UPSC Civil Services Exam

National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP), Ramsar Convention on Wetland and Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON)

2016-08-03T20:30:00.000+05:30

Background

Wetlands are areas where water is the primary factor controlling the environment and the associated plant and animal life. They occur where the water table is at or near the surface of the land, or where the land is covered by water. Once treated as transitional habitats or seral stages in succession from open water to land, the wetlands are now considered to be distinct ecosystems with specific ecological characteristics, functions and values.

According to most widespread definition wetlands are defined as: "lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water".

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands define wetlands as: "areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres".

Wetlands, natural and manmade, freshwater or brackish, provide numerous ecological services. The density of birds, in particular, is an accurate indication of the ecological health of a particular wetland. However, unsustainable use of wetland without reckoning of their assimilative capacity constitutes major threat to the conservation and management of these vital biodiversity rich areas.

1. National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP)

Government of India opertionalized National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP) in closed collaboration with concerned State Government during the year 1985/86. Under the programme 115 wetlands (Table 1) have been identified till now by the Ministry which requires urgent conservation and management initiatives.

Aim of the Scheme

Conservation and wise use of wetlands in the country so as to prevent their further degradation.

Objectives of the Scheme

The scheme was initiated with the following objectives:-

to lay down policy guidelines for conservation and management of wetlands in the country;
to undertake intensive conservation measures in priority wetlands;
to monitor implementation of the programme; and
to prepare an inventory of Indian wetlands.

Proposed funding pattern under the Scheme

Financial assistance under NWCP is provided for two components i.e. Management Action Plan (MAP) and Research Projects. Under the Scheme, 100% assistance is provided for activities. Conservation and management of wetlands is primarily vested with the State/UTs, who are in physical possession of the area. After identification of wetlands under the Scheme, the State/UTs are to submit long-term comprehensive Management Action Plans (MAPs) for a period of 3-5 years, preferably 5 years, coinciding with the Plan period.

The State Governments are advised to define objectives taking into consideration factors responsible for degradation of the wetland. The MAP should also have short-term objectives to cater to immediate problems confronting wetlands and to go in for immediate rectification measures. The comprehensive MAP should be based on integrated and multi-disciplinary approach. These are scrutinized and approved by the Central Government with such changes as necessary in accordance with the Rules, procedures, and priorities of the particular area and availability of funds. After the approval of MAP, funds are released annually to the State/UTs as per Annual Plan of Operation (APOs) submitted to the Central Government.

Under the Scheme, Ministry also sponsor multidisciplinary research projects by academic/ managerial/ research institutions on various aspects of wetland conservation to supplement execution of MAP in more realistic manner.

2. Ramsar Convention on Wetland

The Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental treaty which provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. There are presently 158 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 1758 wetland sites, totaling 161 million hectares, designated for inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance. Ramsar Convention is the only global environment treaty dealing with a particular ecosystem.

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands was developed as a means to call international attention to the rate at which wetland habitats were disappearing, in part due to a lack of understanding of their important functions, values, goods and services. Governments that join the Convention are expressing their willingness to make a commitment to helping to reverse that history of wetland loss and degradation.

In addition, many wetlands are international systems lying across the boundaries of two or more countries, or are part of river basins that include more than one country. The health of these and other wetlands is dependent upon the quality and quantity of the transboundary water supply from rivers, streams, lakes, or underground aquifers. This requires framework for international discussion and cooperation toward mutual benefits. The text of the Convention and other details can be accessed on Ramsar Convention's website ( www.ramsar.org)

Major obligations of countries which are party to the Convention are:

Designate wetlands for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance.
Promote, as far as possible, the wise use of wetlands in their territory.
Promote international cooperation especially with regard to transboundary wetlands, shared water systems, and shared species.
Create wetland reserves.

Montreux Record

Montreux Record under the Convention is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human interference. It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List. The Montreux Record was established by Recommendation 4.8 of the Conference of the Contracting Parties (1990). Resolution 5.4 of the Conference (1993) determined that the Montreux Record should be employed to identify priority sites for positive national and international conservation attention. Sites may be added to and removed from the Record only with the approval of the Contracting Parties in which they lie. As of September 2007, 59 Ramsar sites are present in the Montreux Record 23 sites which had been listed on the Montreux Record have since been removed from it

World Wetland Day

World Wetlands Day which is celebrated each year on 2 February, marks the date of the adoption of the Convention on Wetlands on 2 February 1971, in the Iranian city of Ramsar on the shores of the Caspian Sea. World Wetlands Day was celebrated for the first time on February 2, 1997, on the 16th anniversary of the Ramsar Convention. Each year since 1997, government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and groups of citizens at all levels of the community have taken advantage of the opportunity to undertake actions aimed at raising public awareness of wetland values and benefits in general and the Ramsar Convention in particular.

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CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIOSAFETY (CPB)

2016-08-03T17:41:00.000+05:30

India is a party to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity signed at Rio de Janeiro on the 5th day of June, 1992 which came into force on the 29th December, 1993. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB), the first international regulatory framework for safe transfer, handling and use of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) was negotiated under the aegis of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The protocol was adopted on 29th January 2000. With Palau acceding to the Protocol, the required number of 50 instruments of ratification /accession /approval /acceptance by countries was reached in May 2003. The Protocol entered into force on 11 September 2003. Currently 169 countries are Parties to the Protocol.

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB), the first international regulatory framework for safe transfer, handling and use of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) was negotiated under the aegis of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The protocol was adopted on 29th January 2000. With Palau acceding to the Protocol, the required number of 50 instruments of ratification /accession /approval /acceptance by countries was reached in May 2003. The Protocol entered into force on 11 September 2003. Currently 169 countries are Parties to the Protocol.

The objective of the Protocol is to contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of LMOs resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health, and specifically focusing on transboundary movements.

The Protocol promotes biosafety by establishing rules and procedures for the safe transfer, handling, and use of LMOs. It includes Advance Informed Agreement (AIA) procedures for imports of LMOs for intentional introduction into the environment, and also incorporates the precautionary approach, and mechanisms for risk assessment and risk management. The Protocol establishes a Biosafety Clearing-House (BCH) to facilitate information exchange, and contains provisions on capacity building and financial resources, with special attention to developing countries and those without domestic regulatory systems The Protocol attempts to reconcile the respective needs of trade and environmental protection in the light of rapidly growing biotechnology industry. The Protocol addresses the obligations of Parties in relation to the transboundary movements of LMOs to and from non-Parties to the Protocol.

September 11, 2013 marked the 10th anniversary of the Biosafety Protocol. To commemorate the achievements during this period, celebrations were held all over the world. The theme for the anniversary was “10 Years of Promoting Safety in the Use of Biotechnology”. The Secretariat to CBD has developed a series of short video clips from representatives of Parties and relevant organizations highlighting some of the successes and lessons learned with regard to the implementation of the provisions of the Protocol. The video clip and other information about the activities organized to celebrate the event can be accessed at: http://www.cbd.int/doc/notifications/2013/ntf-2013-072-bs-en.pdf.

The main function of the governing body of the Protocol known as the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Convention serving as the Meeting of the Parties (MOP) to the Protocol i.e. COP-MOP is to review the implementation of the Protocol and make decisions or provide necessary guidance to promote its effective operation. Till date seven meetings of COP-MOP have been convened. India hosted the sixth meeting at Hyderabad from 1-5th October 2012

The Seventh meeting of COP MOP hosted by the Government of Republic of Korea during 29 September 2014 to 3 October 2014 at Pyeongchang, Korea.

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The National Mission for Green India (GIM)

2016-08-02T20:30:00.000+05:30

Introduction

The National Mission for Green India (GIM) is one of the eight Missions outlined under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). It aims at protecting; restoring and enhancing India’s diminishing forest cover and responding to climate change by a combination of adaptation and mitigation measures. It envisages a holistic view of greening and focuses on multiple ecosystem services, especially, biodiversity, water, biomass, preserving mangroves, wetlands, critical habitats etc. along with carbon sequestration as a co-benefit. This mission has adopted an integrated cross-sectoral approach as it will be implemented on both public as well as private lands with a key role of the local communities in planning, decision making, implementation and monitoring.

Mission Goals

To increase forest/tree cover to the extent of 5 million hectares (mha) and improve quality of forest/tree cover on another 5 mha of forest/non-forest lands;
To improve/enhance eco-system services like carbon sequestration and storage (in forests and other ecosystems), hydrological services and biodiversity; along with provisioning services like fuel, fodder, and timber and non-timber forest produces (NTFPs); and
To increase forest based livelihood income of about 3 million households.

Convergence

Green India Mission hinges upon convergence with related Missions of the National Action Plan on Climate Change, other complementary National Mission Programmes and schemes for better coordination in developing forests and their fringe areas in a holistic and sustainable manner. The coherent approach involving contribution from converging partners intends to saturate the landscapes with essential need-based interventions at a faster pace. Also the convergence aims at optimizing efficient use of resources and avoidance of contrast activities which can disturb the balance in the ecosystem due to lack of coordination between different schemes.

As a first step towards translation of these efforts into action, Green India mission has issued the Convergence Guidelines of GIM with MNREGS. Efforts are on to finalize convergence guidelines with other complimentary schemes to set out the approach for coordination at field level.

Convergence guidelines of GIM with CAMPA have been framed to ensure a synergized approach which is required to address the challenges being faced in environment, forest and wildlife sector thereby contributing to ecological security in the context of climate change.

Current Affairs:

Union Environment Ministry has approved annual plans of National Mission for Green India (GIM) of four states viz. Kerala, Mizoram, Manipur and Jharkhand.

In this regard, National Executive Council (NEC) has approved the Perspective Plans (PP) and Annual Plan of Operations (APOs) of GIM submitted by 4 states.

Key facts

The approval has been granted for alternative energy devices such as biogas, LPG, solar devices, biomass-based systems and improved stoves.
These devices in turn will help to reduce pressure on forests and provide carbon emission benefits, along with health and other associated benefits.
It will cover around 27,032 households from these 4 states for financial year 2015-16.
Financial support: PP of all four states has total financial outlay of 90,202.68 lakh rupees for a plan period of five to ten years. While, APOs of 11,195.32 lakh rupees for same period.
Forest and non-forest area: It will be taken up in the 4 states under GIM during the total plan period will be 1, 08,335 hectares. Out of it, 81,939 hectares will help in improving the density of existing forests and 16, 396 hectares in new areas.

Biodiversity: Coral reefs

2016-08-02T17:41:00.002+05:30

Coral reefs are large underwater structures composed of the skeletons of coral, which are marine invertebrate animals. The coral species that build coral reefs are known as hermatypic or"hard" corals because they extract calcium carbonate from seawater to create a hard, durable exoskeleton that protects their soft, sac-like bodies.

Each individual coral is referred to as a polyp. New coral polyps live on the calcium carbonate exoskeletons of their ancestors, adding their own exoskeleton to the existing coral structure. As the centuries pass, the coral reef slowly grows, one tiny exoskeleton at a time, until they become massive features of the submarine environment.

Corals are found all over the world's oceans, from the Aleutian Islands off the coast of Alaska to warm tropical waters of the Caribbean Sea. The biggest coral reefs are found in the clear, shallow ocean waters of the tropics and subtropics where they grow quickly. The largest of these coral reef systems — the Great Barrier Reef of Australia — is more than 1,500 miles (2,400 km) in length.

The lives of coral

There are hundreds of different species of coral, according to the Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL), a nonprofit environmental group. Coral have a dazzling array of shapes and colors, from round, folded brain corals that resemble a human brain to tall, elegant sea whips and sea fans that look like intricate, vibrantly colored trees or plants. [Photos: Stunning New Coral Species of Polynesia]

Corals belong to the phylum Cnidaria (pronounced ni-DAR-ee-uh), a group that includes jellyfish, anemones, Portuguese man o' war and other marine animals. Though each individual animal is referred to as a polyp, corals are often described as a colony of thousands of polyps.

Corals feed in two different ways: Some species are able to catch small sea life like fish and plankton by using the stinging tentacles on the outer edges of their bodies. Most corals, however, have a symbiotic (mutually rewarding) relationship with algae called zooxanthellae (pronounced zo-zan-THEL-ee), according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

These algae live inside the coral polyp's body and produce food for themselves and the polyp through photosynthesis. The polyps, in turn, provide a home and carbon dioxide for the algae. Additionally, the zooxanthellae provide the coral with their lively colors — most coral polyp bodies are clear and colorless.

Some coral species, such as brain coral, are hermaphrodites, producing both eggs and sperm at the same time. They reproduce in a mass coral spawning event that, in some species, occurs only once per year on a particular night.

Other species, such as elkhorn coral, are gonochoric, creating colonies composed of all males or all females. Among these coral colonies, all the polyps of one particular colony will produce only sperm; for reproduction, they rely on a neighboring colony that produces only eggs.

The world of coral reefs

Most of the substantial coral reefs found today are between 5,000 and 10,000 years old, according to CORAL. These are generally found in warm, clear, shallow waters where there's plenty of sunlight to nurture the algae that the coral rely on for food.

Coral reefs cover less than 1 percent of the ocean floor — all of them combined would equal an area of about 110,000 square miles (285,000 square kilometers), roughly the size of the state of Nevada. Nonetheless, they are among the most productive and diverse ecosystems on Earth.

About 25 percent of all known marine species rely on coral reefs for food, shelter and breeding. Sometimes referred to as "the rainforests of the sea" for their biodiversity, coral reefs are the primary habitat for more than 4,000 species of fish, 700 species of coral, and thousands of other plants and animals, according to CORAL.

And their lives are in imminent peril, according to experts.

Coral reefs under siege

Coral reefs are critical marine habitat on which many ocean species depend; additionally, they provide an estimated $30 billion annually in direct economic benefit to people worldwide though food, fisheries and tourism, according to the Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University.

But coral reefs are imperiled by several threats. The increasing acidification of the ocean — caused when oceans absorb immense amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) released into the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels — inhibits coral's ability to produce the calcium carbonate exoskeletons they rely on for shelter.

Water pollution, too, is wreaking havoc on coral reefs. Agricultural pesticides and fertilizers, oil and gasoline, sewage discharge and sediment loads from eroded landscapes damage the complex relationships that exist between the plants, coral and other animals that are part of the reef ecosystem.

As the temperatures of the world's oceans increase due to global warming, coral polyps expel the zooxanthellae they depend on for food. Once they are gone, the coral also loses its brilliant color, and all that can be seen is the white exoskeleton; this is referred to as coral bleaching. Coral colonies subject to bleaching usually die off, according to CORAL.

And fishing practices such as cyanide fishing (using cyanide to make fish easier to catch), "blast fishing" with explosives, and overfishing with trawlers can destroy a thousand-year-old coral reef in a few minutes.

"Overfishing, ocean acidification and pollution are pushing coral reefs into oblivion," said Roger Bradbury, an ecologist at Australian National University in Canberra, in a New York Times opinion article. "Each of those forces alone is fully capable of causing the global collapse of coral reefs; together, they assure it."

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Shale Gas

2016-08-02T11:49:00.001+05:30

What is Shale Gas?

Shale gas is natural gas formed from being trapped within shale formations.
Shale gas—an “unconventional” source of methane, like coal-bed gas (in coal seams) and tight gas (trapped in rock formations)
It is Colourless, odourless, lighter than air.
In Europe shale gas isnot used because of green rules and limited property rights. But In America, use of Shale Gas has already started and In future, it will give a spur to the domestic manufacture of anything needing large amounts of energy.

What’re the Advantages of Gas as a source of Energy?

Gas power stations are relatively cheap to build, beating nuclear power hands down in terms of capital costs, and in most cases they are also less expensive than renewables.
A flexible fuel, capable of heating homes, fuelling industrial boilers and providing feedstock for the petrochemicals industry, where it is turned into plastics, fertiliser and other useful stuff.
It is also making small but significant progress as a fuel for lorries and buses.
Biggest advances have been in power generation: because it is cheaper to generate electricity from gas, and the process releases up to 50% less carbon dioxide than does coal.

What’re the problems with Gas as a source of energy?

It is difficult and expensive to transport.
Because of those hefty transport costs, gas does not behave like a commodity. Only one-third of all gas is traded across borders, compared with two-thirds of oil.
Gas has no global price.
Gas prices in different parts of the world are set by quite different mechanisms, they vary wildly across the globe.
Gas pipelines cost million of dollars a kilometre to build.
alternative is to ship the gas in liquid form, as LNG. But projects to liquefy gas also require huge investments
GK: Gazprom is Russia’s huge state-run gas producer and supplier of 25% of Europe’s gas.

Mangrove Ecology

2016-08-02T11:24:00.003+05:30

Where do Mangroves occur

The richest mangrove communities occur in tropical and sub-tropical areas, i.e., between the 30°N and 30°S latitudes where the water temperature is greater than 24ºC in the warmest month, where the annual rainfall exceeds 1250mm and mountain ranges greater than 700m high are found close to the coast. Mangroves are found practically in almost all the continents, excepting Europe, the Arctic and Antarctic. Luxuriant patches of mangroves are found on all the other continents but the best mangroves are found in Asia, especially in India and Bangladesh - the Sunderbans are the largest mangrove forest in the world both in size as well as biodiversity

The total area of mangroves in India is about 6,740 sq. km, which is about 7% of the world's total area of mangroves. Of the total mangroves 80% are present along the east coast, mostly forming the Sunderbans, Bhitarkanika and the Andaman & Nicobar mangroves. The Gangetic Sunderbans is about 4,000 sq. km whereas Andaman & Nicobar is about 700 sq km. Besides, large rivers like Mahanadi, Krishna, Cauveri, Godavari also harbour major mangroves in their estuarine regions.

The remaining 20% mangroves are scattered on the west coast from Kutch to Kerala. The reason for such a restricted mangrove cover is the peculiar coastal structure and the nature of estuaries formed by the relatively small and non-perennial rivers except Narmada and Tapi.

How do they establish?

Under the right conditions like the formation of a mud-flat, growth of mangroves is initiated. Stabilization of mud-flats is a preliminary process in the establishment of mangroves. Pioneer plant species initiate this process. The roots of these plants help in binding the soil and also help the establishment of micro-organisms which further help in stabilizing the area. Stabilization starts from the land side and gradually shifts towards the sea. The pioneer plants are species like Porterasia coarctata and some members of the Cyprus family. These are slowly replaced by other mangrove plants and then these mangroves gradually spread towards the sea.

Once mangroves grow, the submerged banks are fully stabilized. Then the plants slowly reach a stage which is called the climax vegetation. A climax vegetation of mangroves is represented by the complete circle of life where there are different species of plants, animals (both terrestrial and aquatic) and micro-organisms forming an ecosystem called the tropical salt marsh or the mangrove ecosystem. In case the sediments are not stabilized, submerged banks are washed out. Thousands of deltas are formed and washed out every year before they can be stabilized. In the Gangetic delta this situation is quite common.

Zonation in Mangroves

Mangal along a tropical bay characteristically shows zonation. In India this zonation may be very distinctive (east coast of India) or merging (west coast of India). A very broad and general distinction would be:-

1. Proximal Zone (Front mangroves)

This zone is towards water front, subject to regular tidal effect where intensity of soil accumulation and inundation is a continuous process. The mangrove species in this zone are specially adapted with stilt roots, prop roots for stability and anchorage. Main species with these features are Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata. On rocky and coral reef substrata, Avicennia Spp, Sonneratia Caseolaris are also found. Both Avicennia and Sonneratia produce pneumatophores.

2. Middle Zones (Mid mangroves)

Above the Rhizophora/ Avicennia line luxuriant group of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. Cylindrica, Lumnitzera racemosa, L. littoralis, Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras corniculatum occur. Ceriops and Bruguiera develop a strong hold fast in the form of knee roots or bent roots as a special adoption for supporting the erect bole.

3. Distal Zone (Back mangroves)

Towards island area mangroves like Excoecaris agallocha, Heritiera littoralis and Xylocarnus spp occur. Both Heritiera and Xylocarpus produce buttresses. Generally the salinity is on lower side in this zone occurring towards hill sides where run off of fresh water is for a prolonged period. The duration of tidal submersion is low in this zone compared to front mangroves.

However, the zonation in mangroves is not so simple and varies from place to place. Every species has its own level of salinity tolerance. Estuaries on east coast show distinct zonation. The high salinity range on the east coast estuaries may be the principal reason for distinct zonation there. The range and force of tidal action also play a determinant role in creation and maintenance of zones as distribution of seeds or propagules is influenced by tidal action. Also, tides do influence the salinity in an estuary.

Mangrove Adaptations

Mangrove plants live in hostile environmental conditions such as high salinity, hypoxic (oxygen deficient) waterlogged soil strata, tidal pressures, strong winds and sea waves. To cope up with such a hostile environment mangroves exhibit highly evolved morphological and physiological adaptations to extreme conditions.

Do mangroves need salt?

The answer is no. Mangroves are facultative halophytes, i.e., the presence of salt in the environment is not necessary for the growth of mangroves and they can grow very well in freshwater. One particular advantage to growing in a salty environment is the lack of competition! Only a limited number of plants have invested evolutionary energy into adapting to intertidal conditions. In the optimum conditions of a tropical rainforest, diversity is great and competition fierce.

How do Mangroves cope with salt

The first line of defense for many mangroves is to prevent much of the salt from entering by

filtering it out at root level. Some species can exclude more than 90 percent of salt in seawaters (Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera species are all ‘salt-excluders’.)
Another method is the retention of water in the leaves giving rise to leaf succulence in many species, viz., Sonneratia apetala, S. alba, Lumnitzera recemosa, Salvadora persica etc. These species show remarkably high concentration of salts stored in their tissue. To avoid the toxic effects of salts, these plants absorb a large quantity of water for dilution of salt.
The leaves of many mangroves have special salt glands, which are among the most active salt-secreting systems known. It is quite possible to see and/or taste the salt on the leaf surfaces of species, which choose this method. (Examples of ‘salt-secretors’ include Avicennia, Sonneratia and Acanthus).
Fourth method of coping with salt is to concentrate it in bark or in older leaves which carry it with them when they drop. (Lumnitzera, Avicennia, Ceriops and Sonneratia species all use this) .

Specialized Root System in Mangroves

Specialized Root System

The major plant species forming the mangrove ecosystem have aerial roots, commonly prop roots or

even stilt roots (Example: Rhizhophora spp). Stilt roots serve, of course, to anchor the plants, but also are important in aeration, because the mangrove mud tends to be anaerobic.

Rhizophora spp (Red mangroves) have prop roots descending from the trunk and branches, providing a stable support system. Other mangrove species, including the white mangroves (A. marina) obtain stability with an extensive system of shallow, underground ”cable roots” that radiate out from the central trunk for a considerable distance in all directions: pneumatophores extend from these cable roots.

Breathing Roots (Pneumatophores) : Special vertical roots, called pneumatophores, form from

lateral roots in the mud, often projecting above soil (to a height of 20-30 cms, e.g. Avicennia, Sonneratia ) permitting some oxygen to reach the oxygen-starved submerged roots. Roots also can exhibit development of air cavities in root tissues, designs that aid oxygenation of the tissues. The density, size and number of pneumatophores vary per tree. They are green and contain chlorophyll.

Stilt roots are the main organs for breathing especially during the high tide. They are very common in many species of Rhizophora and Avicennia (Avicennia marina and Avicennia offficinalis). The stilt roots of Rhizophora mucronata extend more than a meter above the soil surface and contain many small pores (lenticels) which at low tide allow oxygen to diffuse into the plant and down to the underground roots by means of open passages called aerenchyma. The lenticels are highly hydrophobic and prevent water penetration into the aerenchyma system during the high tide. In Brugeira and Ceriops they become hollow and malfunctional after some stage.

Aeration occurs also through lenticels in the bark of mangrove species, e.g., species of Rhizophora.

Reproductive Strategies of Mangroves

Reproductive Strategies:

Virtually all mangroves share two common reproductive strategies: dispersal by means of water and vivipary.

Members of the Rhizophoraceae family (Rhizophora, Bruguiera and Ceriops species) have an intriguing viviparous method for successfully reproducing themselves. Vivipary means that the embryo develops continuously while attached to the parent tree and during dispersal. They may grow in place, attached to the parent tree, for one to three years, reaching lengths of up to one meter, before breaking off from the parent and falling into the water.

These seedlings (propagule) then travel in an intriguing way. In buoyant sea water they lie horizontally and move quickly. On reaching fresher (brackish) water however, they turn vertically, roots down and lead buds up, making it easier for them to lodge in the mud at a suitable, less salty. Once lodged in the mud they quickly produce additional roots and begin to grow.

Some other species (Avicennia and Aegiceras) also produce live seedlings but these are still contained within the seed coat when it drops from the plant. The seed of Avicennia floats until this coat drops.

Why should we protect mangroves?

Mangroves, admittedly, are not only important but crucial for the coastal areas. Since estuarine areas are highly populated areas, the slightest ecological imbalance will take a heavy toll. They play a vital role in stabilizing these areas. No engineering and technological solutions can be sought for stabilizing these areas. Even if we negate all benefits of mangroves as forests, their value as "protector of shore-line" is enough to convince us for conserving them.

Mangroves are buffers between the land and the sea. Coastlines throughout the world are facing serious problems of coastal erosion and threat of rising sea levels due to global warming have increased the threats by several folds. To control such assault of the sea on land the nature has provided what is called as Mangroves, a tropical littoral ecosystem which is more dynamic than the sea itself.

Mangroves not only help in preventing soil erosion but also act as a catalyst in reclaiming land from seas. This is a very unique phenomenon, since there is a general tendency of water to engulf land.

Mangrove forests and estuaries are the breeding and nursery grounds for a number of marine organisms including the commercially important shrimp, crab and fish species. Hence, loss of mangroves not only affects us indirectly but there are direct economic repercussions through loss of fishing industry.

Mangrove trees are also used for house building, furniture, transmission as well as telephone poles and certain household items. When these activities are managed appropriately it is possible to derive timber products from mangrove forests without significant environmental degradation, and while maintaining their value as a nursery and a source of food for commercial capture fisheries.

In many coastal areas including Gulf of Kutch, mangroves are a substitute for fodder. Thus mangroves reduce pressures from the scarce pasturelands.

Tannin is extracted from the bark of some mangrove species like Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Ceriops tagal. Indian mangrove trees have 35% tannin in their bark, which is higher compared to other countries. Extracts from mangrove bark are used by Indian fishermen to dye their fishing net and enhance its durability.

Mangrove trees have been the source of firewood in India since ancient time. Because of the high specific gravity of rhizophoraceous wood, the species of Rhizophora, Kandelia, Ceriops and Bruguiera are preferred for firewood. Heritiera agallocha is used for boat building, while Avicennia spp. and Rhizophora spp. are used for brick-burning. Bruguiera spp. are used to make poles.

Honey collection from the mangrove forest is a promising business in India. It has been estimated that Sundarbans mangrove alone produce 111 tons of honey annually. Honey collected from Cynometra ramiflora and Aegialitis rotundifolia has a good market value and is in demand.

Avicennia spp., Phoenix paludosa and Sonneratia caseolaris are used for human consumption and as cattle feed. Nypa fruticans is tapped for an alcoholic drink. Leaves of Nypa palm are used for thatching of roofs, Suaeda and Acrostichum leaves are used as green vegetable.

Above all, Mangroves are now looked after by scientists as saviors in the today's scenario of global warming. We all know that most of the coastal areas throughout the world are going to be affected by sea level rise due to global warming. The effects of which are already visible. Therefore, when most of the coastal areas will be flooded, mangroves can possibly provide a gene bank for cultivating salt tolerant species of crops which could be our future resource.

Importance of Mangroves

Buffer Zone between the land and sea.
Protect the land from erosion.
Play an invaluable role as nature's shield against cyclones, ecological disasters and as protector of shorelines.
Breeding and nursery grounds for a variety of marine animals.
Harbour a variety of lifeforms like invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and even mammals like tigers.
Good source of timber, fuel and fodder.
Main source of income generation for shoreline communities like fisherfolk.
Save the marine diversity, which is fast diminishing.
Purify the water by absorbing impurities and harmful heavy metals and help us to breathe a clean air by absorbing pollutants in the air.
Potential source for recreation and tourism.

Threats to Mangrove ecosystem

Large demographic pressure is exerting tremendous stress on the coastal environment. The main culprit in the destruction of mangroves is man. To achieve harmful supremacy over nature, human have destroyed this magnificent ecosystem almost irreparably. Land reclamations and industrial effluents are the major causes of mangroves degradation.

Systematic dumping of all kinds of waste and debris in the mangrove areas destroys them. Land reclamations and industrial effluents are the major causes of mangroves degradation.

This waste/debris creates a barrier preventing the sea water from entering the mangroves and eventually kills the mangroves. In many instances, this is done intentionally to reclaim land for construction activity. There is an urgent need to stop this systematic degradation of mangroves.

Major threats

Land reclamations for construction activity, aquaculture, agriculture, tourism
Industrial and domestic pollution
Port development
Dumping of all kinds of waste and debris
Deforestation for fuel wood
Over harvesting of marine resources

Gujral Doctrine

2016-08-02T10:36:00.001+05:30

What is Gujral Doctrine?

Former Prime Minister, Late Mr. I.K. Gujral propounded the Gujral Doctrine when he was the Union Minister of External Affairs in 1996-1997 in the H.D. Deve Gowda Government. The Gujral doctrine was a five-point roadmap which sought to build trust between India and neighbours, of solution to bilateral issues through bilateral talks and to remove immediate quid pro quos in diplomatic relationship between India and her neighbours. The ‘Doctrine’ emphasized on the importance of unilateral accommodation for friendly and warm relations with India’s neighbours.

The five principles are:

With neighbours like Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal and Sri Lanka, India does not ask for reciprocity, but gives and accommodates what it can in good faith and trust.
No South Asian country should allow its territory to be used against the interest of another country of the region.
No country should interfere in the internal affairs of another.
All South Asian countries must respect each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty.
They should settle all their disputes through peaceful bilateral negotiations.

The essence of Gujral Doctrine has been that being the largest country in South Asia, India can extend unilateral concessions to neighbours in the sub-continent.

Application of the Doctrine

Sharing of Ganga Water with Bangladesh: It is in pursuance of this policy that late in 1996 India concluded an agreement with Bangladesh on sharing of Ganga Waters. This agreement enabled Bangladesh to draw in lean season slightly more water than even the 1977 Agreement had provided.
Freezing of Border Dispute with PRC: The confidence building measures agreed upon by India and China in November 1996 were also a part of efforts made by the two countries to improve bilateral relations, and freeze, for the time being, the border dispute.
Increasing People to People Contact with Pakistan: This doctrine advocated people to people contacts, particularly between India and Pakistan, to create an atmosphere that would enable the countries concerned to sort out their differences amicably. India unilaterally announced in 1997 several concessions to Pakistan tourists, particularly the elder citizens and cultural groups, in regard to visa fees and police reporting.
“Confidence Building Measures” Talks with Pakistan: The Gujral Doctrine assumed significance when at Foreign Secretary level talks between India and Pakistan in June 1997, the two countries identified eight areas for negotiation so as to build confidence and seek friendly resolution of all disputes.

Positive aspects of the Doctrine

The logic behind the Gujral Doctrine was that since India had to face two hostile neighbours in the north and the west, it had to be at total peace with all other immediate neighbours in order to contain Pakistan’s and China’s influence in the region. Its significance lies in the insight that for India to become a global power in sync with its stature, it needs a peaceful neighbourhood.

The positive aspects of the Gujral Doctrine can be enumerated as follows.

It recognised the supreme importance of friendly, cordial relations with neighbours.
It helped achieve a fundamental recasting of South Asia’s regional relationships, including the difficult relationship between India and Pakistan.
Further, the implementation of these principles generated an atmosphere of understanding and cooperation between India and these countries.
The Gujral Doctrine was accepted not only within the country, but also by most of the neighbours and major powers.
In the context of changed international environment in post-cold war world Gujral Doctrine became a new and important principle of India’s foreign policy.
It was implemented by different regional powers like USA, Russia, People Republic of China, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Brazil, Germany etc.

Continued relevance of the Gujral Doctrine

The Gujral doctrine postulates that reciprocity among asymmetrical partners in South Asia needs to ensure equity rather than absolute equality in terms of any quid pro quo. India’s sheer physical size and weight of numbers and its economic and military power in relation to its smaller SAARC neighbours, not excluding Pakistan, can be intimidating. Hence, it may not pay to insist on strict parity on all things and at all times. The smaller partner must feel emboldened to accept a fuller relationship at a pace and level at comfort that it may be allowed to determine.

If India follows such a path, it will be serving, not abandoning, its best interests. What matters is the end result. Confidence-building may take a while but is worth the political investment. One can give today to get tomorrow or trade a ‘concession’ in one sector to make a gain in another area. The process is as important as the event and, at the start, perhaps even more important to get things moving.

The Gujral doctrine implies a process, not an objective. It aims at confidence-building, changing mindsets, placing procedures and even issues against a larger and longer perspective of national interest.

Criticism of the Gujral Doctrine

The Gujral Doctrine had a debilitating impact on R&AW’s ability to conduct intelligence operations in Pakistan. Strategic affairs specialists point out that on Mr. Gujral’s directions, the Pakistan special operations desk of R&AW was shut down, leading to a major gap in India’s intelligence capabilities. Analysts blame this as one of the key factors that led to the intelligence failure before the Kargil war commenced

Over the years, particularly after a series of terrorist attacks, the Gujral Doctrine came to be criticised particularly IK Gujral’s decision to dismantle India’s military ability to launch covert strikes against groups like the Lashkar-e-Taiba.

The International Criminal Court (ICC)

2016-05-21T19:10:00.000+05:30

The International Criminal Court (ICC)

The International Criminal Court (ICC) investigates and, where warranted, tries individuals charged with the gravest crimes of concern to the international community:

Genocide
War crimes
Crimes against humanity.

The Court is participating in a global fight to end impunity, and through international criminal justice, the Court aims to hold those responsible accountable for their crimes and to help prevent these crimes from happening again.

It seeks to complement, not replace, national Courts. Governed by an international treaty called the Rome Statute, the ICC is the world’s first permanent international criminal court.

Key features

1. Trials are fair: ICC judges conduct judicial proceedings and ensure the fairness of proceedings.

2. The Prosecution is independent: The Office of the Prosecutor is an independent organ of the Court. The Prosecutor conducts preliminary examinations, investigations and is the only one who can bring cases before the Court.

3. Defendants' rights are upheld: Defendants are entitled to public, fair proceedings that they can follow in a language they fully understand. Defendants are presumed innocent until proven guilty after a trial. The Rome Statute grabts the defendant the right:

To be informed of the charges,
To have time and facilities to prepare their defence and
To be tried without undue delay,
To freely choose a lawyer,
To examine witnesses and present evidence,
Not to be compelled to testify or to confess guilt,
To remain silent,
To receive from the Prosecutor evidence which he or she believes shows or tends to show the innocence of the accused, or to mitigate the guilt of the accused,
To be able to follow the proceedings in a language he or she fully understands, and therefore to have an interpreter and translations as required.

The International Criminal Court (ICC)

Facts and Figures:

Today the Court has:

Over 800 staff members: From approximately 100 States.
6 official languages: English, French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian and Spanish.
6 field offices: Kinshasa and Bunia (Democratic Republic of the Congo, "DRC"); Kampala (Uganda); Bangui (Central African Republic, "CAR"); Nairobi (Kenya), Abidjan (Côte d'Ivoire).
2 working languages: English and French.
Headquarters: The Hague, the Netherlands.
2016 budget: €139.5 million.

Founding treaty: The Rome Statute

The creation of the Rome Statute in 1998 was in itself a historic event, marking a milestone in humankind's efforts towards a more just world.

The Rome Statute then took effect in 2002, upon ratification by 60 States. In addition to founding the Court and defining the crimes of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and – as of amendments made in 2010 – the crime of aggression (for these amendments to enter into force, they must be ratified by at least 30 States and then voted upon by States Parties in 2017), the Rome Statute also sets new standards for victims' representation in the Courtroom, and ensures fair trials and the rights of the defence. The Court seeks global cooperation to protect all people from the crimes codified in the Rome Statute.

Today the treaty serves as the ICC's guiding legal instrument, which is elaborated in such other legal texts as the Elements of Crimes, Rules of Procedure and Evidence and more.

The crimes

The Court's founding treaty, called the Rome Statute, grants the ICC jurisdiction over four main crimes.

Genocide: the crime of genocide is characterised by the specific intent to destroy in whole or in part a national, ethnic, racial or religious group by killing its members or by other means: causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; or forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
Crimes against humanity, which are serious violations committed as part of a large-scale attack against any civilian population. The 15 forms of crimes against humanity listed in the Rome Statute include offences such as murder, rape, imprisonment, enforced disappearances, enslavement – particularly of women and children, sexual slavery, torture, apartheid and deportation.
War crimes which are grave breaches of the Geneva conventions in the context of armed conflict and include, for instance, the use of child soldiers; the killing or torture of persons such as civilians or prisoners of war; intentionally directing attacks against hospitals, historic monuments, or buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes.
Crime of aggression: It is the use of armed force by a State against the sovereignty, integrity or independence of another State. The definition of this crime was adopted through amending the Rome Statute at the first Review Conference of the Statute in Kampala, Uganda, in 2010. For these amendments to enter into force, they must be ratified by at least 30 States and then voted upon by States Parties in 2017.

Ten key facts about the legal process

Further to the Key Features listed above, here are some of the basics you may want to know:

The ICC does not prosecute those under the age of 18 when a crime was committed.
Before the Prosecutor can investigate, she must conduct a preliminary examination considering such matters as sufficient evidence, jurisdiction, gravity, complementarity, and the interests of justice.
When investigating, the Prosecutor must collect and disclose both incriminating and exonerating evidence.
The defendant is considered innocent until proven guilty. The burden of proof lies with the Prosecutor.
During all stages of proceedings (Pre-Trial, Trial and Appeals), the defendant has the right to information in a language he or she fully understands, thus the ICC proceedings are conducted in multiple languages, with teams of interpreters and translators at work.
Pre-Trial judges issue warrants of arrest and ensure there is enough evidence before a case can go to trial.
Before a case is committed to trial (during the Pre-Trial phase), the defendant is referred to as a suspect. Once the case is committed to trial, since at that point the charges have been confirmed, the defendant is referred to as the accused.
Trial judges hear the evidence from the Prosecutor, Defence, and the Victims’ lawyers, render a verdict, and if a person is found guilty, the sentence and decision on reparations.
Appeals judges render decisions on appeals from the Prosecutor or Defence.
If a case is closed without a verdict of guilt, it can be reopened if the Prosecutor presents new evidence.

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)

2016-05-19T18:35:00.001+05:30

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)

In January earlier this year, in a move aimed at reducing the recurrence of agricultural distress without having to effect hefty hikes in the Minimum Support Prices (MSP), Narendra Modi led National Democratic Alliance government had announced a crop insurance scheme named Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY).

Being implemented from Kharif season of 2016, the premium paid by farmers had been reduced to 2% of the insured value for the more rain-dependent kharif crop and 1.5% for the rabi season, compared with 3.5-8% charged for the two earlier schemes:

National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS)
Modified National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (MNAIS)

In the case of horticultural crops, farmers’ premium burden will be 5% of the sum assured or 50% of the total premium.

National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) and Modified National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (MNAIS) have been discontinued from Kharif 2016, but the ongoing Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS) and Coconut Palm Insurance Scheme would continue to operate while premium to be paid under WBCIS has been brought on a par with PMFBY.

New crop insurance scheme would provide a solution for the farmers problems in times of difficulty. Care had been taken to eliminate the shortcomings of previous crop insurance schemes, and create trust among farmers with regard to crop insurance. Technology would be used extensively with this scheme to ensure early settlement of claims, and exhorted farmers to take benefit of this scheme.

Under the PMFBY, there would be no upper limit on government subsidy on premium provided by centre and state governments. Even if the balance premium (after farmers’ contribution) is 90%, it will be borne by the government. In the earlier schemes, there was a provision of capping the premium rate which resulted in low claims being paid to farmers. This capping on premium was done to limit the government outgo on the premium subsidy. This would ensure that farmers get the full sum insured without any reduction or hassles from the 11 designated insurance companies if natural calamities ravage their crops. The crop insurance coverage is set to rise from 45 million hectares or 23% of the area under cultivation at present to 50% of the crop area by 2018-19.

Another benefit to farmers under the new crop insurance scheme is that losses incurred by them at any stage of the farming activity — from the sowing to the post-harvest season — would be covered. Earlier, only post-harvest losses can be offset by the insurance facility under the two existing schemes. Also, even those farmers who haven’t taken bank loans will be eligible for insurance cover under PMFBY.

Features:

The new scheme will increase farmers income and resultant increase in rural demand.
The subsidy would be borne by the Centre and the state government concerned equally.
The use of technology which would be encouraged to a great extent.
Smart phones will be used to capture and upload data of crop cutting to reduce the delays in claim payment to farmers.
Remote sensing will be used to reduce the number of crop cutting experiments.
In case there is crop loss to a loanee farmer who is not insured, the bank will have to make good the losses.

PMFBY if implemented properly across the country would mitigate farm distress to a large extent especially when the erratic climates have become a norm rather than exception.

Minimum Support Prices (MSP)

2016-05-19T18:15:00.002+05:30

Minimum Support Price

Minimum Support Price (MSP) is a form of market intervention by the Government of India to insure agricultural producers against any sharp fall in farm prices. The minimum support prices are announced by the Government of India at the beginning of the sowing season for certain crops on the basis of the recommendations of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP). MSP is price fixed by Government of India to protect the producer - farmers - against excessive fall in price during bumper production years. The minimum support prices are a guarantee price for their produce from the Government. The major objectives are to support the farmers from distress sales and to procure food grains for public distribution. In case the market price for the commodity falls below the announced minimum price due to bumper production and glut in the market, government agencies purchase the entire quantity offered by the farmers at the announced minimum price.

Historical perspective of MSP

The Price Support Policy of the Government is directed at providing insurance to agricultural producers against any sharp fall in farm prices. The minimum guaranteed prices are fixed to set a floor below which market prices cannot fall. Till the mid 1970s, Government announced two types of administered prices :

Minimum Support Prices (MSP)
Procurement Prices

The MSPs served as the floor prices and were fixed by the Government in the nature of a long-term guarantee for investment decisions of producers, with the assurance that prices of their commodities would not be allowed to fall below the level fixed by the Government, even in the case of a bumper crop. Procurement prices were the prices of kharif and rabi cereals at which the grain was to be

domestically procured by public agencies (like the FCI) for release through PDS. It was announced soon after harvest began. Normally procurement price was lower than the open market price and higher than the MSP. This policy of two official prices being announced continued with some variation upto 1973-74, in the case of paddy. In the case of wheat it was discontinued in 1969 and then revived in 1974-75 for one year only. Since there were too many demands for stepping up the MSP, in 1975-76, the present system was evolved in which only one set of prices was announced for paddy (and other kharif crops) and wheat being procured for buffer stock operations.

Determination of MSP

In formulating the recommendations in respect of the level of minimum support prices and other non-price measures, the Commission takes into account, apart from a comprehensive view of the entire structure of the economy of a particular commodity or group of commodities, the following factors:-

Cost of production
Changes in input prices
Input-output price parity
Trends in market prices
Demand and supply
Inter-crop price parity
Effect on industrial cost structure
Effect on cost of living
Effect on general price level
International price situation
Parity between prices paid and prices received by the farmers.
Effect on issue prices and implications for subsidy

The Commission makes use of both micro-level data and aggregates at the level of district, state and the country. The information/data used by the Commission, inter-alia include the following :-

Cost of cultivation per hectare and structure of costs in various regions of the country and changes there in;
Cost of production per quintal in various regions of the country and changes therein;
Prices of various inputs and changes therein;
Market prices of products and changes therein;
Prices of commodities sold by the farmers and of those purchased by them and changes therein;
Supply related information - area, yield and production, imports, exports and domestic availability and stocks with the Government/public agencies or industry;
Demand related information - total and per capita consumption, trends and capacity of the processing industry;
Prices in the international market and changes therein, demand and supply situation in the world market;
Prices of the derivatives of the farm products such as sugar, jaggery, jute goods, edible/non-edible oils and cotton yarn and changes therein;
Cost of processing of agricultural products and changes therein;
Cost of marketing - storage, transportation, processing, marketing services, taxes/fees and margins retained by market functionaries; and
Macro-economic variables such as general level of prices, consumer price indices and those reflecting monetary and fiscal factors.

Source : Farmer Portal

Crops for which MSP is announced

Minimum support prices are currently announced for 25 commodities. They are as follows.

Cereals (7) - paddy, wheat, barley, jowar, bajra, maize and ragi
Pulses (5) - gram, arhar/tur, moong, urad and lentil
Oilseeds (8) - groundnut, rapeseed/mustard, toria, soyabean, sunflower seed, sesamum, safflower seed and nigerseed
Copra
Raw cotton
Raw jute
Sugarcane
Virginia flu cured (VFC) tobacco

Right to Education

2016-05-16T16:54:00.000+05:30

The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002 inserted Article 21-A in the Constitution of India to provide free and compulsory education of all children in the age group of six to fourteen years as a Fundamental Right in such a manner as the State may, by law, determine. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which represents the consequential legislation envisaged under Article 21-A, means that every child has a right to full time elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school which satisfies certain essential norms and standards.

Article 21-A and the RTE Act came into effect on 1 April 2010. The title of the RTE Act incorporates the words ‘free and compulsory’. ‘Free education’ means that no child, other than a child who has been admitted by his or her parents to a school which is not supported by the appropriate Government, shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education. ‘Compulsory education’ casts an obligation on the appropriate Government and local authorities to provide and ensure admission, attendance and completion of elementary education by all children in the 6-14 age group. With this, India has moved forward to a rights based framework that casts a legal obligation on the Central and State Governments to implement this fundamental child right as enshrined in the Article 21A of the Constitution, in accordance with the provisions of the RTE Act.

The RTE Act provides for the:

Right of children to free and compulsory education till completion of elementary education in a neighbourhood school.

It clarifies that ‘compulsory education’ means obligation of the appropriate government to provide free elementary education and ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of elementary education to every child in the six to fourteen age group. ‘Free’ means that no child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education.

It makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age appropriate class.

It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments, local authority and parents in providing free and compulsory education, and sharing of financial and other responsibilities between the Central and State Governments.

It lays down the norms and standards relating inter alia to Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs), buildings and infrastructure, school-working days, teacher-working hours.

It provides for rational deployment of teachers by ensuring that the specified pupil teacher ratio is maintained for each school, rather than just as an average for the State or District or Block, thus ensuring that there is no urban-rural imbalance in teacher postings. It also provides for prohibition of deployment of teachers for non-educational work, other than decennial census, elections to local authority, state legislatures and parliament, and disaster relief.

It provides for appointment of appropriately trained teachers, i.e. teachers with the requisite entry and academic qualifications.

It prohibits (a) physical punishment and mental harassment; (b) screening procedures for admission of children; (c) capitation fee; (d) private tuition by teachers and (e) running of schools without recognition,

It provides for development of curriculum in consonance with the values enshrined in the Constitution, and which would ensure the all-round development of the child, building on the child’s knowledge, potentiality and talent and making the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety through a system of child friendly and child centred learning.

National Biodiversity Authority

2016-05-16T16:49:00.000+05:30

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed by the Community and all the Member States at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992, and come into effect in 29th December 1993. It is an international legally binding treaty. The Convention has three main goals:

conservation of biological diversity
sustainable use of its components
fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources

For realizing the objectives of CBD, Government of India enacted an umbrella legislation called the biological Diversity Act 2002 aimed at conservation of biological resources and associated knowledge as well as facilitating access to them in a sustainable manner and through a just process.

To implement this Act central government established a body called as National Biodiversity Authority, under the power conferred by section 8 of CBD Act. It started functioning from 1st October 2003. The NBA is an Autonomous body .The main functions of the Authority are, according to Ministry of environment and forest.
It shall be the duty of the National Biodiversity Authority to regulate activities referred to in sections 3, 4 and 6 and by regulations issue guidelines for access to biological resources and for fair and equitable benefit sharing.
The National Biodiversity Authority may grant approval for undertaking any activity referred to in sections 3, 4 and 6.
The National Biodiversity Authority may advise the Central Government on matters relating to the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of biological resources;
The National Biodiversity Authority may advise the State Governments in the selection of areas of biodiversity importance to be notified under sub‑section (1) of section 37 as heritage sites and measures for the management of such heritage sites;
The National Biodiversity Authority may perform such other functions as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act.
The National Biodiversity Authority may, on behalf of the Central Government, take any measures necessary to oppose the grant of intellectual property rights in any country outside India on any biological resource obtained from India or knowledge associated with such biological resource which is derived from India.

It is a 3 tier system

At national Level: National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
At State Level: State Biodiversity Boards (SBB’s) – Advise the State Governments, subject to guidelines issued by the Central Government, on matters relating to conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of utilization of biological resources.
On local Level: Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC’s) – Prepare, maintain and validate People’s Biodiversity Register (PBR) in consultation with the local people. T Advice on any matter referred to it by the State Biodiversity Board or Authority for granting approval.

Currently there are SBBs in 26 States, and around 33,426 BMCs. BMC’s can be a major tool for implementation this whole system but actually it is not working. There are not all areas of country which have proper BMC’s working there and this register maintenance is these days is just a matter of formality. Current chairman of authority is Dr. Balakrishna Pisupati , and office is situated at Chennai.

Biological Diversity Act 2002

(Sources: National Biodiversity Authority, MEOF )

Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana | Free LPG Gas Connection Scheme

2016-05-16T15:59:00.000+05:30

A unique Indian central government scheme to extend availability of cooking gas to the women who belong to households that are Below Poverty Line (BPL). It is well known that India with its vast rural area have a huge population who are yet resorting to usage of cooking fuel that is both unclean as well as damaging to the environment at large. Due their low income status, such families are unable to afford the LPG which is used in other households.

Objective behind the Ujjwala Yojana Scheme

The Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana scheme aims at bridging this gap by providing the LPG to families living in BPL for no cost. While the aim is to provide this clean cooking gas advantage to the entire family, it has a second aim and that is to empower the women of the country who run the household.

Below listed table elaborates the impact of using unclean fuels for cooking

S.No	Impact of Using unclean Cooking Fuel	Explanation
1	Climate Change	According to recently survey nearly 3 billion people all around the world uses Unclean / Improper fuel for their cooking. Owning to that Immense black carbon emitted which plays vital role in affecting earth climate by increasing heat waves and affects greenhouse gases.
2	Affects Household Air Pollution	World Health Organization recently announced that near about 4 million premature deaths are happened because of the increasing household air pollution. Household air quality mainly affects because of using improper/Unclean fuel for cooking in home.
3	Affects Women’s Health	In most cases, women’s are the one who gets serious impact over the impure air released from unclean cooking fuels. Studies examined that burning solid fuels for household cooking will results emitting lot of black carbon which is injurious for health.
4	Leads to Deforestation	Using solid fuel will results in deforestation which will leads to global eco system problem by affecting greenhouse gases. Often Deforestations increases heat waves and reduced rainfall amount globally.
5	Impact of Using Solid Biomass energy	In most cities of India uses Biomass Energy as their cooking fuel because of its cost efficiency. Since, biomass energy attained from living organisms waste presence of carbon storage will be high and result high smoke while burning.

The scheme therefore envisages providing the gas with the woman of the house being the direct beneficiary. Families living below poverty line, their women would be empowered by this scheme to apply and be the main subscriber of the free cooking gas supply.

The government has set aside 2000 crore in the current union budget to cater for this scheme and envisages to reach about 1.5 consumers in the scheme.

The various issues that Ujjwala Yojana would address therefore are:-

Empowering the women of the country and giving them a place of respect in the family.
Reducing air pollution that is caused by the emissions from using fossil fuel for cooking in these rural areas.
Not only is there a damaging effect on the environment from the burning of fossil fuel, it also has enormous health hazard issues to the individuals. This factor too would be addressed by usage of LPG.
India has a verified record of 5 lakh deaths occurring due usage of such unclean cocking agents. The project therefore envisages arresting this loss of human life.
While there have been fatalities from usage of unclean fuel, another direct health hazard has been experienced by children in the rural area suffering from respiratory diseases. LPG usage is expected to eradicate this problem.

Eligibility criteria for Ujjwala Yojana

The age limit for eligibility of the woman to apply for the scheme is 18 plus.
Necessary that the applicant is a woman and belongs to the BPL group.
The subsidy would be transferred to the applicant via bank transfer, and therefore the woman applicant has to have an account in any of the nationalized bank of the country.
No other household member that the woman applicant belongs to must be an existing LPG subscriber.

Application for the Ujjwala Yojana PMUY scheme and Documents Required

Form for applying for the scheme is available with all LPG distributors all over the country.
The form is available free of cost
Basic details like name, contact details, bank account details are to be filled in the application form.
There is a set of mandatory documents that are to be attached to the application. These are
- Panchayat or municipality issues BPL certificate
- The BPL Ration Card of the woman
- A Photo ID is required to be submitted which could be Aadhar Card or Voter ID Card
- Passport Size Photograph of recent date
There are two types of LPG cylinders of 15.2 kg and 5 kg which need to be specified by the applicant.
Completed application form is to be handed over to the LPG distribution service provider itself.

Selection of the beneficiaries

Given the wide applicability of the scheme, the number of applicants is naturally expected to be far greater than the possible cover pack that the government has envisaged. For this reason, the official announcement and the paper on the PMUY indicates that the selection of beneficiaries would be based on economic conditions amongst the BPL groups too. For example SC/ST group people would be the first to receive the benefit. For the rest of the group, the division of number of cylinders being provided would depend on the particular state and its existing LPG distribution density. States that have a lower LPG coverage would be given higher priority in the PMUY LPG distribution scheme.

Funding

As mentioned before the center has set aside 2000 crore rupees for this project in the current FY. The project is expected to be spread over the next three years for its implementation stage and the total expenditure would be 8000 crore by then, as per estimates. Collection or generation of funds has been worked out from the scheme where people of higher income group have voluntarily agreed to give up their subsidy. Records indicate 1.5 crore people have given up their option to avail subsidy on LPG.

Facts about PM’s Ujjwala Yojana Scheme

S.No	Facts	Explanation
1	Free LPG Connections Under Ujjwala Yojana only for Woman	According to the Prime Minister’s statement, central government will offer free LPG connection under Ujjwala Yojana Scheme for woman’s from BPL families across the nation for next 3 years.
2	LPG Connections for 5 Crore BPL families with financial aid of Rs.1600 per family	NDA Government aims to offer free LPG connections for 5 crore BPL families across the nation, in order to provide clean cooking fuel and to control air pollution
3	Scheme helps for Natural Disaster Affected People	On considering the life’s of people from recently flood affected state tamil nadu. Central government asked state government to pursue free LPG connection under Ujjawala scheme for fishermen, coolies and for farmers too under state government finance commission.
4	Subsidy Amount for Ujjwala Yojana	As of now, Ujjwala scheme operates on basis of subsidies. It is estitmated as Rs.8000 crore will be needed for providing free LPG connections for 50 million families. Funds will be managed with the people who opted to omit their own LPG subsidies through PM’s “Give It Up” Initiatives.
5	Women Empowerment	As per the central government statement, implementation of Ujjwala yojana scheme on the name of women from BPL families will empower them and also it will be beneficial in terms of health aspects.
6	Employment Opportunities	Ujjwala Yojana scheme offers employment for youths from rural areas in the supply chain sections.

Agencies for verification and other related work

Government has set up various agencies that would scrutinize the applications and award or reject the same. Respective Oil Management Company has been given the onus to verify the application and the individual’s status through their field agents. Verification process would be aided by an online data centre and digital process. So far as the cost of the stove goes, the beneficiary would be given the option of going for an EMI payment process to purchase the stove which receives positive response from the experts all across the nation.

The government also made provisions for voluntary organization or individuals to participate in the yojana if they wish to contribute towards payment of the cost of stove for the beneficiary. The government order indicates that this subsidiary scheme cannot be run under any other new name but must work under the ambit of the PMUY only. Oil Marketing Company has also been told to organize melas and events during which the distribution process of the LPG connection is to be held in public. The event must have in its audience some distinguished people of the local area. OMC themselves would have to collate their list of distributed connection and forward to the government administrative wing within 10 days of every quarter.

Ground Water in India

2016-05-14T09:30:00.000+05:30

Ground Water in India

Introduction:

Water seeps through rocks and soil and is stored below the ground.
The rocks in which ground water is stored are called aquifers made up of gravel, sand, sandstone or limestone.
Water moves through these rocks because they have large connected spaces that make them permeable.
The area where water fills the aquifer is called the saturated zone.
The depth from the surface at which ground water is found is called the water table.
The water table can be a foot below the ground or a few hundred meters deep.
Heavy rains can cause the water table to rise and continuous extraction of ground water can cause the level to fall.

Figure illustrates the major definitions used in the context of groundwater.

The underground (hydrogeological) setting of ground water defines the potential of this resource and its vulnerability to irreversible degradation. This setting in India can be divided into following categories, which are described below:

1. Hard-rock aquifers of peninsular India:

These aquifers represent around 65% of India’s overall aquifer surface area.
Most of them are found in central peninsular India, where land is typically underlain by hard-rock formations.
These rocks give rise to a complex and extensive low-storage aquifer system, where in the water level tends to drop very rapidly once the water table falls by more than 2-6 meters.
Additionally, these aquifers have poor permeability which limits their recharge through rainfall.
This implies that water in these aquifers is non- replenishable and will eventually dry out due to continuous usage.

2. Alluvial aquifers of the Indo-Gangetic plains:

These aquifers are found in the Gangetic and Indus plains in Northern India.
They have significant storage spaces, and hence are a valuable source of fresh water supply. However, due to excessive ground water extraction and low recharge rates, these aquifers are at the risk of irreversible overexploitation.

Ground water extraction and use:

Experts believe that India is fast moving towards a crisis of ground water overuse and contamination.
Ground water overuse or overexploitation is defined as a situation in which, over a period of time, average extraction rate from aquifers is greater than the average recharge rate.
In India, the availability of surface water is greater than ground water. However, owing to the decentralised availability of groundwater, it is easily accessible and forms the largest share of India’s
agriculture and drinking water supply.
89% of ground water extracted is used in the irrigation sector, making it the highest category user in the country.
This is followed by ground water for domestic use which is 9% of the extracted groundwater. Industrial use of ground water is 2%.
50% of urban water requirements and 85% of rural domestic water requirements are also fulfilled by ground water.

Irrigation through ground water:

Wells, including dug wells, shallow tube-wells and deep tube wells provide about 61.6% of water for irrigation, followed by canals with 24.5%.
Over the years, there has been a decrease in surface water use and a continuous increase in ground water utilisation for irrigation.
The dependence of irrigation on ground water increased with the onset of the Green Revolution, which depended on intensive use of inputs such as water and fertilizers to boost farm production.
Incentives such as credit for irrigation equipment and subsidies for electricity supply have further worsened the situation.
Low power tariffs has led to excessive water usage, leading to a sharp fall in water tables.

Legislative and Policy Framework

The Easement Act, 1882

Provides every landowner with the right to collect and dispose, within his own limits, all water under the land and on the surface.
Difficult to regulate extraction of ground water.
Gives landowners significant power over ground water.
Excludes landless ground water users from its purview.

The Model Bills and National Water Policy

Address the governance of ground water under the public trust doctrine.
Public trust doctrine ensures that resources meant for public use cannot be converted into private ownership.
Government being the trustee has the responsibility to protect and preserve this natural resource for and on behalf of the beneficiaries.
Every person has the fundamental right to be provided water of acceptable quality.
Fundamental right to water has been evolved by the Supreme Court and various High Courts of the country as part of ‘Right to Life’ under Article 21 of the Constitution. Courts have delivered verdicts on concerns such as access to drinking water and on the right to safe drinking water as a fundamental right.
Prioritises needs of rural and urban households
Specifies other primary and secondary uses. Primary uses include water for agriculture, non-agriculture based livelihoods and municipal water supply and secondary use includes water for commercial activities.
Implements the principle of subsidiarity which involves giving communities the power to regulate groundwater at the aquifer level. For example, an aquifer situated entirely within a village will be under the direct control of the Gram Panchayat.
So far, 11 states and four union territories (UTs) have adopted and implemented ground water legislation.
These are: Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, West Bengal, Telangana, Maharashtra, Lakshadweep, Puducherry, Chandigarh and Dadra & Nagar Haveli.
Further, the Central Ground Water Authority issued advisory to Chief Secretaries of all states and UTs to take necessary measures for adopting rainwater harvesting in all government buildings. So far, 30 states and UTs have made rain water harvesting mand

Plachimada Coca-Cola Case

The Plachimada panchayat in Palakkad district of Kerala granted a license to the Coca-Cola Company in March 2000 to use groundwater for the production of its beverages. However, in 2003, the panchayat ordered the closure of the plant as it caused lowering of the water table and deterioration of the water quality. This order was challenged by the company before the High Court of Kerala. The issue is the conflict in the right of a landowner to extract groundwater and the power of the panchayat to regulate the use of groundwater by private individuals. The High Court observed that even without groundwater regulation, the existing legal position was that groundwater is a public trust and the state has a duty to protect it against excessive exploitation. Additionally, it observed that groundwater exploitation by landowners can result in negative environmental consequences. However, on appeal, the two Judge Bench of the High Court asserted the primacy of landowner’s control over groundwater in the absence of a specific law prohibiting extraction. The case is now pending in the Supreme Court.

Institutional Framework

Central Water Commission: Initiating and coordinating schemes for the conservation and utilisation of water resources in the country in collaboration with state governments; and monitoring water quality
Central Ground Water Board: Developing and disseminating technology related to sustainable use of ground water; monitoring and implementing policies for the sustainable management of ground water resources; estimating ground water resources
Central Ground Water Authority: Constituted under Section 3(3) of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to regulate and control development and management of ground water resources; can resort to penal actions and issue necessary regulatory directives
Central Pollution Control Board: Implementation of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 which seeks to restore water quality

Quality of ground water

The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India in its Performance Audit of Water Pollution in India, 2011-12 observed that despite increasing pollution of ground water sources and presence of contaminants like arsenic, nitrate, fluoride, salinity, etc., no programme at the central or state level is being implemented for control of pollution and restoration of groundwater. Additionally, the Central Pollution Control Board and the CGWB do not carry out real-time monitoring of water pollution in rivers, lakes and ground water sources. The CAG has made the following recommendations with regard to the prevention and control of pollution of groundwater:
The Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change needs to establish enforceable water quality standards for lakes, rivers and ground water to help protect ecosystem and human health,
Penalties need to be levied for violations of water quality standards, and
States need to take measures for source control of pollutants through sewage and agriculture runoff entering water bodies in projects for conservation and restoration of lakes

Local management of ground water

The phenomena of local water users successfully managing their water resources has been observed in only a few areas. The Planning Commission recommended that local planners take the following steps while planning for ground water management:
Determining the relationship between surface hydrological units such as watershed or river basins, and hydrological units below the ground such as aquifers,
Identification of ground water recharge areas,
Maintaining ground water balance at the level of the village or the watershed, and
Creating regulatory options at the community level such as panchayat. Examples of activities that could be regulated at the local level include drilling depth, distance between wells, cropping patterns to ensure sustainability of aquifers and participatory ground water management.

Civil Services Exam 2015, Marks of Qualified Candidates

2016-05-13T01:39:00.001+05:30

Marks of Qualified (Recommended) Candidates in Civil Services Exam, 2016

.PDF File can be downloaded from here :

Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana (PMJDY)

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Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) is National Mission for Financial Inclusion to ensure access to financial services, namely, Banking/ Savings & Deposit Accounts, Remittance, Credit, Insurance, Pension in an affordable manner.

Account can be opened in any bank branch or Business Correspondent (Bank Mitr) outlet. PMJDY accounts are being opened with Zero balance. However, if the account-holder wishes to get cheque book, he/she will have to fulfill minimum balance criteria.

Documents required to open an account under Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana

Special Benefits under PMJDY Scheme

Interest on deposit.
Accidental insurance cover of Rs.1.00 lac
No minimum balance required.
Life insurance cover of Rs.30,000/-
Easy Transfer of money across India
Beneficiaries of Government Schemes will get Direct Benefit Transfer in these accounts.
After satisfactory operation of the account for 6 months, an overdraft facility will be permitted
Access to Pension, insurance products.
Accidental Insurance Cover, RuPay Debit Card must be used at least once in 45 days.
Overdraft facility upto Rs.5000/- is available in only one account per household, preferably lady of the household.

Basic Savings Bank Deposit Account (BSBDA):

By default, all the zero balance account opened under are Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) are Basic Savings Bank Deposit Account (BSBDA). BSBDA has been defined by RBI vide its circular dated 10.08.2012. Its salient features are:

These facilities are to be provided without any extra cost.

Other Features:

PMJDY focuses on coverage of households as against the earlier plan which focused on coverage of villages. It focuses on coverage of rural as well as urban areas. Earlier plan targeted only villages above 2000 population while under PMJDY whole country is to be covered by extending banking facilities in each Sub-Service area consisting of 1000 – 1500 households such that facility is available to all within a reasonable distance, say about 5 Km.
Any individual above the age of 10 years can open BSBDA Account.
Rupay Debit Card is an indigenous domestic debit card introduced by National Payment Corporation of India (NPCI). This card is accepted at all ATMs (for cash withdrawal) and at most of the PoS machines (for making cashless payment for purchases) in the country.
RuPay Debit Card provides accidental insurance cover upto Rs.1.00 lac without any charge to the customer.
To get benefit of Accidental Insurance Cover, RuPay Debit Card must be used at least once in 45 days.
Overdraft facility upto Rs.5000/- will be available to one account holder of PMJDY per household after 6 months of satisfactory conduct of the account. To avoid duplication Aadhaar number will also be required. If Aadhaar number is not available then Bank will do additional due diligence and also seek declaration from the beneficiary.
Overdraft facility upto Rs.5000/- is available in only one account per household, preferably lady of the household.
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) vide its Press Release dated 26.08.2014 has further clarified as under: “Those persons who do not have any of the ‘officially valid documents’ can open “Small Accounts” with banks. A “Small Account” can be opened on the basis of a selfattested photograph and putting his/her signatures or thumb print in the presence of an officials of the bank. Such accounts have limitations regarding the aggregate credits (not more than Rupees one lac in a year), aggregate withdrawals (nor more than Rupees ten thousand in a month) and balance in the accounts (not more than Rupees fifty thousand at any point of time). These accounts would be valid normally for a period of twelve months. Thereafter, such accounts would be allowed to continue for a further period of twelve more months, if the account-holder provides a document showing that he/she has applied for any of the Officially Valid Document, within 12 months of opening the small account.

Main Recommendations of Punchhi Commission

Amendment process under Indian Constitution

Punchhi Commission

Motions in Indian Parliament

Writs in Indian Constitution

Non-cooperation- Khilafat Movement

Himalayan River System

NATIONAL POLICY FOR THE EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN

Centre State Relations

The Drain of Wealth Theory

Relates Topics:

Indian Polity

Central Government Schemes and Plans

Science and Technology

Health and Diseases

Current Affairs

International Affairs

Environment and Bio-Diversity

India and World History

Geography

Role of ASHA and ANM

2016-04-30T18:33:00.002+05:30

One of the key components of the National Rural Health Mission is to provide every village in the country with a trained female community health activist 'ASHA' or Accredited Social Health Activist. Selected from the village itself and accountable to it, the ASHA will be trained to work as an interface between the community and the public health system. Following are the key components of ASHA:

ASHA must primarily be a woman resident of the village married/ widowed/ divorced, preferably in the age group of 25 to 45 years.
She should be a literate woman with formal education up to class eight. This may be relaxed only if no suitable person with this qualification is available.
ASHA will be chosen through a rigorous process of selection involving various community groups, self-help groups, Anganwadi Institutions, the Block Nodal officer, District Nodal officer, the village Health Committee and the Gram Sabha.
Capacity building of ASHA is being seen as a continuous process. ASHA will have to undergo series of training episodes to acquire the necessary knowledge, skills and confidence for performing her spelled out roles.
The ASHAs will receive performance-based incentives for promoting universal immunization, referral and escort services for Reproductive & Child Health (RCH) and other healthcare programmes, and construction of household toilets.
Empowered with knowledge and a drug-kit to deliver first-contact healthcare, every ASHA is expected to be a fountainhead of community participation in public health programmes in her village.
ASHA will be the first port of call for any health related demands of deprived sections of the population, especially women and children, who find it difficult to access health services.
ASHA will be a health activist in the community who will create awareness on health and its social determinants and mobilise the community towards local health planning and increased utilisation and accountability of the existing health services.
She would be a promoter of good health practices and will also provide a minimum package of curative care as appropriate and feasible for that level and make timely referrals.
ASHA will provide information to the community on determinants of health such as nutrition, basic sanitation & hygienic practices, healthy living and working conditions, information on existing health services and the need for timely utilisation of health & family welfare services.
She will counsel women on birth preparedness, importance of safe delivery, breast-feeding and complementary feeding, immunization, contraception and prevention of common infections including Reproductive Tract Infection/Sexually Transmitted Infections (RTIs/STIs) and care of the young child.
ASHA will mobilise the community and facilitate them in accessing health and health related services available at the Anganwadi/sub-centre/primary health centers, such as immunisation, Ante Natal Check-up (ANC), Post Natal Check-up supplementary nutrition, sanitation and other services being provided by the government.
She will act as a depot older for essential provisions being made available to all habitations like Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORS), Iron Folic Acid Tablet(IFA), chloroquine, Disposable Delivery Kits (DDK), Oral Pills & Condoms, etc.
At the village level it is recognised that ASHA cannot function without adequate institutional support. Women's committees (like self-help groups or women's health committees), village Health & Sanitation Committee of the Gram Panchayat, peripheral health workers especially ANMs and Anganwadi workers, and the trainers of ASHA and in-service periodic training would be a major source of support to ASHA.

Support Mechanism for ASHA

The Government of India has set up an ASHA Mentoring Group comprising of leading NGOs and well known experts on community health. Similar mentoring groups at the State/District/Block levels could be set up by the States to provide guidance and advise on matter relating to selection, training and support for ASHA.
As ASHA will be in the village on a permanent basis, she should be selected carefully through the process laid down in the first set of ASHA guidelines.
The guidelines already issued on ASHA envisage a total period of 23 days training in five episodes.
Now, that ASHAs have been selected, the next step would be to familiarize her with the health status of the villagers and facilitate her adoption to the village conditions.
The Gram Panchayat will be involved in supporting ASHAs in her work.
A village health register is maintained by the AWW which is not always complete.
All State Governments are presently organizing monthly Health and Nutrition day in every village (Anganwadi centers) with the help of AWW/ANM. ASHA along with AWW should mobilize women, children and vulnerable population for the monthly health day activities like immunization, careful assessment of nutritional status of pregnant/lactating women, newborn & children, ANC/PNC and other health check-ups of women and children, taking weight of babies and pregnant women etc. and all range of other health activities.
ASHA would be required to interact with SHG Groups, if available in the villages, along with AWW, so that a work force of women will be available in all the villages.
ANM should have a monthly meeting with the ASHAs stationed (5-6 ASHAs) in the villages of her work area at the Anganwadi Centre during the monthly Health and Nutrition Day to assess the quality of their work and provide them guidance.
The Medical Officer In-charge of the PHC will hold a monthly meeting which would be attended by ANM and ASHAs, LHVs and Block Facilitator.
A meeting of ASHA could be organized on the day monthly meetings are organized at the PHC level to avoid unnecessary travel expenditure and wastage of time.
In addition to monthly meetings at PHC, periodic retraining of ASHAs may be held for two days once in every alternate month where interactive sessions will be held to help then to refresh and upgrade their knowledge and skills, as provided for in the original guidelines for ASHA.
At the block level, the BMO will be in overall charge of ASHA related activities.
Officials in the ICDS should be fully involved in ASHAs activities and their support should be provided for at every level i.e. PHCs, CHCs, District Society etc.
Periodic surveys are envisaged under NHM in every village to assess the improvement brought about by ASHA and other interventions.
The District Health Mission in its meetings will specially assess the progress of selection of ASHAs, their training and orientation, usefulness to the villages etc.
The success of NHM to great extent depends on performance of ASHA and her linkage with functional health system.
The States may take appropriate steps to locally adopt these guidelines and make the ASHA scheme a complete success.

ROLE of Auxilliary Nurse Midwives (ANM)

Holding weekly / fortnightly meeting with ASHA to discuss the activities undertaken during the week/fortnight.
Acting as a resource person, along with Anganwadi Worker (AWW), for the training of ASHA.
Informing ASHA about date and time of the outreach session and also guiding her to bring the prospective beneficiaries to the outreach session.
Participating and guiding in organising Health Days at Anganwadi Centre.
Taking help of ASHA in updating eligible couples register of the village concerned.
Utilising ASHA in motivating the pregnant women for coming to Sub-Centre for initial check-ups.
ASHA helps ANMs in bringing married couples to Sub-Centres for adopting family planning.
Guiding ASHA in motivating pregnant women for taking full course of iron folic acid (IFA) tablets and TT injections, etc.
Orienting ASHA on the dose schedule and side affects of oral pills.
Educating ASHA on danger signs of pregnancy and labour so that she can timely identify and help beneficiary in getting further treatment.
Informing ASHA about date, time and place for initial and periodic training schedule. ANM would also ensure that during the training ASHA gets the compensation for performance and also TA/DA for attending the training.....

The NRHM seeks to provide minimum two ANMs (against one at present) at each Sub-Centre, as one ANM at a sub-centre has not been found adequate to attend to the complete needs of maternal and child care in any village. The Government of India would support the second ANM for appointment on contract basis and apart from fulfilling the other criteria she must be a resident of a village falling under the jurisdiction of the Sub-Centre. The intention is to improve accountability at the local level..

The second ANM would not be transferred before completion of 10 years at the same Sub-Centre and would not be a substitute for Male Health Worker (MHW). An untied fund of Rs.10,000/- per Sub-Centre per annum is being provided by opening a joint account of the ANM and Sarpanch, to meet the emergency type expenditures and to ensure that lack of drugs and other consumables is not an issue.

Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)

2016-04-30T18:14:00.000+05:30

The Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) one of the Flagship programme of Ministry of Rural Development is under implementation by the Department of Land Resources since 2009-10 after integrating three area development programmes namely

Desert Development Programme (DDP),
Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) and
Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP),

for development of rainfed/ degraded land in the country.

Why IWMP:

Around 60% of cultivated area across India is rain-fed. Besides, these areas are also blighted by poverty, water scarcity, low productivity, malnutrition and prone to severe land degradation. The watershed development programme has been adopted as a tool to address problems of the rain-fed or degraded areas in the country.

What are the aims of IWMP ?

The main aims of IWMP are harnessing, conserving and developing degraded natural resources such as soil, vegetative cover and water; prevention of soil run-off; rain water harvesting and recharging of the ground water table; increasing the productivity of crops; introduction of multi-cropping and diverse agro-based activities; promoting sustainable livelihoods and increasing the household incomes.

Key Points of IWMP:

Launched in 2009-10 by the integration of various area development programmes of the Department of Land Resources, including the Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP), the Desert Development Programme (DDP) and the Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP).
The 12th Plan allocates the programme an additional Rs. 29,296 crore.
Cost sharing ratio of Central Government : State Government = 90 : 10
9% of the project cost is earmarked for development of livelihoods for asset-less people
10% of the project cost is for productivity enhancement and development of micro-enterprises for small & marginal farmers.
An average size of project under the IWMP is about 5,000 ha which is cluster of micro-watersheds.
A portion of institution &capacity building (5% of the total project cost) has been provided to set up institutional mechanism at State, District, Project and Village levels and to build capacities of stakeholders.
It also entails involvement of primary stakeholders in the form of grassroots community organisations.
Integerated watershed development programme

What benefits can be accrued from IWMP ?

The benefits that are expected to accrue under the IWMP include increase in availability of surface water & groundwater, changes in cropping pattern from one to two crops annually, increase in fodder availability and increase in milk yield, increase in agriculture productivity and increase in employment opportunities and household income.

What is the role of Gram Panchayat in IWMP ?

In the IWMP, Gram Panchayat has been effectively involved to perform important function at Village / Watershed level to keep transparency and peoples participations. The main functions to be performed by GramPanchayat are :

To supervise , support and advise Watershed Committee (WC); Authenticate accounts / expenditure of WC and other institutions of Watershed Projects; Facilitate convergence of other programmes; Maintain asset register / watershed projects to retain it after the project; Provide office accommodation and other requirements to WC and Allocate usufruct rights to deserving User Groups /Self Help Groups over the assets created.

Expected Benefits of IWMP:

The benefits include increase in availability of surface water & groundwater, changes in cropping pattern from one to two crops annually, increase in fodder availability and increase in milk yield, increase in agriculture

What are Flagship Programmes:

Flagship programmes derive their origin from the term flagship which is the main or most important ship of a country’s navy and is symbolic of the main thrust of the nation’s developmental policy. Major Flagship programmes of the Government of India are:

Bharat Nirman: The objective of the Bharat Nirman Programme is to give top priority to rural infrastructure by setting time-bound goals under various schemes to develop rural housing, rural roads, irrigation, rural drinking water and rural electrification. The Programme imposes a responsibility on sub-national governments to create these facilities in a transparent and accountable manner.

National Rural Health Mission: The main aim of NRHM is to provide accessible, affordable, accountable, effective, and reliable primary health care, especially to poor and vulnerable sections of the population. The programme sets standards for rural health care and provides financial resources from the Union Government to meet these standards.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme: The Act was notified on 7 September 2005 and is aimed at providing livelihood security through employment for the rural poor.

Sarva Siksha Abhigyan: This programme was started with the objective of providing elementary education for all children in the age group of 6–14 years by 2010.

Mid-day meal Scheme: The MDM Scheme launched in 1995 aims to give a boost to universalization of primary education by increasing enrolment, retention, and attendance and simultaneously impacting upon nutritional status of students in primary classes.

Differences between Articles 358 and 359

2016-04-23T17:06:00.000+05:30

Art 358

While proclamation of emergency declaring that security of India or any part of the territory of India is threatened due to war or external aggression, is in operation, the state shall not be limited by art 19. In other words, govt may make laws that transgress upon the freedoms given under art 19 during such emergency. However, such a law will cease to have effect as soon as emergency ends. Further, every such law or very executive action that transgresses upon freedoms granted by art 19 must recite that it is in relation to the emergency otherwise, it cannot be immune from art 19.

It also says that any acts done or omitted to be done under this provision cannot be challenged in the courts after the end of emergency.

In the case of M M Pathak vs Union of India AIR 1978, SC held that the rights rights granted by 14 to 19 are not suspended during emergency but only their operation is suspended. This means that as soon as emergency is over, rights transgressed by a law will revive and can be enforced. In this case, a settlement that was reached before emergency between LIC and its employees was rendered ineffective by a law during emergency. After emergency was over, SC held that the previous settlement will revive. This is because the emergency law only suspended the operation of the existing laws. It cannot completely wash away the liabilities that preexisted the emergency.

Art 359

This article provides additional power to the president while proclamation of emergency is in operation, using which the president can, by an order, declare that the right to move any court for the enforcement of rights conferred by part III except art 20 and 21, shall be suspended for the period the proclamation is in operation of a shorter period as mentioned in the order. Further, every such law or every executive action recite that it is in relation to the emergency.

In the case of Makhan Singh vs State of Punjab AIR 1964, SC distinguished between art 358 and 359 as shown below:

Art 83(2) While the proclamation is in operation, the president may extend the normal life of the Lok Sabha by one year each time up to a period not ex

ceeding beyond 6 months after proclamation ceases to expire.

Emergency Provisions in Indian Constitution

2016-04-23T13:11:00.000+05:30

Black law’s dictionary defines emergency “as a failure of social system to deliver reasonable conditions of life”. The term emergency may be defined as “circumstances arising suddenly that calls for immediate action by the public authorities under the powers especially granted to them”. Dr. B.R Ambedkar claimed that the Indian Federation was unique as during the times of emergency it could convert itself into an entirely unitary system. In India, the emergency provisions are such that the constitution itself enables the federal government acquire the strength of unitary government whenever the situation demands. During such urgent needs all the pacific methods should be exhausted and emergency should also be the last weapon to use as it affects India’s federal feature of government.

There are three types of emergencies under the Indian Constitution namely-

· National Emergency

· Failure of constitutional machinery in states

· Financial Emergency

National Emergency

Article 352 of the Indian Constitution talks about the national emergency. National emergency is imposed whereby there is a grave threat to the security of India or any of its territory due to war, external aggression or armed rebellion. Such emergency shall be imposed by the president on the basis of written request by the council of ministers headed by the Prime Minister. When they are satisfied that they are satisfied that there is an eminent danger thereof.

Every proclamation is required to be laid before each House of Parliament, it will cease to operate after one month from the date of its issue unless in the meantime it is approved by the parliament, the proclamation may continue for a period of 6 months unless revoked by the president. For further continuance of emergency the resolution has to be passed by either house of parliament by a majority of not less than two-third members of the houses.

During the times of such emergency the executive, legislative and financial power rests with the centre whereas the state legislature is not suspended. The union government under Art.250 of the constitution gets the power to legislate in regards to subjects enumerated in the state list. Except Art20 and 21 all the fundamental rights are suspended. Under Art.359 the president may suspend the right to move to the courts for enforcement of fundamental rights during the time of emergency.

National emergency has been imposed thrice in the country- in 1962 at time of Chinese aggression, in 1971 during the indo-pak war, in 1975 on the grounds of internal disturbances.

Art 352 says that if the President is satisfied that a grave emergency exists whereby the security of India or any part of India is threatened due to outside aggression or armed rebellion, he may make a proclamation to that effect regarding whole of India or a part thereof.

However, sub clause 3 says that President can make such a proclamation only upon the written advise of the Union Cabinet. Such a proclamation must be placed before each house of the parliament and must be approved by each house with in one month otherwise the proclamation will expire.

An explanation to art 352 says that it is not necessary that external aggression or armed rebellion has actually happened to proclaim emergency. It can be proclaimed even if there is a possibility of such thing happening.

In the case of Minerva Mills vs Union of India AIR 1980, SC held that there is no bar to judicial review of the validity of the proclamation of emergency issued by the president under 352(1). However, court's power is limited only to examining whether the limitations conferred by the constitution have been observed or not. It can check if the satisfaction of the president is valid or not. If the satisfaction is based on mala fide or absurd or irrelevant grounds, it is no satisfaction at all.

Prior to 44th amendment, duration of emergency was two months initially and then after approval by the houses, it would continue indefinitely until ended by another proclamation. However after 44th amendment, the period is reduced to 1 month and then 6 months after approval.

Failure Of Constitutional Machinery In State

Article 356 talks about the failure of constitutional machinery in state also known as the President’s rule. If the president on Governor’s report or otherwise is satisfied that the situation has arisen that the government can’t be carried in accordance with the constitutional provisions then, he may issue State emergency.

President can declare emergency either by the report of Governor or he himself is satisfied that the situation is such that the emergency has to be imposed. But at times, President may declare emergency when a report is not received from the governor. This was done by President Venkataraman in 1991 in the state of Tamil Nadu even though he didn’t receive a report from the governor.

After the 42th Amendment of the constitution the state emergency was made immune from judicial review. But later in the 44th Amendment the legality of President’s rule could be challenged

The proclamation relating to state emergency shall be laid before each House of Parliament unless both Houses approve it, the emergency shall cease to have effect after the expiry of a period of two months. Further the duration of proclamation can be extended to 6 months each time by both Houses of Parliament passing resolution approving its continuance. Beyond the period of an year the proclamation can only be continued if the Election Commission certifies that it is not possible to hold election in the state or that territory. The consequences of state emergency are-

The president assumes all the executive power of the state himself. The state administration runs by him or any person appointed by him generally the Governor.
During such proclamation, the state assembly is either dissolved or suspended. But the MLA’s do not lose their membership of the Assembly.
Parliament makes laws regarding the state list. The parliament only passes the budget for the state.
The High court of the state functions independently.
President also proclaims ordinances in the state.

During the state emergency the Union government has absolute control over the state except the judiciary.

If one looks at the past instances of state emergency in the country, three common grounds emerge that have been invoked under Art.356- breakdown of law and order, political instability, corruption and maladministration.

In Rameshwar Prasad V. UOI (Bihar Assembly Dissolution Case) it was held that the presidential proclamation dissolving state assembly in Bihar under Art.356 was unconstitutional on extraneous and irrelevant ground. The court said that the state governor misled the centre in recommending dissolution of state assembly.

In the historic case of S.R Bommai V. UOI, a full bench of the Karnataka High court produced different opinion about the imposition of the President’s rule in Karnataka, while in other states the court held that it was in violation of the constitution and would have restored the original position.

S. R. Bommai v. Union of India

The SC laid down certain guidelines so as to prevent the misuse of Art-356 of the constitution.
The majority enjoyed by the Council of Ministers shall be tested on the floor of the House.
Centre should give a warning to the state and a time period of one week to reply.
The court cannot question the advice tendered by the CoMs to the President but it can question the material behind the satisfaction of the President. Hence, Judicial Review will involve three questions only: a. Is there any material behind the proclamation, b. Is the material relevant. c. Was there any mala fide use of power.
If there is improper use of A356 then the court will provide remedy.
Under Article 356(3) it is the limitation on the powers of the President. Hence, the president shall not take any irreversible action until the proclamation is approved by the Parliament i.e. he shall not dissolve the assembly.
Art-356 is justified only when there is a breakdown of constitutional machinery and not administrative machinery
Art-356 shall be used sparingly by the centre, otherwise it is likely to destroy the constitutional structure between the centre and the states. Even Dr. Ambedkar envisaged it to remain a 'dead letter' in the constitution.

Financial Emergency

The president under Article 360 of the constitution has the power to declare financial emergency if he is satisfied that the financial stability or the credit of India or any part of its territory is threatened. It has to be laid before both the Houses of Parliament and ceases to operate at the expiration of two months unless meanwhile approved by the resolution of Houses.

During the operation of financial emergency, the executive authority of the union extends to the giving of directions to any state to observe certain specified canons or financial propriety and such other directions that the President may find necessary. The directions may include reduction of salaries or allowance of those serving a state, of all those in connection with the affairs of union including judges of high court and Supreme Court. There has been no occasion of financial emergency in India.

Effects of Proclamation of emergency

The following are the effects arising out of proclamation of emergency in art 352.

Art 353

executive power of the Union shall extend to giving directions to any state.
parliament will get power to make laws on subjects that are not in Union list.
if the emergency is declared only a part of the count, the powers in 1 and 2 shall extend to any other part if that is also threatened.

Art 354

Provisions of art 268 to 279, which are related to taxation, can be subjected to exceptions as deem fit by the president. Every law such made shall be laid before each house of the parliament.
Art 355 says that it is the duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression.

Art 358

It also says that any acts done or omitted to be done under this provision cannot be challenged in the courts after the end of emergency.

Art 359

Distinction Between Articles 358 and 359

The differences between Articles 358 and 359 can be summarised as follows:

Article 358 is confined to Fundamental Rights under Article 19 only whereas Article 359 extends to all those Fundamental Rights whose enforcement is suspended by the Presidential Order.
Article 358 automatically suspends the fundamental rights under Article 19 as soon as the emergency is declared. On the other hand, Article 359 does not automatically suspend any Fundamental Right. It only empowers the president to suspend the enforcement of the specified Fundamental Rights.
Article 358 operates only in case of External Emergency (that is, when the emergency is declared on the grounds of war or external aggression) and not in the case of Internal Emergency (i.e., when the Emergency is declared on the ground of armed rebellion). Article 359, on the other hand, operates in case of both External Emergency as well as Internal Emergency.
Article 358 suspends Fundamental Rights under Article 19 for the entire duration of Emergency while Article 359 suspends the enforcement of Fundamental Rights for a period specified by the president which may either be the entire duration of Emergency or a shorter period.
Article 358 extends to the entire country whereas Article 359 may extend to the entire country or a part of it.
Article 358 suspends Article 19 completely while Article 359 does not empower the suspension of the enforcement of Articles 20 and 21.
Article 358 enables the State to make any law or take any executive action inconsistent with Fundamental Rights under Article 19 while Article 359 enables the State to make any law or take any executive action inconsistent with those Fundamental Rights whose enforcement is suspended by the Presidential Order.

There is also a similarity between Article 358 and Article 359. Both provide immunity from challenge to only those laws which are related with the Emergency and not other laws. Also, the executive action taken only under such a law is protected by both.

Olive ridley Turtle

2016-04-22T11:04:00.000+05:30

Efforts to conserve Olive Ridley Turtles:

Wildlife authorities have launched a massive exercise to conserve Olive Ridley turtles in the Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary (KWS).
An unprecedented number of over 10,500 eggs of the turtles have been collected since early March. They are being conserved in the rookeries set up within the KWS limits.
139 artificial nests have been arranged in the three rookeries set up at Sangameswaram, lighthouse area, and Jinkapalem of Nagayalanka mandal as part of the in situ conservation method.
The incubation period ranges from 45 to 60 days
Members of the Yanadi tribe are directly involved in the conservation bid. They have been given the task of collecting the eggs on the beach and maintaining the rookeries.

Threats:

Approximately 1 hatchling survives to reach adulthood for every 1000 hatchlings that enter the sea waters.
Olive-ridleys face serious threats across their migratory route, habitat and nesting beaches, due to human activities such as turtle unfriendly fishing practices, development and exploitation of nesting beaches for ports, and tourist centres.
these turtles and their products is banned under CITES Appendix I, still extensively poached for their meat, shell and leather, and their eggs,
Accidental killing of adult turtles through entanglement in trawl nets and gill nets due to uncontrolled fishing
To reduce accidental killing in India, the Orissa government has made it mandatory for trawls to use Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs), a net specially designed with an exit cover which allows the turtles to escape while retaining the catch. However, this has been strongly opposed by the fishing communities as they believe TEDs result in loss of considerable amount of the catch along with the turtle.

All About Olive Ridley Turtles

The Olive ridley turtles (also known as the Pacific ridley sea turtle) are the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found in the world, inhabiting warm waters of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans.
These turtles, along with their cousin the Kemps ridley turtle, are best known for their unique mass nesting called Arribada, where thousands of females come together on the same beach to lay eggs.
Though found in abundance, their numbers have been declining over the past few years. Classified as ‘Vulnerable’ by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) several Olive Ridley turtles lay eggs during this time of the year along the Visakhapatnam coast, considered a sporadic nesting zone.
Growing to about 2 feet in length, and 50 kg in weight, the Olive ridley gets its name from its olive colored carapace, which is heart-shaped and rounded.
Olive Ridley Turtles take 25 to 30 years to reach adulthood but the survival rate of the young ones is abysmally low.
They are carnivores, and feed mainly on jellyfish, shrimp, snails, crabs, molluscs and a variety of fish and their eggs.
Interestingly, females return to the very same beach from where they first hatched, to lay their eggs. During this phenomenal nesting, up to 600,000 and more females emerge from the waters, over a period of five to seven days, to lay eggs.
They lay their eggs in conical nests about one and a half feet deep which they laboriously dig with their hind flippers.
The coast of Orissa in India is the largest mass nesting site for the Olive-ridley, followed by the coasts of Mexico and Costa Rica.
After about 45-65 days, the eggs begin to hatch, and these beaches are swamped with crawling Olive-ridley turtle babies, making their first trek towards the vast ocean.
During this trek they are exposed to predators like jackals, birds, hyenas, fiddler crabs, and feral dogs lurking around, waiting to feed on them.
WWF-India, along with the fishermen community, has been involved in protecting the Olive ridley rookery at the mass nesting site at Rushikulaya, in Orissa, by fencing off the nesting area and patrolling it till hatching and ensuring a safe passage for the hatchlings to the sea.

NTPC, forest dept sign MoU to protect Olive Ridley turtles

The National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) has joined hands with the state forest department to protect the endangered species along the nine districts of Andhra Pradesh.
NTPC Shimhadri handed over a cheque for Rs 1 crore to the forest department for carrying out the conservation works in AP for the current financial year.
As part of the conservation programme that will be spread over five years, NTPC will contribute Rs 4.6 crore under which inventory mapping of breeding sites of Olive Ridleys along with identification of nesting and breeding habits along the shore line will be undertaken.
The conservation programme will also develop guidelines to safeguard and minimise turtle mortality apart from developing the local and national cooperative and taking collaborative action for turtle conservation. The conservation project envisages involving local communities, NGOs, forest department and other stakeholders in protection and conservation of in-situ and ex-situ of nests thus providing livelihood, construction and repairing of hatcheries, awareness campaigns and knowledge sharing in Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur, Prakasam and Nellore districts.

Central government schemes for women and girls

2016-04-15T15:54:00.000+05:30

National Solar Mission

2015-09-16T10:49:00.000+05:30

The Union Cabinet chaired by the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, gave its approval for stepping up of India’s solar power capacity target under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) by five times, reaching 1,00,000 MW by 2022. The target will principally comprise of 40 GW Rooftop and 60 GW through Large and Medium Scale Grid Connected Solar Power Projects. With this ambitious target, India will become one of the largest Green Energy producers in the world, surpassing several developed countries.

The total investment in setting up 100 GW will be around Rs. 6,00,000 cr. In the first phase, the Government of India is providing Rs. 15,050 crore as capital subsidy to promote solar capacity addition in the country. This capital subsidy will be provided for Rooftop Solar projects in various cities and towns, for Viability Gap Funding (VGF) based projects to be developed through the Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) and for decentralized generation through small solar projects. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) intends to achieve the target of 1,00,000 MW with targets under the three schemes of 19,200 MW.

Apart from this, solar power projects with investment of about Rs. 90,000 crore would be developed using Bundling mechanism with thermal power. Further investment will come from large Public Sector Undertakings and Independent Power Producers (IPPs). State Governments have also come out with State specific solar policies to promote solar capacity addition.

The Government of India may also approach bilateral and international donors as also the Green Climate Fund for achieving this target. Solar power can contribute to the long term energy security of India, and reduce dependence on fossil fuels that put a strain on foreign reserves and the ecology as well. The solar manufacturing sector will get a boost with this long term trajectory of solar capacity addition. This will help in creation of technology hubs for manufacturing. The increased manufacturing capacity and installation are expected to pave way for direct and indirect employment opportunities in both the skilled and unskilled sector.

The new solar target of 100 GW is expected to abate over 170 million tonnes of CO2 over its life cycle. This Solar Scale-up Plan has a target of 40 GW through Decentralized Solar Power Generation in the form of Grid Connected Rooftop Projects. While Decentralized Generation will stabilise the grid, it will minimise investment on power evacuation.

To facilitate such a massive target, the Prime Minister’s Office has been pushing various Ministries to initiate supporting interventions, like:-

a) incorporating changes in land use regulations and tenancy laws to facilitate aggregation and leasing of land by farmers/ developers for solar projects;

b) identification of large chunks of land for solar projects;

c) identification of large government complexes/ buildings for rooftop projects;

d) clear survey of wastelands and identification of transmission/ road infrastructure using satellite technology for locating solar parks;

e) development of power transmission network/ Green Energy Corridor;

f) setting up of exclusive parks for domestic manufacturing of solar PV modules;

g) provision of roof top solar and 10 percent renewable energy as mandatory reform under the new scheme of Ministry of Urban Development;

h) amendments in building bye-laws for mandatory provision of roof top solar for new construction or higher FAR;

i) considering infrastructure status for solar projects; raising tax free solar bonds; providing long tenor loans; making roof top solar a part of housing loan by banks/ NHB and extending IIFCL credit facility to such projects by the Department of Financial Services;

j) suitable amendments to the Electricity Act for strong enforcement of Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO) and for providing Renewable Generation Obligation (RGO);

k) incorporating measures in Integrated Power Development Scheme (IPDS) for encouraging distribution companies and making net-metering compulsory.

Background:

JNNSM was launched in 2009 with a target for Grid Connected Solar Projects of 20,000 MW by 2022. In the last two to three years, the sector has witnessed rapid development with installed solar capacity increasing rapidly from 18 MW to about 3800 MW during 2010 - 15. The price of solar energy has come down significantly from Rs.17.90 per unit in 2010 to under Rs.7 per unit, thereby reducing the need of VGF / GBI per MW of solar power. With technology advancement and market competition, this Green Power is expected to reach grid parity by 2017-18. These developments would enable India to achieve its present target of 20,000 MW. But considering its international commitment towards Green and climate friendly growth trajectory, the Government of India has taken this path-breaking decision.

Sukanya Samriddhi Account (SSA)

2015-02-21T21:07:00.001+05:30

Features of Sukanya Samriddhi Account (SSA):

Who can open the account? – Sukanya Samriddhi a/c (or Khata) can be opened on a girl child’s name by her natural (biological) parents or legal guardian.

What is the Age limit? – SSA can be opened in the name of a girl child from the birth of the girl child till she attains the age of 10 years. ( As per SB Order No. 2/2015 : The Girl child who is born on or after 02.12.2003 can open account )

How many accounts can be opened? – A depositor may open and operate only one account in the name of same girl child under this scheme. The depositor (or) guardian can open only two SSA accounts. There is one exception to this rule. The natural or legal guardian can open two or three accounts if twin girls are born as second birth or triplets are born in the first birth itself.

How to open a SSA account? Accounts in name of the girl child can be opened in post offices or in any branch of a commercial bank that is authorized by the Central Government to open an account under this scheme rules.

What is the minimum deposit to open the account? – The account may be opened with an initial deposit of one thousand rupees. The minimum contribution in any financial year is Rs 1000. Thereafter the contributions can in multiples of one hundred rupees.

What is the maximum deposit amount? – a minimum of one thousand rupees shall be deposited in a financial year but the total money deposited in an account on a single occasion or on multiple occasions shall not exceed Rs 1.5 Lakh in a financial year.

Deposits in an account may be made till the child completes fourteen years, from the date of opening of the account.

Is there any penalty? – If minimum (Rs 1000 pa) amount is not deposited, the account will be treated as an irregular account. This can be regularized/renewed on payment of Rs 50 per year as penalty. Along with this, the minimum specified subscription for the year (s) of default should be paid.

What is the mode of deposit? – The deposits in Sukanya Samruddhi scheme can be made in the form of Cash or Demand Draft or Cheque. Where deposit is made by cheque or demand draft, the date of encashment of the cheque or demand draft shall be the date of credit to the account. The cheque or DD should be drawn in favour of the postmaster of the concerned post office or the Manager of the concerned bank.The depositor (parents or guardian) has to write the account holder’s name (child’s name) and the account number on the backside of the instrument.

What is the Rate of Interest on Sukanya Samriddhi Account? – The applicable rate of interest on SSA for the financial year 2014-2015 is 9.1%. This is one of the highest rates of interest offered by Government on small savings scheme

Is interest rate fixed or variable? – The rate of interest is not fixed and will be notified by the central government on a yearly basis.

The account can be transferred anywhere in India if the girl shifts to a place other than the city or locality where the account stands.

Is Premature withdrawal allowed? – 50 % (half of the fund) of the accumulated amount in SSA can be withdrawn for girl’s higher education and marriage after she attains 18 years of age. The account’s balance at the end of preceding financial year is used for the calculation.

Can the girl child operate the account? On attaining age of ten years, the account holder that is the girl child may herself operate the account, however, deposit in the account may be made by the guardian or parents.

Is premature closure allowed? In the event of death of the account holder, the account shall be closed immediately on production of death certificate. the balance at the credit of the account shall be paid along with interest till the month preceding the month of premature closure of the account , to the guardian of the account holder.

The scheme would mature on completion of 21 years of the girl child, from the date of opening of the account, with an option of keeping the account till marriage.

Can the girl child continue the account after her marriage? – The operation of the account shall not be permitted beyond the date of the girl’s marriage.

What are the required documents to open Sukanya Samriddhi Account? – Birth certificate of the girl child has to be produced. The depositor (parents or guardian) has to submit his/her identity and address proofs.

On opening an account, the depositor shall be given a pass book. It will have date of birth of the girl child, date of opening of account, account number, name and address of the account holder and the initial amount deposited. The depositor has to present the passbook to the post office or bank at the time of depositing/receiving the interest/on maturity.

Tax Benefits on Sukanya Samriddhi Account Scheme

The amount that is deposited under Sukanya Samriddhi Account will be eligible for income tax exemption under Section 80C of Income Tax Act, 1961.

At present, only the contribution of up to Rs 1.5 lakh toward Sukanya Samridhi Yojana is eligible for tax deduction under Section 80C. But discussions are on to also exempt the interest income and withdrawal amount. We can expect a formal announcement on this in the coming Union Budget 2015-16.

(Issue of making interest income and withdrawal exempt from taxation can be done by Department of Revenue (DoR) through legislative amendments. The matter is under examination of DoR)

Sukanya Samriddhi Account vs Public Provident Fund (PPF)

Both Sukanya Samriddhi Account (SSA) and Public Provident Fund (PPF) aims to seed the savings habit but both schemes have their own pros and cons. Stressing on the girls role in making the India competitive and prosperous nation, Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi has today launched a new small savings account for the girl child “Sukanya Samriddhi Account” as an integral part of the “Beti Bachao-Beti Padhao” campaign.

Sukanya Samriddhi Account was initially introduced by Shri Arun Jaitely in his maiden budget speech but has been officially launched today by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi. He has handed over bank account details to five girls under the “Sukanya Samridhi Yojna” (girl child prosperity scheme).

Sukanya Samridhi Yojna is a special deposit scheme for girl child only but one another popular scheme to benefit child (irrespective of girl or boy) is Public Provident Fund (PPF).

Let’s see the difference between Sukanya Samriddhi Account and Public Provident Fund (PPF)

Sukanya Samriddhi Account vs Public Provident Fund (PPF)

Points of Difference	Sukanya Samriddhi Account (SSA)	Public Provident Fund (PPF)
For whom	Only for Girl Child.	For every Indian Citizen.
Age Limit	From the birth till she attains age of 10 years.	No age limit.
By whom	By the girl child who has attained the age of 10 years or by the natural or legal guardian.	By the Individual but by the natural or legal guardian for the minor child.
Where to open	Post office and nationalized banks but not private banks.	Post office and nationalized banks, including private banks.
Number of Account	One account for each girl child, maximum up to 2 or 3 accounts if twin girls are born in the second birth or triplets are born in the first birth.	Each Individual can hold only one account in his name.
Minimum Contribution	Rs.1,000	Rs.500
Maximum Contribution	Rs.1.5 lakhs in all accounts.	Rs.1.5 lakhs in all accounts.
Interest Rate	9.1% per annum for fiscal year 2014-15.	8.70% per annum for fiscal year 2014-15.
Tax Benefit on the Contribution	Contributed Amount will be deductible u/s 80C.	Contributed Amount will be deductible u/s 80C.
Tax Benefit on the interest earned	At present no tax benefit is announced for the interest earned. A mere sum of Rs.1,5o0 will be deductible u/s 10(32) .	Interest Earned is tax free under PPF.
Time Period of contribution	Minimum tenure of contribution is 14 years from the date of opening of account.	Minimum 15 years and then in blocks of 5 years.
Maturity	21 years from the date of opening of account.	15 years from the fiscal year of opening of account.
Penalty	Rs.50 per year if minimum contribution is not made.	Rs.50 per year if minimum contribution is not made.
Mode of Deposit	Cash or Demand Draft or Cheque	Cash or Demand Draft or Cheque
Premature Withdrawal	Allowed up to 50% for the girl’s higher education and marriage after she attains 18 years of age	No premature withdrawal is allowed except in case of death of the account holder.
Loan	No loan can be taken on the SSA balance.	Loan can be taken from the third year of opening of account to the sixth year.
Taxation on Maturity	No tax will be levied on the maturity amount.	No tax will be levied on the maturity amount.

Vishaka Guidelines

2015-02-21T09:00:00.000+05:30

Guidelines and norms laid down by the Hon’ble Supreme Court in Vishaka and Others Vs. State of Rajasthan and Others(JT 1997 (7) SC 384)

HAVING REGARD to the definition of ‘human rights’ in Section 2 (d) of the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, TAKING NOTE of the fact that the present civil and penal laws in India do not adequately provide for specific protection of women from sexual harassment in work places and that enactment of such legislation will take considerable time, It is necessary and expedient for employers in work places as well as other responsible persons or institutions to observe certain guidelines to ensure the prevention of sexual harassment of women.

Duty of the Employer or other responsible persons in work places and other institutions

It shall be the duty of the employer or other responsible persons in work places or other institutions to prevent or deter the commission of acts of sexual harassment and to provide the procedures for the resolution, settlement or prosecution of acts, of sexual harassment by taking all steps

required.

Definition

For this purpose, sexual harassment includes such unwelcome sexually determined behaviour (whether directly or by implication) as:

a) Physical contact and advances;

b) A demand or request for sexual favours;

c) Sexually coloured remarks;

d) Showing pornography;

e) Any other unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of sexual nature

Where any of these acts is committed in circumstances where-under the victim of such conduct has a reasonable apprehension that in relation to the victim’s employment or work whether she is drawing salary, or honorarium or voluntary, whether in government, public or private enterprise such conduct can be humiliating and may constitute a health and safety problem. It is discriminatory for instance when the woman has reasonable grounds to believe that her objection would disadvantage her in connection with her employment or work including recruiting or promotion or when it creates a hostile work environment. Adverse consequences might be visited if the victim

does not consent to the conduct in question or raises any objection thereto.

Preventive Steps

All employers or persons in charge of work place whether in public or private

sector should take appropriate steps to prevent sexual harassment. Without

prejudice to the generality of this obligation they should take the following

steps:

A. Express prohibition of sexual harassment as defined above at the work place should be notified, published and circulated in appropriate ways.

B. The Rules/Regulations of Government and Public Sector bodies relating to conduct and discipline should include rules/regulations prohibiting sexual harassment and provide for appropriate penalties in such rules against the offender.

C. As regards private employers, steps should be taken to include the aforesaid prohibitions in the standing orders under the Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act, 1946.

D. Appropriate work conditions should be provided in respect of work, leisure, health and hygiene to further ensure that there is no hostile environment towards women at work places and no employee woman should have reasonable grounds to believe that she is disadvantaged in connection with her employment.

Criminal Proceedings

Where such conduct amounts to a specific offence under the Indian Penal Code or under any other law, the employer shall initiate appropriate action in accordance with law by making a complaint with the appropriate authority.

In particular, it should ensure that victims or witnesses are not victimized or discriminated against while dealing with complaints of sexual harassment. The victims of sexual harassment should have the option to seek transfer of the perpetrator or their own transfer.

Disciplinary Action

Where such conduct amounts to misconduct in employment as defined by the relevant service rules, appropriate disciplinary action should be initiated by the employer in accordance with those rules.

Complaint Mechanism

Whether or not such conduct constitutes an offence under law or a breach of the service rules, an appropriate complaint mechanism should be created in the employer’s organisation for redress of the complaint made by the victim. Such complaint mechanism should ensure time bound treatment of complaints.

Complaints Committee

The complaint mechanism, referred to above, should be adequate to provide, where necessary, a Complaints Committee, a special counsellor or other support service, including the maintenance of confidentiality. The Complaints Committee should be headed by a woman and not less than half of its member should be women. Further, to prevent the possibility of any undue pressure or influence from senior levels, such Complaints Committee should involve a third party, either NGO or other body who is familiar with the issue of sexual harassment.

The Complaints Committee must make an annual report to the Government department concerned of the complaints and action taken by them. The employers and person in charge will also report on the compliance with the aforesaid guidelines including on the reports of the Complaints Committee to the Government department.

Worker’s Initiative

Employees should be allowed to raise issues of sexual harassment at a workers’ meeting and in other appropriate forum and it should be affirmatively discussed in Employer-Employee Meetings.

Awareness

Awareness of the rights of female employees in this regard should be created in particular by prominently notifying the guidelines (and appropriate legislation when enacted on the subject) in a suitable manner.

Third Party Harassment

Where sexual harassment occurs as a result of an act or omission by any third party or outsider, the employer and person in charge will take all steps necessary and reasonable to assist the affected person in terms of support and preventive action.

The Central/State Governments are requested to consider adopting suitable measures including legislation to ensure that the guidelines laid down by this order are also observed by the employers in Private Sector.

These guidelines will not prejudice any rights available under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.