Generation Challenge

City Of Future: Singapore

2018-12-05T23:08:00.002+05:45

The paradigm has shifted, the world is accelerating, the science fiction of yesterday is rapidly becoming the science fiction of right now. How do we continue to learn when information is moving at the speed of light ? There are places that are ahead of the curve, Singapore is building the tools for tomorrow.
The future of the world lies in its urban environments. More than half the world's population live in cities and that number is growing. This rapid influx of people creates possibility but it also creates challenges. How can the cities of today grow and thrive to become the places we want to live in tomorrow. Creating sustainable, manageable human spaces in the world's ever-expanding cities is a challenge facing governments across the globe.

Video Source: National Geographic

Singapore is preparing for the future, planning ahead of time. Along with the rapid urbanization and advanced technological advancements, this city is vibrant, safe and also sustainable for the people now and also for the future.

C Program to solve Tower of Hanoi Problem Using Recursion

2015-08-12T13:39:00.003+05:45

This C Program uses recursive function to solve tower of hanoi problem.The tower of hanoi is a mathematical puzzle problem.It is also a great example of recursion.
It consists of three rods, and a number of disks of different sizes.While transferring disk from one rod other, larger disk can't be at the top of smaller disk.
We have to obtain the same stack on the third rod as in the first rod below:

Here is the source code of the C Program for solving towers of hanoi problem.It was successfully compiled and run in Dev C++.

Source Code:

#include<stdio.h>
void toh(int,char,char,char);
void main()
{
int n;
printf("Enter no. of disks:\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("The steps to solve toh are:\n");
toh(n,'A','B','C');
}
void toh(int n,char frompeg,char auxpeg,char topeg)
{
if(n==1)
{
printf("Move disk 1 from peg %c to peg %c.",frompeg,topeg);
return;
}
toh(n-1,frompeg,topeg,auxpeg);
printf("\nMove disk %d from peg %c to peg %c.\n",n,frompeg,topeg);
toh(n-1,auxpeg,frompeg,topeg);
}
//www.sparajuli.com.np

C Program to convert Infix To Postfix Expression Using Stack

2015-08-12T13:13:00.000+05:45

This is a short, easy to understand and functional C Program which converts Infix Expression to Postfix Expression.i.e. (a+b)*c/(d-e)+f To ab+cde-/*f+.

Source Code:

#include<ctype.h>
#include<stdio.h>
void push(char elem);
int pr(char elem);
char pop();
char infx[50],pofx[50],ch,elem,s[50];
int top=-1; /* Global declarations */
void main()
{ /* Main Program */
int i=0,k=0;
push('#');
printf("\nEnter the Infix Expression: ");
scanf("%s",infx);
while( (ch=infx[i++]) != '\0')
{
if( ch == '(')
push(ch);
else if(isalnum(ch))
pofx[k++]=ch;
else if( ch == ')')
{
while( s[top] != '(')
pofx[k++]=pop();
elem=pop(); /* Remove ( */
}
else
{ /* Operator */
while( pr(s[top]) >= pr(ch) )
pofx[k++]=pop();
push(ch);
}
}
while( s[top] != '#') /* Pop from stack till empty */
pofx[k++]=pop();
pofx[k]='\0'; /* Make pofx as valid string */
printf("\n\nInfix Expression: %s\nPostfix Expression: %s\n",infx,pofx);
}
void push(char elem)
{ /* Function for PUSH operation */
s[++top]=elem;
}

char pop()
{ /* Function for POP operation */
return(s[top--]);
}
int pr(char elem)
{ /* Function for precedence */
switch(elem)
{
case '#': return 0;break;
case '(': return 1;break;
case '+': return 2;break;
case '-': return 2;break;
case '*': return 3;break;
case '/': return 4;break;
}
}
//www.sparajuli.com.np/

This program is successfully compiled and run in Dev C++ and working.If you have any query, ask below in comment section.

(DMA)Dynamic Memory Allocation in C - Explained with examples

2015-06-24T16:09:00.000+05:45

The size of array you have declared initially can be sometimes insufficient and sometimes more than required.Dynamic memory allocation allows us to allocate additional more memory space or to release unwanted space at run time, thus optimizes the use of storage space.

There are 4 library functions under "stdlib.h" for dynamic memory allocation:

malloc(); - Allocates requested size of bytes and returns a pointer to first byte of allocated space.
calloc(); - Allocates space for an array elements, initializes to zero and then returns a pointer to memory.
free(); - frees the previously allocated space.
realloc(); - Change the size of previously allocated space.

1.malloc();
The name malloc stands for "memory allocation". The function malloc() reserves a block of memory of specified size and returns a pointer of type void which can be casted into pointer of any form.
Syntax of malloc();

ptr=(cast-type*)malloc(byte-size);

Here, ptr is pointer of cast-type. The malloc() function returns a pointer to an area of memory with size of byte size. If the space is insufficient, allocation fails and returns NULL pointer.

For example:

ptr=(int*)malloc(100*sizeof(int));

This statement will allocate either 200 or 400 according to size of int 2 or 4 bytes respectively and the pointer points to the address of first byte of memory.

2.calloc();

The name calloc stands for "contiguous allocation".The only difference between malloc() and calloc() is that, malloc() allocates single block of memory whereas calloc() allocates multiple blocks of memory each of same size and sets all bytes to zero.

Syntax of calloc();

ptr=(cast-type*)calloc(n,element-size);

This statement will allocate contiguous space in memory for an array of n elements.

For example:

ptr=(float*)calloc(25,sizeof(float));

This statement allocates contiguous space in memory for an array of 25 elements each of size of float, i.e, 4 bytes.

3.free();

Dynamically allocated memory with either calloc() or malloc() does not get return on its own.The programmer must use free() explicitly to release space.

syntax of free();

free(ptr);

This statement cause the space in memory pointed by ptr to be free.

4.realloc();

If the previously allocated memory is insufficient or more than sufficient.Then, you can change memory size previously allocated using realloc().

Syntax of realloc();

ptr=realloc(ptr,newsize);

Here, ptr is reallocated with size of newsize.

Have a look at following example to understand DMA in C which uses all four functions of DMA:

Q.Write a menu driven program to perform following operations in Array using DMA(Dynamic Memory Allocation):

1.Insert 4.Display

2.Search 5.Exit.

3.Delete

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main()
{
char *p,d,t;
int s,i,a,c;
printf("Enter 1D array size:\n");
scanf("%d",&s);
p=(char*)malloc(s*sizeof(char));
printf("Enter array elements(char):\n");
for(i=0;i<s;i++)
{
scanf("%s",&p[i]);
}
do
{
system("cls");
printf("Choose option for Array Operation:\n1-Insert\n2-Search\n3-Delete\n4-Display\n5-Exit.\n");
scanf("%d",&c);
switch(c)
{
case 1:
system("cls");
printf("After which position you want to insert?\n");
scanf("%d",&a);
if(a>s-1)
{
printf("Invalid position!\a");
break;
}
printf("What you want to insert?\n");
scanf("%s",&d);
p=(char*)realloc(p,s++);
for(i=s-1;i>a+1;i--)
{
p[i]=p[i-1];
}
p[a+1]=d;
printf("Your array elements after insertion are:\n");
for(i=0;i<s;i++)
{
printf("%c ",p[i]);
}
break;
case 2:
system("cls");
printf("What you want to search?\n");
scanf("%s",&t);
printf("Your element is at following location of array:\n");
for(i=0;i<s;i++)
{
if(p[i]==t)
{
printf("%d,",i);
}
}
break;
case 3:
system("cls");
printf("Which position element you want to delete?\n");
scanf("%d",&a);
if(a>s-1)
{
printf("Invalid position!\a");
break;
}
for(i=a;i<s-1;i++)
{
p[i]=p[i+1];
}
s--;
p=(char*)realloc(p,s);
printf("Your number is deleted!");
break;
case 4:
system("cls");
printf("The elements in array are:\n");
for(i=0;i<s;i++)
{
printf("%c ",p[i]);
}
break;
case 5:
exit(0);
default:
printf("Your choice is wrong.");
break;
}
getch();
fflush(stdin);
}while(1);

}

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Don't forget to comment below if you have still any confusions.

Top 5 Future Inventions in Technology 2019 - 2050

2015-05-11T11:25:00.004+05:45

There are lots of expected future inventions in technology.Among them, we have taken top five which are given below.The video below the list contains detail about them.Don't forget to watch and comment below which one is best.

The following numbers are in descending order :

5. Cicret Bracelet :

4. I Watch :

3.Wall-Format Display Glass :

2.Smart Card :

1.Smart Newspaper :

Watch the video of top 5 expected future Inventions in Technology Below:

Difference Between SRAM and DRAM

2015-05-08T13:33:00.000+05:45

Random Access Memory(RAM) is temporary memory of computer system.It is also known as volatile memory.It is divided into two types: SRAM and DRAM where SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory and DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory.

The six differences between SRAM and DRAM are as follows:

SRAM is faster than DRAM.
SRAM is static but DRAM is dynamic.
SRAM consumes less power than DRAM.
SRAM is used as Cache Memory but DRAM is used as Main Memory.
DRAM is cheaper than SRAM.
DRAM uses less transistors per bit of memory than SRAM.

Make Windows 7 run faster and smoothly- Top 5 ways

2015-05-07T19:50:00.001+05:45

Are you worried about your windows slow performance? Here are top 5 steps of all time to make windows 7 run faster than ever.
When any program or game can't run fast and smoothly, you can apply these changes to your system.Many programs don't run in our computer due to lack of system requirements.In that case, these ways are useful to make your computer run faster.
These ways are applicable for other versions of windows such as: Windows XP,Windows Vista,Windows 10, etc.
The top five best ways to make your windows 7 run faster are discussed below:-

1.Performance and Power Options:

Go to Computer>>System Properties.And at right side,click on: Advanced System Settings.Then,go to Advanced tab.In Performance option, click Settings.Choose adjust for best performance option then,click Apply and OK.

Now, your can experience your computer is faster than previous.

Screen Shots:

2.Installing Antivirus:

When your computer is infected by virus , your computer runs slowly.Virus my have affected your boot files or any other parts of computer.Virus may have infected your important files too.

Antivirus manages all the threats in your computer and makes your system run smoothly.So, you need to install antivirus to make your windows run faster.Some of the popular Antivirus Software are:

I. Kaspersky Antivrus.

II. Avira Antivirus.

III.Avast Antivirus.

IV.AVG Antivirus.

V. McAfee

3.Disk Clean Up:

Go to Windows Search and type:Disk Cleanup.Open Disk Cleanup and choose drive you want to clean up.You can choose all drives turn by turn.Then Click OK.In new Window,select the options which you want to delete and click Clean Up System Files and then OK.Then Click Deletes file in pop pop window.You're done.

Unwanted files from your computer are removed which frees memory and makes your computer run faster.

ScreenShot:

4.Desktop Clearance:

If there are many files, unwanted shortcuts of files and other icons in your desktop, you have to manage them.You can delete or keep them in a separate folder to manage.

There should not be many files, icons in the desktop because it takes long to refresh and redraw your desktop.Simultaneously, it has effect on your system.

5.Clearing Cache Memory:

Cache memory consumes RAM of your system.So, your computer gets slow when cache memory is more.So, you have to clear cache memory time-to-time.

There are two ways to clear cache memory from your computer.

STEP 1: Go to RUN and type: %temp% then temp folder is opened.Select all files in the folder and delete.

STEP 2: Go to RUN and type: prefetch then prefetch folder is opened.Select all files in the folder and delete.

In this way, Cache Memory is cleared from your computer.Now, your windows will run faster.

ScreenShots:

If you are not clear yet, you can watch video below :

Keywords and Identifiers in C Programming

2015-03-04T01:29:00.001+05:45

Keywords:

Keywords are the reserved words used in programming. Each keywords has fixed meaning and that can't be changed by user. For e.g: int book;

Here, int is a keyword that indicates, 'book' is of type integer.

As, C programming is case sensitive, all keywords must be written in lowercase. Here is the list of all keywords predefined by ANSI C.

Keywords in C Language:

auto double int struct

break else long switch

case enum register typedef

char extern return union

for signed void continue

do if static while

default goto sizeof volatile

const float short unsigned

Besides these keywords, there are some additional keywords supported by Turbo C.

Additional Keywords for Borland C:

asm ,far, interrupt ,pascal ,near, huge, cdecl

Identifiers:

In C programming, identifiers are names given to C entities, such as variables, functions, structures etc. Identifier are created to give unique name to C entities to identify it during the execution of program. For example:

int money;

int mango_tree;

Here, ‘money’ is a identifier which denotes a variable of type integer. Similarly, ‘mango_tree’ is another identifier, which denotes another variable of type integer.

Rules for writing identifier:

An identifier can be composed of letters (both uppercase and lowercase letters), digits and underscore '_' only.

The first letter of identifier should be either a letter or an underscore. But, it is discouraged to start an identifier name with an underscore though it is legal. It is because, identifier that starts with underscore can conflict with system names. In such cases, compiler will complain about it. Some system names that start with underscore are _fileno, _iob, _wfopen etc.

There is no rule for the length of an identifier. However, the first 31 characters of an identifier are discriminated by the compiler. So, the first 31 letters of two identifiers in a program should be different.

Tips for Good Programming Practice :

Programmer can choose the name of identifier whatever they want. However, if the programmer choose meaningful name for an identifier, it will be easy to understand and work on, particularly in case of large program.

C Programming - Operators

2015-03-04T01:22:00.001+05:45

Operators are the symbol which operates on value or a variable. For example: + is a operator to perform addition.

C programming language has wide range of operators to perform various operations. For better understanding of operators, these operators can be classified as:

Operators in C programming:

Arithmetic Operators

Increment and Decrement Operators

Assignment Operators

Relational Operators

Logical Operators

Conditional Operators

Bitwise Operators

Special Operators

Arithmetic Operators :

Operators Meaning of Operator

+ addition or unary plus

- subtraction or unary minus

* multiplication

/ division

% remainder after division (modulo division)

Example of working of arithmetic operators:

/* Program to demonstrate the working of arithmetic operators in C. */

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

int a=9,b=4,c;

c=a+b;

printf("a+b=%d\n",c);

c=a-b;

printf("a-b=%d\n",c);

c=a*b;

printf("a*b=%d\n",c);

c=a/b;

printf("a/b=%d\n",c);

c=a%b;

printf("Remainder when a divided by b=%d\n",c);

return 0;

}

a+b=13

a-b=5

a*b=36

a/b=2

Remainder when a divided by b=1

Explanation:

Here, the operators +, - and * performed normally as you expected. In normal calculation, 9/4 equals to 2.25. But, the output is 2 in this program. It is because, a and b are both integers. So, the output is also integer and the compiler neglects the term after decimal point and shows answer 2 instead of 2.25. And, finally a%b is 1,i.e. ,when a=9 is divided by b=4, remainder is 1.

Suppose a=5.0, b=2.0, c=5 and d=2

In C programming,

a/b=2.5

a/d=2.5

c/b=2.5

c/d=2

Note: % operator can only be used with integers.

Increment and decrement operators:

In C, ++ and -- are called increment and decrement operators respectively. Both of these operators are unary operators, i.e, used on single operand. ++ adds 1 to operand and -- subtracts 1 to operand respectively. For example:

Let a=5 and b=10

a++; //a becomes 6

a--; //a becomes 5

++a; //a becomes 6

--a; //a becomes 5

Difference between ++ and -- operator as postfix and prefix:

When i++ is used as prefix(like: ++var), ++var will increment the value of var and then return it but, if ++ is used as postfix(like: var++), operator will return the value of operand first and then only increment it. This can be demonstrated by an example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

int c=2,d=2;

printf("%d\n",c++); //this statement displays 2 then, only c incremented by 1 to 3.

printf("%d",++c); //this statement increments 1 to c then, only c is displayed.

return 0;

}

Output:

Assignment Operators:

The most common assignment operator is =. This operator assigns the value in right side to the left side. For example:

var=5 //5 is assigned to var

a=c; //value of c is assigned to a

5=c; // Error! 5 is a constant.

Operator Example Same as

= a=b a=b

+= a+=b a=a+b

-= a-=b a=a-b

*= a*=b a=a*b

/= a/=b a=a/b

%= a%=b a=a%b

Relational Operator:

Relational operators checks relationship between two operands. If the relation is true, it returns value 1 and if the relation is false, it returns value 0. For example:

a>b

Here, > is a relational operator. If a is greater than b, a>b returns 1 if not then, it returns 0.

Relational operators are used in decision making and loops in C programming.

Operators Meaning of Operator Example

== Equal to 5==3 returns false (0)

> Greater than 5>3 returns true (1)

< Less than 5<3 returns false (0)

!= Not equal to 5!=3 returns true(1)

>= Greater than or equal to 5>=3 returns true (1)

<= Less than or equal to 5<=3 return false (0)

Logical Operators:

Logical operators are used to combine expressions containing relation operators. In C, there are 3 logical operators:

Operators Meaning of Operator Example

&& Logial AND If c=5 and d=2 then,((c==5) && (d>5)) returns false.

|| Logical OR If c=5 and d=2 then, ((c==5) || (d>5)) returns true.

! Logical NOT If c=5 then, !(c==5) returns false.

Explanation:

For expression, ((c==5) && (d>5)) to be true, both c==5 and d>5 should be true but, (d>5) is false in the given example. So, the expression is false. For expression ((c==5) || (d>5)) to be true, either the expression should be true. Since, (c==5) is true. So, the expression is true. Since, expression (c==5) is true, !(c==5) is false.

Conditional Operator:

Conditional operator takes three operands and consists of two symbols ? and : . Conditional operators are used for decision making in C. For example:

c=(c>0)?10:-10;

If c is greater than 0, value of c will be 10 but, if c is less than 0, value of c will be -10.

Bitwise Operators:

A bitwise operator works on each bit of data. Bitwise operators are used in bit level programming.

Operators Meaning of operators

& Bitwise AND

| Bitwise OR

^ Bitwise exclusive OR

~ Bitwise complement

<< Shift left

>> Shift right

Bitwise operator is advance topic in programming . Learn more about bitwise operator in C programming.

Other Operators:

Comma Operator:

Comma operators are used to link related expressions together. For example:

int a,c=5,d;

The sizeof operator

It is a unary operator which is used in finding the size of data type, constant, arrays, structure etc. For example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

int a;

float b;

double c;

char d;

printf("Size of int=%d bytes\n",sizeof(a));

printf("Size of float=%d bytes\n",sizeof(b));

printf("Size of double=%d bytes\n",sizeof(c));

printf("Size of char=%d byte\n",sizeof(d));

return 0;

}

Output:

Size of int=4 bytes

Size of float=4 bytes

Size of double=8 bytes

Size of char=1 byte

Conditional operators (?:)

Conditional operators are used in decision making in C programming, i.e, executes different statements according to test condition whether it is either true or false.

Syntax of conditional operators:

conditional_expression?expression1:expression2

If the test condition is true, expression1 is returned and if false expression2 is returned.

Example of conditional operator:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

char feb;

int days;

printf("Enter l if the year is leap year otherwise enter 0: ");

scanf("%c",&feb);

days=(feb=='l')?29:28;

/*If test condition (feb=='l') is true, days will be equal to 29. */

/*If test condition (feb=='l') is false, days will be equal to 28. */

printf("Number of days in February = %d",days);

return 0;

}

Output:

Enter l if the year is leap year otherwise enter n: l

Number of days in February = 29

Other operators such as &(reference operator), *(dereference operator) and ->(member selection) operator will be discussed in pointer chapter.

Data Type in C-Programming

2015-03-04T01:16:00.005+05:45

In C, variable(data) should be declared before it can be used in program. Data types are the keywords, which are used for assigning a type to a variable.

Data types in C:

Fundamental Data Types:

Integer types

Floating Type

Character types

Derived Data Types:

Arrays

Pointers

Structures

Enumeration

Syntax for declaration of a variable:

data_type variable_name;

For e.g:

int book;

Integer data types:

Keyword int is used for declaring the variable with integer type. For example:

int var1;

Here, var1 is a variable of type integer.

The size of int is either 2 bytes(In older PC's) or 4 bytes. If you consider an integer having size of 4 byte( equal to 32 bits), it can take 232 distinct states as: -231,-231+1, ...,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ..., 231-2, 231-1

Similarly, int of 2 bytes, it can take 216 distinct states from -215 to 215-1. If you try to store larger number than 231-1, i.e,+2147483647 and smaller number than -231, i.e, -2147483648, program will not run correctly.

Floating types:

Variables of floating types can hold real values(numbers) such as: 2.34, -9.382 etc. Keywords either float or double is used for declaring floating type variable. For example:

float var2;

double var3;

Here, both var2 and var3 are floating type variables.

In C, floating values can be represented in exponential form as well. For example:

float var3=22.442e2;

Difference between float and double:

Generally the size of float(Single precision float data type) is 4 bytes and that of double(Double precision float data type) is 8 bytes. Floating point variables has a precision of 6 digits whereas the the precision of double is 14 digits.

Note: Precision describes the number of significant decimal places that a floating values carries.

Character types:

Keyword char is used for declaring the variable of character type. For example:

char var4='h';

Here, var4 is a variable of type character which is storing a character 'h'.

The size of char is 1 byte. The character data type consists of ASCII characters. Each character is given a specific value. For example:

For, 'a', value =97

For, 'b', value=98

For, 'A', value=65

For, '&', value=33

For, '2', value=49

Here is the list of all ASCII characters in C language.

Qualifiers:

Qualifiers alters the meaning of base data types to yield a new data type.

Size qualifiers:

Size qualifiers alters the size of basic data type. The keywords long and short are two size qualifiers. For example:

long int i;

The size of int is either 2 bytes or 4 bytes but, when long keyword is used, that variable will be either 4 bytes of 8 bytes. Learn more about long keyword in C programming. If the larger size of variable is not needed then, short keyword can be used in similar manner as long keyword.

Sign qualifiers:

Whether a variable can hold only positive value or both values is specified by sign qualifiers. Keywords signed and unsigned are used for sign qualifiers.

unsigned int a;

// unsigned variable can hold zero and positive values only.

It is not necessary to define variable using keyword signed because, a variable is signed by default. Sign qualifiers can be applied to only int and char data types. For a int variable of size 4 bytes it can hold data from -231 to 231-1 but, if that variable is defined unsigned, it can hold data from 0 to 232 -1.

Constant qualifiers:

Constant qualifiers can be declared with keyword const. An object declared by const cannot be modified.

const int p=20;

The value of p cannot be changed in the program.

Volatile qualifiers:

A variable should be declared volatile whenever its value can be changed by some external sources outside program. Keyword volatile is used to indicate volatile variable.

C-Programming Variables and Constants

2015-03-04T01:10:00.001+05:45

Variables:

Variables are memory location in computer's memory to store data. To indicate the memory location, each variable should be given a unique name called identifier. Variable names are just the symbolic representation of a memory location. Examples of variable name: sum, car, count etc.

int num;

Here, num is a variable of integer type.

Rules for writing variable name in C:

Variable name can be composed of letters (both uppercase and lowercase letters), digits and underscore '_' only.

The first letter of a variable should be either a letter or an underscore. But, it is discouraged to start variable name with an underscore though it is legal. It is because, variable name that starts with underscore can conflict with system names and compiler may complain.

There is no rule for the length of length of a variable. However, the first 31 characters of a variable are discriminated by the compiler. So, the first 31 letters of two variables in a program should be different.

In C programming, you have to declare variable before using it in the program.

Constants:

Constants are the terms that can't be changed during the execution of a program. For example: 1, 2.5, "Programming is easy." etc. In C, constants can be classified as:

Integer constants:

Integer constants are the numeric constants(constant associated with number) without any fractional part or exponential part. There are three types of integer constants in C language: decimal constant(base 10), octal constant(base 8) and hexadecimal constant(base 16) .

Decimal digits: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Octal digits: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Hexadecimal digits: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F.

For example:

Decimal constants: 0, -9, 22 etc

Octal constants: 021, 077, 033 etc

Hexadecimal constants: 0x7f, 0x2a, 0x521 etc

Notes:

You can use small caps a, b, c, d, e, f instead of uppercase letters while writing a hexadecimal constant.

Every octal constant starts with 0 and hexadecimal constant starts with 0x in C programming.

Floating-point constants:

Floating point constants are the numeric constants that has either fractional form or exponent form. For example:

-2.0

0.0000234

-0.22E-5

Note: Here, E-5 represents 10-5. Thus, -0.22E-5 = -0.0000022.

Character constants:

Character constants are the constant which use single quotation around characters. For example: 'a', 'l', 'm', 'F' etc.

Escape Sequences:

Sometimes, it is necessary to use newline(enter), tab, quotation mark etc. in the program which either cannot be typed or has special meaning in C programming. In such cases, escape sequence are used. For example: \n is used for newline. The backslash( \ ) causes "escape" from the normal way the characters are interpreted by the compiler.

Escape Sequences:

Escape Sequences Character

\b Backspace

\f Form feed

\n Newline

\r Return

\t Horizontal tab

\v Vertical tab

\\ Backslash

\' Single quotation mark

\" Double quotation mark

\? Question mark

\0 Null character

\a bell(sound)

String constants:

String constants are the constants which are enclosed in a pair of double-quote marks. For example:

"good" //string constant

"" //null string constant

" " //string constant of three white space

"x" //string constant having single character.

"Earth is round\n" //prints string with newline

Enumeration constants:

Keyword enum is used to declare enumeration types. For example:

enum color {yellow, green, black, white};

Here, the variable name is color and yellow, green, black and white are the enumeration constants having value 0, 1, 2 and 3 respectively by default.

Learn C programming From base to Top

2015-03-04T01:06:00.001+05:45

Introduction:

C programming is a popular computer programming language which is widely used for system and application software. Despite being fairly old programming language, C programming is widely used because of its efficiency and control. This tutorial is targeted for beginners who does not have any prior knowledge or have very little knowledge of computer programming. All basic features of C programming language are included in detail with explanation to give you solid platform to understand C programming.

Getting Started With C ....

In order to run a C program, you need a compiler. Compiler change source code(code written by programmer) to object code(code that computer understands) and creates executable file. There are many free and professional compilers available.There are many compilers available such as Netbeans,Eclipse IDE ,DEV C++,TURBO C++ etc. All the examples here are tested and verified in DEV C++ compiler.

Lets Begin With:

1.Keywords And Identifiers:

2.Data Types

3.Variables and Constants

4.Operators

Character set:

Character set are the set of alphabets, letters and some special characters that are valid in C language.

Alphabets:

Uppercase: A B C .................................... X Y Z

Lowercase: a b c ...................................... x y z

Digits:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9

Special Characters:

, < > . _ ( ) ; $ : % [ ] # ? ' & { } " ^ ! * / | - \ ~ +

White space Characters:

blank space, new line, horizontal tab, carriage return and form feed

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Generations Of Computer

2014-11-07T23:51:00.001+05:45

The computers of electronic age are further divided into 5 generation on the basis of technology used by the computer. The different generations are:

i) First Generation of computer(1940-1956)

ii) Second generation of computers(1956-1963)

iii) Third generation of computers(1964-1971)

iv) Fourth generation of computers(1971-present)

v) Fifth generation of computers(Present and Beyond)

i) First Generation of Computers:

1) Technology used: Vacuum tube
2) Operating speed: Millisecond range
3) Programming language used: Machine language
4) Memory used
: Primary memory: Magnetic core memory
: Secondary memory: Magnetic drum, Magnetic tape.
5) I/O device:
Punched card as input device, printing device as output device.
6) Use: Simple mathematical calculation.
7) Computers were extremely large in size, and they required special cooling system. e.g.: ENIVAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, etc.

1st generation computer(UNIVAC)

ii) Second Generation of Computers:

1) Technology used: Transistor

2) Operation speed: Micro second range (10-6 sec)

3) Programming language used: Assembly language

4) Memory used

: Primary memory: Magnetic core memory.

: Secondary memory: Magnetic drum, Magnetic tape.

5) I/O: Punched card as input device, Printer as output device

6) Use: Computers were used for complex scientific calculations.

7) The size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased compared to previous generation.

8) Processing speed, storage capacity, use of the computer increased compared to previous generation.

E.g.: IBM 1620, IBM 7094, LEO MARK III, etc.

IBM 1620

Advantages of transistor over vacuum tube:

i) One transistor could replace one thousand vacuum tubes.

ii) Size of a transistor is 1/200 th times of a vacuum tube.

iii) The power requirement of a transistor is 1/20 th times of a vacuum tube.

iv) Transistors are more reliable than vacuum tube.

iii) Third Generation of Computers:

i) Technology used: IC (Integrated Circuit)

ii) Operating speed: Nanosecond range (10 -9 sec)

iii) Programming language used: HLL (High Level Language)

Like FORTAN, COBOL, PASCAL, C, C++, etc.

iv) Memory used:

Primary memory: Semiconductor memory (silicon)

Secondary memory: Magnetic tape, Magnetic disk like floppy disk, hard disk, etc)

v) I/O device: Keyboard as input device, monitor as output device.

vi) Use: Computers were used for managing population census, bank, insurance company, etc.

vii) Concept of database was developed and used.

viii) Size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased compared to previous generations.

ix) Processing speed, storage capacity, use of the computer increased compared to previous generations.

E.g.: IBM 360 series, ICL 900 series, Honeywell 200 series, etc.

IBM 360

IC and its types:

IC is a small silicon chip which contains large number of electronic components like transistor, resistor, capacitor, etc.

The process of creation of IC is called fabrication.

Types of IC on the basis of number of electronic components.

i) SSI (Small Scale Integration)

(1-20 components)

ii) MSI (Medium Scale Integration)

(21-100 components)

iii) LSI (Large Scale Integration)

(101-1000 components)

iv) VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)

(1001-10000 components)

v) ULSI ( Ultra Large Scale Integration)

(More than 10000 components)

iv) Fourth Generation of Computers:

1) Technology used:- VLSI (or Microprocessor)

2) Operating speed:- Pico second range

3) Programming language used: 4GL (Problem Oriented Language)

4) Memory used:

Primary: Semi-conductor memory

Secondary: Magnetic tape, Magnetic Disk, Optical memory (CD/DVD/ Blu ray), Flash

memory(pen drive, memory card)

5) I/O device:

Advanced I/O devices like mouse, touch screen, scanner, LCD, LED, color printer, etc are developed.

6) Use:

Computers are used for different task in different areas like education, business, hospital, transportation, military, etc.

7) Microcomputers like desktop PC, laptop, notebook, etc, are developed.

8) The popular communication media like internet, email, mobile communication, etc were developed.

9) Advanced, user friendly, web based software, etc are developed.

10) Size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased compared to previous generation.

11) Operating speed, storage capacity, use of the computer increased compared to previous generation.

E.g.: IBM desktop PC, HP laptop, Acer notebook, Mac book, etc.

MAC Book

v) Fifth Generation of Computers:

1) Technology to be used:- Bio-chip

2) Operating speed:- Femto second range

(10 -15 second) / TIPS

3) Programming language to be used:- Natural language

4) The computers will have AI.

5) The computers will be used in complex calculation where intelligence of the computer is required.

6) The computers will have parallel processing in full fledge.

7) The computers will be based on KIPS (Knowledge based Information Processing System).

Fifth generation computer

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Download Flashlight app for Android free

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It has attractive view.It is easy to use and uses your camera flash to produce high frequency flashlight.
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Ways To Make Money On The Internet

2014-08-25T14:45:00.000+05:45

►Here are Top 5 ways to make money on the internet sitting on your home.These are easy and the simplest ways to make money online.Watch this video by Shelby Church and get some tips to make money online :-

Download Yumi Latest version

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►Download latest version of YUMI for your PC:-

YUMI(Your Universal Multiboot Integrator), is the successor to our MultibootISOS.It can be used to create a Multiboot USB Flash Drive containing multiple operating systems,antivirus utilities,disc cloning,diagnostic tools and more.

Choose your OS(Opersting System) to get proceed:

YUMI for Windows.
YUMI for Ubuntu Linux.

Download µ-Torrent for PC

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Download Most Popular and useful Software/Programs

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You can recommend us if your desired software/program is not available here Or post your feelings about the post in the comment box below.

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It is a open source CMS for building powerful websites.

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Relation of Information Technology To World

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►Information Technology rules the world in this generation that's why we should be close to IT.

know the importance of IT here.Watch it.

Without IT,the whole world is incomplete.Every sector is related to it.So,lets start from today why tomorrow?

Nothing is impossible if we do any task from our heart.Lets do something in IT instead of just observing.

Can we start our career as Mark zukerberg did?Watch here about (Mark zukerberg and his facebook)'s profile.

Feel lucky to be the follower of Information Technology.

We are gonna bring disaster in this sector.Are you ready to cope with us ?

Ways of earning money from IT sector

2014-08-09T13:10:00.001+05:45

►Top 3 ways to earn money from IT sector.You can earn money from IT sector if you are building future from IT by the following ways:

Start learning developing android apps.Get help from here.

Learn programming such as Java,C,C#,C++, etc.Start learning from today.Learn from here.

Be perfect in photo and video editing.You may choose Animation or Video editing as a profession in your career or may be on Film industry too.It will lead you to the best destiny in IT sector.

If you have started your journey in IT field,lets share our knowledge explore ideas & unite to challenge the generation.Cope with us to reach our destiny.

Your feedbacks are highly appreciated.