ocean that influence climate. India has assumed the leadership in the region and is responsible for deployment of ARGOs in the entire Indian Ocean. A Regional ARGO data Centre has also been established at INCOIS, Hyderabad for archival and dissemination of ARGO Data. During the year a set of six argo data products are being made available through INCOIS web site besides dissemination of processed data for the floats.

India has led the establishment of a regional alliance Indian Ocean component of Global Ocean Observing System (IOGOOS) and achieved the leadership in Indian Ocean for ocean observations. This is a major milestone towards understanding the oceanic processes of the Indian Ocean and their application for the benefit of all people in the region. IOGOOS is intended to elevate the Indian Ocean from one of the least studied to one of the most studied of the world's major oceans, with a real emphasis on the link between societal and scientific issues. India is an elected Chairman of Inter-Governmental Oceanographic Commission. India is an elected chairman of IOGOOS that has 24 members/associate members from 13 countries and the IOC. The IOGOOS Secretariat has been established at INCOIS, Hyderabad. So far India has deployed 107 ARGO floats out of planned 150 floats during Tenth Plan period.

Ocean Information Servives (OIS)

Under the programme on Ocean Information Services, near real-time data and data products such as Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) advisories delimiting features like upwelling zones, maps, eddies, chlorophyll, suspended sediment load, etc., consultancy services to the Central Government, States, corporate sector industries, are being made available to the user agencies under one roof. The concerted efforts of our Scientists from Ocean Development, Space and Fishery Science over the last five years have culminated in a unique service to provide reliable and timely potential fishing zone advisories using satellite data to the fishing community of the entire coastline of the country in a mission mode. Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) Advisories are disseminated thrice a week to over 225 nodes located in various states, viz. Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Lakshadweep as well as Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Frequent and intense interactions between the scientists and fishing community at the fishing harbours, and use of a wide range of media such as fax, telephone, electronic display boards, satellite radio and internet have ensured that these advisories provided in the local languages become part of the value chain of the fishing community. A dynamic website has also been established at INCOIS for dissemination of a variety of application (www.incois.gov.in). In addition, INCOIS has been providing Ocean State Forecast on experimental basis to various stake holder.

Currents 3 parameters, i.e., Waves, Swell and Tidal currents are being made available through INCOIS web site. Currently PFZ information is also being disseminated through electronic display boards instituted at 20 local beaches and dissemination through a wide range of media: print, Newspaper, TV, Radio, etc.

Ocean Dynamics & Modelling and Satellite Coastal and eanographic Research (INDOMOD & SATCORE)

During the Tenth Five-Year Plan, INDOMOD and SATCORE and Ocean Observations programmes have been integrated in a focused way towards development of models. Accordingly, selective deployment of drifting buoys, current meter arrays and Expendable Bathythermograph (XBT) surveys are planned for generation of surface oceanographic and meteorological data. These observations are intended primarily for validation of ocean atmospheric models. A set of 3 current meter arrays has been established in the equatorial Indian Ocean to acquire long term time series data for understanding the climate variability. This endeavour is being executed with the help of 10 reputed natural pioneer Research/ Academic institutes.

Under the project on INDOMOD, several models have been developed for study of open and coastal ocean processes and coupled ocean-atmospheric processes. The primary applications of these models are prediction of monsoon variability, storm surges associated with cyclones, waves, biological productivity and coastal processes.

Under the programme on Satellite Coastal and Oceanographic Research, algorithms and software are developed for atmospheric correction of Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) data, bio-geo-chemical parameters, OCM data processing, etc., and validation of experiments. A dynamic web site of the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) with Web GIS and query facility was developed and implemented for Ocean State Forecast. Some of the ocean atmosphere models developed under this project have already been implemented.

Antarctic Treaty-India's 3rd Research Base at Antarctica

India was privileged to host the 30th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) in May 2007 for the first time ever since India joined the Antarctic Treaty in 1983 and was granted the consultative status.

Amongst other significant outcomes of this meeting, was the ATCM's acceptance of the Indian proposal for a new Indian Research Base at the Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica, which paved way for India to proceed with final design of the 3rd station and its construction at the Larsemann Hills, Antarctia.

The ATCM has adopted two important Resolutions regarding tourism - one concerning ship-based tourism in Antarctic Treaty Area, and the second associated with the issue related to permanent land based infrastructures for tourism in Antarctica with a condition that Parties should discourage or decline to authorize tour operators that use vessels carrying more than 500 passengers from making any landings in Antarctica in addition to regulating the numbers of vessels and visitors landings at any one time at a site, to one and hundred respectively.

Ice-core laboratory: The establishment of National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR) at Goa as an exclusive polar research laboratory by the Ministry is a reflection of India's sustained and far-fetched interests in Antarctic science and protection of its environment. The Centre has been designated as the focal coordinating agency for the Indian Antarctic program and is responsible for maintaining the Indian permanent station, 'Maitri' in Antarctica. The Centre has helped to consolidate and focus our scientific activities in the domain of polar sciences and also aims to conduct in-house R&D activities in exclusive areas if ice-ocean - atmosphere interaction & climate modelling, global change & Antarctica, Palaeo-climate & Palaeo-environment and southern ocean oceanography. The ice-core laboratory complex is now operational at the Centre. It will serve as repository of cores both from the Antarctica and the Himalayas. This is being used to infer past climate and environmental changes and will help the scientists to refine the climate models. An Earth Station has been set up at Maitri with a connectivity of 2mbps line for communication with mainland, India.

Expedition to Arctic: India already has a strong presence in the Antarctica for the past 27 years. However, despite the scientific and logistics expertise gained by the country over the years in Antarctica, a wide gap exists in our knowledge of the Arctic, hindering a much-needed bi-hemispherical approach to polar sciences. The Arctic Ocean and the surrounding regions are one of the most important areas that not only govern the earth's climate but have also faithfully recorded its past climatic history. The region is also an excellent harbinger of future change, because the signals or clues that signify climate change are much stronger in the Arctic than elsewhere on the planet. This region has always been significant to the Indian subcontinent due to probable tele-connection between the northern polar region and Indian monsoon intensity, which is critical for our agriculture output and economy. However, the exact mechanism by which this tele-connection exists is still open to debate and is a topic of the ongoing research. In quest for knowledge and pursuit of science, India has recently embarked upon Arctic research by launching first ever scientific expedition to this region under the leadership of Shri Rasik Ravindra, Director, NCAOR, Goa in the first week of August 2007 using the international research facility at Ny-Alesund in Sptilsbergen island of Norway. The five member interdisciplinary and inter-institutional team of scientists of the first Arctic Expedition drawn from NCAOR, Goa; CCMB, Hyderabed; IITM, Pune and Lucknow University; has initiated three projects on Atmospheric Studies, Arctic Microbes and Earth Sciences. In the second phase four more projects have been initiated in the early spring this year with the launch of winter expedition on 29th February, 2008. The name of the Indian Arctic Station is Himadri set up at the base camp in Norway.

ORV Sagar Kanya:

The Vessel underwent a major dry-docking now equipped with a new DP System and up-gradation of generators, bow thruster power management system, and a state-of-the-art Multibeam Swath Bathymetric System. Besides, undertaking over 10 cruises for over a period of 140 days at sea, an "Integrated Campaign for Aerosol, Gases & Radiation Budget (ICARB)" under ISRO-GBP for observations over Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea was successfully completed through a cruise of more than 50 days with the participation of 29 Scientists/Technical personnel carried out various sample/data collections. For the first time, ORV Sagar Kanya undertook a survey over approximately 600 lines kms. covering 92. sq. kms. for recovery of failed GSLV engine. Three step-on engines S3, S2 and S1 were recovered and many parts of the S4 stage engine/core vehicle were collected from sea bottom. Around 550 diving operations were done along 94 target points. The recovery of GSLV Subsystems from sea is second such attempt in Space history after recovery of Ariane by Europeans Space Agency in 1996.

History of Indian Tricolour

2011-04-24T20:31:00.000-07:00

The National Flag is a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (kesaria) at the top, white in the middle and dark green at the bottom in equal proportion. The ratio of width of the flag to its length is two to three. In the centre of the white band is a navy-blue wheel which represents the chakra.

The top saffron colour, indicates the strength and courage of the country. The white middle band indicates peace and truth with Dharma Chakra. The green shows the fertility, growth and auspiciousness of the land.

Its design is that of the wheel which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Its diameter approximates to the width of the white band and it has 24 spokes. The design of the National Flag was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 22 July 1947.

It is really amazing to see the various changes that our National Flag went through since its first inception. It was discovered or recognised during our national struggle for freedom. The evolution of the Indian National Flag sailed through many vicissitudes to arrive at what it is today.

Every free nation of the world has its own flag. It is a symbol of a free country. The National Flag of India was designed by Pingali Venkayyaa and adopted in its present form during the meeting of Constituent Assembly held on the 22 July 1947, a few days before India's independence from the British on 15 August, 1947. It served as the national flag of the Dominion of India between 15 August 1947 and 26 January 1950 and that of the Republic of India thereafter. In India, the term "tricolour" refers to the Indian national flag.

Evolution of the Tricolour:

It is really amazing to see the various changes that our National Flag went through since its first inception. It was discovered or recognised during our national struggle for freedom. The evolution of the Indian National Flag sailed through many vicissitudes to arrive at what it is today. In one way it reflects the political developments in the nation. Some of the historical milestones in the evolution of our National Flag involve the following:

Unofficial flag of India
in 1906

The Berlin committee
flag, first raised by
Bhikaiji Cama in 1907

The flag used during the
Home Rule movement
in 1917

The flag unofficially
adopted in 1921

The flag adopted in 1931.
This flag was also the
battle ensign of the
Indian National Army

The present Tricolour
flag of India

The first national flag in India is said to have been hoisted on August 7, 1906, in the Parsee Bagan Square (Green Park) in Calcutta now Kolkata. The flag was composed of three horizontal strips of red, yellow and green.

The second flag was hoisted in Paris by Madame Cama and her band of exiled revolutionaries in 1907. This was very similar to the first flag except that the top strip had only one lotus but seven stars denoting the Saptarishi. This flag was also exhibited at a socialist conference in Berlin.

The third flag went up in 1917 when our political struggle had taken a definite turn. Dr. Annie Besant and Lokmanya Tilak hoisted it during the Home rule movement. This flag had five red and four green horizontal strips arranged alternately, with seven stars in the saptarishi configuration super-imposed on them. In the left-hand top corner (the pole end) was the Union Jack. There was also a white crescent and star in one corner.

During the session of the All India Congress Committee which met at Bezwada in 1921 (now Vijayawada) an Andhra youth prepared a flag and took it to Gandhiji. It was made up of two colours-red and green-representing the two major communities i.e. Hindus and Muslims. Gandhiji suggested the addition of a white strip to represent the remaining communities of India and the spinning wheel to symbolise progress of the Nation.

The year 1931 was a landmark in the history of the flag. A resolution was passed adopting a tricolor flag as our national flag. This flag, the forbear of the present one, was saffron, white and green with Mahatma Gandhi's spinning wheel at the center. It was, however, clearly stated that it bore no communal significance and was to be interpreted thus.

On July 22, 1947, the Constituent Assembly adopted it as Free India National Flag. After the advent of Independence, the colours and their significance remained the same. Only the Dharma Charkha of Emperor Asoka was adopted in place of the spinning wheel as the emblem on the flag. Thus, the tricolour flag of the Congress Party eventually became the tricolour flag of Independent India.

Colours of the Flag:

In the national flag of India the top band is of Saffron colour, indicating the strength and courage of the country. The white middle band indicates peace and truth with Dharma Chakra. The last band is green in colour shows the fertility, growth and auspiciousness of the land.

The Chakra:

This Dharma Chakra depicted the "wheel of the law" in the Sarnath Lion Capital made by the 3rd-century BC Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. The chakra intends to show that there is life in movement and death in stagnation.

THE FLAG CODE:

On 26th January 2002, the Indian flag code was modified and after several years of independence, the citizens of India were finally allowed to hoist the Indian flag over their homes, offices and factories on any day and not just National days as was the case earlier.

Now Indians can proudly display the national flag any where and any time, as long as the provisions of the Flag Code are strictly followed to avoid any disrespect to the tricolour. For the sake of convenience, Flag Code of India, 2002, has been divided into three parts.

Part I of the Code contains general description of the National Flag. Part II of the Code is devoted to the display of the National Flag by members of public, private organizations, educational institutions, etc. Part III of the Code relates to display of the National Flag by Central and State governments and their organisations and agencies.

There are some rules and regulations upon how to fly the flag, based on the 26 January 2002 legislation. These include the following:

The Do's:

The National Flag may be hoisted in educational institutions (schools, colleges, sports camps, scout camps, etc.) to inspire respect for the Flag. An oath of allegiance has been included in the flag hoisting in schools.

A member of public, a private organization or an educational institution may hoist/display the National Flag on all days and occasions, ceremonial or otherwise consistent with the dignity and honour of the National Flag.

Section 2 of the new code accepts the right of all private citizens to fly the flag on their premises.

The Don'ts:

The flag cannot be used for communal gains, drapery, or clothes. As far as possible, it should be flown from sunrise to sunset, irrespective of the weather.

The flag cannot be intentionally allowed to touch the ground or the floor or trail in water. It cannot be draped over the hood, top, and sides or back of vehicles, trains, boats or aircraft.

No other flag or bunting can be placed higher than the flag. Also, no object, including flowers or garlands or emblems can be placed on or above the flag. The tricolour cannot be used as a festoon, rosette or bunting.

Refineries in India

2011-04-23T20:08:00.000-07:00

To meet the growing demand of petroleum products, the refining capacity in the country has gradually increased over the years by setting up of new refineries in the country as well as by expanding the refining capacity of the existing refineries.

As of April, 2009 there are a total of 20 refineries in the country comprising 17 (seventeen) in the Public Sector and 3 (three) in the Private Sector.

The country is not only self sufficient in refining capacity for its domestic consumption but also exports petroleum products substantially. The total refining capacity in the country as on 1.10.2009 stands at 179.956 MMTPA (Million Metric Tonnes per Annum).

1.Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOC), Guwahati, Assam (1.00 MMTPA)

2.IOC, Barauni, Bihar, (6.00 MMTPA)

3.IOC, Koyali, Vadodara, Gujarat (13.70 MMTPA)

4.IOC, Haldia, West Bengal (6.00 MMTPA)

5.IOC, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh (8.00 MMTPA)

6.IOC, Digboi, Assam (0.65 MMTPA)

7.IOC, Panipat, Haryana (12.00 MMTPA)

8.IOC, Bongaigaon, Assam (2.35 MMTPA)

9.Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL),Mumbai, Maharashtra (5.50 MMTPA)

10.HPCL, Visakh, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh (7.50 MMTPA)

11.Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL), Mumbai, Maharashtra (12.00 MMTPA)

12.BPCL, Kochi, Kerala (9.50 MMTPA)

13.Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited (CPCL), Manali, Tamil Nadu (9.50 MMTPA)

14.CPCL, Nagapattnam, Tamil Nadu (1.00 MMTPA)

15.Numaligarh Refinery Ltd.(NRL), Numaligarh, Assam, (3.00 MMTPA)

16.Mangalore Refinery & Petrochemicals Ltd. (MRPL), Mangalore, Karnataka (9.69 MMTPA)

17.Tatipaka Refinery (ONGC), Tatipaka, Andhra Pradesh (0.066 MMTPA)

18.Reliance Industries Ltd. (RIL); Private Sector; Jamnagar, Gujarat (33.00 MMTPA)

19.Reliance Petroleum Limited (SEZ); Private Sector; Jamnagar, Gujarat (29.00 MMTPA)

20.Essar Oil Limited (EOL); Private Sector; Jamnagar, Gujarat (10.50 MMTPA)

Total Public Sector: 107.456 MMTPA
Total Private Sector: 72.5 MMTPA

TOTAL: 179.956 MMTPA

NEW REFINERIES:

New grassroots refineries coming up during the XIth Five Year Plan are:

1.Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL), Paradip, Orissa (15 MMTPA)

2.Bharat Oman Refineries Limited (BORL), Bina, Madhya Pradesh (6 MMTPA)

3.Hindustan Mittal Energy Limited (HMEL), Bathinda, Punjab (9 MMTPA)

4.Essar Oil Limited, (EOL), Jamnagar, Gujarat (18 MMTPA)

5.Nagarjuna Oil Corporation Limited (NOCL), Cuddalore, Tamil Nadu (6 MMTPA)

TOTAL: 54 MMTPA

BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE REFINERIES:

*Guwahati Refinery, (Assam) Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL):

Guwahati Refinery, the first in public sector, was set up in collaboration with Rumania at a cost of Rs. 17.29 crores and commissioned on 1st January, 1962 with design capacity of 0.75 MMTPA.

The present capacity of the Refinery is 1.00 MMTPA. Hydrotreater Unit for improving the quality of diesel has been installed and commissioned in 2002.

The refinery has also installed in 2003 Indmax Unit, a novel technology developed by IOCL R&D Centre for upgrading heavy ends to LPG, motor spirit and diesel oil. Project for Motor Spirit Quality Upgradation is under implementation at present for meeting Motor Spirit quality requirements

*Barauni Refinery, (Bihar) Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL):

Barauni Refinery in Eastern India was built in collaboration with the Soviet Union at a cost of Rs. 49.4 crores and went on stream in July, 1964.

By 1969, capacity was expanded to 3.0 MMTPA and further augmented to 4.2 MMTPA in 2000. A Catalytic Reformer Unit (CRU) was also added to the refinery in 1997 for production of unleaded motor spirit.

The refining capacity was further increased to 6 MMTPA in 2002 with the implementation of Barauni Refinery Expansion project, which also included Residue Fluidized Catalytic Cracking Unit (RFCCU) and Diesel Hydrotreating Unit (DHDT). Currently MS Quality Upgradation project is under implementation for meeting Motor Spirit quality requirements.

*Koyali Refinery- (Gujarat) Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL):

The Gujarat Refinery was built with Soviet assistance at a cost of Rs.26.00 crores and went on stream in October, 1965.

The Refinery had an initial capacity of 2 MMTPA and was designed to process crude from Ankleshwar, Kalol and Nawagam oilfields of Oil & Natural Gas Commission in Gujarat.

In September, 1967, the capacity of the Refinery was expanded to 3 MMTPA. The capacity of the Refinery was further increased to 4.3 MMTPA through debottlenecking measures and to 7.3 MMTPA in October, 1978 by implementing an expansion project of Rs.56.07 crores. With the implementation of additional processing facilities, the Refinery could achieve capacity of 9.5 MMTPA in 1989.

To match secondary processing capacity in line with crude processing capacity, Hydrocracking unit (HCU) was commissioned in Dec’ 1993 .The refining capacity was further expanded to 12.5 MMTPA with commissioning of 3.0 MMTPA CDU in September, 1999. For meeting diesel quality norms DHDS unit was installed and commissioned in June’ 1999.

The present refining capacity of this refinery is 13.70 MMTPA. A Linear Alkyl Benzene (LAB) plant was commissioned in Aug’ 2004 for conversion of Kerosene to high value product. In order to meet Motor Spirit quality requirement, CCRU plant was commissioned in Oct’ 2006.

At present, Residue Upgradation project comprising of Coker, VGO Hydrotreater, Diesel Hydrotreater and Isomerisation Unit is under implementation for upgrading heavy residue to fuel products and to meet Motor Spirit and Diesel quality requirements.

*Haldia Refinery- (West Bengal) Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL):

The Haldia Refinery for processing 2.5 MMTPA of Middle East crude was commissioned in January, 1975 with two sectors- one for producing fuel products and other for Lube base stocks.

The fuel sector was built with French collaboration and the Lube sector with Romanian collaboration. The refining capacity of the Refinery was increased to 2.75 MMTPA in 1989 through debottlenecking measures. The refining capacity was further expanded to 3.75 MMTPA with the commissioning of new crude distillation unit of 1.0 MMTPA in March, 1997.

The present refining capacity of this refinery is 6.00 MMTPA. Diesel Hydro-desulphurization (DHDS) unit was commissioned for meeting diesel quality in Sep’ 1999.

Catalytic De-waxing unit was commissioned in March 2003 which can produce API Group-II Lube base stock and first of its kind in India. Residue Fluidized catalytic Cracker Init (RFCCU) was commissioned in Sept’ 2001 as additional secondary processing unit.

MS Quality Upgradation project was commissioned in Oct’ 2005 for meeting quality requirement for Motor Spirit.

At present Once through Hydrocracker (OHCU) project is under implementation for improvement in diesel quality and distillate yield along with refinery capacity expansion from 6.0 MMTPA to 7.5 MMTPA.

*Mathura Refinery – (Uttar Pradesh) Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL):

The Mathura Refinery with capacity of 6.00 MMTPA was set up at a cost of RS.253.92 crores. The Refinery was commissioned in January, 1982 excluding FCCU and Sulphur Recovery Units which were commissioned in Jan, 1983.

The refining capacity of this refinery was expanded to 7.5 MMTPA in 1989 by debottlenecking and revamping. A DHDS Unit was commissioned in 1989 for production of HSD with low sulphur content of 0.25% wt. (max.).

The present refining capacity of this Refinery is 8.00 MMTPA. Once through Hydrocracker (OHCU) project was commissioned in July’ 2000 as additional secondary processing unit. For meeting diesel and Motor Spirit quality, Diesel Hydro Treater (DHDT) and Penex units were commissioned in May’2005 and June’2005 respectively.

MS quality upgradation project for treatment of FCCU gasoline is under implementation for meeting the quality requirement of Motor Spirit.

*Digboi Refinery – (Assam) Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL):

The Refinery was set up at Digboi in 1901 by Assam Oil Company Limited. The Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. took over the Refinery and marketing management of Assam Oil Company Ltd. with effect from 14.10.1981 and created a separate division.

This division had both Refinery and Marketing operations. The Refinery at Digboi had an installed capacity 0.50 MMTPA. The refining capacity of the Refinery was increased to 0.65 MMTPA by modernization of refinery in July, 1996. A new Delayed Coking Unit of 1,70,000 TPA capacity was commissioned in 1999.

A new Solvent De-waxing Unit for maximizing production of micro-crystalline was installed and commissioned in 2003. The refinery has also installed Hydrotreater to improve the quality of diesel. Project for Motor Spirit Quality Upgradation is under implementation for meeting Motor Spirit quality requirement.

*Panipat Refinery – (Haryana) Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL):

The refinery was set up in 1998 at Baholi Village in Distt. Panipat, Haryana at a cost of Rs.3868 crores. The refining capacity of the refinery was 6.0 MMTPA. Refining capacity was expanded from 6 MMTPA to 12 MMTPA in Aug’ 2006. Major secondary units in the extended facilities includes Hydro-cracking Unit, Delayed Coking unit,

Diesel Hydro-treating Unit etc. Country’s largest Purified Terepthalic Acid (PTA) plant was commissioned in June’ 2006. Major projects under implementation are Naphtha.

Cracker project for generating value added products, Panipat refinery Additional Expansion Project (from 12 MMTPA to 15 MMTPA) and MS Quality Upgradation project for meeting Motor spirit quality requirement.

*Bongaigaon Refinery – (Assam) Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL):

Bongaigaon Refinery & Petrochemicals Ltd. (BRPL) was incorporated on 20th February 1974 as a Govt. Company fully owned by the Central Government with the objective of installation of the Refinery having a crude processing capacity of 1.0 MMTPA and a Petrochemical Complex consisting of Xylene, Di-Methyl Terepthalate (DMT) and Polyester Staple Fibre (PSF) Units.

The initial authorized capital of the Company was Rs.50 crores. The complex was built and commissioned in phases. The capacity of Crude Distillation Unit was increased to 1.35 MMTPA from April, 1987 by de-bottlenecking. The capacity of the Refinery has been increased to 2.35 MMTPA in June, 1995 by installing additional unit.

The authorized capital (equity) of the company was increased to Rs. 200 crores by December 1983 and the paid-up capital was increased Rs. 199.82 crores. The Government of India was holding the entire paid-up capital of the Company till 1990-91.

Government disinvested 25.54% of its share holding in BRPL to UTI and other Financial Institutions and employees of the Company during 1991-92 to 1993-94.The last disinvestments of 74.46% was made in favour of Indian Oil Corporation Ltd on 29th March 2001.

As a result BRPL became a subsidiary of Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. Bongaigaon Refinery & Petrochemicals Limited has been amalgamated with the holding company, Indian Oil Corporation Limited effective from March 25, 2009.

Diesel Hydrotreater and MS Quality upgradation projects are under implementation for meeting Diesel and Motor Spirit quality.

*Mumbai Refinery (Maharashtra) – Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL):

Mumbai Refinery was commissioned in 1954 under the ownership of ESSO and was acquired by Govt. of India in March, 1974.

Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL) was formed on 15th July 1974 after the merger of these companies. The capacity of Mumbai Refinery was 3.5 MMTPA which was increased to 5.5 MMTPA during 1985 after implementation of expansion programme.

Mumbai Refinery is also having Lube complex, which was commissioned in 1969 as a joint venture between Esso and Government of India with a capacity of 165 TMT per annum of LOBS.
In the year 1974, Lube India Ltd was fully taken over by Government of India and it was merged with HPCL.
In the year 1983 Lube refinery units were debottlenecked and capacity increased to 225 TMT per annum.
In the year 1995, Lube Refinery was further expanded by adding a new units and capacity increased to 335 TMT per annum of LOBS which is the largest in India even today.

In order to meet the Euro II/III specification of diesel, new project ‘Diesel Hydro Desulphurization’ (DHDS) project was commissioned in the year 2000. To upgrade MS quality from Euro-II to Euro-III & Euro-IV, Green Fuels & Emission Control Project (GFEC) has been commissioned in the year 2009.

*Visakh Refinery (Andhra Pradesh) - Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL):

Visakha Refinery was commissioned with an installed capacity of 0.65 MMTPA by Caltex Oil Refining (India) Ltd. in 1957. This was one of the first major industries of Visakhapatnam and first oil Refinery on the East Coast.

The Refinery was taken over by the Government of India in 1976 and was subsequently merged with HPCL in 1978. Over the years the capacity of refinery was increased to 1.5 MMTPA by debottlenecking the units.

The major refinery capacity augmentation was taken up in 1985 by commissioning separate stream of 3.0 MMTPA Crude Distillation Unit (CDU-II), Fluidized Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU-II), Crude Oil receiving facilities at high seas (Off Shore Tanker Terminal) and associated tankage and product dispatch facilities. Thus the installed capacity was increased to 4.5 MMTPA. In the year 1999, Refinery capacity has been further increased from 4.5 MMTPA to 7.5 MMTPA.

In order to meet the Euro II/III specification of Diesel, new project ‘Diesel Hydro Desulphurization’ (DHDS) was commissioned in the year 2000. To upgrade MS quality from Euro-II to Euro-III & Euro-IV, Clean Fuels Project (CFP) has been commissioned in the year 2009.

*Mumbai Refinery (MAHARASHTRA) - Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (BPCL):

The Refinery at Mumbai came into stream in January, 1955 under the ownership of Burmah-Shell Refineries Ltd. Following the Government's acquisition of the Burmah-Shell, name of the Refinery was changed to Bharat Refineries Limited on 11.2.1976.

In August, 1977, the Company was given its permanent name, viz. Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. The installed capacity of 5.25 MMTPA was increased to 6 MMTPA in 1985. With the successful commissioning of “Refinery Modernization Project” (RMP) in 2005, the current refining capacity stands at 12.00 MMTPA.

The Refinery uses latest microprocessor based Digital Distributed Control System (DDCS) and has been accredited with ISO 9002 (Quality Management System), the refinery has also been accredited with the unique distinction of a quality certification from NABL for “Quality Assurance Laboratory.

BPCL Mumbai refinery is the first Indian work site to achieve a Level 8 rating on the International Safety Rating System (ISRS), ISRS is a tool owned by Det Norske Veritas, UK for comparison benchmarking and development of safety management systems worldwide. ISO 14001 (Environmental Management System) certifications has also been conferred to the refinery for effective deployment of environmental care measures.

*Kochi Refinery (Kerala) - Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (BPCL):

The Kochi Refineries Ltd. (KRL), a public sector undertaking was set up in pursuance of a formation agreement dated 27th April, 1963 between Govt. of India, Phillips Petroleum Co. of USA and Duncan
Brothers of Calcutta.

The initial installed capacity of 2.5 MMTPA was increased to 3.3 in September, 1973 and to 4.5 MMTPA in November, 1994. The capacity of the Refinery was further increased to 7.5 MMTPA in December, 95.

Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited acquired the Government of India’s shares in KRL in March 2001. Pursuant to Order dated 18 August 2006 issued by Ministry of Company Affairs the refinery has been amalgamated with Bharat Petroleum Corporation to form BPCL Kochi Refinery.

The Refinery has implemented world class technology and systems for operations and enterprise resource planning. It is an ISO 14001 Environmental Management Systems (EMS) and ISO 9001:2000 Quality Management System (QMS) accredited company and has also obtained the ISO 17025 (Testing Methods in Quality Control) certification from NABL (National Accreditation Board for testing & Calibration of Laboratories).

With the prestigious Crude Oil receipt facilities consisting of the Single Point Mooring (SPM) and the associated shore tank farm in place since December 2007, the refinery is equipped to receive crude oil in Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCCs).

*Manali Refinery (Tamil Nadu) -Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (CPCL):

Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited (CPCL), formerly known as Madras Refineries Limited (MRL) was formed as a joint venture in 1965 between the Government of India (GOI), AMOCO and National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) having a share holding in the ratio 74%: 13%: 13% respectively.

From the grassroots stage CPCL Refinery was set up with an installed capacity of 2.5 Million Tonnes Per Annum (MMTPA) in a record time of 27 months at a cost of Rs. 43 crore without any time or cost overrun.

In 1985, AMOCO disinvested in favour of GOI and the shareholding percentage of GOI and NIOC stood revised at 84.62% and 15.38% respectively. Later GOI disinvested 16.92% of the paid up capital in favour of Unit Trust of India, Mutual Funds, Insurance Companies and Banks on 19th May 1992, thereby reducing its holding to 67.7 %. As a part of the restructuring steps taken up by the Government of India, Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL) acquired equity from GOI in 2000-01.

• Currently IOC holds 51.88% while NIOC continued its holding at 15.40%. Therefore, the CPCL became a subsidiary of IOCL in 2001. The Manali Refinery has a capacity of 9.5 MMTPA and is one of the most complex refineries in India with Fuel, Lube, Wax and Petrochemical feedstocks production facilities.
CPCL has also implemented the following “First of its kind” Project in the Oil industry:

• 5.8 MGD Sea Water Desalination Project to augment the water requirements of its Refinery at a cost of Rs.231 Crores.

• Under its Renewable Energy Initiative, a Wind Energy Farm with a capacity of 17.6 MW was commissioned at Pushpathur, Tamil Nadu in 2007 at a cost of Rs.90 Crores.

CPCL has commissioned a Wind Mill farm having 22 windmills with an installed capacity of 17.6 MW at Pushpathur, Tamil Nadu in September, 2007. The power generated is intended to be used by the Company’s captive Sea water Desalination Plant through a wheeling arrangement with Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB). Pending commissioning of Desalination Plan, the power generated is being sold to TNEB.

*Cauvery Basin Refinery (Nagapattinam-Tamil Nadu) – Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited (CPCL):

CPCL's second refinery is located at Cauvery Basin at Nagapattinam. The initial unit was set up in Nagapattinam with a capacity of 0.5 MMTPA in 1993 and later on its capacity was enhanced to 1.0 MMTPA.

An Oil Jetty was commissioned in 2003 in Nagapattinam area for handling crude and products for Cauvery Basin Refinery.

*Numaligarh Refinery (ASSAM) - Numaligarh Refinery Limited (NRL):

Numaligarh Refinery, Popularly known as " Assam Accord Refinery" has been set up as a grass -root refinery at Numaligarh in the district of Golaghat (Assam) in fulfilment of the commitment made by Government of India in the historic "Assam Accord" , signed on 15-8-1985 for providing thrust towards industrial and economic development of Assam.

Numaligarh Refinery Limited (NRL) was incorporated as a Company on 22-4-1993. Commercial production of Numaligarh Refinery commenced from 1.10.2000. Current shareholding pattern of NRL is : Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (61.65%), Oil India Limited (26%) and Government of Assam (12.35%). The refining capacity of this refinery is 3.0 MMTPA.

*Mangalore Refinery (KARNATAKA) - Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Ltd(MRPL):

Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited (MRPL) operates a grass root refinery with a capacity of 9.69 MMTPA, at Mangalore, on the West Coast in the ever green Dakshina Kannada District, about 350 kms, from Bangalore. The refinery’s first phase of 3.69 MMTPA was commissioned in March 1996 and the second phase of 6.00 MMTPA in September 1999.

MRPL was originally set up as a Joint Venture refinery, promoted by Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (HPCL) and the Aditya Birla Group of Companies, pursuant to an MOU entered into amongst Govt. of India, HPCL and Indian Rayon (Aditya Birla Group of Companies). On 28th March, 2003 ONGC acquired the total shareholding of A.V. Birla Group and further infused equity capital of Rs.600 crores thus making MRPL a majority held subsidiary of ONGC.

The lenders also agreed to the Debt Restructuring Package (DRP) proposed by ONGC, which included, inter-alia, conversion upto 365 crore of their loans into equity. Subsequently, ONGC has acquired equity allotted to the lenders pursuant to DRP raising ONGC’s holding in MRPL to 71.62 percent.

The Refinery has got a versatile design with high flexibility to process Crudes with 24 to 46 API gravity and has high degree of Automation. MRPL is the only Refinery in India to have 2 Hydrocrackers producing Premium Diesel (High Cetane). It is also the only Refinery in India to have 2 CCRs producing Unleaded Petrol of High Octane.

MRPL has high standards in refining and environment protection matched by its commitments to society. MRPL has also developed a Green Belt around the entire Refinery with plant species specially selected to blend with the local flora.

*Tatipaka Refinery ( Andhra Pradesh) – Oil & Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC):

A mini refinery (Phase-I) of ONGC with capacity of 0.066 MMTPA with an approved cost of Rs.27.00 crore was commissioned in September, 2001 at Tatipaka in East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh.

Under Phase-II, an additional refinery of same capacity of 0.066 MMTPA is under construction with an approved cost of Rs.43.85 crores.

*Reliance Petroleum Limited (RPL) (Private Sector), JAMNAGAR (GUJARAT):

Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) has two refineries. The present capacity of the first refinery is 33 MMTPA / day.

Post amalgamation of Reliance Petroleum Limited with RIL, RPL refinery ( a unit in Jamnagar SEZ) has become the second refinery of RIL. The Scheme of amalgamation is effective from 11th September, 2009 with an appointed date being 1st April, 2008. The capacity of the second refinery (SEZ) is 29 MMTPA / day.

*Essar Oil Limited (EOL) (Private Sector), VADINAR (GUJARAT):

The private sector refinery was commissioned in November 2006 with an installed capacity of 10.50 MMTPA at Vadinar, Gujarat.

Indian Monsoon

2011-04-22T20:23:00.000-07:00

Indian Monsoon, most prominent of the world’s monsoon systems, which primarily affects India and its surrounding water bodies.

It blows from the northeast during cooler months and reverses direction to blow from the southwest during the warmest months of the year. This process brings large amounts of rainfall to the region during June and July.

At the Equator the area near India is unique in that dominant or frequent westerly winds occur at the surface almost constantly throughout the year; the surface easterlies reach only to latitudes near 20° N in February, and even then they have a very strong northerly component.

They soon retreat northward, and drastic changes take place in the upper-air circulation . This is a time of transition between the end of one monsoon and the beginning of the next. Late in March the high-sun season reaches the Equator and moves farther north. With it go atmospheric instability, convectional (that is, rising and turbulent) clouds, and rain. The westerly subtropical jet stream still controls the flow of air across northern India, and the surface winds are northeasterlies.

MONSOON ONSET AND EARLY DEVELOPMENTS:

As the high-sun season (that is, the Northern Hemisphere summer) moves northward during April, India becomes particularly prone to rapid heating because the highlands to the north protect it from any incursions of cold air. There are three distinct areas of relative upper tropospheric warmth—namely,

(1) above the southern Bay of Bengal,

(2) above the Plateau of Tibet, and

(3) across the trunks of the various peninsulas that are relatively dry during this time. These three areas combine to form a vast heat-source region.

The relatively warm area above the southern Bay of Bengal occurs mostly at the 500–100-millibar level. (This atmospheric pressure region typically occurs at elevations between 5,500 and 16,100 metres [18,000 and 53,000 feet] but may vary according to changes in heating and cooling).

It does not appear at a lower level and is probably caused by the release of condensation heat (associated with the change from water vapour to liquid water) at the top of towering cumulonimbus clouds along the advancing intertropical convergence.

In contrast, a heat sink appears over the southern Indian Ocean as the relatively cloud-free air cools by emitting long-wavelength radiation. Monsoon winds at the surface blow from heat sink to heat source. As a result, by May the southwest monsoon is well-established over Sri Lanka, an island off the southeastern tip of the Indian peninsula.

Also in May, the dry surface of Tibet (above 4,000 metres [13,100 feet]) absorbs and radiates heat that is readily transmitted to the air immediately above.

At about 6,000 metres (19,700 feet) an anticyclonic cell arises, causing a strong easterly flow in the upper troposphere above northern India. The subtropical jet stream suddenly changes its course to the north of the anticyclonic ridge and the highlands, though it may occasionally reappear southward of them for very brief periods.

This change of the upper tropospheric circulation above northern India from westerly jet to easterly flow coincides with a reversal of the vertical temperature and pressure gradients between 600 and 300 millibars.

On many occasions the easterly wind aloft assumes jet force. It anticipates by a few days the “burst,” or onset, of the surface southwesterly monsoon some 1,500 km (900 miles) farther south, with a definite sequential relationship, although the exact cause is not known. Because of India’s inverted triangular shape, the land is heated progressively as the sun moves northward.

This accelerated spread of heating, combined with the general direction of heat being transported by winds, results in a greater initial monsoonal activity over the Arabian Sea (at late springtime), where a real frontal situation often occurs, than over the Bay of Bengal. The relative humidity of coastal districts in the Indian region rises above 70 percent, and some rain occurs.

Above the heated land, the air below 1,500 metres (5,000 feet) becomes unstable, but it is held down by the overriding easterly flow. This does not prevent frequent thunderstorms from occurring in late May.

PEAK PERIOD:

During June the easterly jet becomes firmly established at 150 to 100 millibars, an atmospheric pressure region typically occurring at elevations between 13,700 and 16,100 metres (45,000 and 53,000 feet).

It reaches its greatest speed at its normal position to the south of the anticyclonic ridge, at about 15° N from China through India. In Arabia it decelerates and descends to the middle troposphere (3,000 metres [9,800 feet]).

A stratospheric belt of very cold air, analogous to the one normally found above the intertropical convergence near the Equator, occurs above the anticyclonic ridge, across southern Asia at 30°–40° N and above the 500-millibar level (6,000 metres [19,700 feet]).

These upper-air features that arise so far away from the Equator are associated with the surface monsoon and are absent when there is no monsoonal flow. The position of the easterly jet controls the location of monsoonal rains, which occur ahead and to the left of the strongest winds and also behind them and to the right.

The surface flow, however, is a strong, southwesterly, humid, and unstable wind that brings humidities of more than 80 percent and heavy squally showers that are the “burst” of the monsoon. The overall pattern of the advance follows a frontal alignment, but local episodes may differ considerably. The amount of rain is variable from year to year and place to place.

Most spectacular clouds and rain occur against the Western Ghats in India, where the early monsoonal airstream piles up against the steep slopes, then recedes, and piles up again to a greater height.

Each time it pushes thicker clouds upward until wind and clouds roll over the barrier and, after a few brief spells of absorption by the dry inland air, cascade toward the interior. The windward slopes receive 2,000 to 5,000 mm (80 to 200 inches) of rain in the monsoon season.

Various factors, especially topography, combine to make up a complex regional pattern. Oceanic air flowing toward India below 6,000 metres (19,700 feet) is deflected in accordance with the Coriolis effect.

The converging moist oncoming stream becomes unstable over the hot land and is subject to rapid convection. Towering cumulonimbus clouds rise thousands of metres, producing violent thunderstorms and releasing latent heat in the surrounding air. As a result, the upper tropospheric warm belt migrates northwestward from the ocean to the land. The main body of air above 9,000 metres (29,500 feet) maintains a strong easterly flow.

Later, in June and July, the monsoon is strong and well-established to a height of 6,000 metres (less in the far north), with occasional thickening to 9,000 metres. Weather conditions are cloudy, warm, and moist all over India.

Rainfall varies between 400 and 500 mm (16 and 20 inches), but topography introduces some extraordinary differences. On the southern slopes of the Khasi Hills at only 1,300 metres (4,300 feet), where the moist airstreams are lifted and overturned, the village of Cherrapunji in Meghalaya state receives an average rainfall of 2,730 mm (107 inches) in July, with record totals of 897 mm (35 inches) in 24 hours in July 1915, more than 9,000 mm (354 inches) in July 1861, and 16,305 mm (642 inches) in the monsoon season of 1899.

Over the Ganges valley the monsoon, deflected by the Himalayan barrier, becomes a southeasterly airflow. By then the upper tropospheric belt of warmth from condensation has moved above northern India, with an oblique bias. The lowest pressures prevail at the surface.

It is mainly in July and August that waves of low pressure appear in the body of monsoonal air. Fully developed depressions appear once or twice per month.

They travel from east to west more or less concurrently with high-level easterly waves and bursts of speed from the easterly jet, causing a local strengthening of the low-level monsoonal flow.

The rainfall consequently increases and is much more evenly distributed than it was in June. Some of the deeper depressions become tropical cyclones before they reach the land, and these bring torrential rains and disastrous floods.

A totally different development arises when the easterly jet moves farther north than usual. The monsoonal wind rising over the southern slopes of the Himalayas brings heavy rains and local floods. The weather over the central and southern districts, however, becomes suddenly drier and remains so for as long as the abnormal shift lasts.

The opposite shift is also possible, with midlatitude upper air flowing along the south face of the Himalayas and bringing drought to the northern districts. Such dry spells are known as “breaks” of the monsoon.

Those affecting the south of India are similar to those experienced on the Guinea Coast during extreme northward shifts of the wind belts (see West African monsoon), whereas those affecting the north are due to an interaction of the middle and low latitudes. The southwest monsoon over the lower Indus plain is only 500 metres (about 1,600 feet) thick and does not hold enough moisture to bring rain.

On the other hand, the upper tropospheric easterlies become stronger and constitute a true easterly jet stream. Western Pakistan, Iran, and Arabia remain dry (probably because of the divergence in this jet) and thus become the new source of surface heat.

MONSOON WITHDRAWAL:

By August the intensity and duration of sunshine have decreased, temperatures begin to fall, and the surge of southwesterly air diminishes spasmodically almost to a standstill in the northwest.

Some places still receives over 2,000 mm (79 inches) of rainfall at this time, however. In September, dry, cool, northerly air begins to circle the west side of the highlands and spread over northwestern India. T

he easterly jet weakens, and the upper tropospheric easterlies move much farther south. Because the moist southwesterlies at lower levels are much weaker and variable, they are soon pushed back. The rainfall becomes extremely variable over most of the region, but showers are still frequent in the southeastern areas and over the Bay of Bengal.

By early October, variable winds are very frequent everywhere. At the end of the month, the entire Indian region is covered by northerly air and the winter monsoon takes shape. The surface flow is deflected by the Coriolis force and becomes a northeasterly flow.

This causes an October–December rainy season for the extreme southeast of the Deccan (including the Madras coast) and eastern Sri Lanka, which cannot be explained by topography alone because it extends well out over the sea. Tropical depressions and cyclones are important contributing factors.

Most of India thus begins a sunny, dry, and dusty season. The driest period comes in November in the Punjab; December in central India, Bengal, and Assam; January in the northern Deccan; and February in the southern Deccan.

Conversely, the western slopes of the Karakoram Range and Himalayas are then reached by the midlatitude frontal depressions that come from the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. The winter rains they receive, moderate as they are, place them clearly outside the monsoonal realm.

Because crops and water supplies depend entirely on monsoonal rains, it became imperative that quantitative long-range weather forecasts be available. Embedded in the weather patterns of other parts of the world are clues to the summer conditions in South Asia. These clues often appear in the months leading up to monsoon onset.

For a forecast to be released at the beginning of June, South American pressure and Indian upper-wind data for the month of April are examined. These data, though widely separated from one another, are positively correlated and may be used as predictors of June conditions.

Forecasts may be further refined in May by comparing rainfall patterns in both Zimbabwe and Java with the easterly winds above the city of Kolkata (Calcutta) in West Bengal state. In this situation the correlation between rainfall and easterly winds is negative.

Indian Soil Types

2011-04-22T19:51:00.000-07:00

Soil is an important natural resource in India and around the world. It is the top layer of the earth’s surface and is made up of disintegrated rocks, minerals, organic matter and bacteria, according to the National Portal of India website. India is home to several different types of soils. Each soil type has its own individual characteristics and is suitable for growing different kinds of crops.

Alluvial Soil

Alluvial soil is found mostly in the flood plains and deltas of northern India. It generally is light to dark in color. Alluvial soil also is rich in potassium and has high fertility. According to the National Portal of India website, alluvial soil is best suitable for growing crops such as paddy, sugarcane and plantains.

Black Soil

Black soil, also known as regur, is formed due to the disintegration of lava rocks. According to the website Indianetzone, black soil is generally found in the hilly regions of India. Black soil is rich in nutrients like calcium, potassium and magnesium, but has poor nitrogen content, according to the national Portal of India website. Black soil is appropriate for growing crops like cotton, tobacco, oil seeds and maize.

Red Soil

Red soil gets its red color due to the strong presence of iron in the soil. According to the Department of General Education, Government of Kerala website, the soil is formed because of the disintegration of metamorphic and igneous rocks. The soil is most often found in areas of India with low rainfall. Crops such as red gram, groundnut and castor seed are often grown in red soil.

Laterite

Laterite soil is formed from a mixture of clay and red soil. It has very low fertility and becomes hard when exposed to the air, according to the website WiZiQ. The soil is generally a brown to yellowish color. It is most often used as a building material. However, some crops like coffee, coconut and cashew are capable of growing in laterite soil.

Desert Soil

Desert soil is most often found in the arid and semi-arid regions of India. The soil is a light brown to reddish color. It is characterized by its saline texture and very low moisture content. According to the website WiZiQ, the soil is best suited for drought-resistant crops like millet and barley.

Mountain Soil

Mountain soil is found in the hill slopes of northern India. It is generally a dark brown to black color. According to the website WiZiQ, the soil is formed by the deposition of organic matter from the forest. Tropical fruits, coffee and spices are some of the crops suitable for growth in mountain soil.

Jaitapur Nuclear Power Plant

2011-04-22T05:22:00.000-07:00

Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project is a new proposed 9900 MW power project of Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL) at Madban village of Ratnagiri district in Maharashtra.

It will be the largest nuclear power generating station in the world by net electrical power rating once completed.

On December 6, 2010 agreement was signed for the construction of first set of two third-generation European Pressurized Reactors/Evolutionary Power Reactors (EPR) and the supply of nuclear fuel for 25 years in the presence of French President Nicolas Sarkozy and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.

French nuclear engineering firm Areva S.A. and Indian state-owned nuclear operator Nuclear Power Corporation of India signed this multi billion valued agreement of about $9.3 billion. This is a general framework agreement along with agreement on 'Protection of Confidentiality of Technical Data and Information Relating to Nuclear Power Corporation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy' was also signed.

The general framework agreement is a list of the scope of work, terms and conditions of plant life, guarantees and warrantees, guaranteed plant load factor. This agreement is quite important since life of the reactors is anticipated at 60 years. This general framework agreement will also include financial aspect of the project including the terms and conditions of funding, debt funding. Etc..

A consortium of French financial institutions will finance this project as a loan. Both French and Indian government will give sovereign guarantee for this loan. The extent of guarantee will depend on what portion of the cost the French credit will cover. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) will govern the interest rates and other terms of agreement. Interest rates and other terms are under discussion.

REACTORS INFORMATION:

Reactors planned: 6 x 1650 MW

Reactor types: European Pressurized Reactor/Evolutionary Power Reactor

Reactor suppliers: France Areva

Maharatnas

2011-04-22T04:59:00.000-07:00

In 2009, the government established the Maharatna status, which raises a company's investment ceiling from Rs. 1,000 crore to Rs. 5,000 crore. The Maharatna firms would now be free to decide on investments up to 15 per cent of their net worth in a project.

Earlier, the Navaratna companies could invest up to Rs 1,000 crore without government approvals.

Criteria

In order to qualify as a Maharatna, the process is bottoms up. This means the lowest employee should be proud of his/her company and contribute to the same according to the global standards. The 6 point criteria for eligibility as Maharatna are:

1.Having Navratna status.

2.Listed on Indian stock exchange with minimum prescribed public shareholding under SEBI regulations.

3.An average annual turnover of more than Rs. 25,000 crore during the last 3 years.

4.An average annual net worth of more than Rs. 15,000 crore during the last 3 years.

5.An average annual net profit after tax of more than Rs. 5000 crore during the last 3 years.

6.Should have significant global presence/international operations.

List of Maharatnas:

1.Coal India Limited

2.Indian Oil Corporation Limited

3.NTPC Limited

4.Oil and Natural Gas Corporation

5.Steel Authority of India Limited

Navaratnas

2011-04-22T04:48:00.000-07:00

Navratna was the title given originally to nine Public Sector Enterprises (PSEs), identified by the Government of India in 1997 as its most prestigious, which allowed them greater autonomy to compete in the global market. The number of PSEs having Navratna status has been raised to 16, the most recent addition being Oil India Limited.

Originally, the term Navaratna meant a talisman or ornament composed of nine precious gems. Later, this symbology was adopted in the courts of Emperor Vikramaditya and the Mughal emperor Akbar, where the Navaratnas were a group of nine extraordinary men in their respective courts.

Navratna CPSEs:

Bharat Electronics Limited

Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited

Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited

GAIL (India) Limited

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited

Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited

National Aluminium Company Limited

NMDC Limited

Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited

Oil India Limited

Power Finance Corporation Limited

Power Grid Corporation of India Limited

Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited

Rural Electrification Corporation Limited

Shipping Corporation of India Limited

The Science Express

2011-04-22T03:10:00.000-07:00

The Science Express is a joint Indo-German pathway to discovery. It invites you along on a fascinating expedition into the mysteries of our world – to groundbreaking discoveries, emerging issues of cutting-edge science and future-oriented technologies.

You will travel from the smallest elements of our world to the largest structures in outer space. Exciting images, video clips and interactive exhibits will offer fascinating insights into the hidden worlds of atoms, cells, neurons and bytes, as well as the complex interactions of civilizations, planets, stars and galaxies.

The exhibition takes modern research out of the lab and reveals just how relevant science is to everyday life. Discover how science is enabling society to face the global challenges of the 21st century. The Science Express will travel throughout India and make stops in 55 cities.

FOCUS ON THE CUTTING EDGE

This futuristic exhibition focuses on the rapid development of modern science – the astonishing worlds that scientists have opened up, and the new opportunities and challenges they present.

Designed to inspire young people to explore frontier science and innovation in the fields of physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, nanotechnology, biotechnology, and the environmental sciences, the Science Express invites Indian people to journey through the world of ‘Made in Germany’ cutting-edge science.

It shows the connections between different aspects of scientific knowledge and how they affect our lives. Interactive exhibits, images, and video clips turn research into an adventure. Therefore, the Science Express delivers also good reasons for studying at German universities, to earn a doctoral degree at International research schools or to apply for postdoctoral positions at Max Planck or other research institutes in Germany.

2G Spectrum Scam

2011-04-22T02:41:00.000-07:00

The 2G spectrum scam involved allegations of:

1. underpricing of 2G spectrum Telecom Ministry of India, resulting in loss to the exchequer and

2. illegal manipulation of the spectrum allocation process to favour a few select companies

According to a report submitted by the Comptroller and Auditor General(CAG) based on money collected from 3G licenses, the loss to the exchequer due to underpricing of 2G spectrum was 176,379 crore (US$39.16 billion).

The issuing of the 2G licenses occurred in 2008, but the scam came to public notice when the Supreme Court of India took Subramaniam Swamy's complaints on record.

CHARGES ON FORMER TELECOM MINISTER A RAJA?

CHEAP TELECOM LICENSES

1. Entry fee for spectrum licenses in 2008 pegged at 2001 prices

2. Mobile subscriber base had shot up to 350 million in 2008 from 4 million in 2001

NO PROCEDURES FOLLOWED

1. Rules changed after the game had begun

2. Cut-off date for applications advanced by a week

3. Licenses issued on a first-come-first-served basis

4. No proper auction process followed, no bids invited

5.Raja ignored advice of TRAI, Law Ministry, Finance Ministry

FAVOURITISM, CORPORATES ENCASH PREMIUM

Unitech, Swan Telecom got licenses without any prior telecom experience

Swan Telecom given license even though it did not meet eligibility criteria

Swan got license for Rs. 1537 crore, sold 45% stake to Etisalat for Rs. 4200 crore

Unitech Wireless got license for Rs. 1661 crore, sold 60% stake for Rs. 6200 crore

All nine companies paid DoT only Rs. 10,772 crore for 2G licences

NIIRA RADIA TAPES CONTROVERSY:

The Radia tapes controversy relates to the taped and released telephonic conversations between Nira (also Niira) Radia, a British professional lobbyist and politicians, corporates and industrialists, officials, bureaucrats, aides and journalists that were taped by the Indian Income Tax Department in 2008–09.

The tapes led to government and public accusation that these calls evidence the planning of the 2G spectrum scam and other criminal and unconstitutional activities. Nira Radia runs a public relations firm named Vaishnavi Corporate Communications, and also operates through subsidiaries such as Neucom, Noesis Strategic Consulting Services and Vitcom Consulting, whose clients, among others, include Ratan Tata's Tata Group, Mukesh Ambani’s Reliance Industries and Prannoy Roy's NDTV

BUDGET 2011-12....... A to Z

2011-04-20T22:37:00.000-07:00

INVESTMENT ENVIRONMENT

Foreign Direct Investment
Discussions underway to further liberalise the FDI policy.

Foreign Institutional Investors

SEBI registered mutual funds permitted to accept subscription from foreign investors who meet KYC requirements for equity schemes.

To enhance flow of funds to infrastructure sector, the FII limit for investment in corporate bonds issued in infrastructure sector being raised.

Financial Sector Legislative Initiatives

To take the process of financial sector reforms further, various legislations proposed in 2011-12.

Amendments proposed to the Banking Regulation Act in the context of additional banking licences to private sector players.

Public Sector Bank Capitalisation

` 6,000 crore to be provided during 2011-12 to enable public sector banks to maintain a minimum of Tier I CRAR of 8 per cent.

Recapitalisation of Regional Rural Banks

` 500 crore to be provided to enable Regional Rural Banks to maintain a CRAR of at least 9 per cent as on March 31, 2012.

Micro Finance Institutions

“India Microfinance Equity Fund” of ` 100 crore to be created with SIDBI.

Government considering putting in place appropriate regulatory framework to protect the interest of small borrowers.

“Women’s SHG’s Development Fund” to be created with a corpus of ` 500 crore.

Rural Infrastructure Development Fund

Corpus of RIDF XVII to be raised from ` 16,000 crore to ` 18,000 crore.

Micro Small and Medium Enterprises

` 5,000 crore to be provided to SIDBI for refinancing incremental lending by banks to these enterprises.

` 3,000 crore to be provided to NABARD to provide support to handloom weaver co-operative societies which have become financially unviable due to non-repayment of debt by handloom weavers facing economic stress.

Public sector banks to achieve a target of 15 per cent as outstanding loans to minority communities under priority sector lending at the earliest.

Housing Sector Finance
Existing scheme of interest subvention of 1 per cent on housing loan further liberalised.

Existing housing loan limit enhanced to ` 25 lakh for dwelling units under priority sector lending.

Provision under Rural Housing Fund enhanced to ` 3,000 crore.

To enhance credit worthiness of economically weaker sections and LIG households, a Mortgage Risk Guarantee Fund to be created under Rajiv Awas Yojana.

Central Electronic Registry to prevent frauds involving multiple lending on the same immovable property to become operational by March 31, 2011.

Financial Sector Legislative Reforms Commission

Financial Sector Legislative Reforms Commission set up to rewrite and streamline the financial sector laws, rules and regulations.

Companies Bill to be introduced in the Lok Sabha during current session.

AGRICULTURE

Removal of production and distribution bottlenecks for items like fruits and vegetables, milk, meat, poultry and fish to be the focus of attention this year.

Allocation under Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) increased from ` 6,755 crore to ` 7,860 crore.

Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern Region

To improve rice based cropping system in this region, allocation of` 400 crore has been made.

Integrated Development of 60,000 pulses villages in rainfed areas

Allocation of ` 300 crore to promote 60,000 pulses villages in rainfed areas.

Promotion of Oil Palm

Allocation of ` 300 crore to bring 60,000 hectares under oil palm plantations.

Initiative to yield about 3 lakh Metric tonnes of palm oil annually in five years.

Initiative on Vegetable Clusters

Allocation of ` 300 crore for implementation of vegetable initiative to provide quality vegetable at competitive prices.

Nutri-cereals

Allocation of ` 300 crore to promote higher production of Bajra, Jowar, Ragi and other millets, which are highly nutritious and have several medicinal properties.

National Mission for Protein Supplement

Allocation of ` 300 crore to promote animal based protein production through livestock development, dairy farming, piggery, goat rearing and fisheries.

Accelerated Fodder Development Programme

Allocation of ` 300 crore for Accelerated Fodder Development Programme to benefit farmers in 25,000 villages.

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture

Government to promote organic farming methods, combining modern technology with traditional farming practices.

Agriculture Credit

Credit flow for farmers raised from ` 3,75,000 crore to ` 4,75,000 crore in 2011-12.

Interest subvention proposed to be enhanced from 2 per cent to 3 per cent for providing short-term crop loans to farmers who repay their crop loan on time.

In view of enhanced target for flow of agriculture credit, capital base of NABARD to be strengthened by ` 3,000 crore in phased manner.

` 10,000 crore to be contributed to NABARD’s Short-term Rural Credit fund for 2011-12.

Mega Food Parks

Approval being given to set up 15 more Mega Food Parks during 2011-12.

Storage Capacity and Cold Chains

Augmentation of storage capacity through private entrepreneurs and warehousing corporations has been fast tracked.

Capital investment in creation of modern storage capacity will be eligible for viability gap funding of the Finance Ministry.

Agriculture Produce Marketing Act

In view of recent episode of inflation, need for State Governments to review and enforce a reformed Agriculture Produce Marketing Act.

Infrastructure and Industry

Allocation of ` 2,14,000 crore for infrastructure in 2011-12. This is an increase of 23.3 per cent over 2010-11. This also amounts to 48.5 per cent of total plan allocation.

Government to come up with a comprehensive policy for further developing PPP projects.

IIFCL to achieve cummulative disbursement target of ` 20,000 crore by March 31, 2011 and ` 25,000 crore by March 31, 2012.

Under take out financing scheme, seven projects sanctioned with debt of ` 1,500 crore. Another ` 5,000 crore will be sanctioned during 2011-12.

To boost infrastructure development, tax free bonds of ` 30,000 crore proposed to be issued by Government undertakings during 2011-12.

National Manufacturing Policy

Share of manufacturing in GDP expected to grow from about 16 per cent to 25 per cent over a period of 10 years. Government will come out with a manufacturing policy.

Two Committees set up for greater transparency and accountability in procurement policy; and for allocation, pricing and utilisation of natural resources.

Issues relating to reconciliation of environmental concern from various departmental activities including those related to infrastructure and mining to be considered by a Group of Ministers.

National Mission for hybrid and electric vehicle to be launched.

Financial Assistance to be made available for metro projects in Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, Kolkata and Chennai.

Capital investment in fertiliser production proposed to be included as an infrastructure sub-sector.

Exports

Of 23 suggestions made by Task Force on Transaction Cost, constituted by the Department of Commerce, 21 suggestions already implemented. Action to be taken on the remaining two suggestions. Transaction Cost of ` 2,100 crore will thus be mitigated.

Self assessment to be introduced in Customs to modernize the Customs administration.

Proposal to introduce scheme for refund of taxes paid on services used for export of goods.

Mega Cluster Scheme to be extended for leather products. Seven mega leather clusters to be set up during 2011-12.

Jodhpur to be included for the development of a handicraft mega cluster.

BLACK MONEY

Five fold strategy to be put into operation to deal with the problem of generation and circulation of black money.

Membership of various international fora engaged in anti money laundering, Financial integrity and economic development, Exchange of information for tax purposes and transparency, secured.

Various Tax Information Exchange Agreements (TIEA) and Double Taxation Avoidance Agreements (DTAA) concluded. Foreign Tax Division of CBDT has been strengthened to effectively handle increase in tax information exchange and transfer pricing issues.

Enforcement Directorate strengthened three fold to handle increased number of cases registered under amended Money Laundering Legislation.

Finance Ministry has commissioned study on unaccounted income and wealth held within and outside the country.

Comprehensive national policy to be announced in near future to strengthen controls over prevention of trafficking on narcotic drugs.

STRENGTHENING INCLUSION
National Food Security Bill (NFSB) to be introduced in the Parliament during the course of this year.

Allocation for social sector in 2011-12 (` 1,60,887 crore) increased by 17 per cent over current year. It amounts to 36.4 per cent of total plan allocation.

Bharat Nirman

Allocation for Bharat Nirman programme proposed to be increased by ` 10,000crore from the current year to ` 58,000 crore in 2011-12.

Plan to provide Rural Broadband Connectivity to all 2,50,000 Panchayats in thecountry in three years.

MGNREGA

In pursuance of last year’s budget announcement to provide a real wage of ` 100 per day, the Government has decided to index the wage rates notified under the MGNREGA to the Consumer Price Index for Agricultural Labour. The enhanced wage rates have been notified by the Ministry of Rural Development on January 14, 2011.

From 1st April, 2011, remuneration of Anganwadi workers increased from ` 1,500 per month to ` 3,000 per month and for Anganwadi helpers from ` 750 per month to ` 1,500 per month.

Scheduled Castes and Tribal Sub-plan

Specific allocation earmarked towards Schedule Castes Sub-plan and Tribal Sub-plan in the Budget.

Allocation for primitive Tribal groups increased from ` 185 crore in 2010-11 to ` 244 crore in 2011-12.

Education

Allocation for education increased by 24 per cent over current year.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan

` 21,000 crore allocated, which is 40 per cent higher than Budget for 2010-11.

Pre-matric scholarship scheme to be introduced for needy SC/ST students studying in classes IX and X.

National Knowledge Network

Connectivity to all 1,500 institutions of Higher Learning and Research through optical fiber backbone to be provided by March, 2012.

Innovations

National Innovation Council set up to prepare road map for innovations in India.

Special grant provided to various universities and academic institutions to recognise excellence.

Skill Development
Additional ` 500 crore proposed to be provided for National Skill Development Fund during the next year.

An international award with prize money of ` 1 crore being instituted for promoting values of universal brotherhood as part of National celebrations of 150th Birth Anniversary of Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore.

Health

Plan allocations for health stepped-up by 20 per cent.

Scope of Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana to be expanded to widen the coverage.

Financial Inclusion

Target of providing banking facilities to all 73,000 habitations having a population of over 2,000 to be completed during 2011-2012.

Unorganised sector

Exit norms under co-contributory pension scheme “Swavalamban” to be relaxed.

Benefit of Government contribution to be extended from three to five years for all subscribers who enroll during 2010-11 and 2011-12.

Eligibility for pension under Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme for BPL beneficiaries reduced from 65 years of age to 60 years. Those above 80 years of age will get pension of ` 500 per month instead of ` 200 at present.

Environment and Climate Change

Forests

` 200 crore proposed to be allocated for Green India Mission from National Clean Energy Fund.

Environmental Management

` 200 crore proposed to be allocated for launching Environmental Remediation Programmes from National Clean Energy Fund.

Cleaning of Rivers and Lakes

Special allocation of ` 200 crore proposed to be provided for clean-up of some more important lakes and rivers other than Ganga.

Some Other Initiatives

To boost development in North Eastern Region and Special Category States, allocation for Special Assistance doubled.

` 8,000 crore provided in current year for development needs of Jammu and Kashmir.

Allocation made in 2011-12 to meet the infrastructure needs for Ladakh (` 100 crore) and Jammu region (` 150 crore).

Allocation under Backward Regions Grant Fund increased by over 35 per cent.

Funds allocated under Integrated Action Plan (IAP) for addressing problems related to Left Wing extremism affected districts. 60 selected Tribal and backward districts provided with 100 per cent block grant of ` 25 crore and ` 30 crore per district during 2010-11 and 2011-12 respectively.

A lump-sum ex-gratia compensation of ` 9 lakh for 100 per cent disability to be granted for personnel of Defence and Para Military forces discharged from service on medical ground on account of disability attributable to government service.

Provision of ` 1,64,415 crore, including ` 69,199 crore for capital expenditure to be made for Defence Services in 2011-12.

To build judicial infrastructure, plan provision for Department of Justice increased by three fold to ` 1,000 crore.

Census 2011

To enumerate castes other than Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes in Census 2011, ‘caste’ to be canvassed as a separate time bound exercise.

IMPROVING GOVERNANCE

UID Mission

From 1st October, 2011 ten lakh Aadhaar numbers will be generated per day.

IT Initiatives

Various IT initiatives taken for efficient tax administration. These include e-filing and e-payment of taxes, adoption of ‘Sevottam’ concept by CBEC and CBDT, web based facility for tax payers to track the e-solution of refunds and credit for pre-paid taxes and augmentation of processing capacity.

Under Mission mode projects, funds released to 31 projects received from States/UTs for computerisation of Commercial taxes. This will allow States to align with roll out of GST.

Bill to amend the Indian Stamp Act proposed to be introduced shortly.

A new scheme with an outlay of ` 300 crore to be launched to provide assistance to States to modernise their stamp and registration administration and roll out e-stamping in all the districts in the next three years.

A new simplified form ‘Sugam’ to be introduced to reduce the compliance burden of small tax payers falling within presumptive taxation.

Three more benches of Settlement Commission to be set up to fast track the disposal of cases.

Steps initiated to reduce litigation and focus attention on high revenue cases.

Corruption

Group of Ministers constituted to consider measures for tackling corruption.

Recommendations to be made in a time bound manner.

Performance Monitoring and Evaluation System

In pursuance of recommendations of Second Administrative Reforms Commission, 62 departments covered under Performance Monitoring and Evaluation System (PMES) to assess their effectiveness.

TAGUP
Recommendations of Technology Advisory Group for Unique Projects (TAGUP)submitted and accepted in principle.

BUDGET ESTIMATES 2011-12

Gross Tax receipts are estimated at ` 9,32,440 crore.

Non-tax revenue receipts estimated at ` 1,25,435 crore.

Total expenditure proposed at ` 12,57,729 crore.

Increase of 18.3 per cent in total Plan allocation.

Increase of 10.9 per cent in the Non-plan expenditure.

XI Plan expenditure more than 100 per cent in nominal terms than envisaged forthe Plan period.

Increase of 23 per cent in Plan and Non-plan transfer to States and UTs.

Fiscal Deficit brought down from 5.5 per cent in BE 2010-11 to 5.1 per cent of GDP in RE 2010-11.

Fiscal Deficit kept at 4.6 per cent of GDP for 2011-12.

Fiscal Deficit to be progressively reduced to 3.5 per cent by 2013-14.

“Effective Revenue Deficit” estimated at 2.3 per cent of GDP in the Revised Estimates for 2010-11 and 1.8 per cent for 2011-12.

All subsidy related liabilities brought into fiscal accounting.

Net market borrowing of the Government through dated securities in 2011-12 would be ` 3.43 lakh crore.

Central Government debt estimated at 44.2 per cent of GDP for 2011-12 as against 52.5 per cent recommened by the 13th Finance Commission.

PART B TAX PROPOSALS

Direct Taxes

Exemption limit for the general category of individual taxpayers enhanced from
` 1,60,000 to ` 1,80,000 giving uniform tax relief of ` 2,000.

Exemption limit enhanced and qualifying age reduced for senior citizens.

Higher exemption limit for Very Senior Citizens, who are 80 years or above.

Current surcharge of 7.5 per cent on domestic companies proposed to be reduced to 5 per cent.

Rate of Minimum Alternative Tax proposed to be increased from 18 per cent to 18.5 per cent of book profits.

Tax incentives extended to attract foreign funds for financing of infrastructure.

Additional deduction of ` 20,000 for investment in long-term infrastructure bonds proposed to be extended for one more year.

Lower rate of 15 per cent tax on dividends received by an Indian company from its foreign subsidiary.

Benefit of investment linked deduction extended to businesses engaged in the production of fertilisers.

Investment linked deduction to businesses developing affordable housing.

Weighted deduction on payments made to National Laboratories, Universities and Institutes of Technology to be enhanced to 200 per cent.

System of collection of information from foreign tax jurisdictions to be strengthened.

A net revenue loss of ` 11,500 crore estimated as a result of proposals.

Indirect Taxes

To stay on course for transition to GST.

Central Excise Duty to be maintained at standard rate of 10 per cent.

Reduction in number of exemptions in Central Excise rate structure.

Nominal Central Excise Duty of 1 per cent imposed on 130 items entering in the tax net.

Lower rate of Central Excise Duty enhanced from 4 per cent to 5 per cent.

Optional levy on branded garments or made up proposed to be converted into a mandatory levy at unified rate of 10 per cent.

Peak rate of Custom Duty held at its current level.

Agriculture and Related Sectors

Scope of exemptions from Excise Duty enlarged to include equipments needed for storage and warehouse facilities on agricultural produce.

Basic Custom Duty reduced for specified agricultural machinery from 5 per cent to 2.5 per cent.

Basic Custom Duty reduced on micro-irrigation equipment from 7.5 per cent to 5 per cent.

De-oiled rice bran cake to be fully exempted from basic Custom Duty. Export Duty of 10 per cent to be levied on its export.

Manufacturing Sector

Basic Custom Duty reduced for various items to encourage domestic value addition vis-à-vis imports, to remove duty inversion and anomalies and to provide a level playing field to the domestic industry.

Rate of Export Duty for all types of iron ore enhanced and unified at 20 per cent ad valorem. Full exemption from Export Duty to iron ore pellets.

Basic Custom Duty on two critical raw materials of cement industry viz. pet coke and gypsum is proposed to be reduced to 2.5 per cent.

Cash dispensers fully exempt from basic Customs Duty.

Environment

Full exemption from basic Customs Duty and a concessional rate of Central Excise Duty extended to batteries imported by manufacturers of electrical vehicles.

Concessional Excise Duty of 10 per cent to vehicles based on Fuel cell technology.

Exemption granted from basic custom duty and special CVD to critical parts/assemblies needed for Hybrid vehicles.

Reduction in Excise Duty on kits used for conversion of fossil fuel vehicles into Hybrid vehicles.

Excise Duty on LEDs reduced to 5 per cent and special CVD being fully exempted.

Basic Customs Duty on solar lantern reduced from 10 to 5 per cent.

Full exemption from basic Customs Duty to Crude Palm Stearin used in manufacture of laundry soap.

Full exemption from basic Excise Duty granted to enzyme based preparation for pre-tanning.

Infrastructure

Parallel Excise Duty exemption for domestic suppliers producing capital goods needed for expansion of existing mega or ultra mega power projects.

Full exemption from basic Customs Duty to bio-asphalt and specified machinery for application in the construction of national highways.

Other Proposals

Scope of exemptions from basic Customs Duty for work of art and antiquities extended to apply for exhibition or display in private art galleries open to the general public.

Exemption from Import Duty for spares and capital goods required for ship repair units extended to import by ship owners.

Concessional basic Custom Duty of 5 per cent and CVD of 5 per cent available to newspaper establishments for high speed printing presses extended to mailroom equipment.

Jumbo rolls of cinematographic film fully exempted from CVD by providing full exemption from Excise Duty.

Out right concession to factory-built ambulances from Excise Duty.

Relief measures proposed for raw pistachio, bamboo for agarbatti, lactose for the manufacture of homoeopathic medicines, sanitary napkins, baby and adult diapers.

Proposals relating to Customs and Central Excise estimated to result in a net revenue gain of ` 7,300 crore.

Service Tax

Standard rate of Service Tax retained at 10 per cent, while seeking a closer fit between present regime and its GST successor.

Hotel accommodation in excess of ` 1,000 per day and service provided by air conditioned restaurants that have license to serve liquor added as new services for levying Service Tax.
Tax on all services provided by hospitals with 25 or more beds with facility of central air conditioning.

Service Tax on air travel both domestic and international raised.

Services provided by life insurance companies in the area of investment and some more legal services proposed to be brought into tax net.

All individual and sole proprietor tax payers with a turn over upto ` 60 lakh freed from the formalities of audit.

To encourage voluntary compliance the penal provision for Service Tax are being rationalised. Similar changes being carried out in Central Excise and Custom laws.

Proposals relating to Service Tax estimated to result in net revenue gain of ` 4,000 crore.

Proposals relating to Direct Taxes estimated to result in a revenue loss of ` 11,500 crore and those related to Indirect Taxes estimated to result in net revenue gain of ` 11,300 crore.

BUDGET 2011-12 (Sustaining Growth)

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SUSTAINING GROWTH

Fiscal consolidation

Fiscal consolidation targets at Centre and States have shown positive effect on macro economic management of the economy.

Amendment to Centre’s FRBM Act, 2003 laying down the fiscal road map for the next five years to be introduced in the course of the year.

Proposal to introduce the Public Debt Management Agency of India Bill in the next financial year.

Tax Reforms

Direct Taxes Code (DTC) to be finalised for enactment during 2011-12. DTC proposed to be effective from April 1, 2012.

Areas of divergence with States on proposed Goods and Services Tax (GST) have been narrowed. As a step towards roll out of GST, Constitution Amendment Bill proposed to be introduced in this session of Parliament.

Significant progress in establishing GST Network (GSTN), which will serve as IT infrastructure for introduction of GST.

Expenditure Reforms

A Committee already set up by Planning Commission to look into the extant classification of public expenditure between plan, non-plan, revenue and capital.

Subsidies

Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) has improved the availability of fertiliser; Government actively considering extension of the NBS regime to cover urea.

Government to move towards direct transfer of cash subsidy to people living below poverty line in a phased manner for better delivery of kerosene, LPG and fertilisers. Task force set up to work out the modalities for the proposed system.

People’s ownership of PSUs

Overwhelming response to public issues of Central Public Sector Undertakings during current year.

Higher than anticipated non-tax revenue has led to reschedulement of some disinvestment issues planned for current year.

40,000 crore to be raised through disinvestment in 2011-12.

Government committed to retain at least 51 per cent ownership and management control of the Central Public Sector Undertakings.

Overview of Budget 2011-12

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CHALLENGES

Structural concerns on inflation management to be addressed by improving supply response of agriculture to the expanding domestic demand and through stronger fiscal consolidation.

Implementation gaps, leakages from public programmes and the quality of outcomes pose a serious challenge.

Impression of drift in governance and gap in public accountability is misplaced.
Corruption as a problem to be fought collectively. Government to improve the regulatory standards and administrative practices.

Inputs from colleagues on both sides of House are important in the wider national interest.

Budget 2011-12 to serve as a transition towards a more transparent and result oriented economic management system in India.

OVERVIEW OF THE ECONOMY

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) estimated to have grown at 8.6 per cent in 2010-11 in real terms. Economy has shown remarkable resilience.

Continued high food prices have been principal concern this year.

Consumers denied the benefit of seasonal fall in prices despite improved availability of food items, revealing shortcomings in distribution and marketing systems.

Monetary policy measures taken expected to further moderate inflation in coming months.

Exports have grown by 29.4 per cent, while imports have recorded a growth of 17.6 per cent during April to January 2010-11 over the corresponding period last year.

Indian economy expected to grow at 9 per cent with an outside band of +/- 0.25 per cent in 2011-12.

Average inflation expected lower next year and current account deficit smaller.

Nuclear and Radiation Accidents

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A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency as "an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility. Examples include lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity release to the environment, or reactor core melt."

The prime example of a "major nuclear accident" is one in which a reactor core is damaged and large amounts of radiation are released, such as in the Chernobyl Disaster in 1986.

Serious radiation accidents include:

the radiotherapy accident in Costa Rica,

radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza,

radiation accident in Morocco,

Goiania accident,

radiation accident in Mexico City,

radiotherapy unit accident in Thailand,

and the Mayapuri radiological accident in India.

*List of major accidents in Nuclear Power Plants:

Idaho Falls, Idaho, US (1961):

Explosion at SL-1, National Reactor Testing Station. All 3 operators killed when rod was removed too far causing criticality surge and steam explosion. An additional 1,100 Curies were released as fission products to the atmosphere, but due to the remoteness, most of it was recovered and buried.

Pripyat, Ukraine (1986) / Chernobyl Disaster:

Steam explosion and meltdown necessitating the evacuation of 300,000 people from Kiev and dispersing radioactive material across Europe

Ōkuma, Fukushima, Japan (2011):

Cooling failure in 4 reactors following an earthquake, tsunami and multiple fires at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant.

EARTH

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It has been estimated that our Mother Earth is about 4 and 5 billion years in age.

The Earth is not perfectly round. It is slightly flat at the north and south poles.

The diameter of the Earth is 12 756.2 kilometers

The world's largest desert is the Sahara. It covers about one third of Africa!

Mt Everest is the highest mountain on Earth. Its peak reaches 8,848 meters above sea level.

The Nile River stretches out to an impressive length of 6696 kilometers, being the longest river on Earth.

Magma is the hot liquid rock under the surface of the Earth, it is known as lava after it comes out of a volcano.

The volcanic rock known as pumice is the only rock that can float in water.

Talc is the softest mineral found on Earth, reaching just 1 on Mohs scale of hardness, it is often used to make talcum powder.

The Atlantic Ocean is the saltiest of Earth's major oceans.

Earthquakes that occur out at sea can cause huge tsunamis capable of reaching land and endangering people.

Although earthquakes can be deadly, most are very small and not even felt by humans.

Natural gas doesn't have an odor; strong smells are added to it by humans so it can be detected when there are leaks. Hawaii is moving towards Japan at the speed of 10cm a year. This is because they are on different tectonic plates.

Volcanos

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Volcanoes are formed when the hot magma reaches the Earth's surface and erupts.

The word volcano originally comes from the name of the Roman god of fire, Vulcan.

Volcanoes can be active (regular activity), dormant (recent historical activity but now quiet) or extinct (no activity in historical times and unlikely to erupt again).

About 30 kilometers beneath your feet present is the mantle of the Earth. It has super hot rock in fluid state. It is called magma and extends down to the core.

Magma is lighter than the rock surrounding it. This is why it rises up through cracks and weak points in the Earth's crust. When it erupts out of the surface, it brings lava, rock, ash and various volcanic gases along with.

The molten rock when under the Earth is called magma while when it has erupted out, it is called lava.

Volcanoes are usually located where tectonic plates meet. This is especially true for the Pacific Ring of Fire, an area around the Pacific Ocean where over 75% of the volcanoes on Earth are found.

While most volcanoes form near tectonic boundaries, they can also form in areas that contain abnormally hot rock inside the Earth. Known as mantle plumes, these hotspots are found at a number of locations around the globe with the most notable being in Hawaii.

Some famous volcanic eruptions of modern times include Mount Krakatoa in 1883, Novarupta in 1912, Mount St Helens in 1980 and Mt Pinatubo in 1991.

While we certainly have some big volcanoes here on Earth, the biggest known volcano in our solar system is actually on Mars. Its name is Olympus Mons and it measures a whooping 600km (373 miles) wide and 21km (13 miles) high.

The object with the most volcanic activity in our solar system is Io, one of Jupiter's moons. Covered in volcanoes, its surface is constantly changing to the large amount of volcanic activity.

There are also volcanoes found on the ocean floor and even under icecaps, such as those found in Iceland.

Common volcanic gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen sulfide.

Geologists measure volcano eruptions using the Volcano Explosivity Index, which measures the amount of material released. A 'small' eruption like Mount St. Helens was a 5 out of 8, releasing a cubic kilometer of material. The largest explosion was on record was Toba, thought to have erupted 73,000 years ago. It released more than 1,000 cubic kilometers of material, and created a caldera 100 km long and 30 kilometers wide. The explosion plunged the world into a world wide ice age. Toba was considered an 8 on the VEI.

Volcanic eruptions can send ash high into the air, over 30km (17 miles) above the Earth's surface.

Large volcanic eruptions can reflect radiation from the Sun and drop average temperatures on Earth by around half a degree.